Structure.

In keeping with its basis as a federation of organisations, the Scottish party also consists of a number of local parties (which mostly follow the boundaries of the Scottish Council Areas), which are each distinct accounting units under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000. Local parties are predominantly responsible for the party's political campaigning and for selecting candidates for parliamentary and local authority elections.  There are also eight regional parties (based on the boundaries of the eight Scottish Parliament electoral regions).

Administration.

The party's headquarters are located in Edinburgh.  The conference is the highest decision-making body of the party on both policy and strategic issues. The day-to-day organisation of the party is the responsibility of the party's Executive Committee, which is chaired by the Convener of the party and includes the Leader, the Depute Leader and the President of the party, as well as the party Treasurer and the three Vice-Conveners. See below for the current office-bearers and all other members of the Party's three management committees (Executive Committee, Policy Committee and Conference Committee). All party members vote every two years in internal elections to elect people to all the below positions, except Leader & Depute Leader.

Scottish headquarters staff.

The party employs a small team of staff at their HQ in Edinburgh.

Conferences.

Like the Federal party, the Scottish party holds two conferences per year; a Spring Conference, and an Autumn Conference.

Associated organisations.

Associated organisations generally seek to influence the direction of the party on a specific issue or represent a section of the party membership. The party has five associated organisations:

Association of Scottish Liberal Democrat Councillors and Campaigners.

The Association of Scottish Liberal Democrat Councillors (ASLDC) is a network of Liberal Democrat councillors and local campaigners across Scotland which works to support and develop Liberal Democrat involvement in Scottish Local Government.  Following the Local Council Election of May 2012, under the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system, 71 Liberal Democrats were elected, a drop of 95 on Local Council Election of May 2007.  A voluntary Executive Committee meets several times a year to run the organisation.  ASLDC works alongside Liberal Democrats in the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (CoSLA) where Cllr Peter Barrett is leader of the Lib Dem Group.

History.

The Scottish Liberal Democrat party was formed by the merger of the Scottish Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in Scotland, as part of the merger of the Liberal Party and SPD on 3 March 1988.  The party campaigned for the creation of a devolved Scottish Parliament as part of its wider policy of a federal United Kingdom. In the late 1980s and 1990s it and its representatives participated in the Scottish Constitutional Convention with the Scottish Labour Party, Scottish Green Party, trades unions and churches, and also campaigned for a "Yes-Yes" vote in the 1997 devolution referendum.

1999–2007: Coalition government with Labour.

In the first elections to the Scottish Parliament in 1999, the party won 17 seats. Following this, the party formed a coalition government with the Scottish Labour Party in the Scottish Executive. The then party leader, Jim Wallace, became Deputy First Minister of Scotland and Minister for Justice. He also served as acting First Minister on three occasions, during the illness and then later, the death of the first First Minister Donald Dewar and the following resignation of his successor Henry McLeish. This partnership was renewed in 2003 and Wallace became Deputy First Minister and Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning. On 23 June 2005, Nicol Stephen MSP succeeded Wallace as party leader and took over his positions in the Executive until the 2007 elections.  Prior to the partnership government being formed in 1999, the UK had only limited experience of coalition government. The party's participation attracted criticism for involving compromises to its preferred policies, although several of its manifesto pledges were adopted as government policy or legislation. These included changes to the arrangements for student contributions to higher education costs (although whether that amounted to the claimed achievement of having abolished tuition fees was hotly contested), free personal care for the elderly and (during the second coalition government) changing the system of elections for Scottish local authorities to the single transferable vote, a long-standing Liberal Democrat policy.

2007–present: Opposition and electoral stagnation.

In the 2007 Scottish Parliament elections, the party won one fewer seat than in the two previous Scottish elections: this was the first parliamentary election for 28 years in which the party's parliamentary strength in Scotland was reduced. This experience led to some criticism of the party's election strategy and its leader. Although it was arithmetically possible to form a majority coalition with the Scottish National Party and the Scottish Green Party, the party refused to participate in coalition negotiations because of a disagreement over the SNP's policy of a referendum on Scottish independence, and sat as an opposition party in the Parliament.  On 2 July 2008, Nicol Stephen resigned as the party leader. The former deputy leader Michael Moore MP served as acting leader of the party until Tavish Scott MSP was elected party leader on 26 August 2008, winning 59% of the votes cast in a contest with parliamentary colleagues Ross Finnie and Mike Rumbles. (See also 2008 Scottish Liberal Democrats leadership election.)  At the 2011 Scottish Parliament elections, the party lost all its mainland constituencies, retaining only the two constituencies of Orkney and Shetland. It also secured three List MSPs. This was by far the party's worst electoral performance since the re-establishment of a Scottish parliament in 1999. At the 2014 European Parliament elections, the party lost its only MEP.  At the 2015 general election, the party lost 10 of its 11 MPs with only Alistair Carmichael narrowly retaining Orkney and Shetland with a 3.6% majority.  At the 2016 Scottish Parliament elections, the party again had 5 MSPs elected but was pushed into 5th place by the Scottish Greens. While it gained the 2 constituency seats of Edinburgh Western and North East Fife from the SNP, its vote share fell slightly overall.  At the 2017 general election, the party held its only constituency of Orkney and Shetland with an increased majority, as well as gaining back three seats lost to the SNP in 2015 – Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross, East Dunbartonshire and Edinburgh West. The Scottish Liberal Democrats lost the North East Fife constituency to Stephen Gethins of the SNP by two votes. In the 2019 election, UK leader Jo Swinson lost her East Dunbartonshire seat to the SNP and was forced to stand down as leader, but the Liberal Democrats took North East Fife to retain four seats in Scotland.

Policy platform.

The Scottish Party decides its policy on state matters independently from the federal party. State matters include not only currently devolved issues but also those reserved matters which the party considers should be devolved to the Scottish Parliament, including broadcasting, energy, drugs and abortion. The party also believes that the Scottish Parliament should exercise greater responsibility on fiscal matters. A party commission chaired by former Liberal Party leader and Scottish Parliament Presiding Officer Sir David Steel set out the party's proposals on the constitutional issue.  According to its constitution, the party believes in a "fair, free and open society... in which no-one shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity". It has traditionally argued for both positive and negative liberties, tolerance of social diversity, decentralisation of political authority, including proportional representation for public elections, internationalism and greater involvement in the European Union. In the 2007 elections it campaigned for reforms to public services and local taxation, and for more powers for the Scottish Parliament within a federal Britain.  In December 2007, the party (along with Scottish Labour and the Scottish Conservatives) supported the creation of a new Commission on Scottish Devolution, along similar lines to the earlier Scottish Constitutional Convention, to discuss further powers for the Scottish Parliament.

Electoral performance.

UK general elections.

This chart shows the electoral results of the Scottish Liberal Democrats, from the first election the party contested in 1992. Total number of seats, and vote percentage, is for Scotland only. For results prior to 1992, see Scottish Liberal Party.

The Scottish Liberal Democrats (, Scots: "Scots Leeberal Democrats") are a liberal, federalist political party in Scotland, a part of the UK Liberal Democrats. The party currently holds 5 of the 129 seats in the Scottish Parliament and 4 of the 59 Scottish seats in the UK House of Commons.

Die Scottish Liberal Democrats (schott.-gäl. "Libearal Deamocratach na h-Alba", Scots "Scots Leeberal Democrats", dt. etwa "Schottische Liberaldemokraten") sind eine der drei Landesparteien innerhalb der föderalen britischen Liberal Democrats. Die anderen sind die Welsh Liberal Democrats und die English Liberal Democrats. Die Scottish Liberal Democrats sind die fünftgrößte Partei Schottlands und seit 2016 mit fünf Sitzen im schottischen Parlament vertreten.


Types.

Up-and-down.

Up-and-down barrels are the simplest barrel topology and consist of a series of beta strands, each of which is hydrogen-bonded to the strands immediately before and after it in the primary sequence.

Jelly roll.

The jelly roll fold or barrel, also known as the Swiss roll, typically comprises eight beta strands arranged in two four-stranded sheets. Adjacent strands along the sequence alternate between the two sheets, such that they are "wrapped" in three dimensions to form a barrel shape.

Examples.

Porins.

Sixteen- or eighteen-stranded up-and-down beta barrel structures occur in porins, which function as transporters for ions and small molecules that cannot diffuse across a cellular membrane. Such structures appear in the outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. The central pore of the protein, sometimes known as the "eyelet", is lined with charged residues arranged so that the positive and negative charges appear on opposite sides of the pore. A long loop between two beta strands partially occludes the central channel; the exact size and conformation of the loop helps in discriminating between molecules passing through the transporter.

Preprotein translocases.

Beta barrels also function within endosymbiont derived organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts to transport proteins. Within the mitochondrion two complexes exist with beta barrels serving as the pore forming subunit, Tom40 of the Translocase of the outer membrane, and Sam50 of the Sorting and assembly machinery. The chloroplast also has functionally similar beta barrel containing complexes, the best characterised of which is Toc75 of the TOC complex (Translocon at the outer envelope membrane of chloroplasts).

Lipocalins.

Lipocalins are typically eight-stranded up-and-down beta barrel proteins that are secreted into the extracellular environment. A distinctive feature is their ability to bind and transport small hydrophobic molecules in the barrel calyx. Examples of the family include retinol binding proteins (RBPs) and major urinary proteins (Mups). RBP binds and transports retinol (vitamin A), while Mups bind a number of small, organic pheromones, including 2-sec-butyl-4,5-dihydrothiazole (abbreviated as SBT or DHT), 6-hydroxy-6-methyl-3-heptanone (HMH) and 2,3 dihydro-exo-brevicomin (DHB).

Shear number.

A piece of paper can be formed into a cylinder by bringing opposite sides together. The two edges come together to form a line. Shear can be created by sliding the two edges parallel to that line. Likewise, a beta barrel can be formed by bringing the edges of a beta sheet together to form a cylinder. If those edges are displaced, shear is created. A similar definition is found in geology, where shear refers to a displacement within rock perpendicular to the rock surface. In physics, the amount of displacement is referred to as shear strain, which has units of length. For shear number in barrels, displacement is measured in units of amino acid residues.  The determination of shear number requires the assumption that each amino acid in one strand of a beta sheet is adjacent to just one amino acid in the neighboring strand (this assumption may not hold if, for example, a beta bulge is present). To illustrate, "S" will be calculated for green fluorescent protein. This protein was chosen because the beta barrel contains both parallel and antiparallel strands. To determine which amino acid residues are adjacent in the beta strands, the location of hydrogen bonds is determined.  The inter-strand hydrogen bonds can be summarised in a table. Each column contains the residues in one strand (strand 1 is repeated in the last column). The arrows indicate the hydrogen bonds that were identified in the figures. The relative direction of each strand is indicated by the "+" and "-" at the bottom of the table. Except for strands 1 and 6, all strands are antiparallel. The parallel interaction between strands 1 and 6 accounts for the different appearance of the hydrogen bonding pattern. (Some arrows are missing because not all of the hydrogen bonds expected were identified. Non-standard amino acids are indicated with "?") The side chains that point to the outside of the barrel are in bold.  If no shear were present in this barrel, then residue 12 V, say, in strand 1 should end up in the last strand at the same level as it started at. However, because of shear, 12 V is not at the same level: it is 14 residues higher than it started at, so its shear number, "S", is 14.

Dynamical features.

Beta-barrels in proteins may carry out low-frequency breathing-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed with the quasi-continuum model. For more about the low-frequency collective motions in biomacromolecules and its biological function, see low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA.

A beta barrel is a beta-sheet composed of tandem repeats that twists and coils to form a closed toroidal structure in which the first strand is bonded to the last strand (hydrogen bond). Beta-strands in many beta-barrels are arranged in an antiparallel fashion. Beta barrel structures are named for resemblance to the barrels used to contain liquids. Most of them are water-soluble proteins and frequently bind hydrophobic ligands in the barrel center, as in lipocalins. Others span cell membranes and commonly found in porins. Porin-like barrel structures are encoded by as many as 2–3% of the genes in Gram-negative bacteria.

Ein β-Fass (engl. β-barrel) ist ein Proteinstruktur-Motiv, das besonders in porenbildenden Proteinen vorkommt. Es besteht aus mindestens fünf β-Faltblättern, die im Kreis angeordnet sind und so eine Röhre (die Pore) bilden, die meist für die Funktion des Proteins als Transportprotein verantwortlich ist. Der Innendurchmesser einer solchen Pore kann von wenigen bis mehreren Dutzend Ångström betragen.


Presidential candidacy.

Abu Ismail applied to be a candidate for the Egyptian presidential election of May 2012. As of early April 2012, he was considered one of the front-runners, and enjoyed notable displays of popular support.  In foreign policy, Abu Ismail is in favor of ending the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty and has spoken of Iran as a successful model of independence from the United States. His domestic agenda includes veiling women and segregating them from men in the workplace.  On 4 April 2012, the "New York Times" reported that according to Californian government documents Abu Ismail's deceased mother held U.S. citizenship, which would make him ineligible for the presidency under the Egyptian constitution. He has denied this, stating that she only held a green card. On 5 April, the Interior Ministry confirmed his mother's U.S. citizenship, prompting rallies by thousands of his supporters. In response to a case taken by Abu Ismail, the administrative court ruled against the losing party, the Ministry of the Interior, to pay the expenses of litigation and ordered it to issue the would-be candidate with a document stating that his mother never had held any other citizenship rather than the Egyptian since the ministry couldn't prove otherwise. The electoral commission, whose decisions are immune from judicial review, nonetheless disqualified him on 14 April.

Controversies.

In 2009 Al-Nas TV show hosted by himself (translated by MEMRI), Abu Ismail calls for boycott of Pepsi (and other American drinks including Coca-Cola), declared the "PEPSI" name is an abbreviation, and stands for "Pay Every Penny Saving Israel".  In 2013, Abu Ismail was charged with forging official documents during his application to run for president. He was also charged with inciting murder and defamation of police officers.  In 2014, Abu Ismail was jailed for insulting a judge and refusing to recognise the court during his trial for submitting forged papers to the election committee.

Flag Party founder.

He had reportedly been in talks to form a party that would join in a political alliance with the recently formed Homeland Party; however, he instead formed the Nation Alliance in early March 2013.

Hazem Salah Abu Ismail (; ) is an Egyptian lawyer and Salafi Islamist politician. He has been described by The Economist as a "populist Salafist."

Hazem Salah Abu Ismail (; * 1961 in Dokki) ist ein ägyptischer Gelehrter des Salafismus und islamistischer Politiker. Wegen einer Fatwa zum Erfrischungsgetränk "Pepsi" ist er auch als „PEPSI-Scheich“ bekannt.


Contributions to Mineralogy and Crystallography.

The origins of geometric crystallography (the field concerned with the structures of crystalline solids), for which Hessel's work was noteworthy, can be traced back to eighteenth and nineteenth century mineralogy. Hessel also made contributions to classical mineralogy (the field concerned with the chemical compositions and physical properties of minerals), as well.

Derivation of the Crystal Classes.

In 1830, Hessel proved that, as a consequence of Haüy’s law of rational intercepts, morphological forms can combine to give exactly 32 kinds of crystal symmetry in Euclidean space, since only two-, three-, four-, and six-fold rotation axes can occur. A crystal form here denotes a set of symmetrically equivalent planes with Miller indices enclosed in braces, {"hkl"}; form does not mean "shape". For example, a cube-shaped crystal of fluorite (referred to as "Flussspath" by Hessel) has six equivalent faces. The entire set is denoted as {100}. The indices for each of the individual six faces are enclosed by parentheses and these are designated: (010), (001), (100), (010), (001), and (100). The cube belongs to the isometric or tessular class, as do an octahedron and tetrahedron. The essential symmetry elements of the isometric class is the existence of a set of three 4-fold, four 3-fold, and six 2-fold rotation axes. In the earlier classification schemes by the German mineralogists Christian Samuel Weiss (1780 - 1856) and Friedrich Mohs (1773 - 1839) the isometric class had been designated sphäroedrisch (spheroidal) and tessularisch (tesseral), respectively. As of Hessel's time, not all of the 32 possible symmetries had actually been observed in real crystals.  Hessel's work originally appeared in 1830 as an article in "Gehler’s Physikalische Wörterbuch" (Gehler's Physics Dictionary). It went unnoticed until it was republished in 1897 as part of a collection of papers on crystallography in "Oswald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften" (Ostwald's Classics of the Exact Sciences). Prior to this posthumous re-publication of Hessel's investigations, similar findings had been reported by the French scientist Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) in "Extrait J. Math., Pures et Applique ́es" (in 1849) and by the Russian crystallographer in 1867.  All three derivations (Hessel's, Bravais', and Gadolin's), which established a small finite number of possible crystal symmetries from first principles, were based on external crystal morphology rather than a crystal's internal structural arrangement (i.e. lattice symmetry). However, the 32 classes of crystal symmetry are one-and-the-same as the 32 crystallographic point groups. After seminal work on space lattices by Leonhard Sohncke (1842-1897), Arthur Moritz Schönflies (1853–1928), Evgraf Stepanovich Fedorov (1853–1919), and William Barlow (1845–1934), the connection between space lattices and the external morphology of crystals was espoused by Paul Niggli (1888 - 1953), particularly in his 1928 "Kristallographische und Strukturtheoretische Grundbegriffe". For example, the repetition, or translation (physics), of a lattice plane produces a stack of parallel planes, the last member of which may be manifested morphologically as one of the external faces of the crystal.  Briefly, a crystal is similar to three-dimensional wallpaper, in that it is an endless repetition of some motif (a group of atoms or molecules). The motif is created by point group operations, while the wallpaper, which is called the space lattice, is generated by translation of the motif with or without rotation or reflection. The symmetry of the motif is the true point group symmetry of the crystal and it causes the symmetry of the external forms. Specifically, the crystal's external morphological symmetry must conform to the angular components of the space group symmetry operations, without the translational components. Under favorable circumstances, point groups (but not space groups) can be determined solely by examination of the crystal morphology, without the need for analysis of an X-ray diffraction pattern. This is not always possible because, of the many forms normally apparent or expected in a typical crystal specimen, some forms may be absent or show unequal development. The word habit is used to describe the overall external shape of a crystal specimen, which depends on the relative sizes of the faces of the various forms present. In general, a substance may crystallize in different habits because the growth rates of the various faces need not be the same.

Exceptions to Euler's Formula for Convex Polyhedra.

Following the work of the Swiss mathematician Simon Antoine Jean L'Huilier (1750 - 1840), Hessel also gave specific examples of compound crystals (aka double crystals) for which Euler's formula for convex polyhedra failed. In this case, the sum of the valence (degree) and the number of faces does not equal two plus the number of edges (V + F ≠ E + 2). Such exceptions can occur when a polyhedron possesses internal cavities, which, in turn, occur when one crystal encapsulates another. Hessel found this to be true with lead sulfide crystals inside calcium fluoride crystals. Hessel also found Euler's formula disobeyed with interconnected polyhedra, for example, where an edge or vertex is shared by more than two faces (e.g. as in edge-sharing and vertex-sharing tetrahedra).

Feldspar Composition.

In the field of classical mineralogy, Hessel showed that the plagioclase feldspars could be considered solid solutions of albite and anorthite. His analysis was published in 1826 ("Taschenbuch für die gesammte Mineralogie", 20 [1826], 289–333) but, as with his work on the crystal classes, it did not garner much attention among his contemporaries. Rather, the theory of the composition of these feldspars was subsequently credited to Gustav Tschermak (1836 - 1927) in 1865.

Early life and education.

Little is documented about Hessel's early life. He was a student at the Realschule in Nuremberg and subsequently studied science and medicine at Erlangen and Würzburg. After receiving his PhD in mineralogy under Karl C. von Leonhard (1779–1862), Hessel went to the University of Marburg as an associate professor of mineralogy and became full professor in 1825. He remained there until his death. Hessel was also a Marburg city council member and was named an honorary citizen of Marburg on November 9, 1840.

External links.

Complete Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography," Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830901983.html)

Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel (27 April 1796 – 3 June 1872) was a German physician (MD, University of Würzburg, 1817) and professor of mineralogy (PhD, University of Heidelberg, 1821) at the University of Marburg.

Friedrich Hessel (* 27. April 1796 in Nürnberg; † 3. Juni 1872 in Marburg) war ein deutscher Kristallograph und Hochschullehrer.


Plot.

On October 30, 1989, Maria Rossi committed a triple murder during an exorcism performed on her. The Catholic Church became involved, and she has since been in a Catholic psychiatric hospital in Rome. A news story and police investigation show the three members of the clergy whom she murdered. Her daughter, Isabella, learned of the murders from her father, who died three days after telling her.  Twenty years later, Isabella is in the process of filming a documentary with filmmaker Michael Schaefer about exorcisms and, to find out more about her mother, she visits a school in Rome. She meets two priests, Ben Rawlings and David Keane, before going to see her mother Maria in the asylum. She finds that her mother speaks in different accents and has paintings all over the walls. Maria then soils herself while screaming in an unidentified language. She has inverted crosses carved into her arms and her bottom lip and tells Isabella that killing a child is against God's will. Isabella tells the priests that she had an abortion years ago and her mother had no way of knowing that—another sign that showed possible possession. David and Ben take her with them on an unsanctioned exorcism performed on Rosalita, a young woman. They bring medical equipment to determine if it is possession or mental illness. Rosalita calls Isabella by her name, despite not knowing her, and attacks the crew after spouting out obscene remarks in different languages and accents. Eventually, they get her under control.  As the crew discusses performing an exorcism and analysis on Maria, David worries about losing his job, since the Church does not authorize exorcisms without undeniable proof that the patient is indeed possessed. They persuade him to aid in the process. During the procedure, Maria mentions knowing what Ben did in the past and transfers demons to David and Isabella. The process is stopped by hospital workers and is unsuccessful.  After analyzing the data from the video and audio files, they present the evidence to the Church. David shows many signs of stress, as Ben repeatedly plays the audio files. Ben finds that there are four different demons speaking in unison. David is to perform a baptism at his church, which Michael tags along to record. When he holds the baby to start the immersion baptism, he mutters some lines from the Bible and starts forcefully submerging the baby in the holy water. The crowd rushes up to save the baby as he passes out.  Soon after, Ben finds David at home with blood all over his forearms, much the way Maria was during the exorcism. The police arrive, and David acquires an officer's handgun and holds it in his mouth. Ben tells him to fight it, but he begins to weep, reciting the Lord's Prayer, and forgets the last few words. He laughs and shoots himself. Isabella begins having a seizure.  Ben hysterically comes to the realization that Isabella is possessed. Ben and Michael leave with Isabella in a car, heading to get help for a potential exorcism. While Michael drives, Isabella speaks of also knowing the horrible act Ben committed, scaring Ben. She tries to strangle Michael and breathes into his mouth. He instantly shows signs of possession, unbuckling his seatbelt and accelerating into oncoming traffic. The car collides, and the corpses of Michael and Ben sit in the overturned car while Isabella is not visible.  A title card is shown informing that the case of the Rossi family is still unresolved, followed by another title card directing viewers to a website "for more information on the ongoing investigation".

Production.

The genesis of the film happened in 2005, as writer Matthew Peterman read about the Vatican's school of exorcism and approached director William Brent Bell on exploiting that. The duo wrote a traditional script however they eventually, according to Peterman "got frustrated with that process" so they rewrote to a mockumentary style following a suggestion from producer Morris Paulson.  Principal photography began in 2010 in several locations, including Bucharest (Romania), Rome (Italy) and Vatican City. The film is of the "found footage" genre, and so is shot in documentary style despite being fictional. Lorenzo di Bonaventura and Steven Schneider took the movie to Paramount Pictures, who ultimately produced it through their low-budget company Insurge Pictures, who acquired the film as their first release hoping it would replicate the success of "Paranormal Activity".

Reception.

The film was not screened for critics, and was subsequently almost universally called one of the worst horror films ever made. It received an F from CinemaScore, which tracks audience reaction;, it is one of only 21 films to receive such a rating. Despite that, it topped the box office its opening weekend, the first after the New Year's Day holiday, displacing "", which had held that position for three straight weeks. At the time, it was the third-best January opening weekend after "Cloverfield" and the "Star Wars" special edition. In its second weekend, however, the film dropped 76.2%, which was the largest second weekend drop for a film since "" (77.4%) in early 2009.  Based on 88 reviews by Rotten Tomatoes, the film currently holds an approval rating of 6% (with a 2.69/10 average rating). The consensus is: ""The Devil Inside" is a cheap, choppy unscary mess, featuring one of the worst endings in recent memory." Peter Howell of the "Toronto Star" wrote that the film was a candidate for the worst film of 2012. Stephen Whitty of "The Star-Ledger" wrote that "after "The Blair Witch Project" got by with sticks and stones and offscreen noises, filmmakers started thinking they didn't have to show anything. Well, no. It's better when you don't show too much – but if your story is about the supernatural, eventually you're going to have to come up with something. "The Devil Inside" can’t." Michael Phillips of the "Chicago Tribune" felt that the film "joins a long, woozy-camera parade of found-footage scare pictures, among them "The Blair Witch Project", the "Paranormal Activity" films and certain wedding videos that won't go away." Michael Rechtshaffen of "The Hollywood Reporter" stated that the film "proves as scary and unsettling as a slab of devil's food cake – only considerably less satisfying. "The New York Times" reviewer Manohla Dargis had a positive response to Suzan Crowley's acting and the scenes where the possessed is played by a contortionist, but considered that "The Devil Inside" was another foray into "a tediously exhausted subgenre that was already creatively tapped out when "The Blair Witch Project" spooked audiences more than a decade ago."  The film's ending, in particular, came under heavy criticism. "Is it the worst movie ending of all time?" David Haglund asked in "Slate", citing various negative audience reaction to that aspect of the film online. "What upset them even more than its abruptness", he suggested, "was the title immediately following it that urged audiences to visit a website to learn more. "[It's] a marketing twist that makes audiences feel taken advantage of," said Haglund. The writers defended themselves by saying that they knew the unconventional closure would draw criticism, but "felt authentic to us" as according to co-writer Matthew Peterman, "Sometimes real life doesn't follow a perfect structure. Things aren't always wrapped up and resolved when or how you'd like them to be. All of us enjoyed leaving things open ended. We thought it was visceral, we thought it was unique." Audiences then flooded the Internet with videos of furious reactions, and demanding refunds from Paramount Pictures. Some pointed out the website link being the worst addition, as they felt they paid admission to an incomplete film. Director William Brent Bell added that the title card directing to a website was added by Paramount, given they "thought it was kind of cool to continue the story on this website". As a result of this criticism, the website no longer exists.  Besides the preponderance of negative reviews, there were a few critics who gave the film a positive review. Steve "Uncle Creepy" Barton of Dread Central stated, ""The Devil Inside" is home to moments that will shock, scare, disturb, and leave you gasping. It's a trip to the dark side that's well worth taking." Joe Leydon of "Variety" wrote that the film "generates a fair amount of suspense during sizable swaths of its familiar but serviceable exorcism-centric scenario."

Legacy.

The film's commercial success despite negative critical and audience reaction made it one of several that led studios to reconsider their longtime practice of confining horror films to the dump months and Halloween season. "For years, horror movies made $19–20 million in a January release. They would take the weekend and that would be it," C. Robert Cargill of Ain't It Cool News told Hollywood.com. "But "The Devil Inside" proved that even in our worst dumping ground, you can appeal to a market that won't see movies, and in fact they'll throw money at a terrible movie if it looks like it's good. I mean, $35 million is sick money for an opening weekend for a film that cost, what, $250,000?"

The Devil Inside is a 2012 American found footage supernatural horror film directed by William Brent Bell, and written by Bell and Matthew Peterman. It is a documentary-style film about a woman who becomes involved in a series of exorcisms during her quest to determine what happened to her mother, a woman who murdered three people as a result of being possessed by a demon. Produced by Peterman and Morris Paulson, the film stars Fernanda Andrade, Simon Quarterman, Evan Helmuth, and Suzan Crowley, and was released theatrically on January 6.

Devil Inside (Originaltitel: The Devil Inside) ist ein amerikanischer Horrorfilm aus dem Jahr 2012. Regie führte William Brent Bell, der auch zusammen mit Matthew Peterman das Drehbuch schrieb. Der Film, der im Stil einer Dokumentation aus gefundenem Filmmaterial („Found Footage“) gehalten ist, wurde von Matthew Peterman und Morris Paulson produziert und zeigt in den Hauptrollen Fernanda Andrade, Simon Quarterman, Evan Helmuth und Suzan Crowley. Er startete am 6. Januar 2012 in den amerikanischen und am 1. März 2012 in den deutschen Kinos.


Background.

The Diocese of Münster was one of the largest and most important ecclesial territories in the northwest German area. In the Late Middle Ages the bishop's thrones in the region were predominantly filled by members of comital families or the families of hereditary noblemen ("Edelherren"). These families, like the counts of the Mark, attempted to secure episcopal seats for their sons. Even less powerful families took the opportunity to increase their influence, at least occasionally, over an ecclesial territory. To this group belonged the lords of Lippe, who occupied the bishop's throne in Paderborn several times. The counts of Hoya were successful in the Bishopric of Osnabrück. In the Bishopric of Minden this was true of the houses of Diepholz and Schaumburg. In the mid-15th century, however, the counts of Moers were foremost in this regard. Especially after Dietrich of Moers had become Archbishop of Cologne, the family was able to secure the majority of the bishop's seats in the northwest German area. Their main rival in the Bishopric of Münster was the Hoya family.  Internally, some of the prince-bishops, most recently Otto IV of Hoya (r. 1392–1424), had expanded their territory and got rid of smaller internal lordships. By contrast it was clear that the bishops in the 13th and 14th centuries had largely lost control of their capital, Münster. The city acted independently almost as if it were a rich imperially immediate city. In addition, the "Stände" (estates), the cathedral chapter, knights and towns had gained influence and sharply reduced the power of the bishops.  After the death of Bishop Otto IV, Dietrich of Moers succeeded in getting his brother, Henry II of Moers, into the Münster bishopric against the will of the city of Münster. After the archbishop, due to internal diocesan disputes, had secured the Bishopric of Osnabrück for Eric of Hoya (German: "Erich von Hoya"), he placed Henry there as administrator. He oriented his policy sharply towards his brother's interests and supported him strongly during the Feud of Soest. The House of Hoya, who also held the bishoprics of Verden and Minden, saw the counts of Moers as intruders in their own area of interest. Apart from the Archdiocese of Cologne, Münster and Osnabrück, the House of Moers ruled Paderborn and parts of the Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht. The warlike stance of Henry in supporting his brother did not help the diocese, rather it resulted in a sharp increase in its debt and a decline in prosperity.  In addition to the two main rivals for the episcopacy, there were other contenders. The town of Osnabrück strongly supported Conrad of Diepholz (German: "Konrad von Diepholz", Dutch: "Koenraad van Diepholt"). He was the cathedral provost ("Dompropst") in Osnabrück and a nephew of the Prince-Bishop of Utrecht, Rudolf of Diepholz (Dutch: "Rudolf van Diepholt"). He supported the candidacy, but arrived too late to actively promote his nephew.

Start of the conflict.

Within the diocese, the estates were in open revolt by Henry's death. From now on, the aspirations of the House of Moers ran into resistance. Despite that, Dietrich did everything possible to continue to occupy Münster with a member of his family. As a successor he had provided his brother Walram of Moers (Dutch: "Walraven van Meurs"), but this brought him into conflict with the House of Hoya. John of Hoya had not forgotten that Dietrich of Moers was exchanged for members of his family. In particular, he had not forgotten his own six years imprisonment in connection with the fighting around Osnabrück. He wanted to make his brother, Eric of Hoya, successor.  Dietrich of Moers gave away large bribes to win a majority in the cathedral chapter for his brother. He had, until recently been a supporter of the Council of Basel, before he changed sides to the Roman curia. Dietrich succeeded in getting the majority of the cathedral chapter on side at a meeting in Hausdülmen on 15 July 1450. But John of Hoya campaigned for his brother, Eric. He won over the citizens of the city of Münster and the nobility to his cause. Within the city he was mainly supported by the guilds and the commoners, while the hereditary patricians on the council did not want confrontation.  John of Hoya was elected by the secular estates as the diocesan administrator ("Stiftsverweser"). He was to officiate until the Pope had appointed a bishop acceptable to both citizens and lords. In a letter to the Pope they explained their reasons for this unusual procedure were that Walram was allegedly responsible for two murders as well as other crimes in the past. By contrast, Eric of Hoya had led a supposedly blameless life and had had an academic education. A minority of thirteen canons and all the clergy of the city supported this position. In Osnabrück, John of Hoya, succeeded his brother Albert of Hoya to become the administrator. Thus, the position of the family was further strengthened in the battle for the Diocese of Münster.  As administrator, John of Hoya brought most of Münster's royal castles ("Landesburgen") under his control. In order to reduce his own costs as far as possible, he seized the estates of the bishop and income of the cathedral canons ("Domherren"). In addition, he introduced an excise duty on trade goods. The supporters of Walram in the cathedral chapter were prepared to negotiate in this eventuality. An agreement was reached that the Hoyas largely honoured, according to which at the next "Landtag" all the estates would appeal to the Pope to award the office of bishop to Eric of Hoya. In return the canons were guaranteed their former rights and income. The "Landtag" approved this arrangement. In January 1451, John of Hoya captured Dülmen Castle which had opposed him. Meanwhile, in ignorance of the unanimous support of the estates for Hoya, Pope Pope Nicholas V had appointed Walram of Moers as bishop. The town of responded to this by asking for a legal opinion from the University of Erfurt. Their judgement was that the estates did not have to accept the decision of the Pope because the Pope would not have known of Walram's unsuitability for the post.  The Hoya family were also supported by the Duchy of Cleves. Duke John of Cleves hoped thereby to weaken the power of the Archbishop of Cologne. On 11 June 1451, the Treaty of Haus Dülmen was signed, sealing an alliance between Cleves and John of Hoya. As a reward for his support in the battle against Walram of Moers Cleves was given the estates of Dülmen and Stromberg. Cleves was not just a valuable military ally. Also important was his advocacy through Philip of Burgundy, an uncle of the duke, in Rome. Following the signing of the treaty, Cleves declared war on Walram of Moers.  On the same day news arrived in Münster that Emperor Frederick III had conferred the regalia on Walram. After Walram had also received Papal confirmation, he removed several of his opponents from their high church offices and had the supporters of his opponent placed under a Papally-ordained interdict. Those affected appealed again to the University of Erfurt. The university judged the measures taken by Walram and the Archbishop of Cologne to be invalid. Philip of Burgundy intervened on behalf of the Hoya faction, writing a letter to Rome. Before taking any further steps, Rome decided to wait and see what position Nicholas of Cusa would take in this case.

Outbreak of fighting.

Meanwhile, in the diocese, the feud broke out in the form of smaller operations. Most of the upper diocese was subsequently dominated by the Hoya faction; Walram only possessed the area around Ahaus, Vreden and Ottenstein.  Nicholas of Cusa was probably expected to instruct the Pope to replace both the earlier episcopal candidates with Conrad of Diepholz. Nicholas of Cusa, however, expressed opposition to the Hoyas. With the fall of Vreden, Walram also lost his last town in the Diocese of Moers. He notified Cusa on 21 January 1452 of his willingness to renounce the bishopric, provided it was possible to remove keep the Hoyas out and to make Conrad of Diepholz bishop instead.  The latter was supported "inter alia" by his uncle, Bishop Rudolf of Utrecht. From now on the Hoyas encountered increasingly strong military action, for example at the Siege of Ahaus. At the start of 1452 a mercenary arm defeated Hoya and the Münster troops and took large numbers of prisoners. On 2 February the supporters of Diepholz declared a feud against their opponents. Walram pledged the latter the remaining settlements he owned - Ahaus and Ottenstein - to Rudolf of Utrecht. In the diocese itself, sympathy grew for Conrad of Diepholz, whose candidature appeared to be an increasingly attractive alternative to the former aspirants. The estates sought therefore, on 6 October 1452 in Coesfeld, to reach a compromise, in order to get rid of both Walram of Moers and Eric of Hoya. All episcopal decisions since the death of Bishop Henry were declared null and void. In any case, these peace attempts failed. One reason was probably that John of Cleves continued to support Eric of Hoya.  John of Hoya, who had previously left the town, returned to Münster. Supported by the lower levels of the town of Münster, John of Hoya transferred the diocesan regency in 1453 "de jure" to his brother Eric, so that the latter could prove himself as regent. Although the mayors of the towns opposed this, they eventually had to accept it under pressure from their townsfolk. Eric of Hoya was thereupon rendered homage in all the towns.

Spread of the conflict.

This pitched the conflict into a new phase. Rudolf of Utrecht declared a feud against the town of Münster and its three allies on 7 July 1453. He succeeded in capturing the town of Vreden which, shortly thereafter was retaken by John of Hoya. Rudolf of Utrecht took advantage of disputes in the enemy camp and took a number of towns. Against the background of the triumphant advance of his opponent, in 1454 John of Hoya forced the re-election of the town council in Münster which was sympathetic to his cause. The majority of the council came from the guilds and the common people, only a few hereditary patricians ("Erbmänner") were represented. In Münster resistance to the harsh rule of the Hoyas started to increase. Moreover, in October 1454, the Hansetag demanded the restoration of the old council constitution.  The allies around Walram of Moers and the Bishop of Utrecht managed to obtain assurances from the Pope, that all complaints from the opposite side to the Pope about spiritual penalties imposed by Walram were invalid. Those who aligned themselves with Walram were assured that they would receive absolution from any excommunication. Coesfeld was the first town to take advantage of the offer. This became the Walram's residence.  Because John of Cleves was temporarily unable to provide support due to his wedding, John of Hoya turned to Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg with a request for assistance. With his help John of Hoya attacked, plundering and destroying, the area of Coesfeld and the County of Bentheim, which supported his enemies. Walram and Dietrich initially lacked the means to defend themselves against it. In July, a body of troops belonging to the archbishop arrived in Dülmen. Through a tactical mistake by Count John of Hoya, Duke Frederick's troops were alone when an allied army led by Dietrich of Moers, Walram of Moers, Rudolf of Utrecht, Bernard II of Bentheim, Bernard of Lippe and Conrad of Diepholz attacked and inflicted a crushing defeat on their opponents in the Battle of Varlar. The Duke was captured. One more vigorous attack might have brought total success, but the allies were hampered by internal disputes.

Minor war and more negotiations.

John of Hoya noticed that the mood in Münster was turning against him. He offered to transfer all the towns and castles to Cleves. But John of Cleves now had other plans. He wanted to give the diocese to Simon of Lippe, while Eric of Hoya was to get the Diocese of Osnabrück. He thus hoped that this would help to expel Bishop Rudolf from Utrecht. A short time later the latter died after he had ceded his rights to Ahaus and Ottenstein to Conrad of Diepholz. With his death, the allies of the House of Moers and Conrad of Diepholz lost their strongest supporter. The latter became Bishop of Osnabrück, but did not give up his aim of becoming the bishop in Münster as well.  In the Diocese of Münster, Walram of Moers continued to be opposed by John of Hoya. However, Dietrich of Moers did not pursue the matter with any great effort. So the fighting continued in the form of a minor war. In addition, negotiations took place which led to no result. One major success in early 1456 was the conquest of Coesfeld by John of Hoya. Then, in October 1456, Walram of Moers died in Arnhem. John of Hoya now relied on the support of the Duke of Burgundy. On behalf of Eric of Hoya he appealed for support to Pope Callistus III, who was hoping that Burgundy would help him win the Ottoman Wars. The strong support of Philip of Burgundy for Hoya's cause meant that the towns now aligned themselves more firmly on the side of John of Hoya than they had in recent years. Eric of Hoya was proposed as bishop by two of the canons. However, the majority of the canons chose Conrad of Diepholz. Both sides asked Rome for a decision.  John of Hoya sought to strengthen his position in Münster by obtained citizenship in early 1457 and joining the Blacksmiths' Guild. A short time later he was elected to the Council. However, the Pope decided upon John of Palatinate-Simmern, who had been totally uninvolved in the previous disputes. John of Hoya looked in vain to the support of Cleves and Burgundy once more. But even Conrad of Diepholz's aspiration to maintain his position failed.

Outcome and aftermath.

On 23 October 1457 the Treaty of Kranenburg was signed that ended the conflict. It stipulated that Eric of Hoya should receive a lifetime income equivalent to that of the Cologne provost office. The city of Münster undertook to recognize the new bishop, to allow him to enter the town and to pay homage to him. In return, the new bishop agreed to recognize the existing privileges of the town. The new bishop also recognized the enfeoffment of the estates of Dülmen and Stromberg to the Duke of Cleves. The latter also received compensation of 11,000 Rhenish guilders. In early November, the new bishop arrived in Münster, swore the oath of office and the electoral capitulation.  Earlier, John of Hoya had secretly left the town. Eric of Hoya died in 1458. Bevergern Castle which had been enfeoffed to him was returned to the diocese. After the peace treaty, life in the diocese quickly returned to normal. The dominant position that the patrician's ("Erbmänner") had long held on Münster's town council was broken, as the guilds secured the right to be represented by their members. The "Erbmänner" only had half of the Council. In the end it was clear that the diocese had just become an object in the power game between noble families. The Emperor and Pope had lost any real influence. In the era of Henry and Walrams of Moers, some of the bishops had virtually lost any sense of their calling in faith to serve God and neighbour, but were simply out for themselves.

The Münster Diocesan Feud (), or simply Münster Feud, was a dispute that took place between 1450 and 1457 over the appointment to the bishop's throne in Münster, and hence the rule of the diocese. The cause was the death of the previous prince-bishop, Henry II of Moers. The opposing candidates were his brother Walram of Moers, Eric of Hoya, and Conrad of Diepholz. They were supported by their families with Count John of Hoya, Archbishop Dietrich II of Moers and Prince-Bishop Rudolf of Diepholz at their respective heads. In addition, there were also external allies. Within the diocese the "Stände", namely the cathedral chapter and the town of Münster, played an independent role at times. In the end neither candidate was able to succeed to the office.

Die Münsterische Stiftsfehde war zwischen 1450 und 1457 ein Streit um die Besetzung des Bischofstuhls in Münster und damit auch um die Herrschaft im Hochstift Münster. Dabei standen sich zunächst Walram von Moers und Erich II. von Hoya als Kandidaten gegenüber. Unterstützt wurden sie von ihren Familien mit Graf Johann von Hoya und Erzbischof Dietrich II. von Moers an der Spitze. Hinzu kamen ihre jeweiligen auswärtigen Verbündeten. Im Inneren des Stifts spielten die Stände namentlich das Domkapitel und die Stadt Münster eine zeitweise eigenständige Rolle. Letztlich konnte sich keine der beiden Seiten durchsetzen.


Drainage basin.

Through its tributaries, the river drains much of the western side of the Blue Mountains, flowing across the sparsely populated arid part of the state east of the Cascade Range in a northwest zigzag, then entering the Columbia upstream from the Columbia River Gorge. It flows through exceptionally scenic canyons in its upper course, with several significant paleontological sites along its banks. Elevations within the watershed range from at the river's mouth to more than in the Strawberry Mountains.  The main branch of the John Day River rises in the Strawberry Mountains in eastern Grant County. The North Fork heads on the western slope of the Elkhorn Mountains in northeastern Grant County. The Middle Fork rises near the crest of the Blue Mountains on the eastern edge of Grant County. The South Fork's source is in northern Harney County, about south of the Grant County line. The main, south and middle forks each have their heads in different parts of the Malheur National Forest, while the North Fork's source is located within in the Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. The main fork flows initially north, then west through the John Day Valley and through the cities of Prairie City, John Day and Mount Vernon. At Dayville, in western Grant County, it is joined from the south by the South Fork John Day River, then flows north through Picture Gorge and the Sheep Rock Unit of the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument.  At Kimberly in northwestern Grant County, it is joined from the east by the North Fork John Day River (which had already joined with the Middle Fork John Day River above Monument, Grant County, Oregon). The river then flows west across Wheeler County. At the county line with Jefferson County it flows north, past the Clarno Unit of the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument. As it approaches the Columbia River in north-central Oregon it flows in an increasingly meandering course, forming the boundary between Sherman County to the west and Gilliam County to the east.  The John Day River joins the Columbia from the southeast approximately northeast of Biggs. The mouth of the river is on the narrow Lake Umatilla reservoir, formed on the Columbia by the John Day Dam, approximately downstream from the mouth of the John Day.

Recreation and ecosystem.

The John Day is navigable by rafts and other small river craft by boaters who obtain permits provided by the BLM. The practice of a federal agency requiring person to obtain and pay for a permit to navigate the river is seriously called into questioned by the Oregon Admission Act of 1859, which specifically states, "... said rivers and waters, and all the navigable waters of said State, shall be common highways and forever free, as well as to the inhabitants of said State as to all other citizens of the United States, without any tax, duty, impost, or toll therefor." This is not only a federal statute, but is also codified as a state statute [11 Stat. 383 (1859)], and is a term and condition of statehood.  Its lower course is used for irrigation of cropland and ranching. In 1988, the United States Congress designated of the river from Service Creek to Tumwater Falls as Wild and Scenic for its recreational opportunities. The segment of the river is a popular destination for anadromous steelhead and warm water bass fishing, as well as whitewater rafting.  In addition to wild spring chinook salmon and bass, the river furnishes habitat for Columbia River redband trout, bull trout, and westslope cutthroat trout. There are no hatchery salmon or steelhead released in the John Day River.

The John Day River is a tributary of the Columbia River, approximately long, in northeastern Oregon in the United States. Undammed along its entire length, the river is the third longest free-flowing river in the contiguous United States. There is extensive use of its waters for irrigation. Its course furnishes habitat for diverse species, including wild steelhead and Chinook salmon runs. However, the steelhead populations are under federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) protections, and the Chinook salmon have been proposed for such protection.

Der John Day River ist ein 452 km langer linker Nebenfluss des Columbia River im Nordosten des US-Bundesstaates Oregon. Entlang dem Flusslauf des John Day River bestehen bisher noch keine Staudämme. Er ist damit einer der längsten frei fließenden Flüsse der Vereinigten Staaten.


Career.

Carter won the 2016 gold medal at the Rio Olympics on the last of her six throws, edging two-time defending champion Valerie Adams of New Zealand. In doing so, Carter became the first United States women's athlete to win the event since the women's competition began at the 1948 Summer Olympic Games in London, and only the second American to win any medal in the event (Earlene Brown, bronze, 1960). Carter broke her own American record with an Olympic gold medal-winning toss of.  She finished fifteenth at the 2008 Olympic Games and fourth at the 2012 Olympic Games.  A bronze medalist at the 2015 and 2017 IAAF World Championships, Carter also won the gold medal at the 2016 World Indoor Championships after winning the bronze in 2012.  She won the silver medal at the 2001 World Youth Championships and the gold medal at the 2004 World Junior Championships.  In addition to winning the 2008 United States Olympic Team Trials, she was the 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016 national champion. While competing for the University of Texas, she won the NCAA collegiate national championship in 2006. In college, she was a seven time All-American, and also won the Big 12 Conference title five times. In 2006, she won the NCAA indoor title to also help the University of Texas women claim the NCAA team title. With a runner-up finish in the shot put at the 2005 outdoor meet, Carter helped the Longhorns win the NCAA championship.  Carter is a graduate of Red Oak High School in Red Oak, Texas where she was a four-time state champion in the shot put.

Personal life.

Carter's father, Michael Carter, is also a former Olympian and NFL star — the only athlete to win an Olympic medal and a Super Bowl ring in the same year. Since 1979, her father currently holds the boys' national high school record in the shot put; Michelle held the girls' record from 2003 to 2014. Michael Carter, won the men's shot put silver medal while representing Team USA at the Los Angeles 1984 Olympic Games and also played professional American football for the San Francisco 49ers from 1984-1992, winning three Super Bowls.  Carter is a Christian. Carter has said, "Through faith and sports, I’ve learned discipline and self-control. In the Bible, God tells us we have to work, even if what we want is not going to happen right away. People want a platform, but with that comes responsibility. Before winning the gold medal, I needed to be in a mature place to handle the opportunities that were going to come my way, to make sure I didn’t use them for my advantage. You have to put your pride aside and let God’s plan come through. He has given me this platform for Him to shine." She has also said "I know God allowed me to have this medal, and with it I want to glorify Him and point others to Him."  She received a full track scholarship to The University of Texas, she graduated in 2007 with a degree in youth and communities studies, and a minor in kinesiology.  Carter is a certified professional make-up artist. She was inducted into the Texas Track and Field Hall of Fame in 2018.  Carter has focused on body image both on and off the field, talking to young women about confidence through her program "You Throw Girl". "You have to understand everyone's body was built to do something. I was built to do something, and that's how I was built. I think the world is realizing we were promoting one body type and there have always been many."  Carter married former Lehigh University football player and West Virginia University master's graduate Courtney Elder in January 2019.

Michelle Denee Carter (born October 12, 1985) is an American shot putter, and the current Olympic women's champion. She is the current American record holder in the event with a distance of set at the 2016 Olympic Games. She was inducted into the Texas Track and Field Hall of Fame in 2018.

Michelle Carter (* 12. Oktober 1985 in San José, Kalifornien) ist eine US-amerikanische Kugelstoßerin. Carter gewann bei den Jugendweltmeisterschaften 2001 in Debrecen die Silbermedaille und wurde 2004 in Grosseto Juniorenweltmeisterin. 2006 siegte sie bei den NCAA-Hallenmeisterschaften. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 2008 in Peking belegte sie den 15. Platz.


Mechanisms of membrane translocation.

Cell-penetrating peptides are of different sizes, amino acid sequences, and charges but all CPPs have one distinct characteristic, which is the ability to translocate the plasma membrane and facilitate the delivery of various molecular cargoes to the cytoplasm or an organelle. There has been no real consensus as to the mechanism of CPP translocation, but the theories of CPP translocation can be classified into three main entry mechanisms: direct penetration in the membrane, endocytosis-mediated entry, and translocation through the formation of a transitory structure. CPP transduction is an area of ongoing research.  Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) are able to transport different types of cargo molecules across plasma membrane; thus, they act as molecular delivery vehicles. They have numerous applications in medicine as drug delivery agents in the treatment of different diseases including cancer and virus inhibitors, as well as contrast agents for cell labeling. Examples of the latter include acting as a carrier for GFP, MRI contrast agents, or quantum dots.

Direct penetration.

The majority of early research suggested that the translocation of polycationic CPPs across biological membranes occurred via an energy-independent cellular process. It was believed that translocation could progress at 4C and most likely involved a direct electrostatic interaction with negatively charged phospholipids. Researchers proposed several models in attempts to elucidate the biophysical mechanism of this energy-independent process. Although CPPs promote direct effects on the biophysical properties of pure membrane systems, the identification of fixation artifacts when using fluorescent labeled probe CPPs caused a reevaluation of CPP-import mechanisms. These studies promoted endocytosis as the translocation pathway. An example of direct penetration has been proposed for TAT. The first step in this proposed model is an interaction with the unfolded fusion protein (TAT) and the membrane through electrostatic interactions, which disrupt the membrane enough to allow the fusion protein to cross the membrane. After internalization, the fusion protein refolds due the chaperone system. This mechanism was not agreed upon, and other mechanisms involving clathrin-dependent endocytosis have been suggested.  Many more detailed methods of CPP uptake have been proposed including transient pore formation. This mechanism involves strong interactions between cell-penetrating peptides and the phosphate groups on both sides of the lipid bilayer, the insertion of positively charged arginine side-chains that nucleate the formation of a transient pore, followed by the translocation of cell-penetrating peptides by diffusing on the pore surface. This mechanism explains how key ingredients, such as the cooperation among the peptides, the large positive charge, and specifically the guanidinium groups, contribute to the uptake. The proposed mechanism also illustrates the importance of membrane fluctuations. Indeed, mechanisms that involve large fluctuations of the membrane structure, such as transient pores and the insertion of charged amino acid side-chains, may be common and perhaps central to the functions of many membrane protein functions.

Endocytosis-mediated translocation.

Endocytosis is the second mechanism liable for cellular internalization. Endocytosis is the process of cellular ingestion by which the plasma membrane folds inward to bring substances into the cell. During this process cells absorb material from the outside of the cell by imbibing it with their cell membrane. The classification of cellular localization using fluorescence or by endocytosis inhibitors is the basis of most examination. However, the procedure used during preparation of these samples creates questionable information regarding endocytosis. Moreover, studies show that cellular entry of penetratin by endocytosis is an energy-dependent process. This process is initiated by polyarginines interacting with heparan sulphates that promote endocytosis. Research has shown that TAT is internalized through a form of endocytosis called macropinocytosis.  Studies have illustrated that endocytosis is involved in the internalization of CPPs, but it has been suggested that different mechanisms could transpire at the same time. This is established by the behavior reported for penetratin and transportan wherein both membrane translocation and endocytosis occur concurrently.

Translocation through the formation of a transitory structure.

The third mechanism responsible for the translocation is based on the formation of the inverted micelles. Inverted micelles are aggregates of colloidal surfactants in which the polar groups are concentrated in the interior and the lipophilic groups extend outward into the solvent. According to this model, a penetratin dimer combines with the negatively charged phospholipids, thus generating the formation of an inverted micelle inside of the lipid bilayer. The structure of the inverted micelles permits the peptide to remain in a hydrophilic environment.  The last mechanism implied that internalization occurs by peptides that belong to the family of primary amphipathic peptides, MPG and Pep-1. Two very similar models have been proposed based on physicochemical studies, consisting of circular dichroism, Fourier transform infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. These models are associated with electrophysiological measurements and investigations that have the ability to mimic model membranes such as monolayer at the air-water interface. The structure giving rise to the pores is the major difference between the proposed MPG and Pep-1 model. In the MPG model, the pore is formed by a b-barrel structure, whereas the Pep-1 is associated with helices. In addition, strong hydrophobic phospholipid-peptide interactions have been discovered in both models. In the two peptide models, the folded parts of the carrier molecule correlate to the hydrophobic domain, although the rest of the molecule remains unstructured.  Cell-penetrating peptide facilitated translocation is a topic of great debate. Evidence has been presented that translocation could use several different pathways for uptake. In addition, the mechanism of translocation can be dependent on whether the peptide is free or attached to cargo. The quantitative uptake of free or CPP connected to cargo can differ greatly but studies have not proven whether this change is a result of translocation efficiency or the difference in translocation pathway. It is probable that the results indicate that several CPP mechanisms are in competition and that several pathways contribute to CPP internalization.

Applications.

CPP mediated delivery of nucleic acids.

Nucleic acid-based macromolecules such as siRNA, antisense oligonucleotide, decoy DNA, and plasmid have been realized as promising biological and pharmacological therapeutics in regulation of gene expression. However, unlike other small-molecular drugs, their development and applications are limited by high molecular weight and negative charges, which results in poor uptake efficiency and low cellular traffic. To overcome these problems, several different delivery systems have been developed, including CPP-nucleic acid conjugate, which is a very powerful tool.

Formation of CPP-nucleic acid complexes.

Most CPP-nucleic acid complexes that have been proposed so far are formed through covalent bonding. A range of CPP-nucleic acid complexes have been synthesized through different chemistries that are either stable or cleavable linkages. And the most widely used method in publication is cleavable disulfide linkages through total stepwise solid-phase synthesis or solution-phase or solid-phase fragment coupling. Some other strategies like stable amide, thiazolidine, oxime and hydrazine linkage have also been developed. However, those covalent linking methods are limited by the concern that the synthetic covalent bond between CPP and nucleic acid may alter the biological activity of the latter. Thus, a new non-covalent strategy requiring no chemical modification with short amphipathic CPPs, like MPG and Pep-1 as carriers has been successfully applied for delivery of cargoes. These non-covalent conjugates are formed through either electrostatic or hydrophobic interactions. With this method, cargoes such as nucleic acids and proteins could be efficiently delivered while maintaining full biological activity.

For siRNA delivery.

Short interfering RNA (siRNA) is a very powerful new tool that can interfere with and silence the expression of specific disease gene. To improve cellular uptake of siRNA, CPP strategies have been applied to facilitate the delivery of siRNA into cells through either covalent or non-covalent linkages. In one study, siRNA is covalently linked to transportan and penetratin by disulfide-linkage at 5'-end of the sense strands of siRNA to target luciferase or eGFP mRNA reporters. In another study, TAT-siRNA conjugate through a stable thiomaleimide linkage at 3'-end of siRNA was delivered into HeLa cells for eGFP gene silencing.  However, non-covalent strategies appear to be better for siRNA delivery with a more significant biological response. In one study, MPG/siRNA complexes formed through stable non-covalent strategy showed successful introduction of siRNA into cultured cells and induced robust regulation of target mRNA. Furthermore, MPG/siRNA complexes have also been applied for delivery of siRNA "in vivo" into mouse blastocytes for gene regulation. MPG forms highly stable complexes with siRNA with a low degradation rate and can be easily functionalized for specific targeting, which are major advantages compared with the covalent CPP technology.

New substrate design for siRNA delivery.

siRNA cell delivery represent a valuable tool for treatment of cancer disease, viral infections and genetic disorders. However, classical strategies involve covalent linking of cargo molecules and CPPs, which does not provide efficient protection of siRNA molecules "in vivo"; thus results reported in literature are not consistent. Recently, non-covalent strategies have been successfully reported. Secondary amphipathic peptides based on aromatic tryptophan and arginine residues linked with lysine as spacer have been reported under the name of CADY. CADY contains a short peptide sequence of 20 amino acids, with the sequence “Ac-GLWRALWRLLRSLWRLLWRA-cysteamide."  This peptide is able to self-assemble in a helical shape with hydrophilic and hydrophobic residues on different side of the molecule, it has two different orientations of the surface that represent the lowest energy and it is able to form complexes with siRNA at different molar ratio varying from 1:1 to 80:1. CADY is able to form a shield around siRNA molecule protecting it from biodegradative processes that may occur before cellular penetration occurs. These types of substrates may present important applications "in vivo".

For antisense oligomer delivery.

Antisense oligonucleotides (asONs) have been used in basic research and are being developed as possible medical treatments. CPP strategies have been developed to deliver antisense oligomers such as PNA and PMO into cells. Overcoming the repulsion by the cell membrane of negative-charged ONs and the degradation of asONs by enzymes, CPPs increase asONs bioavailability. Two types of neutral ON analogues, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO or Morpholino) are becoming dominant in this area. PNA has been conjugated with various CPPs either through disulfide linkages or through stable amide bonds. For example, antisense activity within cells that blocked expression of the galanin receptor was observed when a 21-mer PNA was coupled to the penetratin. Results on antiviral activity with PNA targeting HIV-1 have also been reported through disulfide linkage with TAT. CPP-PMO conjugates have also been successfully used to inhibit the replication of several viruses such as SARS and influenza and attachment of CPPs has improved the efficacy of splice-modifying Morpholinos in development for treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

For decoy DNA delivery.

Decoy DNA is an exogenous double-strand DNA (dsDNA), which can mimic a promoter sequence that can inhibit the activity of a specific transcription factor. But dsDNA has the same problem as other therapeutics, poor bioavailability. In one study, CPPs TP and TP10 were coupled to NFкB decoy DNA, which blocked the effect of interleukin-1-induced NFкB activation and IL-6 gene expression. In another study, TP10 coupled Myc decoy DNA decreased proliferative capacity of N2a cells.

For plasmid delivery.

Individual genes can be inserted into specific sites on plasmids, and recombinant plasmids can be introduced into living cells. A method using macro-branched TAT has been proposed for plasmid DNA delivery into various cell lines and showed significant transfection capabilities. Multimers of TAT have been found to increase transfection efficiency of plasmid DNA by 6-8 times more than poly-L-arginine or mutant TAT2-M1, and by 390 times compared with the standard vectors.

CPP mediated delivery of proteins.

The development of therapeutic proteins that has presented a valuable method to treat diseases is limited by low efficiency of traditional delivery methods. The evaluation of cytosolic delivery of CPP linked proteins has been found to be prone to artifacts and therefore requires the use of evaluation methods that distinguish true cytosolic delivery from cell surface attached or endosomally entrapped CPP-proteins. Recently, several methods using CPPS as vehicles to deliver biologically active, full-length proteins into living cells and animals have been reported.  Several groups have successfully delivered CPP fused proteins "in vitro". TAT was able to deliver different proteins, such as horseradish peroxidase and RNase A across cell membrane into the cytoplasm in different cell lines "in vitro". The size range of proteins with effective delivery is from 30kDa to 120-150kDa. In one study, TAT-fused proteins are rapidly internalized by lipid raft−dependent macropinocytosis using a transducible TAT−Cre recombinase reporter assay on live cells. In another study, a TAT-fused protein was delivered into mitochondria of breast cancer cells and decreased the survival of breast cancer cells, which showed capability of TAT-fusion proteins to modulate mitochondrial function and cell survival. Moreover, cR10, a cyclic poly-arginine CPP, enabled the endocytose independent transduction of antigen binding proteins through the cellular membrane with immediate bioavailability. Thereby, the authors of the study were able to deliver fluorescent antigen binding proteins into cells facilitating live-cell immunostaining. However, very few in vivo studies have succeeded. In one study, in vivo delivery of TAT- or penetratin-crosslinked Fab fragments yielded varied organ distributions and an overall increase in organ retention, which showed tissue localization.  A non-covalent method that forms CPP/protein complexes has also been developed to address the limitations in covalent methods, such as chemical modification before crosslinking, and denaturation of proteins before delivery. In one study, a short amphipathic peptide carrier, Pep-1, and protein complexes have proven effective for delivery. It was shown that Pep-1 could facilitate rapid cellular uptake of various peptides, proteins, and even full-length antibodies with high efficiency and less toxicity. This approach has greatly simplified the formulation of reagents.

As contrast agents transporters.

CPPs found applications as transporters of contrast agents across plasma membranes. These contrast agents are able to label the tumor cells, making the compounds important tools in cancer diagnosis; they are also used in "in vivo" and "in vitro" cellular experiments. The most important classes of CPP are isolated from viruses, such as TAT (transactivated-transcription) derived from HIV-1, penetratin, and transportan. The most widely used CPPs are based on TAT derivatives. TAT is an arginine-rich CPP. Several improvements for this substrate includes the usage of unnatural β or γ amino acids. This strategy offers multiple advantages, such resistance to proteolytic degradation, a natural degradation process by which peptide bonds are hydrolyzed to amino acids. Unnatural acid insertion in the peptide chain has multiple advantages. It facilitates the formation of stable foldamers with distinct secondary structure. β-Peptides are conformationally more stable in aqueous solution than naturally occurring peptides, especially for small chains. The secondary structure is reinforced by the presence of a rigid β-amino acid, which contains cyclohexane or cyclopentane fragments. These fragments generate a more rigid structure and influence the opening angle of the foldamer. These features are very important for new peptide design. Helical β-peptides mimic antimicrobial activities of host defense peptides. This feature requires the orientation of cationic –hydrophilic on one side, and hydrophobic residues on the other side of the helix. The attachment of fluorescent group on one head of the molecule confers contrast properties. A new strategy to enhance the cellular up-take capacity of CPP is based on association of polycationic and polyanionic domains that are separated by a linker. Cellular association of polycationic residues (polyarginine) with negatively charged membrane cells is effectively blocked by the presence of polyanionic residue (poly-glutamic acid) and the linker, which confer the proper distance between these two charged residues in order to maximize their interaction. These peptides adopt hairpin structure, confirmed by overhauser effect correlation for proton-proton proximities of the two charged moieties. At this stage only the linker is exposed to protease hydrolysis "in vivo" applications. The linker hydrolysis occur and the two charged fragments experience more conformational freedom. In the absence of linker, the cationic peptide can interact more efficient with the target cell and cellular uptake occurs before proteolysis. This strategy found applications in labeling tumor cells "in vivo". Tumor cells were marked in minutes. Linker degradation can be predicted by the amount of D-aminoacids (the unnatural isomer) incorporated in the peptide chain, this restricts "in vivo" proteolysis to the central linker.

Contrast agents as cargo molecules.

Quantum dots.

Quantum dots (QD) represent a relative new class of fluorescent probes that have superior optical properties than classical organic dyes based on fluorescent groups. The main advantages of QD include high quantum yields, broad absorption spectra, size-tunable emission spectra, and good resistance to chemical and photochemical degradation. In vivo tests have shown that several positively charged peptides (based on guanidine residues) are able to cross cell membranes and to promote cellular uptake of attached molecules including quantum dots. QD properties can be easily modified by changing the organic substrates linked to them, offering a versatile biological tool as cell markers. Research is in progress to optimize the methodologies for the intracellular delivery of QD and QD bioconjugates, and characterization of long-term in vivo photophysical properties.  Quantum dots are colloidal nanocrystals, based on a cadmium-selenium (CdSe) core covered with a zinc-sulfur (ZnS) layer. This substrate has been used intensively as a cellular marker because CdSe emits in the visible domain and is an excellent contrast agent, while the ZnS layer protects the core from oxidation and also the leeching of CdSe into the surrounding solution. This strategy also improves the photo-luminescence yield. The properties can be tuned by the thickness of the ZnS protective layers. Colloidal QD emission can be modulated from UV-Vis to the infrared by using different types of coating agents, such as ZnS, CdS, ZnSe, CdTe and PbSe. The properties of quantum dots can be also tuned by the synthetic scheme, high temperature solvent/ligand mixtures that influence the nanocrystal properties. High-quality QD contrast agents are obtained at elevated temperatures; however, because they have lower water solubility, their usage as cell markers is limited. Further functionalization with hydrophilic ligands is required.  The advantages of QD are represented by their fast action; they are able to label a target tissue or cell in seconds. In vivo studies show that QD are able to selectively label cancer cells, and they accumulate at tumor sites. Tumor cells labeled with QD can be tracked with multiphoton microscopy as they invade lung tissue. In both studies, spectral imaging and autofluorescent subtraction allowed multicolour in vivo visualization of cells and tissues. A major drawback of QD is their relatively high toxicity. Functionalizations with different substrates that increase bioaffinity and decrease toxicity are in progress. For instance, sulfur from the QD shell is able to form reversible disulfide bonds with a wide class of organic compounds.

Magnetic resonance imaging.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a powerful tool for disease diagnosis such as cancer metastasis and inflammation, using different metal chelates. Metal chelates increase the contrast signal between normal and diseased tissues by catalyzing the relaxation of water protons in their proximities. Typical examples are Gd3+ low-molecular-weight chelates, and superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO). "In vivo" administration of these agents allows the labeling of tumor cells; or cells can be labeled "in vitro" with contrast agents and then they can be injected and monitored "in vivo" by using MRI techniques.  SPIO nanoparticles confer high sensitivity in MRI but they have lower affinity for cells; they work at high concentrations. Functionalizations of these compounds using dendrimeric guanidines showed similar activities as TAT-based CPPs but higher toxicity. New substrates based on dendrons with hydroxyl or amine peripheries show low toxicity. Applications of SPIO includes cell labeling "in vivo"; due to low toxicity, they are clinically approved for use in liver, spleen, and gastrointestinal imaging.  The presence of octamer arginine residues allows cell membrane transduction of various cargo molecules including peptides, DNA, siRNA, and contrast agents. However, the ability of cross membrane is not unidirectional; arginine-based CPPs are able to enter-exit the cell membrane, displaying an overall decreasing concentration of contrast agent and a decrease of magnetic resonance (MR) signal in time. This limits their application "in vivo". To solve this problem, contrast agents with disulfide, reversible bond between metal chelate and transduction moiety enhance the cell-associated retention. The disulfide bond is reduced by the target cell environment and the metal chelate remains trapped in the cytoplasm, increasing the retention time of chelate in the target cell.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short peptides that facilitate cellular intake and uptake of molecules ranging from nanosize particles to small chemical compounds to large fragments of DNA. The "cargo" is associated with the peptides either through chemical linkage via covalent bonds or through non-covalent interactions.

Ein zellpenetrierendes Peptid (engl., CPP, oder, Transduktionsdomäne, PTD) bezeichnet ein Peptid, das Zellmembranen durchdringen (penetrieren) kann. Dadurch kann auch ein an das Peptid angehängtes Fusionsprotein, sowie kovalent oder nicht-kovalent mit dem zellpenetrierenden Peptid verbundene Nukleinsäuren oder Nanopartikel, in Zellen eingeschleust werden. Es wurden mit zellpenetrierenden Peptiden auch "small molecules" wie Zytostatika, Virustatika, Kontrastmittel oder auch Quantum Dots in Zellen gebracht.


Playing career.

Undrafted, after playing junior hockey in the AJHL for the Camrose Kodiaks, Connolly attended the University of Minnesota-Duluth in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. Named to the WCHA All-Rookie Team after the 2008-09 season, Connolly remained on a point-per-game average through his sophomore season. In his Junior year, he led the Bulldogs with 54 points in 42 game en route to the NCAA Championship and a WCHA First All-Star Team selection.  On April 13, 2011, shortly after his team won the Championship, Connolly signed a three-year entry-level contract with the San Jose Sharks of the National Hockey League.  In his first professional season in 2011–12, Connolly was assigned to the Sharks American Hockey League affiliate, the Worcester Sharks. He led Worcester rookies with 30 points in 40 games before he was dealt by San Jose at the trade deadline on February 27, 2012, to the Colorado Avalanche, along with Jamie McGinn and Michael Sgarbossa in exchange for Daniel Winnik, TJ Galiardi and a seventh round selection. He was then assigned to the Avalanche's AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters. After two games with the Monsters, Connolly was unexpectedly recalled by the Avalanche and made his NHL debut against the Minnesota Wild in a 2-0 victory on March 4, 2012.  After off-season knee surgery, Connolly missed the start of the 2012–13 season with the Lake Erie Monsters. As a result, Connolly struggled offensively upon his return until the latter portion of the season to contribute with 9 goals for 23 points in 65 games. His rights were not retained by Colorado and he was released as a free agent at the conclusion of his contract.  On July 18, 2013, Connolly was signed to his first European contract, on a one-year deal with German club, Augsburger Panther. In his first European season in 2013–14, Connolly quickly adapted to the larger ice and cemented his position as center on the top scoring line for Augsburg. Despite missing out on the post-season, Connolly lead the team with 28 assists and placed second in points with 42 to re-sign to a one-year extension on February 23, 2014.  In the following 2014–15 season, Connolly was limited to 22 games due to a cruciate ligament injury, and was unable to reproduce his initial success in the DEL. After finishing with 11 points, Connolly left as a free agent and signed a one-year contract with fellow DEL club, the Straubing Tigers on March 26, 2015.

Michael Brian Connolly (born July 3, 1989) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward for the Straubing Tigers of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). Connolly has previously played in the National Hockey League for the Colorado Avalanche.

Mike Connolly (* 3. Juli 1989 in Calgary, Alberta) ist ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit 2015 bei den Straubing Tigers in der Deutschen Eishockey Liga spielt.


The critical parameter: Schottky barrier height.

Whether a given metal-semiconductor junction is an ohmic contact or a Schottky barrier depends on the Schottky barrier height, Φ, of the junction. For a sufficiently large Schottky barrier height, where Φ is significantly higher than the thermal energy "kT", the semiconductor is depleted near the metal and behaves as a Schottky barrier. For lower Schottky barrier heights, the semiconductor is not depleted and instead forms an ohmic contact to the metal.  The Schottky barrier height is defined differently for n-type and p-type semiconductors (being measured from the conduction band edge and valence band edge, respectively). The alignment of the semiconductor's bands near the junction is typically independent of the semiconductor's doping level, so the "n"-type and "p"-type Schottky barrier heights are ideally related to each other by: where "E" is the semiconductor's band gap.  In practice, the Schottky barrier height is not precisely constant across the interface, and varies over the interfacial surface.

Schottky–Mott rule and Fermi level pinning.

The Schottky–Mott rule of Schottky barrier formation predicts the Schottky barrier height based on the vacuum work function of the metal relative to the vacuum electron affinity (or vacuum ionization energy) of the semiconductor: This model is derived based on the thought experiment of bringing together the two materials in vacuum, and is closely related in logic to Anderson's rule for semiconductor-semiconductor junctions. Different semiconductors respect the Schottky–Mott rule to varying degrees.  Although the Schottky–Mott model correctly predicted the existence of band bending in the semiconductor, it was found experimentally that it would give grossly incorrect predictions for the height of the Schottky barrier. A phenomenon referred to as "Fermi level pinning" caused some point of the band gap, at which finite DOS exists, to be locked (pinned) to the Fermi level. This made the Schottky barrier height almost completely insensitive to the metal's work function: where "E" is the size of band gap in the semiconductor.  It was noted in 1947 by John Bardeen that the Fermi level pinning phenomenon would naturally arise if there were chargeable states in the semiconductor right at the interface, with energies inside the semiconductor's gap. These would either be induced during the direct chemical bonding of the metal and semiconductor (metal-induced gap states) or be already present in the semiconductor–vacuum surface (surface states). These highly dense surface states would be able to absorb a large quantity of charge donated from the metal, effectively shielding the semiconductor from the details of the metal. As a result, the semiconductor's bands would necessarily align to a location relative to the surface states which are in turn pinned to the Fermi level (due to their high density), all without influence from the metal.  The Fermi level pinning effect is strong in many commercially important semiconductors (Si, Ge, GaAs), and thus can be very frustrating for the design of semiconductor devices. For example, nearly all metals form a significant Schottky barrier to "n"-type germanium and an ohmic contact to "p"-type germanium, since the valence band edge is strongly pinned to the metal's Fermi level. The solution to this inflexibility requires additional processing steps such as adding an intermediate insulating layer to unpin the bands. (In the case of germanium, germanium nitride has been used)

History.

The rectification property of metal–semiconductor contacts was discovered by Ferdinand Braun in 1874 using mercury metal contacted with copper sulfide and iron sulfide semiconductors. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose applied for a US patent for a metal-semiconductor diode in 1901. This patent was awarded in 1904. G.W. Pickard received a patent in 1906 on a point-contact rectifier using silicon. In 1907, George W. Pierce published a paper in Physical Review showing rectification properties of diodes made by sputtering many metals on many semiconductors. The use of the metal–semiconductor diode rectifier was proposed by Lilienfeld in 1926 in the first of his three transistor patents as the gate of the metal–semiconductor field effect transistors. The theory of the field-effect transistor using a metal/semiconductor gate was advanced by William Shockley in 1939.  The earliest metal–semiconductor diodes in electronics application occurred around 1900, when the cat's whisker rectifiers were used in receivers. They consisted of pointed tungsten wire (in the shape of a cat's whisker) whose tip or point was pressed against the surface of a galena (lead sulfide) crystal. The first large area rectifier appeared around 1926 which consisted of a copper(I) oxide semiconductor thermally grown on a copper substrate. Subsequently, selenium films were evaporated onto large metal substrates to form the rectifying diodes. These selenium rectifiers were used (and are still used) to convert alternating current to direct current in electrical power applications. During 1925–1940, diodes consisting of a pointed tungsten metal wire in contact with a silicon crystal base, were fabricated in laboratories to detect microwaves in the UHF range. A World War II program to manufacture high-purity silicon as the crystal base for the point-contact rectifier was suggested by Frederick Seitz in 1942 and successfully undertaken by the Experimental Station of the E. I du Pont de Nemours Company.  The first theory that predicted the correct direction of rectification of the metal–semiconductor junction was given by Nevill Mott in 1939. He found the solution for both the diffusion and drift currents of the majority carriers through the semiconductor surface space charge layer which has been known since about 1948 as the Mott barrier. Walter H. Schottky and Spenke extended Mott's theory by including a donor ion whose density is spatially constant through the semiconductor surface layer. This changed the constant electric field assumed by Mott to a linearly decaying electric field. This semiconductor space-charge layer under the metal is known as the Schottky barrier. A similar theory was also proposed by Davydov in 1939. Although it gives the correct direction of rectification, it has also been proven that the Mott theory and its Schottky-Davydov extension gives the wrong current limiting mechanism and wrong current-voltage formulae in silicon metal/semiconductor diode rectifiers. The correct theory was developed by Hans Bethe and reported by him in a M.I.T. Radiation Laboratory Report dated November 23, 1942. In Bethe's theory, the current is limited by thermionic emission of electrons over the metal–semiconductor potential barrier. Thus, the appropriate name for the metal–semiconductor diode should be the Bethe diode, instead of the Schottky diode, since the Schottky theory does not predict the modern metal–semiconductor diode characteristics correctly.  If a metal-semiconductor junction is formed by placing a droplet of mercury, as Braun did, onto a semiconductor, e.g.silicon, to form a Schottky barrier in a Schottky diode electrical setup – electrowetting can be observed, where the droplet spreads out with increasing voltage. Depending on the doping type and density in the semiconductor, the droplet spreading depends on the magnitude and sign of the voltage applied to the mercury droplet. This effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’, effectively linking electrowetting and semiconductor effects.  The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960. They extended their work on MOS technology to do pioneering work on hot carrier devices, which used what would later be called a Schottky barrier. The Schottky diode, also known as the Schottky-barrier diode, was theorized for years, but was first practically realized as a result of the work of Atalla and Kahng during 19601961. They published their results in 1962 and called their device the "hot electron" triode structure with semiconductor-metal emitter. It was one of the first metal-base transistors. Atalla continued research on Schottky diodes with Robert J. Archer at HP Associates. They developed high vacuum metal film deposition technology, and fabricated stable evaporated/sputtered contacts, publishing their results in January 1963. Their work was a breakthrough in metal–semiconductor junction and Schottky barrier research, as it overcame most of the fabrication problems inherent in point-contact diodes and made it possible to build practical Schottky diodes.

In solid-state physics, a metal–semiconductor (M–S) junction is a type of electrical junction in which a metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. It is the oldest practical semiconductor device. M–S junctions can either be rectifying or non-rectifying. The rectifying metal–semiconductor junction forms a Schottky barrier, making a device known as a Schottky diode, while the non-rectifying junction is called an ohmic contact. (In contrast, a rectifying semiconductor–semiconductor junction, the most common semiconductor device today, is known as a p–n junction.)

Als Metall-Halbleiter-Kontakt wird in der Halbleiterphysik und -technik im Allgemeinen ein Kontakt zwischen Metallen und Halbleitern bezeichnet. Metall-Halbleiter-Übergänge kommen bei der Kontaktierung von halbleitenden Materialien vor und stellen somit eines der wichtigsten Elemente bei Halbleiterbauelementen und mikroelektronischen Schaltkreisen dar. Sie können aber auch eigenständige Bauelemente darstellen, wie zum Beispiel die Schottky-Diode.