Early life and education.

Born in a rural area, near the village of Juan Jose Castro, in the Flores Department, Sendic worked with his father as a peasant on a crab apple farm until he finished high school and left his home to study in Montevideo. In 1952, he obtained the title of attorney before completing his law degree (he did five and a half of the six years required for a law degree).

Union leadership.

During his time in Montevideo, he joined the socialist youth movement of the Socialist Party of Uruguay, becoming a prominent member. His social activity intensified during the 1950s, as he became trade union attorney of rural workers and, later, union founder. UTAA (sugar cane workers), SUDA (sugar beet workers) and the project for an all-inclusive association of rural workers, SUDOR, were born as a result of his actions. Sendic both saw and experienced the abuse by agricultural employers in areas where there seemed to be no awareness of democracy. In the late 1950s Sendic started a campaign to create social awareness of the cane workers' situation in Montevideo. Four hundred workers marched to Montevideo with the motto "For the land and with Sendic" (). The marchers were repeatedly repressed.

Founding of Tupamaros.

Hence, Sendic began to think that the only option for the country was terrorist violence that should complement the workers' requests. In 1963, the Tupamaros robbed an arms shop in Colonia to found a guerrilla movement. However, the MLN-T began to be recognised because of its activities only in 1967, when government repression, during the presidency of Jorge Pacheco Areco, caused the mobilization and response of a variety of groups, principally the Tupamaros.  MLN-T began by staging the robbing of banks, gun clubs and other businesses in the early 1960s, then distributing stolen food and money among the poor in Montevideo. By the late 1960s, it was engaged in political kidnappings, armed propaganda and assassinations. The group kidnapped bank manager Pereyra Rebervel and the United Kingdom ambassador to Uruguay, Geoffrey Jackson, as well as kidnapping and murdering Dan Mitrione, an FBI agent alleged to have taught techniques of torture to police forces in various Latin American countries.  The peak of the Tupamaros was in 1970 and 1971. During this period they made liberal use of their "People's Prison" () where they held those that they kidnapped. In 1971 over 100 imprisoned Tupamaros escaped the Punta Carretas prison. Nonetheless, the movement was hampered by a series of events including serious strategic gaffes and the betrayal of high-ranking Tupamaro Héctor Amodio Pérez, and the army's counteroffensive, which included the "Escuadrón de la Muerte" ("Death Squad"), police officers who were granted liberal repressive powers to deal with Tupamaros. Sendic was arrested in Uruguay on August 7, 1970, and remained in prison until his escape September 6, 1971. Sendic remained in Uruguay as a fugitive until his eventual capture one year later.  The Uruguayan military unleashed a campaign of mass arrests and selective disappearances, dispersing those guerrillas who were not killed or arrested. The tactics were incredibly effective, and by 1972, the MLN-T had been severely weakened. Its principal leaders were imprisoned under for the next 12 years. Despite the diminished threat, the civilian government of Juan María Bordaberry ceded governmental authority to the military in 1973 in a bloodless "coup d'état" that led to further repression against the population and the suppression of all political parties.

Second imprisonment.

Raúl Sendic and eight of the MLN-T leaders were confined to different improvised prisons in poor conditions for 12 years. They suffered continuous physical and psychological torture. After the military dictatorship fell in 1985, Sendic was released from prison. The Tupamaros returned to public life as part of a political party, the Movement of Popular Participation. Today, the party comprises the largest single group within the ruling left-wing Frente Amplio coalition.

United Nations complaint.

In November 1979, Sendic's wife, Violeta Setelich, submitted a complaint to the United Nations Human Rights Committee on his behalf, alleging breaches of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), a treaty to which Uruguay is a party. In October 1981, the Committee found that Uruguay violated articles 7, 9, 10 and 14 of the ICCPR in respect of Sendic during his trial and imprisonment.

Death and legacy.

Sendic died in Paris in 1989, aged 63, of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. His funeral was held in Montevideo, where he was buried. His son, Raúl Fernando Sendic Rodríguez, is a former Vice President of Uruguay, having also served as Industry Minister.

Raúl Sendic Antonaccio (March 16, 1926 – April 28, 1989) was a Uruguayan Marxist lawyer, trade unionist and founder of the Tupamaros National Liberation Movement (MLN-T).

Raúl Sendic (* 16. März 1925 in Chamangá, Flores; † 28. April 1989 in Paris) war ein uruguayischer Guerilla-Führer und Politiker. Er ist ein Mitbegründer der Tupamaros.


Education and career.

Early life.

Webster was born in St. Louis, Missouri and received his early education in Webster Groves, Missouri; and served as a lieutenant in the United States Navy during World War II. Following his service in the Navy, he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Amherst College, Amherst, Massachusetts in 1947. While at Amherst, he was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity. He received his from the Washington University School of Law in St. Louis in 1949. After law school, he served in the Navy again during the Korean War; later, he joined a St. Louis law firm, but left private practice soon after to begin a career in public service. He was the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Missouri from 1960 to 1961, then a member of the Missouri Board of Law Examiners from 1964 to 1969.

Federal judicial service.

Webster was nominated by President Richard Nixon on December 8, 1970, to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri, to a new seat created by 84 Stat. 294. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 17, 1970, and received his commission on December 21, 1970. His service was terminated on August 10, 1973, due to elevation to the Eighth Circuit.  Webster was nominated by President Nixon on June 13, 1973, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit vacated by Judge Marion Charles Matthes. He was confirmed by the Senate on July 13, 1973, and received his commission on July 18, 1973. His service was terminated on February 22, 1978, due to his resignation.

Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (1978–1987).

In 1978, President Jimmy Carter appointed him as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. This was despite Webster being a registered Republican.  Webster is portrayed by actor Sean Cullen in Season 2 of the Netflix show "Mindhunter", which takes place during his tenure as Director of the FBI.

Director of Central Intelligence (1987–1991).

In 1987, President Ronald Reagan chose him to be Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. He led the CIA until his retirement from public office in 1991. Since then, Webster has practiced law at the Washington D.C. office of Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy where he specializes in arbitration, mediation and internal investigation.

Public Company Accounting Oversight Board.

In 2002, he was the first chairman of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). However, his appointment was controversial, and another controversy erupted when newspapers reported that Webster had headed the board audit committee of U.S. Technologies, a high-tech company being investigated for accounting irregularities and accused of fraud. Webster resigned less than three weeks after the PCAOB was set up.  Webster has been the longtime chairman of the Homeland Security Advisory Council.

Honors and awards.

Webster received numerous honors and awards for his service. Washington University granted him the Alumni Citation for contributions to the field of law in 1972 and in 1981 he received the William Greenleaf Eliot Award. In 1984, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards. In 1999 the School of Law created the Webster Society, an outstanding scholars program. Furthermore, he received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from the university's law school in 1977. The St. Louis Globe-Democrat named him "Man of the Year."  He also received honorary degrees from several colleges and universities. In 1991, he was presented the Distinguished Intelligence Medal, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the National Security Medal. In June 2008 Webster received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree as well as honorary doctorates from The Institute of World Politics and National Intelligence University. He received the William J. Donovan Award from The OSS Society in 2005 and serves as an honorary chairman of this organization.  He is a member of the American Bar Association, the Council of the American Law Institute, the Order of the Coif, The Missouri Bar, the Bar Association of Metropolitan St. Louis and the Psi Upsilon fraternity. Additionally, he served as chairman of the Corporation, Banking and Business Law Section of the American Bar Association. He is a fellow of the American Bar Foundation and an Honorary Fellow of the American College of Trial Lawyers. He served as Co-chairman of the Homeland Security Advisory Council. In 2009, he was named to head an independent investigation of the FBI's actions surrounding the Fort Hood shooting.  Webster also serves as an Honorary Director on the Board of Directors at the Atlantic Council.

Personal life.

He was married for 34 years to Drusilla Lane Webster and the couple had three children: Drusilla L. Busch, William H. Webster, Jr. and Katherine H. Roessle. Following Drusilla Webster's death in 1984, he was remarried in 1990 to the former Lynda Clugston. They reside in Washington, D.C.  In 2015, William and Lynda Webster were targeted by a man who peddled a lottery scam over phone calls and emails. Over multiple phone calls, Keniel Aeon Thomas of Jamaica told the Websters he'd set their house ablaze or have a sniper shoot them in the back of the head if they didn't pay him thousands of dollars, according to prosecutors' filings. The Websters used their knowledge of the FBI to help send the scammer to prison for nearly six years in early 2019.

Quotes.

On March 3, 2002, the University of California, Santa Barbara, held a debate titled "National Security vs. Personal Liberty". The guest speakers were Webster and American Civil Liberties Union President Nadine Strossen. During the debate, Webster made the following statement, which has since gained some popularity: "Security is always seen as too much until the day it is not enough". He also stated: "Order protects liberty and liberty protects order."

William Hedgcock Webster (born March 6, 1924) is an American attorney and jurist serving as Chair of the Homeland Security Advisory Council since 2005. He was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri and a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit before becoming Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1978 to 1987 and Director of Central Intelligence (CIA) from 1987 to 1991—the only person to have held both of these positions.

William Hedgcock Webster (* 6. März 1924 in St. Louis, Missouri) ist ein US-amerikanischer Jurist und ehemaliger Regierungsbeamter. Er war von 1978 bis 1987 Direktor des FBI und danach von 1987 bis 1991 Direktor der CIA.


The city.

With a population of over 264,000. The city is the second most populous and the second in economic importance in the state of Michoacán. The city is located at the western edge of the Purépecha highlands of the state at 1,620 meters above sea level.  The city's center has colonial architecture which contain Plateresque and Moorish elements. There are six historic neighborhoods of the city: San Miguel, San Pedro, San Francisco, Santa Maria Magdalena, San Juan Bautista and Santo Santiago, all of which have colonial-era chapels in their centers. Each of these neighborhoods have their own festival: San José on March 19, El Vergel on the third Friday in June, San Juan Quemado on June 24, San Pedro on June 29, La Magdalena on July 22, Santo Santiago on July 25, San Miguel on September 29, San Francisco de Asis on October 4. The patron saints’ days of these neighborhoods are celebrated with colorful dances such as Los Negritos.  The center of the city is marked by the very large and very long Plaza de Martires de Uruapan. Facing this plaza are two commercial portals as well as some of the city's most important landmarks. On the north side, there is the La Huatápera Museum, officially called the Museo de los Cuatro Pueblos Indios. Huatápera is a Purépecha word, meaning “meeting place,” and according to tradition, it was built over a pre Hispanic platform, obtaining its social importance from this. Originally the site was a hospital called Hospital Real de la Purísima Concepción established by Juan de San Miguel in 1533, the first of its kind in the Americas. It functioned not only to heal the sick but also as a center for evangelism and to organize workers by trade.It has a chapel called Santo Entierro, with fine stonework in cantera in Plateresque style. Above the chapel's arch, there is a niche which contains a sculpture of either Francis of Assisi or Juan de San Miguel flanked by the coats of arms of the Franciscans and the Spanish crown. The interior is restored and contains images of angels playing musical instruments and important people from the history of the Catholic Church. The rest of the complex shows Moorish influence and houses a collection of handcrafts from the various indigenous communities of the state. Just to the east of Huatápera is the Immaculate Concepción church, which was built in the late 20th century. It has a cantera portal finished in the 1970s but no cupola nor bell tower.  The Casa de Cultura (Cultural Center) is located on the western side of Huatápera. It was built in 1992 over what was the Franciscan monastery established by Juan de San Miguel. The original church of this monastery is now the parish church for the city. Built in 1533, it maintains its 16th century Plateresque portal, and the interior of the church has a crucifix that dates from the 18th century. The paintings on the triangular spaces just under the cupola represent salvation and the miracle of the Mass, done by Mohamed Socidel.  Behind this line of monuments is a market called the Mercado de Antojitos, whose stalls are dedicated to the sale of prepared traditional foods such as carnitas, barbacoas, quesadillas and the like.  The western side of the city is home to the Barranca del Cupatitzio National Park, the second most-visited national park in Mexico. Despite being almost completely surrounded by the city, the park contains trees hundreds of years old, springs, streams, canals and walking paths. The park focuses on the conservation of the ravine which forms the headwaters of the Cupatitzio River, which is fed by various springs and streams starting with the “Rodilla del Diablo” (Devil's Knee). According to local myth, Juan de San Miguel forced the Devil to bow before the Cross, with the Devil's knee making an indentation in the rock from which the first spring emerges. The land was private until the 1930s when the federal government bought it to create the park. The ravine has various waterfalls such as La Yerbabuena and El Golgota, bridges and fountains that take advantage of natural water supply. There is also a mural called Erédira by local artist Manuel Pérez Coronado, but it is almost completely deteriorated.  The San Pedro Factory is a still-operational textile factory built in the late 19th century, when the city was at its industrial peak. Construction of the mill began in 1886, originally to work with cotton but later expanded to other fibers, such as linen and silk. The factory is still in operation but not to the same capacity as in the past. The current owners maintain the more handcrafted feel of the products making bedspreads, tablecloths, napkins and more. Part of the complex is now used for cultural and other events.  The city is home to the narrowest house in the world according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Located at 50-C Carrillo Puerto, it measures 1.40 by 7.70 meters.  The Palm Sunday Handcraft Market is held during Holy Week with the most important day being Palm Sunday, after which it is named. It covered the city large main square and attracts over a thousand artisans who sell. In addition to traditional observances for Day of the Dead, the city has sponsored the Festival de Velas on the same days, where candles are arranged and lit to form figures at the Martires de Uruapan and Morelos plazas as well as on adjoining streets. There an Avocado Festival from mid November to mid December which consists of exhibitions and cultural events.  The city's cuisine is influenced not only by the various ethnic groups in the area but also migration from other parts of Michoacan. Typical dishes include corundas, churipo (a beef and vegetable stew), mutton barbacoa, carnitas, quesadillas with squash flowers, flour tamales, various flavors of sweet and spicy atole, hot chocolate, uchepos, sweet potatoes and plantains cooked in various ways and more.

The municipality.

The city of the Uruapan is the seat of a municipality and serves as the local government for surrounding communities that extend over 954.17km2. Outside of the Uruapan proper, the main communities are Capacuaro, Angahuan, San, Caltzontzin, Jucutacato, Santa, Corupo and Nuevo, all of which are dedicated to agriculture and/or forestry. The municipality borders those of Charapan, Paracho, Nahuatzen, Tingambato, Ziracuaretiro, Taretan, Gabriel Zamora, Nuevo Parangaricutiro, Peribán and Los Reyes. The municipal government consists of a municipal president, a syndic, and 12 representatives called regidors.  The municipality has a population of over 315,000, of which 18,020 speak an indigenous language, mostly Purépecha. Traditional music is mostly influenced by the Purépecha culture with pirecuas and sons, as well as those played by wind instruments.  The El Sabino Zoocriadero is home to various exotic species. It is 17 km outside the city in an area that has a warmer climate. Its main attraction is its crocodiles but it also has lions, badgers, deer, ostriches and turtles.

Socioeconomics.

Since the colonial period, the area has been an agricultural center growing bananas, chicozapote, mamey, limes, oranges, lemons, avocados and more. Today, the city is the second most important economically in the state of Michoacán, with a very low level of socioeconomic marginalization. About 12.5% live in extreme poverty, with thirteen communities with about 350 who are extremely marginalized from social services.  The city is surrounded by avocado and macadamia orchards. It is located in the most productive regions in Mexico for avocado. It is called the world capital of avocado not because of the production in the municipality but because it is home of six packing companies to which the region sends its avocados for distribution. From here, avocados are shipped all over Mexico and exported to the United States, Central America, Europe and Japan. In 2000, the city made the Guinness Book of World Records creating the largest batch of guacamole, making 1,288 kilograms of the dip, from one ton of fresh avocados.  Native to Australia, macadamias have been grown in the Uruapan area since the late 20th century. The city makes a number of products from the nut such as nuts flavored with garlic, chili peppers, soy sauce or salt. They are also made into brittle, cookies, candies and oil.  Since the colonial period, the city has been a center of the production of maque, an indigenous form of lacquer, used to wooden items such as plates, platters, boxes, chests and dried gourds. Other handcrafts produced here include masks, papel picado, and textiles.

Geography and environment.

The municipality has a humid subtropical climate ("Cwa" in the Koppen climate classification) with very wet summers, dry winters and lush forests. It is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and mountainous. Principal peaks include Charanda, La Cruz, Jicalán and Magdalena. The climate is between temperate and tropical, with most rain falling in the summer. Average annual rainfall is 1,759.3 mm and average annual temperatures are between 8 and 37.5 C. The flora is mostly mixed forest, with pine, oak and deciduous tropical rainforest. Logging includes pine, oak and oyamel fir. Areas without trees mostly consist of scrub of various kinds. Notable fauna includes coyote, skunks, deer, foxes, cacomixtle, hares, opossums, ducks and other birds. The municipality contains numerous small rivers that belongs to the Tepalcatepec basin. The main river is the Cupatitzio. Other important bodies of water include the Caltzontzin Reservoir (also known as the Santa Barbara or Santa Catarina) and waterfalls such as Salto Escondido, Cupatitzio and La Tzaráracua.  The La Tzararacua Ecotourism Center is located 10 km south of the city proper, centered on a 40-meter high waterfall of the same name. Next to this is the Tzararcuita (Little Tzararacua), at 16 meters high.

History.

Designation.

The name comes from the Purépecha word "uruapani" which means plants that flower and fruit at the same time or those which are always giving fruit. The coat of arms was designed by Luis Valencia Madrigal and represents the history of the area since the pre Hispanic period as well as its natural resources.

Pre Hispanic history.

Uruapan was a pre Hispanic settlement, inhabited primarily by Purépechas. Much of the history is unknown with numerous unexcavated archeological sites. The oldest document about the area is the Lienzo de Jucutacato, found in the community of Jicalán. It is known that the area was conquered in 1400 by an alliance of the lords of Pátzcuaro, Tzintzuntzan and Ihuatzio.

Colonial era.

When the Spanish invaded the Purépecha Empire, the last ruler fled to Uruapan, leading the Spanish here in 1522. For this reason the Spanish arrived here in 1522. In 1524, the area became an encomienda under Francisco de Villegas and evangelized by the Franciscans.  Franciscan friar Juan de San Miguel is considered the founder of the modern city, tracing it out in 1534 into nine neighborhoods, each with its own chapel and patron saint, and assigned who would live in each one. In 1540 the area became an Indian Republic.  During the colonial period, the city was a strategic location, especially for commerce, between the Purépecha highlands and the Tierra Caliente leading down to the coast.  In 1577 a plague decimated the population.  By 1754, the parish of Uruapan consisted of the city of Uruapan, three towns (San Francisco Xicalán, San Francisco Jucutacato and San Lorenzo) along with two ranches Tiamba and San Marcos along with the Carasa Hacienda. The population was a mix of Purépecha, European, African and mixed races peoples.  In 1766, the population revolted against efforts by the Spanish to recruit the population into military service. This was followed by repression and punishment of various persons by execution in 1767, both for the resistance of the prior year and protests against the expulsion of the Jesuits.  From 1795 to 1798, insurgent José María Morelos lived here. During the war, the city served as a refuge various times for insurgents, include local José María Izazaga.

19th century.

In 1806, an earthquake destroyed the hospital, and in 1817, the city was burned.  Uruapan officially became a municipality in 1831. For its role in the War of Independence, it was named a "Ciuda del Progreso" (City of Progress) in 1858.  In 1842, the city supported the rule of Antonio López de Santa Anna.  Because of the French Intervention, the Uruapan was the temporary capital of Michoacan from 1863 to 1867. In 1864, French troops entered and subdued the city. In 1865, General José María Arteaga, head of the Republican Army and four other officers were executed by firing squad, and are known as the Martyrs of Uruapan. In 1866 the Republicans tried to liberate the city from the French at the Battle of Magdalena but were defeated.  The first textile factory was set up in the city in 1874, and the first local newspaper, "El Precursor Uruapense" was founded in 1880. The first railroad line reached the city in 1899, and a trolley line was built between the rail station and the main plaza in 1900.

20th and 21st centuries.

In 1910, a fire destroyed several factories in the city.  The city was attacked several times during the Mexican Revolution, the most notable of which were led by Joaquín Amaro. In the 1930s, efforts to redistribute agricultural land began.  In 1947, the Tepalcatepec Commission was created which modernized the area's economy as well as infrastructure.  Since the late 20th century, the city has had problems with organized crime, along with much of the rest of the state. Two criminal organizations, Los Zetas and La Familia Michoacana, have fought for control here, because of its geographic location among drug routes. In 2014, the city was taken over briefly by the Grupos de Autodefensa Comunitaria or "autodefensas", an armed civilian movement trying to counter the power of the cartels, unsupported by the local and state government. In August 2019, 19 people were murdered by the Jalisco New Generation Cartel.

Uruapan is the second largest city in the Mexican state of Michoacán. It is located at the western edge of the Purépecha highlands, just to the east of the Tierra Caliente Region. Since the colonial period, it has been an important city economically due its location. The city was conquered by the Spanish in 1522, when the last Purépecha ruler fled the Pátzcuaro area to here. The modern city was laid out in 1534 by Friar Juan de San Miguel. It played an important role in the War of Independence, and was the capital of Michoacán during the French Intervention. Today it is the center of Mexico's avocado growing region, with most of the crop distributed from here nationally and internationally.

Uruapan (vollständig "Uruapan del Progreso") ist eine Großstadt im mexikanischen Bundesstaat Michoacán und eine der ältesten Städte Mexikos überhaupt. Uruapan ist Verwaltungssitz des Municipio Uruapan.


Signs and symptoms.

Arthritis means inflammation within the joint, and is usually recognised by swelling, pain, stiffness and restricted joint movement. Symptoms of JIA vary from individual to individual. This is mainly because JIA is an umbrella term for several subtypes of JIA, which differ according to the number of affected joints, severity of disease and presence or absence of inflammation in other parts of the body.  The key clinical feature in JIA is persistent swelling of the affected joint(s). Any joint can be affected, but large joints such as the knee and ankle are most commonly involved. Involvement of small joints of the hands and feet is more likely when many joints are affected ('polyarthritis'). Swollen joints may also feel warmer to touch. Swelling may be difficult to detect clinically, especially for joints such as those of the spine, sacroiliac joints, shoulder, hip, and jaw; imaging techniques such as ultrasound or MRI can be very useful to identify the inflammation.  Joint pain is an important symptom, although some children experience minimal or no pain with their arthritis. In these children, the first sign of arthritis may be limping, especially in the morning. Young children are often very good at changing how they move when they have joint pain: they learn to move so that it doesn’t hurt. For example, a child will not push up using an inflamed wrist when climbing, instead putting their weight though the forearm. Morning stiffness that improves later in the day is a common feature (this implies inflammatory-type joint pain versus mechanical-type joint pain).  Swelling and pain usually result in limited movement of the affected joint(s), for example a knee held bent causing a limp, or being unable to make a full fist. Limited movement may reduce a child’s ability to fully participate in activities and undertake usual tasks such as those used for self-care.  In some JIA subtypes, more non-specific symptoms of being unwell may be present, such as lethargy, fatigue and poor appetite. Children with systemic JIA usually present with fever and a classic rash and may become quite ill.  Late effects of arthritis can include joint contractures (stiff, bent joints with loss of movement) due to joint damage; limb length discrepancies and muscle wasting. Children with JIA vary in the degree to which they are affected by particular symptoms.

Extra-articular.

Eye disease: JIA is associated with inflammation in the front of the eye (specifically iridocyclitis, a form of chronic anterior uveitis), which affects about one in six children with JIA. Eye involvement occurs most commonly in girls, those with only a few joints involved (oligoarthritis), and those with a positive ANA antibody. It usually follows the onset of arthritis or may be detected at the same time as arthritis; occasionally it may occur before joint involvement.

Complications.

JIA is a chronic disorder, which if neglected, can lead to serious complications. However, with regular follow-up and modern treatments, complications have reduced and outcomes improved. If inflammation is not treated, it can damage the joint, the cartilage and the bone. With the advent of modern therapies, these complications of JIA have become much less common.  Children with JIA may have a reduced overall rate of growth, especially if the disease involves many joints or other body systems. This may be due to a combination of the disease itself, as well as its treatments, particularly corticosteroid use. Paradoxically, limbs where a large joint (such as the knee) is inflamed may have increased growth in the short term, leading to limb-length discrepancy (ie one arm or leg is slightly longer than the other). This is due

Causes.

The cause of JIA remains unknown. However, the disorder is autoimmune — meaning that the body's own immune system starts to attack and destroy cells and tissues (particularly in the joints) for no apparent reason. The immune system is thought to be provoked by changes in the environment, in combination with

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis of JIA can be difficult, in part because joint pain in children is so common and may be from many causes other than JIA. The characteristic feature of arthritis is joint swelling which is sometimes - but not always - associated with pain. The presence of joint stiffness is another typical feature, particularly when present in the morning and improving with activity.  No single test can confirm a diagnosis of JIA: a combination of presenting signs and symptoms, blood tests, and if necessary medical imaging, is used to make the diagnosis. The blood tests may measure levels of inflammatory markers, as well as the presence of specific immune markers which may include Anti-nuclear antibody, HLA-B27, Rheumatoid factor and Anti–citrullinated protein antibody. These serological markers may be negative in children with JIA, and are often present in healthy children; as such they should not be interpreted in isolation but in the context of the clinical presentation. Many children with JIA have normal blood work. X-rays may be required to ensure that the joint pain and swelling is not from a fracture, cancer, infection, or congenital abnormality. In some cases, fluid from the joint can be aspirated and analysed to assist in making a diagnosis. This test can assist by ruling out other causes of arthritis such as infection.

Classification.

The current classification system by the International League of Associations for Rheumatology (ILAR) recognizes 7 distinct subtypes of JIA, based on their presentation within the first 6 months:

Oligoarticular Arthritis.

Oligoarticular (or pauciarticular) JIA is the most common JIA subtype, and occurs when there are up to 4 joints involved during the first 6 months of disease. Two subtypes of oligoarticular arthritis exist: persistent oligoarthritis, where no more than 4 joints are affected throughout the whole disease course; and extended oligoarthritis, where more than 4

Polyarticular (Rheumatoid Factor Negative) Arthritis.

Arthritis involving 5 or more joints in the first 6 months of disease. In this subtype of arthritis both small and large joints are typically involved, usually in an asymmetric pattern. Involved

Polyarticular (Rheumatoid Factor Positive) Arthritis.

Arthritis involving 5 or more joints in the first 6 months, with a positive Rheumatoid factor on at least 2 occasions, tested 3 months apart. In this subtype of arthritis both small and large joints are typically involved, usually in a symmetric pattern. The Anti-nuclear antibody may also be positive in up to 75%

Systemic-onset Arthritis.

This subtype is an arthritis which involves one or more joints and is associated with a fever of at least 2 weeks’ duration that is documented to be daily for at least 3 days. The fever is typically ‘quotidian’ in nature, occurring once or twice a day (often in the late afternoon or evening) with normal baseline temperatures in between. It is also

Enthesitis Related Arthritis.

This subtype of arthritis is diagnosed by the presence of arthritis and enthesitis, or by the presence of arthritis or enthesitis alone with 2 or more of the following features: (1) Presence or history of sacroiliac joint tenderness and/or inflammatory back pain; (2) Presence of the HLA-B27 antigen; (3) Onset of arthritis in a

Psoriatic Arthritis.

This subtype of arthritis is diagnosed by the combination of arthritis and Psoriasis or, arthritis and at least 2 of the following: Dactylitis, nail-pitting, or Psoriasis in a first-degree relative. Psoriatic arthritis

Undifferentiated Arthritis.

This subtype is diagnosed when a child has JIA that fulfils criteria in none of the subtypes, or in 2 or more of the subtypes of JIA.

Differential diagnosis.

There are several other disorders and diseases that present with symptoms like JIA. These causes include, but are not limited to, infectious (for example Septic arthritis or Osteomyelitis) and post-infectious conditions (Reactive arthritis, Acute rheumatic fever, and in some geographic areas Lyme disease); hematologic and neoplastic diseases such as leukemia or bony tumors;

Treatment.

The major emphasis of the treatment of JIA is helping the child or young person regain normal levels of physical and social functioning by controlling inflammation and extra-articular symptoms. Clinical remission should be the primary target for all patients and treatment should be adjusted until this is achieved. Prompt recognition and management is important as early initiation of therapy increases the likelihood of a response to first-line treatments and of achieving drug-free remission later in life. While overarching consensus treatment guidelines exist, all treatments should be specifically tailored to the individual's needs in discussion with the child or young person and their family.  Optimal management of JIA requires a multidisciplinary team working to address the needs of an individual patient. Optimising physical and social functioning is accomplished via a two-pronged approach: non-pharmacological strategies such as physical therapies, pain management strategies, and social supports; and the swift use of medication to control inflammation and extra-articular symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment are imperative in helping reduce joint damage and other symptoms, which will help reduce levels of permanent damage leading to long term disability.

Pharmacological treatments.

Major advances in drug treatments have been made over recent decades. Intra-articular steroid injections and Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including ibuprofen and naproxen, are often used as first line treatments for most subtypes of JIA. NSAIDs have useful analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, although they are generally unlikely to lead to remission if used in isolation.  Systemic corticosteroids (oral or intravenous), such as prednisolone, dexamethasone and methylprednisolone, are highly effective treatments, however their utility is limited by their side-effect profile. They have a role in short-term disease control for some patients, but should generally be avoided as long-term

Non-pharmacological treatments.

The optimal approach to treating a child with JIA typically involves a team of medical professionals, which may include (but is not limited to) paediatric rheumatologists, paediatric rheumatology nurses, general paediatricians, general practitioners, adult rheumatologists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, podiatrists, psychologists, social workers, pharmacists, ophthalmologists and orthopaedic surgeons. The multi-disciplinary team (MDT) work in conjunction with the child and their parents, the local health service and medical team, the child's school and teachers, community leaders and sports coaches to best support the child and their family.  Together, the team help children to participate as fully and independently as possible in their daily activities by maximising quality of life, maximising function and minimising disruption to the life of the child or young person.  The multidisciplinary team work together to provide the child and their family with support and education about JIA, strategies to promote age-appropriate self-sufficiency and help the child to adapt and adjust to any challenges they face. There are many ways to make daily tasks easier or more

Prognosis.

At the time of receiving a JIA diagnosis, children and their families often have many questions regarding prognosis. Recent therapeutic advances in the management of JIA have made inactive disease and clinical remission achievable goals for the majority of children with access to modern treatments. Clinical remission can be defined as the absence of signs and symptoms of inflammatory disease activity, including extra-articular manifestations of the disease. Differentiating subtypes of JIA helps to target treatment and leads to more positive outcomes, however subtype is not the only predictor of JIA outcome. Poor prognostic factors include arthritis of the hip, cervical spine, ankles or wrists; prolonged elevation of inflammatory markers; and radiographic evidence of joint damage including erosions or joint space narrowing. Patients with RF-positive polyarthritis often have worse outcomes associated with more aggressive disease.

Epidemiology.

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis is the most common, chronic rheumatic disease of childhood. In high-income countries, yearly incidence has been estimated at 2–20 cases per 100 000 population; prevalence in these areas is estimated at 16–150 cases per 100 000 population. However, there is also a suggestion that these numbers underestimate disease prevalence: one community-based survey of school children in Western Australia reported a prevalence of

Terminology.

The terminology used to describe JIA is evolving, and each term has some limitations.  Previous terminology included Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis and Juvenile Chronic Arthritis. These terms were replaced in 1997 with the release of

Society.

Some famous people with this condition are:

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), is the most common, chronic rheumatic disease of childhood, affecting approximately one per 1000 children. "Juvenile", in this context, refers to disease onset before age 16 years, while "idiopathic" refers to a condition with no defined cause, and "arthritis" is inflammation within the joint.

Die juvenile idiopathische Arthritis (abgekürzt JIA, ältere Synonyme "Juvenile rheumatoide Arthritis", abgekürzt "JRA", "Juvenile chronische Arthritis", abgekürzt "JCA") ist eine chronische entzündliche Erkrankung der Gelenke (Arthritis) des rheumatischen Formenkreises im Kindesalter (juvenil) unbekannter Ursache (idiopathisch). Sie stellt eine Sonderform der chronischen Polyarthritis dar. Wie die "systemische juvenile idiopathische Arthritis" (auch: Morbus Still, nach George Frederic Still) und andere juvenile Formen des Rheumas gehört die JIA zum Fachgebiet der "Pädiatrischen Rheumatologie" – für diese Erkrankungen insgesamt sind die Sammelbezeichnungen "Kinderrheuma" oder "kindliches Rheuma" gebräuchlich. Allgemein werden sie unter den Begriff der Autoimmunkrankheiten subsumiert.


Biography.

Charles de Valois was the illegitimate son of Charles IX and Marie Touchet. He was born at the Château de Fayet in Dauphiné in 1573. His father, dying in the following year, commended him to the care and favour of his younger brother and successor, Henry III, who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His mother then married François de Balzac, marquis d'Entragues. One of their daughters (Charles's half-sister) named Catherine Henriette afterwards became the mistress of Henry IV.  Charles de Valois was carefully educated and was destined for the Knights of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made Grand Prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large estates left by his paternal grandmother Catherine de' Medici, from one of which he took his title of count of Auvergne.  In 1589 Henry III was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns during the early part of the reign. But the connection between the king and Madame de Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing to Charles, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the Dukes of Savoy, Biron and Monsieur de Turenne, one of the objects of which was to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Bouillon were arrested and Biron was executed. Charles was released after a few months' imprisonment, chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the duchess of Angoulême and his father-in-law.  He then entered into fresh intrigues with the court of Philip III of Spain, acting in concert with Madame de Verneuil and her father d'Entragues. In 1604 d'Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Charles remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his rank of colonel-general of horse, and dispatched against one of the disaffected nobles, the duke of Longueville, who had taken Péronne. Next year he commanded the forces collected in the Île-de-France, and obtained some successes.  In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in 1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angoulême. Soon after he was engaged on an important embassy to the Holy Roman Empire, the result of which was the treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large forces assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after in 1635, during the Thirty Years' War, he was general of the French army in Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-general of the army. He appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of Richelieu in 1643.  The duke was the author of the following works:  To him has also been ascribed the work, "La générale et fidèle Relation de tout ce qui s'est passé en l'Isle de Ré, envoyée par le Roy à la Royne sa mère" (Paris, 1627).  Angoulême died on 24 September 1650.

Personal life.

In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from the vows of the Order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of Henry, "maréchal d'Amville", afterwards Duke of Montmorency and his first wife. They had had three children:  His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married Françoise de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had no children and survived her husband until 1713.

References.

Attribution

Charles de Valois (28 April 1573 – 24 September 1650) was a French royal bastard, count of Auvergne, duke of Angoulême, and memoirist.

Charles de Valois (* 28. April 1573 auf Schloss Le Fayet in Barraux; † 24. September 1650 in Paris) war Mitglied der Familie Valois, Herzog von Auvergne und Herzog von Angoulême.


Life.

Makram J. Khoury was born in 1945, into a Palestinian-Christian family, in the al-Sheikh Jarrah section of Jerusalem to his father, who was a judge, and his mother, a teacher. The Khoury family fled to Lebanon during 1948 Arab-Israeli War. A year later, they returned to what had become the new State of Israel. The family took up residence in the port city of Acre, near Haifa. Educated there and in the nearby village of Kufr Yasif, Khoury finished high school in 1963. He then entered the Hebrew University of Jerusalem but later dropped out and pursued a career as an actor.  Khoury trained in Israel and from 1970 to 1973 he studied for three years at the Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts in London, England. He later became involved with the Cameri Theater in Tel Aviv and the Haifa Municipal Theater, continuing as a member of the latter for twenty years.  Makram has recently returned to Haifa following a year-long tour playing Tierno Bokar in Peter Brook's "11 and 12".

Family.

His eldest daughter, Clara Khoury, is a rising actress in Israel, having recently appeared in three films that garnered international attention: "Rana’s Wedding" (2002), "The Syrian Bride" (she played the daughter of the character played by Makram) (2004) and "Lipstikka" (2011). His son Jameel Khoury is also an actor, and appeared in Ridley Scott's film "Body of Lies" (2008).

Filmography.

Actor

Theater.

Actor

Television.

Actor

Makram Jamil Khoury (, ) is a Palestinian born Arab-Israeli actor, born 30 May 1945 in Jerusalem. He was the youngest artist and the first Arab to win the Israel Prize, the highest civic honor in Israel.

Makram Khoury (* 1945 in Jerusalem) ist ein israelischer Schauspieler palästinensischer Herkunft. Er zählt zu den bekanntesten arabisch sprechenden Schauspielern. Seine Tochter Clara Khoury ist ebenfalls Schauspielerin.


Origin.

All of the Noble Titles of Tonga were formalised into their current states through royal decree under the Constitution of 1875. This hierarchy of titles were instituted by King George Tāufaāhau Tupou I in 19th Century. The Tui Pelehake was one of the six most ancient titles of Tonga. The fact that these six titles were held by some of the most powerful chiefs of the day, ultimately saved from extinction. While, on the other hand, Tupou I allowed hundreds of other titles-of-nobility to fall into abeyance. The Tui Pelehake title goes back to the first Tui Tonga, Ahoeitu, in the 10th Century. His oldest brother, Talafale, was bestowed the titles Tui Pelehake and Tui Faleua, backup titles in case the Tui Tonga line would die out. Note that the original Tui Pelehake title therefore derives its authority from the Tui Tonga, even though it came to King George Tupou II, it has been essentially linked to the Tui Kanokupolu.

Holders of the Noble Title.

Lekaumoana.

Lekaumoana's oldest son Maile Latamai was banished to Fiji, his younger son Uluvalu became the next Tui'pelehake.

Uluvalu.

He was the son of Lekaumoana

Filiaipulotu.

He was the son of Uluvalu. He married Sālote Pilolevu, the daughter of George Tupou I.

Toutaitokotaha.

Siaosi Fatafehi Toutaitokotaha, 1842–1912. He was the son of Filiaipulotu and the father of King George Tupou II. He was Prime Minister of Tonga in 1905. After his death the title remained vacant as the king had no need for it. Neither was there any need for the title during the reign of his successor, Queen Sālote Tupou III.

Fatafehi Tu'i Faleua.

Sione Ngū Manumataongo (7 January 1922 – 10 April 1999), was the youngest son of Queen Sālote Tupou III and The Prince Consort, 'Uiliami Mailefihi Tungi. Prince Sione was educated in Tonga and Australia. He attended Newington College, Sydney, (1941–1942) and an agricultural college in Queensland. Fatafehi married Melenaite Tupoumoheofo Veikune (13 November 1924 – 16 March 1993) on the same day as his older brother, the Crown Prince (in that time still called Tupoutoa-Tungī) married Halaevalu Mataaho Ahomee. That was the famous double royal wedding ("taane māhanga") of 10 June 1947. He received the titles of Tui Pelehake and Fatafehi from his mother in 1944. He also received Tonga's second highest title-of-nobility, Tu'i Faleua (King of the Second House) during this time. TPrince John was also honoured with the CBE or Commander of the Order of the British Empire. The Prince inherited from his mother an artistic side; he was a well-known poet and composer.  He began a career in government service, alongside his elder brother, the Crown Prince Tupouto'a-Tungi. Prince Sione's first appointment was as the Governor of Vava'u i(1949–1952) and later as Governor of Haapai (1952–1953). He held various ministerial portfolios in cabinet, until he took over as Prime Minister in 1965. His brother had just vacated the Office of Prime Minister on becoming King. Prince Tu'ipelehake remained Tonga's Prime Minister until 1991 until he was forced to withdraw therefrom because of serious health problems. His last years were spent in a rollchair and on a life support system.  He kept the both titles of Tui Pelehake and Tui Faleua for so many years, that they became synonymous with him. But after his death, only the former was conferred to his son, while the latter returned to the king.

Uluvalu.

Sione Uluvalu Takeivūlai Ngū Tukuaho (7 October 1950 – 6 July 2006) held the title of Tui Pelehake from the death of his father in 1991 until his own death in 2006. Prince 'Uluvale died in an automobile accident near San Francisco, California on 6 July 2006. He played a key role in mediating between the Government of Tonga and striking civil servants in 2005. At the time of his death he was in the US for consultations with Tongans living there concerning political and constitutional reforms. This programme of reforms was to have been presented to his uncle, King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV  to present ideas for political reform to his uncle, the king. Prince Uluvalu and his wife, Princess Kaimana, died without children.  They were buried at langi Nāmoala in Mua on 21 July, apparently as a reminder of the title's Tui Tonga heritage, and not at Malaekula in Nukualofa where all kings find their rest.

Mailefihi.

When a title holder dies without heir, the title returns to the king, who then will decide what to do with it. In this case he decided to give it, on 21 July 2006, to Uluvalu's younger brother, Viliami Tupoulahi Mailefihi Tuku'aho (17 June 1957 – 2014) known as Mailefihi. Mailefihi lost his right to the title 'Prince' and inherited claim to the royal throne with his first marriage to Mele Vikatolia Faletau, which was against the wishes of his uncle King Tāufaāhau Tupou IV. From this first marriage he had two children a daughter and a son; To the dismay of the royal family his next two marriages were to particularly commers women. His second marriage in 1996 was to Maata Moungaloa, a beauty queen who won the yearly Miss Heilala beauty pageant. His third marriage was to 'Alakifonua villager Eneio Tatafu styled HSH Princess Tuipelehake in 2008, whom he divorced in 2010. They had one adopted daughter:  Hon. Anaseini Takipo Michelle Alexdra Tuku'aho  The His fourth and current wife is Fifita Holeva Tuihaangana, a member of one of the low noble families in Tonga from Haano, a tiny island in the Haapai group. Fifita Holeva have 3 issues from previous relationships.  Mailefihi returned to great prominence upon the death of his older brother Uluvalu in July 2006. Shortly after his brother's death he was bestowed the Tuipelehake title by his uncle King Tāufaāhau Tupou IV. In August of the same year via a by-election he won his brother's vacated seat in Parliament. In 2008 his 'Prince' title was restored back to him by his first cousin King George Tupou V and is known as His Serene Highness Prince Tu'ipelehake. In 2009 he became a Minister of the Realm when he was appointed Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. He died of complications from diabetes in June 2014.  Mailefihi died on Saturday 14 June 2014 at Vaiola Hospital in Tonga.It is understood Prince Tuipelehake was admitted to Vaiola Hospital on 2 June with complications from diabetes. Mailefihi had been a diabetes patient for a number of years, and had previously undergone amputation of both legs.He was 56.

Viliami Sione Ngu Takeivulai.

On 8 July 2014, Hon. Viliami Sione Ngu Takeivulai Tuku’aho (born 5 January 1986) was installed as His Serene Highness Prince Tu’ipelehake. He replaces his late father Prince Tu'ipelehake - Mailefihi, who died a month before on Saturday 14 June 2014. He was known as Sione Ngu who became 8th in line for the Tu'ipelehake title and he was installed at the Falelotu Fotu 'a e 'Eiki in Pelehake. He is a military officer (Lieutenant) at His Majesty's Armed Forces (formerly as Tonga Defense Services). He was married to Cassandra Tu'ipelehake (formerly known as Hon. Cassandra Vaea Tuku'aho. Cassandra was adopted by the Late Baron Vaea of Houma and his wife, Baroness Tuputupu Ma'afu-Vaea which is the parents of HM The Queen of Tonga. Cassandra is the daughter of Lord Vaea - formerly known as Hon. 'Alipate Tu'ivanuavou Vaea, HM The Queen of Tonga's only brother. Cassandra's biological mother is a commoner from Nukunuku. Cassandra is an issue of a previous relationship of then, Alipate Tu'ivanuavou Vaea when he was a bachelor. Serene Highness, Prince Tu'ipelehake married on 19 July 2008 at Polata'ane, and they have two children a son and a daughter; however were later divorced.

The Tuipelehake (or Tui Pelehake to be more consistent with similar titles, like Tui Tonga, Tui Haatakalaua and Tu'i Kanokupolu) is the second highest ranking chiefly title in Tonga. In the absence of the ancient Tui Faleua title, the Tuipelehake title is second in rank after the King's title, Tu'i Kanokupolu. There have been several holders of the title mainly from the ruling royal family, from princes to prime ministers. It is Tongan custom to refer to the holder by his customary title, only adding his given name if confusion may arise. For example, Tui Pelehake (Uluvalu).

Tuʻipelehake (bzw. Tuʻi Pelehake) ist ein tongaischer Häuptlingstitel. Über die Jahre hatten verschiedene Personen diesen Titel inne, darunter Prinzen und Premierminister. Der Träger des Titels übernimmt den Titel als neuen Namen, hängt lediglich seinen Geburtsnamen hinten an, um Verwirrungen zu vermeiden. Der Titel wird vom Vater an den Sohn vererbt. Der letzte Tuʻipelehake war Tuʻi Pelehake (ʻUluvalu).


History.

Camp Benning was established October 19, 1918,initially providing basic training for World War I units, post-war. Dwight D. Eisenhower served at Benning from December 24, 1918, until March 15, 1919, with about 250 of his Camp Colt, Pennsylvania, tankers who transferred to Benning after the armistice. On December 26, 1918, a portion of the Camp Polk (near Raleigh, North Carolina) tank school was transferred to Camp Benning "to work in conjunction with the Infantry school". Camp Benning tank troops were moved to Camp Meade from February 19–21, 1919.  In February 1920, Congress voted to declare Camp Benning a permanent military post and appropriated more than $1 million of additional building funds for the Infantry School of Arms, which later became the Infantry School. By the fall of 1920, more than 350 officers, 7,000 troops and 650 student officers lived at Camp Benning. The post was renamed to Fort Benning in 1922, after Henry L. Benning, a general in the army of the Confederate States of America. Benning fought against U.S. Army troops in the Civil War as commander of Confederate States Army forces. In 1924, Brig. Gen. Briant H. Wells became the fourth commandant of the Infantry School and established the Wells Plan for permanent construction on the installation, emphasizing the importance of the outdoor environment and recreation opportunities for military personnel. During Wells' tenure, the post developed recreational facilities such as Doughboy Stadium, Gowdy Field, the post theater and Russ swimming pool. Doughboy Stadium was erected as a memorial by soldiers to their fallen comrades of World War I. One of the Doughboys' original coaches was a young captain named Dwight D. Eisenhower.  Lt. Col George C. Marshall was appointed assistant commandant of the post in 1927 and initiated major changes. Marshall, who later became the Army Chief of Staff during World War II, was appalled by the high casualties of World War I caused, he thought, by insufficient training. He was determined to prevent a lack of preparation from costing more lives in future conflicts. He and his subordinates revamped the education system at Fort Benning. The changes he fostered are still known as the Benning Revolution. Later in his life, Marshall went on to author the Marshall Plan for reviving postwar Europe and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.  In August, 1940, 2 officers and 46 enlisted volunteers of what was known as the Parachute Test Platoon, after intensive training, made their first airborne jump over Lawson Field at Fort Benning. Observers from several countries including Germany and the Soviet Union attended. These 48 were the seed that grew into the branches of America's Airborne Infantry. During World War II Fort Benning had 197,159 acres (797.87 km2) with billeting space for 3,970 officers and 94,873 enlisted persons. Among many other units, Fort Benning was the home of the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, their training began in December 1943 and was an important milestone for black Americans, as was explored in the first narrative history of the installation, "Home of the Infantry". The battalion, later expanded to become the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, was trained at Fort Benning but did not deploy overseas and never saw combat during World War II. During this period, the specialized duties of the Triple Nickel were primarily in a firefighting role, with over one thousand parachute jumps as smoke jumpers. The 555th was deployed to the Pacific Northwest of the United States in response to the concern that forest fires were being set by the Japanese military using long-range incendiary balloons. The 82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion was activated July 15, 1940, and trained at the Fort. The 17th Armored Engineer Battalion became active and started training July 15, 1940.  At the start of the Korean War an Airborne Ranger Training Center was established by John G. Van Houten under the direction of J. Lawton Collins.  The 4th Infantry Division, first of four divisions committed by the United States to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, reorganized and completed its basic training at Fort Benning (Sand Hill and Harmony Church areas) from October 1950 to May 1951, when it deployed to Germany for five years.  The Airborne School on Main Post has three 249-foot (76 m) drop towers called "Free Towers." They are used to train paratroopers. The towers were modeled after the parachute towers at the 1939 World's Fair in New York. Only three towers stand today; the fourth tower was toppled by a tornado on March 14, 1954.  During the spring of 1962 General Herbert B. Powell, Commanding General, U.S. Continental Army Command, directed that all instruction at the Infantry School after July 1 reflect Reorganization Objective Army Division structures. Therefore, the Infantry School asked for permission to reorganize the 1st Infantry Brigade under a ROAD structure. Instead, the Army Staff decided to inactivate the Pentomic-structured brigade and replace it with a new ROAD unit, the 197th Infantry Brigade, which resolved a unit designation issue. With the designation 1st Infantry Brigade slated to return to the 1st Infantry Division when it converted to ROAD, the existing unit at Fort Benning required a new title. The staff selected an infantry brigade number that had been associated with an Organized Reserve division that was no longer in the force. For the new ROAD brigade at Fort Benning, Georgia, the adjutant general on August 1, 1962, restored elements of the 99th Reconnaissance Troop, which thirty years earlier had been organized by consolidating infantry brigade headquarters and headquarters companies of the 99th Infantry Division, as Headquarters and Headquarters Companies, 197th and 198th Infantry Brigades. Fort Benning was the site of the Scout dog school of the United States during the Vietnam War, where the dogs trained to detect ambushes in enemy terrain got their initial training, before being transferred to Vietnam for further advanced courses.  Fort Benning also had an urban village, McKenna Military Operations in Urban Terrain, built by Army engineers for urban training of soldiers. It was used for live, virtual and constructive experimentation on soldier systems, weapons, and equipment. The site was approximately 200 meters square, and included 15 buildings resembling a European village. There was a church, small houses, domestic residences and office-style buildings.  In 1984, following the signing of the Panama Canal Treaty, the School of the Americas relocated from Fort Gulick (Panama) to Fort Benning. After criticism concerning human rights violations committed by a number of graduates in Latin America, the school was renamed "Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation".  As a result of national protests following the May 25, 2020 murder of George Floyd, an African-American man, at the hands and knees of the Minneapolis police, Congress began evaluating bipartisan proposals to strip the names of Confederate leaders from military bases including Fort Benning.

Post information.

There are four main cantonment areas on Fort Benning: Main Post, Kelley Hill, Sand Hill, and Harmony Church.

Main Post.

Main Post houses various garrison and smaller FORSCOM units of Fort Benning such as 14th Combat Support Hospital and 11th Engineer Battalion FORSCOM as well as a number of TRADOC-related tenants, e.g. the Officer Candidate School, the Non-Commissioned Officers Academy, and the Airborne School. McGinnis-Wickham Hall (formerly known as Infantry Hall) is the post headquarters and Maneuver Center of Excellence. Adjacent is the Ranger Memorial and the National Infantry Museum. The Army Infantry School conducts its graduations on Inouye Field, sprinkled with soil from the battlegrounds of Yorktown, Antietam, Soissons, Normandy, Corregidor, Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

Kelley Hill.

The 197th Infantry Brigade was located on Kelly Hill in the 1970s and early 1980s  Kelley Hill formerly housed the 3d Brigade Combat Team of the 3d Infantry Division (Mechanized), the parent unit of two combined armed battalions; 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment, 2d Battalion, 69th Armor Regiment, as well as 3d Squadron, 1st Cavalry Regiment, 1st Battalion, 10th Field Artillery Regiment, and two support battalions; the 203d Brigade Support Battalion and the Special Troops Battalion, 3d BCT.  Between December 11, 2015, and December 15, 2015, the 3d BCT's six subordinate battalions performed inactivation ceremonies on Sledgehammer Field. On December 16, 2015, 1st Battalion, 28th Infantry Regiment Task Force (or Task Force 1-28) was activated in its place. Task Force 1-28 is a 1053-member unit "made up of selected soldiers from the six inactivated battalions that formed the 3d Brigade Combat Team, 3rd Infantry Division".

Sand Hill.

Sand Hill is the primary location of the 198th Infantry Brigade, responsible for training Infantry One Station Unit Training (OSUT). Its units include the following:

Harmony Church.

Harmony Church area houses the 194th Armored Brigade, 316th Cavalry Brigade Armor School and the first phase of Ranger School, 4th Ranger Training Battalion (ARTB). After the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission's decision to create the Maneuver Center of Excellence (MCoE), Harmony Church is now the new home of the Armor School.

Command group.

Current Command

Armor School move.

Fort Benning was selected by the Base Realignment and Closing Commission to be the home of the new Maneuver Center of Excellence (MCoE). This realignment co-located the United States Army Armor Center and School, formerly located at Fort Knox, Kentucky, with the Infantry Center and School. This transformation was completed September 2011.

Fort Benning is a United States Army post straddling the Alabama–Georgia border next to Columbus, Georgia. Fort Benning supports more than 120,000 active-duty military, family members, reserve component soldiers, retirees, and civilian employees on a daily basis. It is a power projection platform, and possesses the capability to deploy combat-ready forces by air, rail, and highway. Fort Benning is the home of the United States Army Maneuver Center of Excellence, the United States Army Armor School, United States Army Infantry School, the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation (formerly known as the School of the Americas), elements of the 75th Ranger Regiment (United States), the 1st Security Force Assistance Brigade, and other tenant units.

Fort Benning ist eine Basis der United States Army, die sich südwestlich von Columbus, Georgia in den Bezirken Muscogee County, Chattahoochee County und Russell County (Alabama) befindet. Der Fluss Chattahoochee fließt durch Fort Benning. Die Basis ist bekannt als das "US Army Infantry Center". Es ist außerdem seit 1984 Standort des umstrittenen Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation.


History.

On February 26, 2003, Eyeworks acquired a 45% stake in RTL's Stormy Entertainment.  On February 8, 2006, Eyeworks acquired New Zealand production company Touchdown Television. They later acquired Egmond Film & Television on September 10, 2006. Fourteen days later, Eyeworks acquired a 50% stake in U.S. production company, 3 Ball Productions. On August 16, 2007, Eyeworks acquired Cuatro Cabezas, an Argentine production company that was founded in 1993 by joint CEOs Diego Guebel and Mario Pergolini.  On March 22, 2013, Eyeworks announced they will move their headquarters to the HES building in center Amsterdam. The HES building began serving as the headquarters in summer 2013. The new headquarters was later opened on September 5, 2013.  On February 11, 2014, the Warner Bros. Television Group announced that it will purchase Eyeworks' businesses outside of the United States. The acquisition was completed on June 2 of that year. The acquisition gives Warner Bros. TV production units in 15 additional territories.

Companies.

Eyeworks UK.

Eyeworks UK (formerly At It Productions) is a British TV production company set up in 1997 by Martin Cunning and Chris Fouracre. At It are predominantly linked with youth and entertainment shows (it is a major supplier of music programmes to Channel 4), but over the last three years have branched out into a series of other fields such as medical documentaries and quiz shows. In July 2007, the company was bought by International production group Eyeworks. In April 2014. ITV produced Amazing Greys a co production between ITV Studios & Eyeworks.  The company is currently headed by Chris Fouracre (MD), Martin Cunning (MD), Lee-Anne Richardson (Head of Production) Paul Day (Director of Branded Content) and Rebecca Ackland (Head of International).

Eyeworks Touchdown.

Eyeworks Touchdown (formerly Touchdown Television) is a New Zealand-based television production company founded in 1991 by Julie Christie that specializes in entertainment, lifestyle, sport and factual series, and reality game shows. Among programs Touchdown produced are "How Normal Are You?", "So You Wannabe A Popstar", and "Miss Popularity", among others. ·On February 8, 2006, Eyeworks acquired Touchdown and it was later renamed to Eyeworks Touchdown on April 1, 2006.

Eyeworks Cuatro Cabezas.

Cuatro Cabezas (meaning "Four Heads" in English and a.k.a. 4K) was founded in 1993 by Diego Guebel and Mario Pergolini. In 2008, Mario Pergolini sold all his shares of the company for the Dutch production company Eyeworks, so from then on it has been called Eyeworks Cuatro Cabezas.

Eyeworks Egmond.

On September 10, 2006, Egmond Film & Television was acquired by Eyeworks and was renamed to Eyeworks Egmond.

Eyeworks Brazil.

In 2011, the company took the original name of the branch from outside, at Brazil exhibition, and called then Eyeworks.

Commissions.

Its biggest commission to date is the T4 strand which runs every weekend morning and during the school holidays on Channel 4. It is an irreverent mix of interviews, sketches and comedy that runs in between the usual morning shows. The current hosts are Steve Jones, Miquita Oliver, Alexa Chung and Rick Edwards. It is worth mentioning that this is also where presenters such as Vernon Kaye, June Sarpong and Dermot O'Leary began their careers.  Eyeworksb most recent commissions include the TV music show "Transmission with T-Mobile". This ran in mid-2006 and featured some up-and-coming bands like New Young Pony Club and Kasabian. Pete Doherty was famously reunited with his ex-girlfriend Kate Moss during one of the shows. The second series aired in early 2007, followed by a third later that year. Transmission with T-Mobile was the first of a number of branded content projects which has led to the company being recognised as a leader in Branded content TV.  "Hider in the House" has also been a great success for the company. The second series of this children's format, where children hide celebrities in the parents' house, won the Rose Dor for Best Entertainment Programme.  Eyeworks has also produced a number of factual programmes for the UK Extraordinary People and Bodyshock strands. Most notable of these has been the acclaimed "Half Ton Mum" and award-winning "Born Without a Face" (Golden Eagle Award 2006). The latter marked the company's expansion into the factual genre.  Other memorable productions include:

Eyeworks is an Amsterdam-based international television production company founded by Reinout Oerlemans, Robert van den Bogaard and Ronald van Wechem. As of June 2014, it is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Warner Bros. Television Group and rebranded as Warner Bros. International Television Production.

Warner Bros. International Television Production (bis Mai 2015: Eyeworks, kurz auch: Warner Bros. ITVP, WBITVP) ist eine unabhängige, international operierende Fernsehproduktions- und Entwicklungsfirma, deren Fernsehformate in mehr als 50 Ländern weltweit vertrieben und ausgestrahlt werden. Am 11. Februar 2014 kündigte Warner Bros. Television an, alle Tochterunternehmen der Eyeworks Fernsehproduktionsfirmen in insgesamt 15 Ländern zu 100 % zu übernehmen. So wurde im Mai 2015 auch "Eyeworks Germany" schließlich in "Warner Bros. International Television Production Deutschland GmbH" (kurz: WBITVP) umbenannt.


Studies and 1930s.

Of Baltic German origin, Buchardt studied at the German Gymnasium in Riga, Latvia and law at the University of Berlin and University of Jena. His thesis was titled "The Rights of National Minorities in Latvia and Its International Importance and Administration". He joined the SA in October 1933, but left the following year, finding it to be too plebeian.  Having completed his studies, Buchardt returned to Riga, where he tried to organize a national German-Baltic movement under the leadership of Erhard Kroeger. Buchardt funded and contributed to the pro-Nazi newspaper "Rigaschen Rundschau", which was closed by the Latvian authorities in May 1934 because it had too many connections with Nazi Germany. This plunged Buchardt into financial difficulties, so he became a lawyer for a marketing company in Germany, and then the economics head of the Baltic Institute.

SS career.

While working at the University of Königsberg, he met Franz Six, the future leader of "Vorkommando Moskau". On Six's advice, Buchardt was recruited by the "Sicherheitsdienst" (SD, the SS intelligence service), working under Six's command. He studied the topography and economy of the Soviet Union, and the distribution of Jews who lived there. By the late 1930s, he held a prestigious position at the Wannsee Institut, the German center for studies of the Soviet Union.  By the time of the invasion of Poland, the 30-year-old Buchardt was an "Obersturmführer" and the head of a small group of German-Baltic SS officers deployed to the Port of Gdynia to loot its archives, museums and libraries. The following year, he was assigned to the Office for the Resettlement of Poles and Jews in Poznań, where he classified the level of "Germanicness" of various sectors of the Polish population on a scale of 1 to 5.  In 1940, Buchardt was promoted to head of the SD in Lublin, where he worked under Odilo Globocnik and began participating directly in the Holocaust. Buchardt carried out similar work in Łódź in February 1941, this time reporting directly to the Reich Security Main Office.  On the eve of Operation Barbarossa (June 1941), Buchardt was recalled and, in order to have "blood experience" rather than merely be a "desk scholar", he was assigned to "Vorkommando Moskau" of Einsatzgruppe B. He served as the liaison officer between Franz Six and the head of Einsatzgruppe B, Arthur Nebe. Following the start of the offensive against Moscow in October 1941, he was promoted to head of "Vorkommando Moskau" the following month.  When the Red Army repelled the assault against Moscow, Buchardt was posted back to Łódź in January 1942, where he continued his work as head of the local SD. From January to September 1942, he supervised the deportation of about 80,000 Jews and Romanis to Chełmno extermination camp.  In February 1943, Buchardt succeeded as commander of "Einsatzkommando" 9 of Einsatzgruppe B. He was in charge of murder actions near Vitebsk. Buchardt's unit was likely responsible for tens of thousands of victims. Buchardt was awarded the Iron Cross First Class and the War Merit Cross. In June 1944, he was promoted to Obersturmbannführer.  Posted to Berlin, Buchardt now headed Amt III B 2 of the RSHA, which specialized in racial and ethnic matters. He was under the command of Otto Ohlendorf, who headed Amt III. From December 1944, Buchardt also headed "Sonderkommando Ost", which gathered intelligence on Russian personnel living in German territory, including members of General Andrey Vlasov's collaborationist Russian Liberation Army.

After the war.

With defeat imminent by April 1945, the head, Otto Ohlendorf, had set up an SD underground movement called "Bundschuh" (Tied Shoe), named after the Bundschuh movement. The "Bundschuh" was to serve as a Europe-wide information network of "high-grade" agents that could be used by sabotage and terrorist organizations as they waged a guerrilla war against the Allies. Ohlendorf appointed Buchardt as leader of the southeastern sector of the network, and he was sent to Karlsbad. However, the events of the war moved too quickly for the "Bundschuh" plotters, and Buchardt had to retreat 200 miles to the Austrian-German border. Shortly after the war, he was captured by American troops and transferred to the British, who held him at the POW camp in Rimini.  During his detention, Buchardt produced a document entitled "The Handling of the Russian Problem during the Period of the Nazi Regime in Germany", which detailed his espionage activities in Eastern Europe and emphasized the importance of native collaborators in SS operations. The document, which laid the groundwork for MI6 operations in Eastern Europe, allowed Buchardt to escape justice and be employed by MI6.  In 1947, MI6 dropped Buchardt, who then offered his services to the United States. Presumably, according to Guy Walters (2009), the United States accepted. A March 1950 report by the U.S. Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) noted that Buchardt "may be presently employed by an American intelligence agency", presumably the CIA. The CIC report was created to warn United States European Command (EUCOM) of a possible trial being brought against Buchardt by the Bavarian Land Indemnity Office. Buchardt was never brought to trial for any of his crimes.  Friedrich Buchardt can be regarded as the most murderous Nazi employed by the Allies after the war. He lived out most of his days in Heidelberg and died quietly in Nußbach on 20 December 1982.

Friedrich Buchardt (17 March 1909, in Riga – 21 December 1982, in Nußbach) was a Baltic German SS functionary who commanded "Vorkommando Moskau", one of the divisions of Einsatzgruppe B. Post-war, he worked for MI6 (until 1947) and then, presumably, for the CIA. Buchardt was never prosecuted, being one of the agents of more sinister reputation used by the West after the war.

Friedrich Buchardt (* 17. März 1909 in Riga; † 21. Dezember 1982 in Nußbach (Pfalz)) war ein deutsch-baltischer promovierter Jurist und SS-Führer. Er war Kommandeur des "Vorkommandos Moskau", des späteren Sonderkommandos 7c, einer der Abteilungen der Einsatzgruppen B, danach des Sonderkommandos 6 und Mitarbeiter des Reichssicherheitshauptamts, Abt. Fremde Heere Ost. Nach dem Krieg arbeitete er bis 1947 für das MI6, danach für die CIA, wodurch er der Strafverfolgung entging.


Introduction.

Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in the laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches utilizing metallic components, polymers, ceramics or composite materials. They are often used and/or adapted for a medical application, and thus comprises whole or part of a living structure or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural function. Such functions may be relatively passive, like being used for a heart valve, or may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality such as hydroxy-apatite coated hip implants. Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of a drug over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be an autograft, allograft or xenograft used as a transplant material.

Bioactivity.

The ability of an engineered biomaterial to induce a physiological response that is supportive of the biomaterial's function and performance is known as bioactivity. Most commonly, in bioactive glasses and bioactive ceramics this term refers to the ability of implanted materials to bond well with surrounding tissue in either osseoconductive or osseoproductive roles. Bone implant materials are often designed to promote bone growth while dissolving into surrounding body fluid. Thus for many biomaterials good biocompatibility along with good strength and dissolution rates are desirable. Commonly, bioactivity of biomaterials is gauged by the surface biomineralisation in which a native layer of hydroxyapatite is formed at the surface.

Self-assembly.

Self-assembly is the most common term in use in the modern scientific community to describe the spontaneous aggregation of particles (atoms, molecules, colloids, micelles, etc.) without the influence of any external forces. Large groups of such particles are known to assemble themselves into thermodynamically stable, structurally well-defined arrays, quite reminiscent of one of the 7 crystal systems found in metallurgy and mineralogy (e.g. face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, etc.). The fundamental difference in equilibrium structure is in the spatial scale of the unit cell (or lattice parameter) in each particular case.  Molecular self-assembly is found widely in biological systems and provides the basis of a wide variety of complex biological structures. This includes an emerging class of mechanically superior biomaterials based on microstructural features and designs found in nature. Thus, self-assembly is also emerging as a new strategy in chemical synthesis and nanotechnology. Molecular crystals, liquid crystals, colloids, micelles, emulsions, phase-separated polymers, thin films and self-assembled monolayers all represent examples of the types of highly ordered structures which are obtained using these techniques. The distinguishing feature of these methods is self-organization.

Structural hierarchy.

Nearly all materials could be seen as hierarchically structured, especially since the changes in spatial scale bring about different mechanisms of deformation and damage. However, in biological materials this hierarchical organization is inherent to the microstructure. One of the first examples of this, in the history of structural biology, is the early X-ray scattering work on the hierarchical structure of hair and wool by Astbury and Woods. In bone, for example, collagen is the building block of the organic matrix — a triple helix with diameter of 1.5 nm. These tropocollagen molecules are intercalated with the mineral phase (hydroxyapatite, a calcium phosphate) forming fibrils that curl into helicoids of alternating directions. These "osteons" are the basic building blocks of bones, with the volume fraction distribution between organic and mineral phase being about 60/40.  In another level of complexity, the hydroxyapatite crystals are mineral platelets that have a diameter of approximately 70–100 nm and thickness of 1 nm. They originally nucleate at the gaps between collagen fibrils.  Similarly, the hierarchy of abalone shell begins at the nanolevel, with an organic layer having a thickness of 20–30 nm. This layer proceeds with single crystals of aragonite (a polymorph of CaCO) consisting of "bricks" with dimensions of 0.5 and finishing with layers approximately 0.3 mm (mesostructure).  Crabs are arthropods whose carapace is made of a mineralized hard component (which exhibits brittle fracture) and a softer organic component composed primarily of chitin. The brittle component is arranged in a helical pattern. Each of these mineral ‘rods’ (1 μm diameter) contains chitin–protein fibrils with approximately 60 nm diameter. These fibrils are made of 3 nm diameter canals which link the interior and exterior of the shell.

Applications.

Biomaterials are used in:  Biomaterials must be compatible with the body, and there are often issues of biocompatibility which must be resolved before a product can be placed on the market and used in a clinical setting. Because of this, biomaterials are usually subjected to the same requirements as those undergone by new drug therapies.  All manufacturing companies are also required to ensure traceability of all of their products so that if a defective product is discovered, others in the same batch may be traced.

Heart valves.

In the United States, 49% of the 250,000 valve replacement procedures performed annually involve a mechanical valve implant. The most widely used valve is a bileaflet disc heart valve, or St. Jude valve. The mechanics involve two semicircular discs moving back and forth, with both allowing the flow of blood as well as the ability to form a seal against backflow. The valve is coated with pyrolytic carbon, and secured to the surrounding tissue with a mesh of woven fabric called Dacron (du Pont's trade name for polyethylene terephthalate). The mesh allows for the body's tissue to grow while incorporating the valve.

Skin repair.

Most of the time, ‘artificial’ tissue is grown from the patient’s own cells. However, when the damage is so extreme that it is impossible to use the patient's own cells, artificial tissue cells are grown. The difficulty is in finding a scaffold that the cells can grow and organize on. The characteristics of the scaffold must be that it is biocompatible, cells can adhere to the scaffold, mechanically strong and biodegradable. One successful scaffold is a copolymer of lactic acid and glycolic acid.

Compatibility.

Biocompatibility is related to the behavior of biomaterials in various environments under various chemical and physical conditions. The term may refer to specific properties of a material without specifying where or how the material is to be used. For example, a material may elicit little or no immune response in a given organism, and may or may not able to integrate with a particular cell type or tissue. Immuno-informed biomaterials that direct the immune response rather than attempting to circumvent the process is one approach that shows promise. The ambiguity of the term reflects the ongoing development of insights into how biomaterials interact with the human body and eventually how those interactions determine the clinical success of a medical device (such as pacemaker or hip replacement). Modern medical devices and prostheses are often made of more than one material—so it might not always be sufficient to talk about the biocompatibility of a specific material.  A surgical implantation of a biomaterial into the body triggers an organism-inflammatory reaction with the associated healing of the damaged tissue. Depending upon the composition of the implanted material, the surface of the implant, the mechanism of fatigue and chemical decomposition there are a number of other reactions possible. These can be local as well as systemic. These include immune response, foreign body reaction with the isolation of the implant with a vascular connective tissue, possible infection and impact on the lifespan of the implant. Graft versus host disease is an auto-and allo-immune dis-order, exhibiting a variable clinical course. It can manifest in either acute or chronic form, affecting multiple organs and tissues and causing serious complications in clinical practice, both during transplantation and implementation of biocompatible materials.

Biocompatible Plastics.

Some of the most commonly-used biocompatible materials (or biomaterials) are polymers due to their inherent flexibility and tunable mechanical properties. Medical devices made of plastics are often made of a select few including: cyclic olefin copolymer (COC), polycarbonate (PC), polyetherimide (PEI), medical grade polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyethersulfone (PES), polyethylene (PE), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), and even polypropylene (PP). In order to ensure biocompatibility, there are a series of regulated tests that a material must pass in order to be certified for use. These include the United States Pharmacopoeia IV (USP Class IV) Biological Reactivity Test and the International Standards Organization 10993 (ISO 10993) Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices. The main objective of biocompatibility tests is to quantify the acute and chronic toxicity of a material and determine any potential adverse effects during use conditions, thus the tests required for a given material are dependent on its end-use (i.e. blood, central nervous system, etc.).

Mechanical Properties.

In addition to a material being certified as biocompatible, it is important that biomaterials are engineered specifically to their target application within a medical device. This is especially important in terms of mechanical properties which govern the way that a given biomaterial behaves. One of the most relevant material parameters is the Young’s Modulus, "E", which describes a material’s elastic response to stresses. The Young’s Moduli of the tissue and the device that is being coupled to it must closely match for optimal compatibility between device and body, whether the device is implanted or mounted externally. Matching the elastic modulus makes it possible to limit movement and delamination at the biointerface between implant and tissue as well as avoiding stress concentration that can lead to mechanical failure. Other important properties are the tensile and compressive strengths which quantify the maximum stresses a material can withstand before breaking and may be used to set stress limits that a device may be subject to within or external to the body. Depending on the application, it may be desirable for a biomaterial to have high strength so that it is resistant to failure when subjected to a load, however in other applications it may be beneficial for the material to be low strength. There is a careful balance between strength and stiffness that determines how robust to failure the biomaterial device is. Typically, as the elasticity of the biomaterial increases, the ultimate tensile strength will decrease and vice versa. One application where a high-strength material is undesired is in neural probes; if a high-strength material is used in these applications the tissue will always fail before the device does (under applied load) because the Young's Modulus of the dura mater and cerebral tissue is on the order of 500 Pa. When this happens, irreversible damage to the brain can occur, thus it is imperative that the biomaterial has an elastic modulus less than or equal to brain tissue and a low tensile strength if an applied load is expected.  For implanted biomaterials that may experience temperature fluctuations, e.g. dental implants, ductility is important. The material must be ductile for a similar reason that the tensile strength cannot be too high, ductility allows the material to bend without fracture and also prevents the concentration of stresses in the tissue when temperature changes. The material property of toughness is also important for dental implants as well as any other rigid, load-bearing implant such as a replacement hip joint. Toughness describes the material's ability to deform under applied stress without fracturing and having a high toughness allows biomaterial implants to last longer within the body, especially when subjected to large stress or cyclically-loaded stresses, like the stresses applied to a hip joint during running.  For medical devices that are implanted or attached to the skin, another important property requiring consideration is the flexural rigidity, "D". Flexural rigidity will determine how well the device surface can maintain conformal contact with the tissue surface, which is especially important for devices that are measuring tissue motion (strain), electrical signals (impedance), or are designed to stick to the skin without delaminating, as in epidermal electronics. Since flexural rigidity depends on the thickness of the material, "h", to the third power ("h"), it is very important that a biomaterial can be formed into thin layers in the previously mentioned applications where conformality is paramount.

Biopolymers.

Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose and starch, proteins and peptides, and DNA and RNA are all examples of biopolymers, in which the monomeric units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. Cellulose is both the most common biopolymer and the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant matter is cellulose.

A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic (treat, augment, repair or replace a tissue function of the body) or a diagnostic one. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.

Als Biomaterial oder zum Teil als Implantatmaterial werden allgemein synthetische oder nichtlebende natürliche Werkstoffe bezeichnet, die in der Medizin für therapeutische oder diagnostische Zwecke eingesetzt werden und dabei in unmittelbaren Kontakt mit biologischem Gewebe des Körpers kommen. Diese Materialien treten dabei in chemische, physikalische und biologische Wechselwirkungen mit den entsprechenden biologischen Systemen.