Biography.

Saunderson was born at Thurlstone, Yorkshire, in January 1682. His parents were John and Ann Sanderson (or Saunderson), and his father made a living as an excise man. When about a year old he lost his sight through smallpox; but this did not prevent him from learning arithmetic through assisting his father. As a child, he is also thought to have learnt to read by tracing the engravings on tombstones around St John the Baptist Church in Penistone with his fingers. His early education was at the free school, Penistone Grammar School where he learnt French, Latin and Greek. In 1700 a tutor taught him algebra and geometry, and in 1702 he attended Attercliffe Academy, near Sheffield, for logic and metaphysics. He was introduced to Cambridge via meetings with the local gentry at Underbank Hall, near Penistone.  In 1707, he arrived in Cambridge with his friend Joshua Dunn from Attercliffe Academy, a fellow-commoner at Christ's College. During this time, he resided in Christ's and could make use of the library but was not admitted to the University. He wanted to teach and with the permission of the Lucasian professor, William Whiston, Saunderson was allowed to teach, lecturing on mathematics, astronomy and optics. His teaching was highly appreciated.  Whiston was expelled from his chair on 30 October 1710; at the appeal of the heads of colleges, Queen Anne awarded Saunderson a Master of Arts degree on 19 November 1711 so that he would be eligible to succeed Whiston as Lucasian professor. He was chosen as the fourth Lucasian professor the next day, defeating the Trinity College candidate Christopher Hussey, backed by Richard Bentley, when the electors split 6 to 4 in his favour. On 6 November 1718 Saunderson was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was also a member of the Spitalfields Mathematical Society.  He was resident at Christ's College until 1723 when he married Abigail Dickons, daughter of William Dickons who was the rector of Boxworth, Cambridgeshire. They lived in Cambridge with their children John and Anne. He was created doctor of laws in 1728 by command of George II during a visit by the monarch to Cambridge. He died of scurvy, on 19 April 1739 and was buried in the chancel of the parish church at Boxworth near Cambridge.  Saunderson possessed the friendship of leading mathematicians of the time: Isaac Newton, Edmond Halley, Abraham De Moivre and Roger Cotes. His senses of hearing and touch were acute, and he was a good flautist. He could carry out mentally long and intricate mathematical calculations. He devised a calculating machine or abacus, by which he could perform arithmetical and algebraic operations by the sense of touch; it was known as his "palpable arithmetic", and was described in his "Elements of Algebra". This book was prepared during the last six years of his life but published posthumously in 1740 by his widow and children aided by John Colson, the next Lucasian professor. This was used at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich.  Of his other writings, prepared for the use of his pupils, one was published in 1751 as "The Method of Fluxions applied to a select number of useful problems, together with... an explanation of the principal propositions of Sir Isaac Newton's philosophy."

Mathematics.

His importance was as a charismatic and skilled teacher as exactly the time when mathematics started to become important at University of Cambridge. Part of Saunderson's role as the Lucasian professor was to disseminate the "Principia Mathematica" so that it was accessible to undergraduates and college tutors. Ultimately through his teaching during his term in office, he reformed the decaying, traditional curriculum of Cambridge to emphasize mathematics and Newtonian natural philosophy, defending it from opponents. He provided the first systematic introduction to Differential calculus, detailed in his posthumous work "The Method of Fluxions Applied to a Select Number of Useful Problems".  Saunderson did not follow the common practice of publishing his work; however, manuscripts of his lectures and treatises were in circulation and were used by a number of notable individuals including the astronomers James Bradley at Oxford University, Samuel Vince at Cambridge University and John Harrison for self-education prior to designing the marine chronometer. After he died, his work "The Elements of Algebra in Ten Books" was published in his name.  The discovery of Bayes' theorem remains a controversial topic in the history of mathematics. While it is certain to have been discovered before Thomas Bayes' time, there are several contenders for priority including Saunderson. At the time, much of mathematics research was performed through the exchange of private letters, and through verbal discussions, rather than publications. Historian of statistics Stephen Stigler concluded that Saunderson was the most probable discoverer after attempting to trace some of these letters and discussions, but has been challenged by other statisticians. Somewhat fittingly for a question about probability, it seems likely that the question will never be resolved completely but will remain as a probabilistic belief about Saunderson and others.

Legacy.

He appears as a fictional character on his deathbed in eighteenth-century novelist Denis Diderot's "Letter on the Blind for the Use of those who can see", which discusses how man can acquire knowledge not only through perception, but also through reason. His character represents a person with no perception but endowed with logical genius, trying to comprehend God. This gives some indication of his celebrity status during his life, being used as an icon similarly to his chair's later occupant, Stephen Hawking, who also appears in debates about disability and genius.  In Penistone, St John's Gardens at St John's Church features a memorial to Saunderson. His birthplace in a nearby house on Towngate, Thurlstone, bore a "Hic Natus Est" inscribed stone; the house is long gone (1950s) but the stone is built into a wall in a small garden at nearby Townend. One of the old school buildings and a house of Penistone Grammar School, and a local residential street, Saunderson Gardens, are named after him.  In 2006, Saunderson's life was turned into a musical, "No Horizon", written by Andy Platt, headmaster of Springvale Primary School in Penistone. The musical was performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe from 3–27 August 2016.

Nicholas Saunderson (20 January 1682 – 19 April 1739) was a blind English scientist and mathematician. According to one historian of statistics, he may have been the earliest discoverer of Bayes theorem. He worked as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University, a post also held by Isaac Newton, Charles Babbage and Stephen Hawking.

Nicholas Saunderson (* Januar 1682 in Thurlstone bei Penniston, Yorkshire; † 19. April 1739 in Cambridge) war ein englischer Mathematiker.


Biography.

Early life and career.

Christian Hansen was born in Copenhagen. He attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen from 1816, just 13 years old, where he studied under Christian Frederik Hansen, the leading Danish architect of the time, and Gustav Friedrich Hetsch. Christian Frederik Hansen taught him a rational approach to architecture and Hetsch introduced him to Karl Friedrich Schinkel whose influence he had brought to Denmark.  In 1831 Christian Hansen won the Academy's large gold medal and a travel scholarship. He then set out on a journey to Italy and Greece, first spending two years in Italy, mainly in Rome and Sicily.

Years in Athens.

In 1833, Hansen travelled to Athens, recently been chosen as the new capital of the nascent Greece which had recently gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire. At the time, Athens was just a small village with a few thousand inhabitants, chosen as capital for historic and sentimental reasons. It was therefore set for massive redevelopment to become a modern metropolis. Hansen won the favour of king Otto of Greece and was appointed Court Architect in 1834. In 1838, he was joined by his brother Theophilus who had also studied architecture at the Academy in Copenhagen but had been unsuccessful in getting commissions.  Christian Hansen's most famous work in Athens is the original main building for the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Construction started in 1839 using the proceeds of a fund-raising campaign from Greeks at home and abroad. It was inaugurated in 1841, though not entirely completed until 1864 due to lack of funds. It is built in marble in Greek Revival style, also known as Neohellenic Classicism, of which it is considered one of the most important examples and a source of inspiration for many other buildings of the time, particularly in Germany. It is part of the so-called "Neoclassical", or "Athenian", "Trilogy" which was completed by his brother with the Academy of Athens and the National Library of Greece.  Hansen also designed private houses and churches. The latter include the Anglican St. Paul's Church. It is designed in a mixed Victorian and Gothic Revival style. Hansen's work in Athens also involved archeological excavations and investigations. Together with the German architect Eduard Schaubert he excavated and reconstructed the Temple of Athena Nike at the Acropolis and he contributed to the compilation of material for Joseph Hoffer's account of horizontal curvature and optical corrections in Greek temples.  Hansen's reputation reached outside Greece and in 1850 the shipping company Österreichischer Lloyd commissioned him to build a marine arsenal and dockyards at Trieste. The extensive building complex designed in the Rundbogenstil with details inspired by Byzantine architecture was constructed from 1852 to 1856.

Homecoming and work in Denmark.

After the revolt in September 1843 in Athens, a nationalist wave made it hard for foreigners to work in Greece. In 1851, Hansen returned to Denmark after almost 20 years abroad. He was appointed Royal Building Inspector for Funen and the surrounding islands but had to let someone else, C. A. Møller, temporarily take care of his obligations due to his engagements with Lloyds in Trieste.  In 1867, he became a member of the Academy in Copenhagen and Royal Building Inspector for Zealand, Lolland and Falster. That same year he also took over the professorial chair in architecture at the Academy which had become vacant with Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll's death the year before.  As a practicing architect, Hansen never got the prominent role in Denmark upon his return which could have been expected after his achievements abroad. In Copenhagen he built the Municipal Hospital in the Rundbogenstil which he had also applied in Trieste. His Østervold Observatory was built on the former fortifications of the city to replace the astronomical observatory at the Round Tower. For the University of Copenhagen he also designed a Zoological Museum in Krystalgade in Renaissance Revival style. The building is today used by the university's administration but the lavishly decorated Grand Hall, where the large, stuffed animals used to be on display, is frequently used for exhibitions.  Christian Hansen died in 1883 and is interred at Assistens Cemetery.

Category:Knights of the Order of the Dannebrog Hans Christian Hansen (20 April 1803 – 2 May 1883) was a Historicist Danish architect who worked 18 years in Greece where he was active in the transformation of Athens from a small town to the country's capital and an international metropolis. Later in his career he returned to Denmark where he became a professor at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and designed buildings such as the Copenhagen Municipal Hospital and the Østervold Observatory. He was the brother of Theophilus Hansen who was also an internationally successful architect, active in Athens and Vienna. He is considered to be a pioneer in the study and application of polychrome architecture.

Hans Christian Hansen (* 20. April 1803 in Kopenhagen, Dänemark; † 2. Mai 1883 in Wien, Österreich) war ein dänischer Baumeister.


History.

During the indigenous era, there were two brothers named Mamalu and Tabunaway, who lived peacefully in Mindanao, specifically the Cotabato valley. When Shariff Kabungsuwan preached Islam in the area in the 16th century, Tabunaway converted, while Mamalu decided to hold fast to the beliefs of their elders. The brothers parted ways afterwards; Tabunaway to the lowlands and Mamalu to the mountains, but they vowed to honor their kinship, and thus an unwritten pact of peace between Muslims and indigenous peoples was forged through the two brothers.  Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the area, which was earlier Hindu influenced from Srivijaya times, at the end of the 16th century and established himself as Sultan seated in Malabang-Lanao. He exiled some of his people who deviated from the Islamic faith to Cotabato. He subsequently married many local princesses of the Maguinadanao family ruling class in Dulawan and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao seated in Dulawan and virtually as Sultan of the whole island of the so-called Mindanao. The sultanate was usually centered in the valley of Cotabato.  Asraf Mohamad Samalan Dipatuan Qudratullah Fahar'uddin Nasiruddin, popularly known as Qudarat and whose name as a youth was Ullah Untong, was one of the greatest known sultans who controlled Mindanao. In his island sanctuary in Sulu, he was known as Sultan Nasiruddin and was the Sultan of that island recognized by the Sulu Sultan and his grave still stands there.  Abd al-Rahman, his grandson, continued increasing the Sultanate's power and influence.  During the Spanish colonial period, the Sultanate of Maguindanao was able to defend its territory, preventing the Spaniards from colonising the entire Mindanao and ceding the island of Palawan to the Spanish government in 1705. The island priory ceded to him by Sulu Sultan Sahabuddin. This was to have help dissuaded Spanish encroachments into the island of Maguindanao and Sulu itself.  Chinese gongs, yellow as a color of royalty and idioms originated from Chinese entered into Mindanao. Royalty was connected to yellow. The color yellow was used by the Sultan in Mindanao. Chinese tableware and gongs were exported to the Moros.  Merchant Chinese were tranquilly residing alongside the Moros in Maguindanao.

List of Sultans of Maguindanao.

As to the historical records, there were 12 Sultans of Maguindanao.  1. Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan  According to some tradition of the Tarsilan as by decoded Dr. Sleeby and Dr. Majul, Sharif Ali Kabungsuwan was the son of Sharif Abu'Bkr-Zein Ul-Abidin, uncle of Sulu Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim. Their ancestor Sultan Betatar of Taif Arabia was the 9th generation progeny of Hassan (son of Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad). Sharif Kabungsuwan Settled in Malabang Lanao. He met the brothers Tabunaway and Mamalu in Inawan. He converted the natives at Bpayguan but Mamalu and the native tribes he led opted not to join the mass conversion and returned to their homeland uphills in Mindanao (Saleeby). Kabungsuwan's mother was a member of the Johore royalty of Singapore. It may be speculated that he arrived on the shores of Mindanao around 1515. He was the second Makdum (Karim Ul-Makdum) who had come and reinforced Islam. He married the daughter of Tomoai Aliwya of the Maguindanao Family Dynasty. After his father in-law's death, the latter's political authority fell on Kabungsuwan who had established the Sultanate of Maguindanao as its first Sultan reigning as Sultan Aliwya. shariff Kabunsuan was given the authority and power to lead by Rajah Tabunaway and apo Mamalu the son of Shariff Maradja from Johore. Rajah Tabunaway was the one who accept Kabunsuan at the river PUlangi river.  2. Sharief Maka-alangHe was a son of Muhammad Kabungsuwan and surnamed “Saripada”. His mother Angintabu was a daughter of an Iranun chief from the area now known as Malabang. In 1543, during the Villalobos expedition, some Spaniards were able to go to the mouth of a big river (Pulangi) where they were informed by the inhabitants that the chief was called “Sarriparra”. This being a variation of “salipada” or “saripada”, it can be surmised that the chief was the Sharif Maka-alang; especially if it is considered that not only does a tarsila explicitly state that the Sharif had such a title but that such a title was not found among his immediate successors.  3. Datu BangkayaHe was a son of Sharif Maka-alang. In 1574, Guido de Lavezaris wrote to the Spanish King that the chief of Mindanao River wanted to become a friend of the Spaniards. In another Spanish report dated 1579, this chief is referred to as “Asulutan” (Arabic, As-sulutan) with the information that he was a father of Diman Sankay and that he had already died. This refers probably to Datu Bangkaya who by 1574 must have been reigning for some time, since in 1579, his son Dimansankay, was considered by the Spaniards to have been “an old man”. Datu Bangkaya could also have been the ruler in the Pulangi who was reported to have died in 1578.  4. Datu DimasankayHe was a son of Bangkaya. Spanish reports say that he was ruling in 1579 and that he was an old man. The leading datus of the Iranuns and Maranaos all claim descent from him.  5. Datu SalikulaHe was the half-brother of Dimansankay and also known as Gugu Salikula. Up to early 1597, he appeared to be a lading chief of Maguindanao, Dimansankay being dead at that time. According to tarsilas, he married a Sulu princess, and therefore he might have been the Maguindanao chief seen in Jolo in 1597 where he was supposed to have been banished for being “restless and rebellious” and who was further described as a brother-in-law of the Sulu ruler and an uncle of the Maguindanao Rajah Muda (erroneously called “King”) by the Spaniards. He was chief around 1585 to 1597.  6. Kapitan Laut Buisan  He was a younger half-brother of both Dimansankay and Salikula; he was sometimes called by the title “Katchil”. His rule began around 1597 when he displaced Salikula; he controlled his nephew, the Rajah Muda, a son of Dimansankay. He must have been chief at least up to 1619, since Dutch sources mention relations with the immediate predecessor of Qudarat at this date.  7. Sultan Kudarat  A son of Buisan, he was known to the Spaniards as Corralat and to some Dutch writers as Guserat. In 1619-1621, there was war between Buayan and Maguindanao, probably dynastic or a contest for primacy in the Pulangi. Qudarat must have been involved in this war for not long after a temporary reversal he appears as exercising some political power over Buayan. Furthermore, he must have consolidated his power well enough after this to enable him to attack Sarangani in 1625. He died about the end of 1671 after having ruled about half a century. His rule, with varying fortunes and at different capitals can, therefore, be fairly estimated to have taken place from 1619 to 1671. By 1645, he was already using the title of “sultan”. As a young man he was entitled “Katchil”. His great grandchildren referred to him as Nasir ud-Din.  8. Sultan Dundang TidulayHe was a son of Qudarat and there is a report that he died before his father. If he ruled at all, it must have been for a very short time. He was referred to as Saif ud-Din by his grandchildren.9. Sultan Barahaman (Arabic, ‘Abd ur-Rahman) He was a son of Sultan Tidulay. He was also known as Minulu sa rahmatullah. His sons referred to him as Muhammad Shah. He was Almo Sobat (Arabic, Al Mu-Thabbat) to William Dampier or the Almo al Lasab Brahaman to the Spaniards. The name of his grandfather Qudarat was also used by him. He was heard of as sultan early as 1678. Information given to Dutch officials at Ternate was that he died on July 6, 1699.  10. Sultan Kahar Ud-din KudaHe was a younger brother of Barahaman and was sometimes known as Jamal ul-‘Azam. He also assumed the title of Amir ul-‘Umara as well as that of Maulana. His reign was contested by two of his nephews, the sons of Barahaman. To make more secure his authority, he asked the aid of the Sulu Sultan Shahab ud-Din who came over to Simuay where Kuda held court. A misunderstanding as well as bitterness due to a long standing feud brought about a pitched battle between the Sulus and Maguindanaos. In the struggle, the Sulu Sultan personally slew Kuda. This event took place on August 10, 1702.  11. Sultan Bayan Ul-AnwarHis other regal name was Jalal ud-Din. Entitled “Dipatuan” during his lifetime, he was known after his death as Mupat Batua. He was a son of Sultan Barahaman. In 1701, he was already intriguing against his uncle the Sultan. He succeeded to the throne in 1702 and held court in Slangan but was often in Sibugay. His younger brother Ja’far Sadiq, the Rajah Muda, revolted against him but managed to keep the throne. In 1736, Anwar “abdicated” in favor of his son Tahir ud- Din Malinug (no. 13). He died around 1745.  12. Sultan Muhammad Ja’far Sadiq ManamirHe was a younger brother of Sultan Bayan ul-Anwar. He was sometimes referred to as Amir ud-Din. Referred to as Maulana while alive, he was known after his death as Shahid Mupat. He contested the reign of his older brother, but he was forced to flee to Tamontaka in 1710. Dutch officials referred to him as “the young king” to distinguish him from Sultan Bayan ul Anwar. By 1725 he had assumed the title of Paduka Sri Sultan. In March 1733, his brother and nephew Malinug attacked his forces in Tamontaka. The latter caused his death in the ensuing struggle. While his brother had power along the coast, Manamir held sway over the interior. His power was recognized in Tamontaka from about 1710 to his death in March 1733.  13. Sultan Muhammad Tahir Ud-dinA son of Sultan Bayan ul-Anwar, he was commonly known to the Spaniards as Dipatuan Malinug. He was also known as Muhammad Shah Amir ud-Din. In a battle in 1733, he killed his uncle Ja’far Sadiq Manamir. In 1736, his father started sharing with him the responsibilities of government. His authority was however contested by two of his cousins, sons of Manamir, forcing him to retire to the interior where he died in Buayan around 1748.  14. Sultan Muhammad Khair Ud-dinHe was a son of Sultan Ja’far Sadiq and was better known to Europeans as Pakir Maulana Kamsa (Arabic, Faqir Maulana Hamzah) or Amir ud-Din Hamza. He also used the name ‘Azim ud-Din and assumed the title Amir ul-Mu’minin. In 1733, after his father was slain, he began to consider himself heir to the throne and thereupon called himself “rajah muda”. The next year, he was formally invested with the duties of a sultan in the presence of the Spanish officials from Zamboanga. With some Spanish aid, he was able to consolidate his position in Tamontaka and contest the rule of his uncle Bayan ul-Anwar and later that of his cousin Malinug. But upon the latter's death around 1748, the struggle for the sultanate ceased. Pakir Maulana Kamsa emerged as paramount chief of Maguindanao. Around 1755, he started to relinquish some of his powers to his younger brother with the condition that his son, Kibad Sahriyal, would be the “Rajah Muda”.  15. Sultan Pahar Ud-dinHe was a younger brother of Pakir Maulan Kamsa and was known as Datu Pongloc or Panglu. He began to exercise the powers of sultan around 1755 and was in the sultan's seat in that same year when Captain Thomas Forrest paid a visit to Maguindanao. After his death he was known as Mupat Hidayat.  16. Sultan Kibad SahriyalHis more regal title was Muhammad ‘Azim ud-Din Amir ul-Umara. He was a son of Pakir Maulana Kamsa. Even before the death of his uncle the Sultan, he was already being addressed as “sultan”. He was friendly towards the Spaniards and at least twice entered into peaceful negotiations with them, namely, in 1780 and 1794. He probably governed from 1780 to 1805.  17. Sultan Kawasa Anwar Ud-dinHe was a son of Kibad Sahriyal and like his father was also entitled Amir ul-‘Umara. He entered into a peace treaty with the Spaniards in 1805. One of his seals carried the title of Iskandar Julkarnain. He possibly reigned from 1805 to 1830.  18. Sultan Iskandar Qudraullah Muhammad Zamal Ul-AzamHe was more popularly known as Sultan Untong. He was a grandson of Kibad Sahriyal and a nephew of Sultan Kawasa. Some Spanish documents carry his name as Iskandar Qudarat Pahar-ud-Din. In 1837 and 1845, he entered into friendly treaties with the Spaniards. He died either in 1853 and 1854.  19. Sultan Muhammad MakakwaHe was a grandson of Sultan Kawasa Anwar ud-Din. His rule can be estimated to have lasted from about 1854 to 1884. He died in Nuling (in the site of the old settlement of Maguindanao).  20. Sultan Mohammad Jalal Ud-din PabluAlso known as Sultan Wata, he was a son of Sultan Makakwa. His capital was at Banubu, just opposite the town of Cotabato across the Pulangi. His death took place in 1888.  21. Sultan MangiginHe was a grandson of the famous Datu Dakula of Sibugay, who in turn, was a grandson of Kibad Sahriyal (No. 16). He began his rule in 1896. From 1888 to 1896, the sultanate was vacant. This was probably due to the fact that Datu Utto (Sultan Anwar ud-Din of Buayan) wanted his brother-in-law Datu Mamaku (a son of Sultan Qudratullah Untong) to become the Sultan. The Spaniards, however, wanted the sultanate to go to one of the Sibugay datus. Around the end of 1900, Sultan Mangigin transferred his residence from Cotabato to Sibugay. In 1906, he married Rajah Putri, the widow of Datu Utto and sister of Datu Mamaku.  22. Sultan Muhammad Hijaban Iskandar Mastura KudaratHe assumed the throne upon Mangigin's death in 1926. By this time, the Sultanate assumed a very ceremonial traditional character. It continued to be the central institution for traditional and religious affairs of the Maguindanao and Iranun peoples.

Pretenders.

As of May 2018, there are three major royal families in Maguindanao. Each having an enthroned sultan under the Sultanate of Maguindanao, Kingdom of Rajah Buayan, and Domain of Alah Valley.

The Sultanate of Maguindanao (Maguindanaon: "Kasultanan nu Magindanaw"; Jawi: كسولتانن ماڬيندناو; Iranun: "Kesultanan a Magindanao"; ; ) was a Sultanate state that ruled parts of the island of Mindanao, in southern Philippines, especially in modern-day Maguindanao province and Davao City. Its known historical influence stretches from the peninsula of Zamboanga to the bay of Sarangani. During the era of European colonization, the Sultanate maintained friendly relations with British and Dutch traders.

Das Sultanat von Maguindanao war von 1475 bis 1861 ein mächtiges Sultanat auf der Insel Mindanao im Süden der Philippinen.


Location.

The Sanctuary is located 1 1⁄2 miles southeast of Avebury and 4 1⁄2 miles west of Marlborough. It stands on the southern spur of Overton Hill, a location offering views across the Kennet Valley.  Visitors can park on a layby on the southern side of the A4 atop Overton Hill, which is adjacent to the circle. In its present state, the posts of the Sanctuary are marked by concrete markers. The archaeologist Aubrey Burl noted that in its present state, the site is "visually unexciting", representing only a "dull and stunted concrete reproduction" that does "little for the uninstructed imagination". The archaeologists Joshua Pollard and Andrew Reynolds noted that although it was "far from the most spectacular or evocative of the Avebury monuments", the site's significance "should not be understated".

Context.

While the transition from the Early Neolithic to the Late Neolithic in the fourth and third millennia BCE saw much economic and technological continuity, there was a considerable change in the style of monuments erected, particularly in what is now southern and eastern England. By 3000 BCE, the long barrows, causewayed enclosures, and cursuses which had predominated in the Early Neolithic were no longer built, and had been replaced by circular monuments of various kinds. These include earthen henges, timber circles, and stone circles. Stone circles are found in most areas of Britain where stone is available, with the exception of the island's south-eastern corner. They are most densely concentrated in south-western Britain and on the north-eastern horn of Scotland, near Aberdeen. The tradition of their construction may have lasted for 2,400 years, from 3300 to 900 BCE, with the major phase of building taking place between 3000 and 1,300 BCE.  These stone circles typically show very little evidence of human visitation during the period immediately following their creation. This suggests that they were not sites used for rituals that left archaeologically visible evidence, but may have been deliberately left as "silent and empty monuments". The archaeologist Mike Parker Pearson suggests that in Neolithic Britain, stone was associated with the dead, and wood with the living. Other archaeologists have suggested that the stone might not represent ancestors, but rather other supernatural entities, such as deities.  In the area of modern Wiltshire, various stone circles were erected, the best known of which are Avebury and Stonehenge. All of the other examples are ruined, and in some cases have been destroyed. As noted by the archaeologist Aubrey Burl, these examples have left behind "only frustrating descriptions and vague positions". Most of the known Wiltshire examples were erected on low-lying positions in the landscape. There are four smaller stone circles known from the area surrounding Avebury: The Sanctuary, Winterbourne Bassett Stone Circle, Clatford Stone Circle, and Falkner's Circle. Archaeologists initially suggested that a fifth example could be seen at Langdean Bottom, although further investigation has reinterpreted this as evidence for a late prehistoric hut circle or a medieval feature. Burl suggested that these smaller stone related to Avebury in a manner akin to "village churches within the diocese of a cathedral".

Design and construction.

The location on which the Sanctuary was built saw prior human activity. This is reflected by a scatter of Peterborough Ware discovered by archaeologists that possibly extends for several hundred metres to the north of the monument. From its location on Overton Hill, the Sanctuary offers views of various Early Neolithic monuments in the landscape, including the West Kennet Long Barrow, East Kennet Long Barrow, and Windmill Hill.  Excavation revealed that the Sanctuary consisted of two concentric rings with an overall diameter of circa 40 metres. The inner stone circle was encompassed by six concentric rings of post holes, marking where timber posts had once stood.  The first stage of activity at the site, some time around 3000 BC, consisted of a ring of eight wooden posts across, with a central post, presumed to be a round hut. Within 200 years the first ring was enlarged to 6m and a second ring was added, also of eight posts, but this time, perhaps creating a large hut or an enclosure. Phase three, some time in the later Neolthic, a third ring of 33 posts were added, in a circle across, and at the same time an inner stone circle of 15 or 16 sarsen stones was introduced alongside what was by that point the middle ring, making an almost solid wall of stones and posts.  The final phase was of 42 sarsen stones forming a boundary ring across, which replaced all the timber structures. This may have been built at a similar time to the Avebury stone circle, and had an entrance way that led into the Kennet Avenue, two parallel lines of stones running the from The Sanctuary to Avebury.

Links to the West Kennet Avenue.

The Sanctuary connects to the West Kennet Avenue, a line of stones stretching for 2.4 kilometres to the Avebury henge. The point where the West Kennet Avenue connects with the Sanctuary may have been seen as the start of the Avenue or as its finish.

Form and purpose.

When the site was first excavated by Maud and Ben Cunnington in 1930, they were interpreted as a timber equivalent to Stonehenge. 162 postholes were excavated, some with double posts and the remains of postpipes still visible. Later interpretations have made much of The Sanctuary's link with Avebury via the Avenue and suggested that the two sites may have served different but complementary purposes. The timbers may have supported a roof of turf or thatch and been a high status dwelling serving the ritual site at Avebury, although this can only be conjectural. Another interpretation is that it served as a mortuary house where corpses were kept either before or after ritual treatment at Avebury. Neolithic pottery and animal bone were recovered by the Cunningtons, indicating that the site saw some degree of occupation activity. Recent excavation by Mike Pitts has given greater credence to the Cunningtons' original interpretation of freestanding posts.  The site was largely destroyed in around 1723 although not before William Stukeley was able to visit and draw it. Stukeley considered the stones at The Sanctuary to represent the head of a giant pagan serpent marked out by the Kennet and Beckhampton Avenues. Stukeley entitled his 1723 engraving 'The Temple on Overton Hill', whereas even while bemoaning its destruction, he records that "They (i.e. the country people) still call it the Sanctuary."  The 1930 excavation revealed the body of a young girl buried alongside the eastern stone of the inner stone circle. She had been interred with a beaker and animal bones. Her body would have been aligned with the equinoctial sunrises and Burl suggested that she may have been a sacrifice.  It remains uncertain what purpose(s) the structures were put to. As a site that was in use for many hundreds of years it is likely that the purpose, like the form of the structures, changed considerably over the years.

Antiquarian and archaeological investigation.

The Sanctuary was observed by the antiquarian William Stukeley. He drew a picture of it on 8 July 1723, at which he called it the "Temple of Ertha". This was Stukeley's own variant of "Hertha", a name that was current among seventeenth and eighteenth century antiquarians and which was based on a reading of Tacitus' "Germania", a first-century book which claimed that the Suebi of northern Europe worshipped a goddess named Nerthus. When Stukeley returned and did more fieldwork at the Sanctuary on 18 May 1724, he referred to it instead as the "Temple on Overton Hill". Stukeley noted that local people called it "The Sanctuary". The archaeologist Stuart Piggott later noted that this was "a rather improbably name for rural folklore, and suggesting some seventeenth-century antiquarianism at work".  Stukeley's drawings of the Sanctuary depicted them as ovals, whereas later excavations revealed them to be almost perfect circles. He later presented the idea that the circles represented the head of a large serpent marked out in megaliths across the landscape. Stukeley also recorded the destruction of the Sanctuary by local farmers.

The Sanctuary was a stone and timber circle near the village of Avebury in the south-western English county of Wiltshire. Excavation has revealed the location of the 58 stone sockets and 62 post-holes. The ring was part of a tradition of stone circle construction that spread throughout much of Britain, Ireland, and Brittany during the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, over a period between 3300 and 900 BCE. The purpose of such monuments is unknown, although archaeologists speculate that the stones represented supernatural entities for the circle's builders.

The Sanctuary ist ein etwa auf 3000 v. Chr. datierter neolithischer Kultplatz in der Nähe des Avebury Henge. Heute liegt The Sanctuary an der A4 (Landstraße) zwischen Avebury und Silbury Hill. Die erste schriftliche Erwähnung des Kultplatzes erfolgte im Jahre 1668 durch Samuel Pepys. Dieser assoziierte The Sanctuary mit Stonehenge, aber es ist in Wirklichkeit Teil der Kultanlagen um Avebury. Die UNESCO erklärte Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, zu denen The Sanctuary gehört, 1986 zum Weltkulturerbe.


Henry Fowler, 1st Viscount Wolverhampton

Early life.

Fowler was born in Sunderland, the son of Rev, Joseph Fowler. He was educated at Woodhouse Grove School, Apperley Bridge, Bradford (1840–42) and later at St. Saviour's Grammar School, Southwark.  He moved to Wolverhampton and was admitted as a solicitor in 1852. He served as a local councillor and was Mayor of Wolverhampton in 1866. He was chairman of Wolverhampton School Board in 1870, and was a Deputy Lieutenant for Staffordshire and JP for Wolverhampton.

Political career.

At the 1880 general election Fowler was elected as a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for the borough of Wolverhampton, a seat he held until the borough was divided under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. He then was then returned at the 1885 general election as the MP for Wolverhampton East, and held that seat until he was ennobled in 1908. He served under William Ewart Gladstone as Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department from 1884 to 1885, as Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1886 and as President of the Local Government Board from 1892 to 1894 and under Lord Rosebery as Secretary of State for India from 1894 to 1895. In 1886, he was sworn of the Privy Council.  Fowler later held office under Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and H. H. Asquith as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster between 1905 and 1908. The latter year he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Wolverhampton, of Wolverhampton in the County of Stafford, and served under Asquith as Lord President of the Council until 1910. He was widely thought of as a future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, but his ill health prevented this.  In his approach to policymaking, according to Neil Smith, Sir Henry Fowler (who became Viscount Wolverhampton in 1908) was supportive of reform legislation in the areas of pensions, education, and the Poor Law. According to his private secretary, however, he did not have “the patience to suffer Radical and Labour members gladly.”  He was an elected President of The Law Society 1901–02.  Lord Wolverhampton died in February 1911, aged 80.

Family.

Fowler married Ellen Thorneycroft, daughter of ironmaster and first Mayor of Wolverhampton, George Benjamin Thorneycroft, in 1857. They had a son and two daughters.  Their son Henry succeeded to the viscountcy. Their daughters were the authors the Hon. Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler and the Hon. Edith Henrietta Fowler.  Viscountess Wolverhampton's great nephew was Peter Thorneycroft.

Henry Hartley Fowler, 1st Viscount Wolverhampton, (16 May 183025 February 1911) was a British solicitor and Liberal politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1880 until 1908 when he was raised to the peerage. A member of the Wesleyan Methodist Church, he was the first solicitor and the first Methodist to enter the Cabinet or to be raised to the peerage.

Henry Hartley Fowler, 1. Viscount Wolverhampton PC (* 16. Mai 1830 in Sunderland; † 25. Februar 1911), war ein britischer Politiker (Liberal Party). Fowler bekleidete zwischen 1894 und 1920 als Mitglied mehrerer Regierungen verschiedene Ministerposten.


Early life.

Mas Oyama was born as Choi Young-Eui () in Gimje, Korea under Japanese rule. At a young age he was sent to Manchuria, Northeast China to live on his sister's farm. Oyama began studying Chinese martial arts at age 9 from a Chinese farmer who was working on the farm. His family name was Lee and Oyama said he was his very first teacher. The story of the young Oyama's life is written in his earlier books.  In March 1938, Oyama left for Japan following his brother who enrolled in the Yamanashi Aviation School Imperial Japanese Army aviation school. Sometime during his time in Japan, Choi Young-Eui chose his Japanese name, Oyama Masutatsu (), which is a transliteration of "Baedal" (). Baedal was an ancient Korean kingdom known in Japan during Oyama's time as "Ancient Joseon".  One story of Oyama's youth involves Lee giving young Oyama a seed which he was to plant; when it sprouted, he was to jump over it one hundred times every day. As the seed grew and became a plant, Oyama later said, "I was able to jump between walls back and forth easily." The writer, Ikki Kajiwara, and the publisher of the comics based the story on the life experience Oyama spoke to them about – thus the title became "Karate Baka Ichidai" (Karate Fanatic).  In 1963, Oyama wrote "What is Karate" which became a best seller in the US and sold million copies all over the world. It is still considered by many to be the "Bible" of Karate to this day. It was translated into Hungarian, French, and English.

Post-World War II.

In 1945 after the war ended, Oyama left the aviation school. He finally found a place to live in Tokyo. This is where he met his future wife Oyako Chiyako (大山 置弥子) whose mother ran a dormitory for university students.  In 1946, Oyama enrolled in Waseda University School of Education to study sports science.  Wanting the best in instruction, he contacted the Shotokan dojo (Karate school) operated by Gigō Funakoshi, the third son of karate master and Shotokan founder Gichin Funakoshi. He became a student, and began his lifelong career in Karate. Feeling like a foreigner in a strange land, he remained isolated and trained in solitude.  Oyama attended Takushoku University in Tokyo and was accepted as a student at the dojo of Gichin Funakoshi. He trained with Funakoshi for two years, then studied Gōjū-ryū karate for several years with Jok Young Joo ( / 曺(曹)寧柱, 1908–1995), a senior student of the system's founder, Chojun Miyagi. So was a fellow Korean from Oyama's native province.  Around the time he also went around Tokyo getting in fights with the U.S. Military Police. He later reminisced those times in a television interview, "Itsumitemo Haran Banjyo" (Nihon Television), "I lost many friends during the war- the very morning of their departure as Kamikaze pilots, we had breakfast together and in the evening their seats were empty. After the war ended, I was angry- so I fought as many U.S. military as I could, until my portrait was all over the police station." Oyama retreated to a lone mountain for solace to train his mind and body. He set out to spend three years on Mt. Minobu in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. Oyama built a shack on the side of the mountain. One of his students named Yashiro accompanied him, but after the rigors of this isolated training, with no modern conveniences, the student snuck away one night, and left Oyama alone. With only monthly visits from a friend in the town of Tateyama in Chiba Prefecture, the loneliness and harsh training became grueling. Oyama remained on the mountain for fourteen months, and returned to Tokyo a much stronger and fiercer karateka.  Oyama gave great credit to reading "The Book of Five Rings" by Miyamoto Musashi, a famous Japanese swordsman, to change his life completely. He recounts this book as being his only reading material during his mountain training years.  He was forced to leave his mountain retreat after his sponsor had stopped supporting him. Months later, after he had won the Karate Section of Japanese National Martial Arts Championships, he was distraught that he had not reached his original goal to train in the mountains for three years, so he went into solitude again, this time on Mt. Kiyosumi in Chiba Prefecture, Japan and he trained there for 18 months.  While it has been claimed Oyama was a black belt in judo, his student Jon Bluming denied it, also stating Oyama never claimed such.

Founding Kyokushin.

In 1953 Oyama opened his own karate dojo, named Oyama Dojo (form of Gōjū-ryū), in Tokyo but continued to travel around Japan and the world giving martial arts demonstrations, which included knocking live bulls unconscious with his bare hands (sometimes grabbing them by the horn, and snapping the horn off). His dojo was first located outside in an empty lot but eventually moved into a ballet school in 1956. The senior instructors under him were T. Nakamura, K. Mizushima, E. Yasuda, M. Ishibashi, and T. Minamimoto. Oyama's own curriculum soon developed a reputation as a tough, intense, hard-hitting but practical style which was finally named Kyokushinkai (Japan Karate-Do Kyokushinkai), which means 'the ultimate truth,' in a ceremony in 1957. He also developed a reputation for being 'rough' with his students, as the training sessions were grueling and students injuring themselves in practice fighting (kumite) was quite common. Along with practice fighting that distinguished Oyama's teaching style from other karate schools, emphasis on breaking objects such as boards, tiles, or bricks to measure one's offensive ability became Kyokushin's trademark. Oyama believed in the practical application of karate and declared that ignoring 'breaking practice is no more useful than a fruit tree that bears no fruit.' As the reputation of the dojo grew students were attracted to come to train there from inside and outside Japan and the number of students grew. Many of the eventual senior leaders of today's various Kyokushin based organisations began training in the style during this time. In 1964 Oyama moved the dojo into the building that would from then on serve as the Kyokushin home dojo and world headquarters. In connection with this he also formally founded the 'International Karate Organization Kyokushin kaikan' (commonly abbreviated to IKO or IKOK) to organise the many schools that were by then teaching the kyokushin style.  In 1961 at the All-Japan Student Open Karate Championship, one of Oyama's students, Tadashi Nakamura, at 19 years old (1961) made his first tournament appearance, where he was placed first. Nakamura later became Mas Oyama's Chief Instructor as referenced in Mas Oyama's book, "This is Karate." In 1969, Oyama staged the first All-Japan Full Contact Karate Open Championships which took Japan by storm and Terutomo Yamazaki became the first champion, which have been held every year since. In 1975, the first World Full Contact Karate Open Championships were held in Tokyo. World championships have been held at four-yearly intervals since. After formally establishing Kyokushin-kai, Oyama directed the organization through a period of expansion. Oyama and his staff of hand-picked instructors displayed great ability in marketing the style and gaining new members. Oyama would choose an instructor to open a dojo in another town or city in Japan, whereupon the instructor would move to that town, and, typically demonstrate his karate skills in public places, such as at the civic gymnasium, the local police gym (where many judo students would practice), a local park, or conduct martial arts demonstrations at local festivals or school events. In this way, the instructor would soon gain a few students for his new dojo. After that, word of mouth would spread through the local area until the dojo had a dedicated core of students. Oyama also sent instructors to other countries such as the United States, Netherlands, England, Australia and Brazil to spread Kyokushin in the same way. Oyama also promoted Kyokushin by holding "The All-Japan Full Contact Karate Open Championships" every year and "World Full Contact Karate Open Championships" once every four years in which anyone could enter from any style.

Public demonstrations.

Oyama tested himself in a kumite, a progression of fights, each lasting two minutes, and each after the featured participant wins. Oyama devised the 100-man kumite which he went on to complete three times in a row over the course of three days.  He was also known for fighting bulls bare-handed. In his lifetime, he battled 52 bulls, three of which were purportedly killed instantly with one strike, earning him the nickname of "Godhand". However, nowadays his feats are considered as mostly propaganda and legend, with Jon Bluming stating that the Oyama had never fought a true bull in his entire career. According to Joko Ninomiya, Oyama relied on wrestling techniques to ground the ox (similar to steer wrestling) then striking the back of the horn, which is much less durable, failing when he tried chopping the front. In addition, Bluming has quoted Kenji Kurosaki as stating that the horns were often loosened on the oxen with a hammer beforehand.  Oyama had many matches with professional wrestlers during his travels through the United States. Oyama said in the 1958 edition of his book "What Is Karate" that he had just three matches with professional wrestlers plus thirty exhibitions and nine television appearances.

Later years.

In 1946, Oyama married a Japanese woman, Oyako Chiyako (1926-2006) and had three children with her. In the late 1960s, Oyama and Chiyako were having marital problems and decided to separate, and Chiyako, who did not want her husband to start seeing other women, arranged for a Korean woman and family friend named Sun-ho Hong to become Oyama's companion for some time. With Hong, Oyama had three more children and he would remain romantically involved with both Hong and Chiyako until the end of his life.  Later in life, Oyama suffered from osteoarthritis. Despite his illness, he never gave up training. He held demonstrations of his karate, which included breaking objects.  Oyama wrote over 80 books in Japanese and some were translated into other languages.

Final years and death.

Oyama built his Tokyo-based International Karate Organization, Kyokushinkaikan, into one of the world's foremost martial arts associations, with branches in more than 100 countries boasting over 12 million registered members. In Japan, books were written by and about him, feature-length films splashed his colorful life across the big screen, and comic books recounted his many adventures.  Oyama died at the age of 70 in Tokyo, Japan on April 26, 1994 due to lung cancer. His widow Chiyako Oyama, made a trust foundation to honor his lifelong work.

, more commonly known as Mas Oyama, was a karate master who founded Kyokushin Karate, considered the first and most influential style of full contact karate. A Zainichi Korean, he spent most of his life living in Japan and acquired Japanese citizenship in 1968.

Ōyama Masutatsu (* 27. Juli 1923 in der Nähe von Gunsan (heute Südkorea); † 26. April 1994) (in der westlichen Namensreihenfolge "Masutatsu Ōyama" oder oft auch kurz "Mas Ōyama") begründete die Karate-Stilrichtung Kyokushin, einen Vollkontakt-Stil. Geboren wurde er als "Choi Hyung-yee", bevorzugte aber den Namen "Choi Bae-dal", da "Baedal" als Bezeichnung für Koreaner seine koreanische Abstammung betonte. Als Angehöriger der Zainichi, der koreanischen Minderheit in Japan, verbrachte er den Großteil seines Lebens in Japan, obwohl er sowohl die südkoreanische als auch die japanische Staatsbürgerschaft besaß.


History.

The society was founded in 1834 as the Statistical Society of London, though a perhaps unrelated London Statistical Society was in existence at least as early as 1824. At that time there were many provincial statistics societies throughout Britain, but most have not survived. The Manchester Statistical Society (which is older than the LSS) is a notable exception. The associations were formed with the object of gathering information about society. The idea of statistics referred more to political knowledge rather than a series of methods. The members called themselves "statists" and the original aim was "...procuring, arranging and publishing facts to illustrate the condition and prospects of society" and the idea of interpreting data, or having opinions, was explicitly excluded. The original seal had the motto "Aliis Exterendum" (for others to thresh out, i.e. interpret) but this separation was found to be a hindrance and the motto was dropped in later logos. It was many decades before mathematics was regarded as part of the statistical project.

Fellows.

Fellowship of the Royal Statistical Society is open to anyone with an interest in statistics. It is not restricted to only those with high achievement within the discipline. This distinguishes it from other learned societies, where usually the fellow grade is the highest grade in that discipline.

Key figures.

Instrumental in founding the LSS were Richard Jones, Charles Babbage, Adolphe Quetelet, William Whewell, and Thomas Malthus. Among its famous members was Florence Nightingale, who was the society's first female member in 1858. Stella Cunliffe was the first female president. Other notable RSS presidents have included William Beveridge, Ronald Fisher, Harold Wilson, and David Cox. Honorary Secretaries include Gerald Goodhardt (1982–88).

Royal Charter.

The LSS became the RSS (Royal Statistical Society) by Royal Charter in 1887, and merged with the Institute of Statisticians in 1993. The merger enabled the society to take on the role of a professional body as well as that of a learned society. As of 2019 the society claims more than 10,000 members around the world, of whom some 1,500 are professionally qualified, with the status of Chartered Statistician (CStat). In January 2009, the RSS received Licensed Body status from the UK Science Council to award Chartered Scientist status. Since February 2009 the society has awarded Chartered Scientist status to suitably qualified members.  Unusually among professional societies, all members of the RSS are known as "Fellows". Fellowship is nowadays not usually used by post-merger members as a post-nominal mark of distinction. However, before the 1993 merger with the Institute of Statisticians, Fellows did often use the post-nominal letters FSS. Before the merger, Fellows were required to have a statistical qualification. The alternative route was to be proposed by two Fellows. The nomination paper then had to be approved by the Council. After the merger these requirements were dropped and all the previous members of the Institute of Statisticians became Fellows as well. Since then, use by new members of their unearned post-nominal FSS qualification was viewed as inappropriate and strongly discouraged, and it became less common.

Structure.

The RSS has premises (including offices and meeting rooms) in Errol Street, EC1, in the London Borough of Islington close to the boundary with the City of London, between Old Street and Barbican stations.  The society has various local groups in the UK, together with a wide range of topic-related sections and study groups. Each of these sections and groups organises lectures and seminars on statistical topics.

Functions.

The society was particularly engaged with the passage of the Statistics and Registration Service Act 2007, having long argued for legislation on statistics.

Events.

The RSS organises an annual conference. Among the society's awards are the Guy Medals in gold, silver and bronze, in honour of William Guy.  The RSS team reached the finals of "University Challenge: The Professionals 2006", where they were beaten 230 to 125 by a team from the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

Publications.

The society publishes the "Journal of the Royal Statistical Society", which currently consists of three separate series of journals whose contents include papers presented at ordinary meetings of the society, namely Series A ("Statistics in Society"), Series B ("Statistical Methodology") and Series C ("Applied Statistics"), as well as a general audience magazine called "Significance" published in conjunction with the American Statistical Association. In September 2013, the society established "StatsLife", an online magazine website that features news, interviews and opinion from the world of statistics and data.

The Royal Statistical Society (RSS) is one of the established statistical societies. It has three main goals. The RSS is a British learned society for statistics, a professional body for statisticians, and a charity which promotes statistics for the public good.

Die Royal Statistical Society (RSS) (deutsch: Königliche Statistische Gesellschaft) ist eine Gelehrtengesellschaft und eine professionelle Körperschaft für Statistiker in Großbritannien. Sie wurde 1834 als „"Statistical Society of London"“ (deutsch: Statistische Gesellschaft von London) ebendort gegründet. Zu den berühmtesten ehemaligen Mitgliedern zählte Florence Nightingale, die 1858 das erste weibliche Mitglied der Gesellschaft wurde. 1887 wurde aus der "Statistical Society of London" die jetzige "Royal Statistical Society" gebildet. Im Jahre 1993 wurde auch noch das "Institute of Statisticians" (deutsch: Statistisches Institut) integriert.


Toponymy.

The name of the city means rattlesnake in Portuguese; it arises from a variation of the classical Latin "caccabus", meaning "bubbling water boiling". According to legend, a group of settlers camped one night in the region and they were woken by the sound of a rattle; later they realized they set up the camp next to a rattlesnake.

History.

Cycle of "erva mate".

The Caingangue natives inhabited western Paraná, which was occupied by the Spaniards in 1557, when they founded the Ciudad del Real Guayrá, in the current city of Terra Roxa.  A new occupation started in 1730 with troops ("troperismo" in Portuguese), but the settlement of the current city began in the late 1910s by settlers of mixed racial ethnicity ("caboclos" (people of indigenous and European descent), and descendants of Slavic immigrants, at the peak of the cycle of "erva mate".  The village began to form on March 28, 1928, when José Silverio de Oliveira, dubbed "Nho Jeca", bought a glebe from the settler Jose Antonio Elias, in the historical area called Encruzilhada dos Gomes, and which is currently the Cascavel Velho neighborhood. It was at a junction of several trails open by "ervateiros" (cultivators of "erva mate"), drovers and military, where de Oliveira set up his warehouse. His entrepreneurial spirit was key to the arrival of new people, who brought ideas and investments.  From the 1930s and 1940s, thousands of southern settlers, mostly descendants of Poles, Germans, Italians, Ukrainians and caboclos migrating from coffee regions, began logging, farming and raising pigs in the village, which became a district in 1938.  Notably, the locality was already included in military maps from 1924, and the village was made official by the town hall of Foz do Iguaçu in 1936, with the name of Cascavel. The prelate of that city, Monsignor William Maria Thiletzek, renamed it "Aparecida dos Portos" (a brazilian name for Mary, The Mother of Jesus), a name that did not prosper amongst the inhabitants.

Cycle of wood.

In the 1930s, with the cycle of "erva mate" at a close, the surrounding area entered into the so-called "cycle of wood", which attracted a large number of families from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. In particular, there were many Polish, German and Italian settlers, who formed the basis of the municipal population.  As the native forests were depleted, the land became available to agriculture sector, which underpins the present-day economy.  In 1938, Cascavel became an administrative district.

Emancipation.

The municipality of Cascavel was emancipated on November 14, 1951, by state law n° 790, separating it from Iguaçu Falls. For decades there was a discussion about whether this would be the proper date, as the installation of the first municipal government occurred only on December 14, 1952. However, in 2010, with the law n° 5.689, the discussion was put to rest.

Development.

As the cycle of timber closed in the late 1970s, industrialization began along with increased agricultural activity and a rising service industry. In less than six decades, Cascavel went from a rest stop for travelers and trappers, to the largest municipality in western Paraná and one of the largest economic centers in southern Brazil.

List of mayors.

Source: "Jornal Hoje"

Geography.

Climate.

Cascavel is a humid city, with a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa", according to the Köppen climate classification. The annual average temperature is 21 °C (70 °F), with a maximum of 28° (85 °F). Annual average precipitation is 1965 mm (77.362 inches).

Demographics.

According to the IBGE, the population of Cascavel is formed of the following ethnicities

Evolution of the population.

The county has experienced significant population growth since its foundation, especially during the first decades. On the other hand, several municipalities were ultimately removed from Cascavel, which slightly reduced its demographic expansion. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Variation in the preceding 3 years according to IBGE estimates.

Economy.

Cascavel is responsible for 26% of the total production of cereals in the state of Paraná. The main crops are soybeans, wheat, corn, rice, cotton and beans. It is also a big producer of poultry, swine and cattle.  Participation in the municipal GDP:<br>  The main industries are food processing, chemicals, metallurgy, and beverages.  It is the terminus of a metre-gauge railway line that goes to the port of Paranaguá.

Transportation.

The city is served by Adalberto Mendes da Silva Airport.

Universities.

Cascavel is a very important college center. Besides a state university, in recent years the city became an important student hub centre, with an increasing number of private universities starting their activities in the city.

Cascavel is a city of Paraná state, Brazil. Is the fifth most populous city in Paraná with, with 324 476 residents, according IBGE, a government agency. The distance to Curitiba, the state capital, is 491 kilometers by freeway.

Cascavel (offiziell "Município de Cascavel", deutsch "Klapperschlange") ist eine Stadt im brasilianischen Bundesstaat Paraná. Sie hat 316.226 Einwohner (Stand 2016), die "cascavalense" genannt werden, und eine Fläche von 2101 km2.


Life and work.

Brooks was one of four sons (there was also a daughter) of George Brooks, a Congregational minister and well-known political writer including for "The Times". When the family relocated to Norfolk, Brooks attended Banham Grammar School in that county. His first name was a Welsh form of "Edwin"; his second a grandmother's surname. Brooks published his first short story, "Mr Dorien's Missing £2000", in July 1907, when he was seventeen. His first major breakthrough came in 1910, when the paper "The Gem" gave him an assignment to publish a serial named "The Iron Island", the main character being Frank Kingston.  In 1912 he wrote his first Sexton Blake stories and in 1915 started writing stories for the Nelson Lee Library, becoming the lead writer of the detective series after which the publication was named. In 1917 he started the St. Frank's series in that paper, the stories for which he is best remembered. Additional serial assignments followed, including those featuring Clive Derring and Sexton Blake. In 1918 he launched the character of Rupert Waldo, an early superhero.  In 1918 he married Frances (daughter of master tailor Abraham Goldstein), who became his assistant and collaborator through the years. The two took great pride in delivering clean manuscripts for publication throughout their careers. They became a cornerstone of the Amalgamated Press imprints. Their son, Lionel (1928–), wrote "Conquest Calls The Tune" (1968) with his mother, and 1969's "Conquest in Ireland" alone.  The magazines that had published his stories started running into financial trouble in the 1930s, and Brooks started publishing hardcover novels for the adult market in 1938 with the first novel in the Norman Conquest series under the pseudonym of Berkeley Gray. He also published stories and novels as Victor Gunn featuring Ironsides Cromwell. He may have also continued publishing stories through D C Thomson & Co. Ltd, a Dundee-based rival of Amalgamated that was less affected by paper shortage.  His serialised novels included the "Norman Conquest" and "Ironsides Cromwell" stories. "Dare-Devil Conquest" formed the basis for the 1954 movie "Park Plaza 605" starring Tom Conway.

Edwy Searles Brooks (11 November 1889 – 2 December 1965) was a British novelist who also wrote under the pen-names Berkeley Gray, Victor Gunn, Rex Madison, and Carlton Ross. Brooks was born in Hackney, London. He is believed to have written around 40 million words.

Victor Gunn (eigentlich Edwy Searles Brooks; Pseudonyme Robert W. Comrade, Berkeley Gray, Carlton Ross und Rex Madison; * 11. November 1889 in London; † 2. Dezember 1965) war ein englischer Schriftsteller, der über 1000 Romane und Erzählungen schrieb.


History.

In 1870, Hugh G. Harrison provided the money for B.S. Bull and Company, a dry goods wholesaler serving Minneapolis. Though B.S. Bull and Company was short lived, its founders went on to create a similar company. In 1926, SuperValu's direct ancestor, Winston and Newell Company, was founded from the merger of Winston, Harper and Fisher and the Newell Company, two companies founded by B. S. Bull's backers.  Winston and Newell was a charter member of the Independent Grocers Alliance in 1928, but left IGA in 1942 in favor of forming a "virtual chain" of independently owned stores that operated under the SuperValu and U-Save banners. However, it still serves as a supplier to many IGA stores. This concept proved to be such a success that in 1952, the company changed its name to SuperValu Inc. The name was modified to SuperValu in 1992.  The company was first listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1967.

Acquisitions.

In 1963, the company acquired the Food Marketing Corporation of Fort Wayne, Indiana, which traced its roots to the early 1800s, as Bursley & Company. The acquisition of Food Marketing brought SuperValu into the institutional market. George W. McKay, The President of Food Marketing, joined SuperValu as an Executive Vice President and later as President and Chief Executive Officer of SuperValu in 1970.  In 1971, the discount store chain ShopKo was acquired by SuperValu, Inc., and was spun off in 1991 to form a separate, publicly traded company. SuperValu retained a 46% interest in the new company, which Shopko later purchased in 1997. SuperValu founded the clothing store County Seat in 1973 and sold it to Carson Pirie Scott in 1983.  In 1975, SuperValu acquired Hornbacher's.  In 1980, the company acquired Minnesota-based Cub Foods, which operated five stores in the Twin Cities area. As of 2011, Cub is operating more than 73 stores in Minnesota and Illinois.  In the early 1990s, SuperValu started acquiring several chains such as "Scott's Food & Pharmacy" in 1991, Wetterau, Inc. and its holdings "Shop 'n Save" and "Save-A-Lot" in 1992, and "bigg's" in 1994. Scotts & Biggs have been divested. Biggs was sold to Remke Markets and Kroger bought Scotts. SuperValu acquired Richfood Holdings for $1.5 billion, adding a Mid-Atlantic distribution presence and stores including "Farm Fresh Food & Pharmacy", "Shoppers Food & Pharmacy", and "Metro".  In 2003, SuperValu acquired the former Midwest operations of Fleming Companies from C&S Wholesale Grocers, including the Sentry Foods and Festival Foods brands.  On January 23, 2006, SuperValu announced that it, along with CVS Corporation and a collection of investors led by Cerberus Group, agreed to acquire Albertsons, Inc. for $9.7 billion. The acquisition was completed on June 2, 2006.  SuperValu acquired over 2150 stores in the deal including:  In 2009, former Walmart executive Craig Herkert took over for Jeff Noddle as CEO of SuperValu.  On January 6, 2011, SuperValu announced it would close 20 underperforming stores. On January 11, 2011, SuperValu reported a loss of $202 million for the quarter; revenue also fell 6% to $8.67 billion. Stock prices fell 12 percent to $7.52 per share.  In September 2011, SuperValu announced the sale of all but 27 of its fuel centers to several convenience store chains, including Tesoro, Holiday Stationstores, Couche-Tard (which operates Circle K Stores), and Stinker Stores. The company announced that it was seeking buyers for the remaining fuel centers as well.  In 2012, SuperValu operated 2,505 food and food/drug combination stores, 878 in-store pharmacies, and 117 fuel centers and served as primary distributor to an additional 2,200 stores. SuperValu also supplied a network of independent retailers (often found in smaller cities) that sometimes use the SuperValu name. However, these stores were not owned by the company. SuperValu also franchised the Cub Foods and Save-A-Lot brands to independent retailers. The company operated on a strategy of effective and efficient food distribution, conducting its retail food operations through a total of 2,349 retail food stores that were supplied by 32 distribution centers.  On July 11, 2012, after the close of trading, SuperValu reported net sales of $10.6 billion and net earnings of $41 million for the first quarter of fiscal year 2013, compared to net sales of $11.1 billion and net earnings for $74 million for the year-earlier period. Those results sent SuperValu shares down some 45% after the start of trading on July 12, 2012, and hurt performance of other outstanding SuperValu debt, including its high yield bonds and CDS (credit default swap).  On July 30, 2012, Craig Herkert was let go as CEO of SuperValu, replaced with Wayne Sales. Sales was CEO of Canadian Tire from 2000 to 2006.  In January 2013, the company announced it was selling the Acme Markets, Shaw's, and Jewel-Osco chains and their remaining Albertsons stores to Cerberus Capital Management for $100 million in cash with Cerberus assuming $3.2 billion in existing debt. SuperValu would keep its Cub, Farm Fresh, Shoppers Food & Pharmacy and Shop ‘n Save brands as well as its wholesale supply operation while the Acme, Shaw's, Star Market, and Jewel-Osco stores were reunited with Albertsons. The deal closed March 21, 2013. On March 14, 2018 Supervalu announced it would be closing 21 of its 38 Farm Fresh locations, selling 18 to Kroger and 3 to Food Lion.  On January 13, 2013, Sam Duncan, who had retired as CEO of OfficeMax in 2011, was named CEO of SuperValu. Duncan announced his retirement in October 2015.  In July 2016, it was announced that SuperValu had entered into a purchase agreement with Ahold and Delhaize Group for 22 Food Lion locations in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia as part of the divestiture of stores to gain clearance from the Federal Trade Commission for the Ahold/Delhaize merger. The 22 stores were rebranded under the Shop ‘n Save retail banner.  On February 3, 2016, Mark Gross was named CEO of SuperValu, replacing Sam Duncan.  In October 2016, SuperValu announced they were selling Save-A-Lot to Onex Corporation.  In April 2017, the company announced that it had entered into a $375 million merger agreement with Unified Grocers, based in Commerce, California, in which Unified Grocers would become a wholly owned subsidiary of SuperValu when the merger is completed. The deal is expected to be finalized in late summer 2017, with the merger process then taking about two years to implement. Later in 2017, SuperValu acquired Associated Grocers of Florida.

Sale of Company.

On July 26, 2018, United Natural Foods agreed to buy Supervalu for $2.9 billion in cash.  On October 22, 2018, UNFI completed the acquisition of Supervalu. Sean Griffin was named the CEO of Supervalu, replacing Mark Gross.

Overview.

As a supplier to IGA stores for over 80 years, SuperValu necessarily has formed close relationships with these family owned grocery businesses, some of which have had relationships with the corporation for over two or three generations. But Walmart's newly arrived grocery competition to these stores also affects SuperValu, Inc. In addition, SuperValu is selling its Shop 'n' Save stores in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania market as a result of being unable to compete with Walmart and fast-growing local chain Giant Eagle. Most will be sold to independent owners, and continue to operate under the Shop 'n' Save banner. SuperValu will continue to supply all area FoodLand, Save-A-Lot and the independent Shop 'n' Save locations of western Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia.  SuperValu enjoys economies of scale when dealing with the well-known national food firms like Kraft Foods, General Mills, Kellogg's, the beer manufacturers, meat suppliers, produce suppliers and dairy suppliers, as well as the health and beauty product suppliers, by purchasing in bulk and then distributing the goods by Direct Store Delivery from its distribution centers, which are located nationwide.  The ethnic foods market is an emerging sector and remains a challenge for this business, as well as the natural and organic foods sector, as there are no clear market leaders for the corporation to deal with in these sectors. It remains to be seen whether SuperValu's tradition of dealing with small grocery businesses can be extended to these emerging markets.  SuperValu brands include:  • Arctic Shores  • Baby Basics  • Carlita  • Culinary Circle  • Equaline  • Essential Everyday  • Farm Fresh  • Farm Stand  • Flavorite  • WholeCare Pet  • Homelife  • Java Delight  • Max Velocity  • NutriPlan  • Richfood  • Shoppers Value  • Stockman & Dakota  • Stone Ridge Creamery  • SuperChill  • SuperCrunch  • Wild Harvest  SuperValu also owns two third-party logistics firms, Advantage Logistics and Total Logistic Control. In 2005, SuperValu launched a specialty produce company, W. Newell & Company which is headquartered in Champaign, Illinois.

Market share.

As of 2006, SuperValu has a leading market share position in several markets where it has operations. (Operations with a + denoted indicate operations SuperValu has divested.)

Chains.

At the time of its acquisition by United Natural Foods in 2018, the company operated under multiple retail banners, or chains:

Former chains.

SuperValu had previously operated other chains:

Product labels.

Many of the banners have "private labels".  These are the current active private label brands for SuperValu: Some of the older inactive private label brands are:

Culture.

Diversity.

SuperValu received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign starting in 2008.

Environment.

Cub Foods and its parent company, SuperValu, was the first grocer in Minnesota to be awarded LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Gold NC2.2 Certification for one of its stores. The Cub store, located in the Phalen neighborhood of St. Paul is one of just three grocery stores in the nation to successfully achieve LEED Gold Certification.  Albertsons was the first major retailer to earn a LEED Certification on their remodeled La Habra store. It features water saving faucets, over 40 skylights, "Night" curtains over open cold cases and LED lighting.  In August 2009, SuperValu was recognized by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for achieving their emissions target.

Controversy.

In June 2002, SuperValu announced it would restate previous financial reports due to accounting irregularities uncovered at its pharmacy division. As a result, shares of the company slumped 18 percent. On July 12, 2002, SuperValu lost a lawsuit over the use of improper accounting practices regarding the cost of goods sold for at least the previous four years, and paid a $4,000,000 settlement.

Customer Data Security Breaches.

SuperValu sent a letter to My Cub Rewards members on August 25, 2014 who provided their data and shoppers who used credit cards during the period between June 22, 2014 (at the earliest) through July 17, 2014 (at the latest) at 209 SuperValu stores and stand-alone liquor stores who may have been affected by a data security breach. SuperValu posted this information on their website in a press release dated August 14, 2014. Information on the affected stores and eligibility for customers on identity protection programs are available on SuperValu's press release site.

SuperValu, Inc. is an American wholesaler and retailer of grocery products. The company, headquartered in the Minneapolis suburb of Eden Prairie, Minnesota, has been in business since 1926 It is a wholly owned subsidiary of UNFI.

Supervalu ist ein US-amerikanisches Lebensmittel-Einzelhandelsunternehmen mit Firmensitz in Eden Prairie, Minnesota. Das Unternehmen wurde 1870 von Hugh G. Harrison gegründet. "Supervalu" beschäftigt rund 200.000 Mitarbeiter.


Accident.

Shortly after 13:40 UTC (20:40 Jakarta time) above the Indian Ocean, south of Java, the flight crew (consisting of 32-year-old Senior First Officer Roger Greaves, 40-year-old Senior Engineer Officer Barry Townley-Freeman, and 41-year-old Captain Eric Moody) heading to the lavatory first noticed an unusual effect on the windscreen similar to St. Elmo's fire. Despite the weather radar showing clear skies, the crew switched on engine anti-ice and the passenger seat belt signs as a precaution.  As the flight progressed, smoke began to accumulate in the passenger cabin of the aircraft; it was first assumed to be cigarette smoke. However, it soon began to grow thicker and had an odour of sulphur. Passengers who had a view of the aircraft's engines through the window noted that they were unusually bright blue, with light shining forward through the fan blades and producing a stroboscopic effect.  At approximately 13:42 UTC (20:42 Jakarta time), the number four Rolls-Royce RB211 engine began surging and soon flamed out. The flight crew immediately performed the engine shutdown drill, quickly cutting off fuel supply and arming the fire extinguishers. Less than a minute later, at 13:43 UTC (20:43 Jakarta time), engine two surged and flamed out. Within seconds, and almost simultaneously, engines one and three flamed out, prompting the flight engineer to exclaim, "I don't believe it—all four engines have failed!"  Without engine thrust, a 747-200 has a glide ratio of approximately 15:1, meaning it can glide forward 15 miles for every mile it drops. The flight crew quickly determined that the aircraft was capable of gliding for 23 minutes and covering from its flight level of. At 13:44 UTC (20:44 Jakarta time), Greaves declared an emergency to the local air traffic control authority, stating that all four engines had failed. However, Jakarta Area Control misunderstood the message, interpreting the call as meaning that only engine number four had shut down. After a nearby Garuda Indonesia flight relayed the message to them, air traffic control correctly understood the urgent message. Despite the crew "squawking" the emergency transponder setting of 7700, air traffic control could not locate the 747 on their radar screens.  Many passengers, fearing for their lives, wrote notes to relatives. One such passenger was Charles Capewell, who scrawled "Ma. In trouble. Plane going down. Will do best for boys. We love you. Sorry. Pa XXX" on the cover of his ticket wallet.  Owing to the high Indonesian mountains on the south coast of the island of Java, an altitude of at least was required to cross the coast safely. The crew decided that if the aircraft was unable to maintain altitude by the time they reached they would turn back out to sea and attempt to ditch into the Indian Ocean. The crew began engine restart drills, despite being well outside the recommended maximum engine in-flight start envelope altitude of. The restart attempts failed.  Despite the lack of time, Moody made an announcement to the passengers that has been described as "a masterpiece of understatement":  As pressure within the cabin fell, oxygen masks dropped from the ceiling – an automatic emergency measure to make up for the lack of air. On the flight deck, however, Greaves's mask was broken; the delivery tube had detached from the rest of the mask. Moody swiftly decided to descend at 1,800 m per minute to an altitude where there was enough pressure in the outside atmosphere to breathe almost normally.  At, the crew was approaching the altitude at which they would have to turn over the ocean and attempt a risky ditching. Although there were guidelines for the water landing procedure, no one had ever tried it in a Boeing 747. As they performed the engine restart procedure, engine number four finally started, and at 13:56 UTC (20:56 Jakarta time), Moody used its power to reduce the rate of descent. Shortly thereafter, engine three restarted, allowing him to climb slowly. Shortly after that, engines one and two successfully restarted as well. The crew subsequently requested and expedited an increase in altitude to clear the high mountains of Indonesia.  As the aircraft approached its target altitude, the St. Elmo's fire effect on the windscreen returned. Moody throttled back; however, engine number two surged again and was shut down. The crew immediately descended and held.  As Flight 9 approached Jakarta, the crew found it difficult to see anything through the windscreen, and made the approach almost entirely on instruments, despite reports of good visibility. The crew decided to fly the instrument landing system (ILS); however, the vertical guidance system was inoperative, so they were forced to fly with only the lateral guidance as the first officer monitored the airport's distance measuring equipment (DME). He then called out how high they should be at each DME step along the final approach to the runway, creating a virtual glide slope for them to follow. Moody described it as "a bit like negotiating one's way up a badger's arse." Although the runway lights could be made out through a small strip of the windscreen, the landing lights on the aircraft seemed to be inoperable. After landing, the flight crew found it impossible to taxi, due to glare from apron floodlights which made the already sandblasted windscreen opaque.

Investigation.

Post-flight investigation revealed that "City of Edinburgh"'s problems had been caused by flying through a cloud of volcanic ash from the eruption of Mount Galunggung. Because the ash cloud was dry, it did not appear on the weather radar, which was designed to detect the moisture in clouds. The cloud sandblasted the windscreen and landing light covers and clogged the engines. As the ash entered the engines, it melted in the combustion chambers and adhered to the inside of the power-plant. As the engine cooled from inactivity, and as the aircraft descended out of the ash cloud, the molten ash solidified and enough of it broke off for air to again flow smoothly through the engine, allowing a successful restart. The engines had enough electrical power to restart because one generator and the on-board batteries were still operating; electrical power was required for ignition of the engines.

Aftermath.

Engines one, two and three were replaced at Jakarta, as well as the windscreen, and the fuel tanks were cleared of the ash that had entered them through the pressurisation ducts, contaminating the fuel and requiring that it be disposed of. After the aircraft was ferried back to London, engine number four was replaced and major work was undertaken to return the 747 to service.  Although the airspace around Mount Galunggung was closed temporarily after the accident, it was reopened days later. It was only after a Singapore Airlines 747 was forced to shut down three of its engines while flying through the same area nineteen days later (13 July) that Indonesian authorities closed the airspace permanently and rerouted airways to avoid the area; a watch was set up to monitor clouds of ash. Flight 9 was not the first encounter with this eruption – a Garuda DC-9 had encountered ash on 5 April 1982.  The crew received various awards, including the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air for Moody, and medals from the British Airline Pilots' Association. G-BDXH's engineless flight entered the "Guinness Book of Records" as the longest glide in a non-purpose-built aircraft (this record was later broken by Air Canada Flight 143 in 1983 and Air Transat Flight 236 in 2001).  One of the passengers, Betty Tootell, wrote a book about the accident, "All Four Engines Have Failed", having managed to trace some 200 of the 247 passengers on the flight. In 1993, Tootell married fellow passenger James Ferguson, who had been seated in the row in front of her. She later noted: "The 28th December 2006 marks the start of our 14th year of honeymoon, and on the 24th June 2007 many passengers and crew will no doubt gather to celebrate the 25th anniversary of our mid-air adventure."  British Airways continued to operate the Flight 9 route from London Heathrow to Sydney but on March 2012, the route was curtailed to Bangkok, and the aircraft operating this route is now a Boeing 777-200ER. "City of Edinburgh", later renamed "City of Elgin", continued to fly for British Airways after the accident, before being sold to European Aviation Air Charter. The aircraft was taken out of service in February 2004 and in July 2009 the then 30-year-old aircraft was broken up at a breaking facility at Bournemouth International Airport (BOH). It has been reported that in September 2009 the environmental group bought the fuselage of "City of Edinburgh" to be made into tags. Despite a BBC report of this, the remains of the fuselage had been removed from the facility by that time. The tags, bearing the campaign's logo, were reportedly worn as necklaces or bracelets to raise awareness of 10:10's work: the organisation aimed to persuade individuals, organisations and businesses to reduce their carbon emissions by 10% in 2010.  Captain Eric Moody gave an interview to the July 2010 edition of Flaps Podcast, where he recounted his experience.

In popular culture.

The Discovery Channel Canada / National Geographic TV series "Mayday" featured Flight 9 in a 2007 episode titled "Falling From the Sky" or "All Engines Failed" which featured interviews with the flight crew and passengers, and a dramatization of the flight.

British Airways Flight 9, sometimes referred to by its callsign Speedbird 9 or as the Jakarta incident, was a scheduled British Airways flight from London Heathrow to Auckland, with stops in Bombay, Kuala Lumpur, Perth, and Melbourne.

British-Airways-Flug 9 war ein Linienflug der British Airways von London Heathrow nach Auckland, Neuseeland, mit Zwischenstopps in Bombay, Madras, Kuala Lumpur, Perth und Melbourne. Am 24. Juni 1982 flog die "City of Edinburgh", eine Boeing 747-200 ("236B") mit dem Kennzeichen G-BDXH, nachts in eine Wolke aus Vulkanasche, die von der Eruption des Vulkans Gunung Galunggung herrührte. Beim Durchfliegen der Aschewolke fielen alle vier Triebwerke aus. Nach längerem Gleitflug gelang es der Besatzung – die keinerlei Informationen über den Vulkanausbruch hatte, und sich daher, in Unkenntnis der Ursache, die Triebwerksausfälle und die anderen aufgetretenen Phänomene nicht erklären konnte – die Triebwerke wieder zu starten und schließlich mit drei laufenden Triebwerken auf dem Flughafen Jakarta/Halim Perdanakusuma notzulanden.


History.

The area is situated on the site of Dakota Sioux trails that connected two sites of cultural significance to the Dakota people, the pipestone quarries in southwestern Minnesota and the Sioux Crossing of the Three Rivers, near present-day Fort Thompson. South Dakota Highway 34 now roughly follows this route.  The Fort Ridgely and South Pass Wagon Road, also known as Nobles Trail, the first road in Dakota Territory, passed through the area. It was made in 1857, connecting Fort Ridgley, Minnesota with South Pass in Wyoming Territory, along the Oregon Trail. The Minnesota and Powder River Road of 1865 also passed through the county.  The boundaries of present-day Miner County experienced several changes during territorial times. The county was established in 1873 by the Dakota Territorial Legislature when Hanson County was divided into several parts. It was named for Ephriam Miner, a territorial legislator, and Nelson Miner, a territorial legislator and captain in the 1st Dakota Cavalry. At the time, Miner County spanned the southern half of present-day Miner and Sanborn counties; Bramble County (now extinct) spanned the northern portion of these counties. In 1879 the legislature combined Miner, Bramble, and portions of Wetmore counties, and eliminated the latter two. The new Miner County was organized the following year with Forestburg as the county seat. In 1883 the county was divided; the western portion being renamed Sanborn County, and the eastern portion retaining the name Miner County. Howard was named the county seat of Miner County.  In 1881 the Milwaukee Road railroad opened tracks in Miner County that followed Fort Ridgely Road from east to west, connecting Madison to Woonsocket. The Chicago and North Western railroad opened tracks from Hawarden, Iowa, to Iroquois, crossing northwest across the county in 1882. These railroads have since abandoned their tracks in the county.  The first settler in Miner County was Matthew A. Moore, who homesteaded near the present site of Howard in the spring of 1879. Significant homesteading started in the latter part of 1879 and concluded in 1884, when all available government land had been claimed. Settlers were primarily Norwegian, German, Danish, Welsh, Irish and Swedish.  On August 28, 1884, the second known photograph of a tornado was taken in Miner County. See 1884 Howard, South Dakota tornado.  The current Miner County Courthouse was built in 1938 at a cost of $107,000 by the Great Depression-era Public Works Administration and was dedicated on September 26, 1938.  On June 13, 1943, two B-17 bombers from the 393rd Bomb Group of the Sioux City Army Air Base collided while on a training exercise over Miner County. One plane crashed immediately, and the other made a controlled landing in a creek bed several miles away. Eleven airmen were killed.

Geography.

The terrain of Miner County consists of rolling hills, dotted with lakes and ponds, and generally devoted to agriculture. The terrain generally slopes to the south and southwest, with its highest point occurring along the north boundary line in the NE part of the county, at 1,729' (530m) ASL. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.3%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 2,884 people, 1,212 households, and 789 families in the county. The population density was 5 people per square mile (2/km2). There were 1,408 housing units at an average density of 2 per square mile (1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.75% White, 0.52% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.10% Asian, 0.10% from other races, and 0.21% from two or more races. 0.62% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,212 households out of which 28.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.50% were married couples living together, 5.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.90% were non-families. 32.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.98.  The county population contained 25.50% under the age of 18, 5.60% from 18 to 24, 22.70% from 25 to 44, 22.30% from 45 to 64, and 23.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 99.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.00 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $29,519, and the median income for a family was $36,667. Males had a median income of $25,297 versus $20,469 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,155. About 8.20% of families and 11.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.70% of those under age 18 and 13.20% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 2,389 people, 1,032 households, and 606 families in the county. The population density was. There were 1,308 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 97.8% white, 0.4% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.1% black or African American, 0.7% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.3% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 54.2% were German, 20.7% were Norwegian, 12.4% were Irish, 5.7% were English, 5.7% were Swedish, and 4.2% were American.  Of the 1,032 households, 24.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 41.3% were non-families, and 37.6% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.97. The median age was 46.4 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $43,958 and the median income for a family was $54,650. Males had a median income of $33,984 versus $25,221 for females. The per capita income for the county was $25,450. About 2.7% of families and 8.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.2% of those under age 18 and 15.4% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Miner County voters have tended to vote Republican the past two decades. In 57% of the national elections since 1960, the county selected the Democratic Party candidate.

Miner County is a county in the U.S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 2,389. Its county seat is Howard. The county was created in 1873 and organized in 1880.

Miner County ist ein County im Osten des Bundesstaates South Dakota der Vereinigten Staaten. Der Sitz der Countyverwaltung (County Seat) ist in Howard.