Life.

He was the son of Jean de Bay, a farmer in Bauffe and later in Lombise. (Which is now the province of Hainaut). De Bay attended humanities education in Brugelette and in Enghien and in 1533 he began studying philosophy at the college De Varken of Leuven University. From 1535 he also studied theology at the Pope's College. He was an excellent student and was ordained a priest in 1541. The following year he became director of the Leuven Standonk College. In 1544 De Bay obtained his doctorate in philosophy and becameteacher at the college Het Varken. In 1549 De Bay was appointed professor of scholastic philosophy. The following year, De Bay also obtained a license in theology and became president of the Pope's College. Emperor Charles V appointed De Bay professor of writing in 1552, a task he would carry on until his death. From February to August 1553, he was the rector of the university.  Together with Jan Hessels, professor of theology in Leuven from 1554, and Josse Ravesteyn, De Bay started working on new ideas to better combat the Protestants. The Bay based his theology on Holy Scripture and the Fathers of the Church, especially on the teaching of Augustine of Hippo, introducing deviant scholastic terminologies. His doctrine, later referred to as "Bajanism", was based on the sin, free will, and grace of God along with the fight against papal infallibility by saying that the episcopal legal power comes directly from God.  De Bay's belief was very successful with theology students who spread it further out. This was met with much opposition, and around 1558, later Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle and Viglius tried unsuccessfully to persuade De Bay to make some adjustments to his positions. However, in 1560 De Sorbonne condemned 18 of his statements written by Franciscus Sablonius, a minor brother and student of De Bay.

Career.

In 1563 he was nominated one of the Belgian representatives at the Council of Trent, but arrived too late to take an important part in its deliberations. Indeed, there was resistance to his presence at the Council, and he was allowed to attend only under the auspices of the King of Spain. The Council Fathers looked upon him with not a little suspicion. At Leuven, however, he obtained a great name as a leader in the anti-scholastic reaction of the 16th century. The champions of this reaction fought under the banner of Augustine of Hippo though paradoxically undermined Augustine's doctrine of grace; as a result, Baius' heterodox-Augustinian predilections brought him into conflict with Rome on questions of grace, free-will and the like. In various respects, Baius was rightly seen as Pelagian. In 1567 Pope Pius V condemned seventy-nine propositions from his writings in the papal bull "Ex omnibus afflictionibus". To this Baius submitted; though certain indiscreet utterances on the part of himself and his supporters led to a renewal of the condemnation in 1579 by Pope Gregory XIII. Baius, however, was allowed to retain his professorship, and even became chancellor of Leuven in 1575.

Death.

He died, still holding these two offices, in 1589. His writings are described by Adolf Harnack as a curious mixture of Catholic orthodoxy and unconscious tendencies to Protestantism. His principal works were published in a collected form at Cologne, 1696; some large treatises were excluded. There is a study of both books and author by Linsenmann, "Michael Baius und die Grundlegung des Jansenismus", published at Tübingen in 1867. Baius is often seen in his relation to the latter movement of Jansenism and the Port-Royal theologians such as Blaise Pascal.

Further reading.

Henri de Lubac, "Augustinianism and Modern Theology" (Herder & Herder) This has a treatment of Baius's theology, especially his interpretations of Augustine and his relationship to Jansenius and Jansenism.

Michael Baius (151316 September 1589) was a Belgian theologian. He came up with the school of thought now known as Baianism.

Michael Bajus (eigentlich Michael de Bay; * 1513 in Melin im Hennegau; † 16. Dezember 1589 in Löwen) war einer der bedeutendsten Theologen der katholischen Kirche im 16. Jahrhundert. Seine Lehre wurde als Bajanismus bekannt.


Life.

Gmelin was a son of the physician, botanist and chemist Johann Friedrich Gmelin and his wife Rosine Schott. Due to his family he early came in contact with medicine and the natural sciences, in 1804 he attended the chemical lectures of his father. In the same year Gmelin moved to Tübingen to work in the family pharmacy, he also studied at the University of Tübingen among other relatives like Ferdinand Gottlieb Gmelin ( a cousin ) and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer ( husband of a cousin ). Supported by Kielmeyer, Gmelin moved to the University of Göttingen in 1805 and later he worked as assistant in the laboratory of Friedrich Stromeyer, by whom he successfully passed his exams in 1809.  Leopold Gmelin returned to Tübingen and again heard the lectures of Ferdinand Gottlieb Gmelin and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer. In February 1811 Gmelin clashed with the medical student Gutike, according to an insult he challenged him to a duel, without serious injuries. Because duels were forbidden among students the incident was kept a secret at first, he nevertheless came to light. On March 10 Gmelin fled and went to Joseph Franz von Jacquin at the University of Vienna. Focus of his research was the "Black pigment of oxen and calves eyes", outcome of this work was also the subject of Gmelins dissertation. In 1812 he received his doctorate in Göttingen in absentia. Until 1813 Gmelin went on an extensive study trip through Italy. After his return, he began to work as a Privatdozent at the Heidelberg University since the winter semester of 1813/14, at first he worked on his Habilitation in Göttingen. On 26 September of the following year he was appointed associate professor in Heidelberg.  In the fall of 1814, he went on another educational trip to Paris to study at the Sorbonne, he remained there until the spring of 1815. Together with his cousin, Christian Gottlob Gmelin he made the acquaintance of René Just Haüy, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, Louis Jacques Thénard and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin.  1816 Gmelin married Louise in Heidelberg-Kirchheim, a daughter of the Kirchheimer pastor Johann Conrad Maurer, the lawyer Georg Ludwig von Maurer became his brother-in-law. Together they had three daughters and one son, including Auguste, the future wife of the physician Theodor von Dusch.  When the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth died in Berlin in 1817, Gmelin should have succeeded him. However, he refused and became full Professor of Chemistry at the Heidelberg University. There, a close cooperation with Friedrich Tiedemann evolved with time. The two published "The digestion after tests" in 1826 and established the basis of the physiological chemistry. In the field of digestive chemistry Gmelin later discovered more components of bile and introduced Gmelin's test. When Friedrich Wöhler worked on complex cyanogen compounds in 1822, Gmelin assisted him and discovered the "Red prussiate".  From 1833 to 1838 Gmelin owned a paper mill in the north of Heidelberg situated Schriesheim, he had taken it over in the hope of profit. However, the work in the mill showed to be very time- and money-consuming and at the expense of his academic activity.  In 1817 the first volume of Gmelins Handbook of Chemistry was published. Till 1843 it was grown in the fourth edition up to 9 volumes. In this edition Gmelin included the Atomtheory and devoted much more space to the increasingly important organic chemistry. The terms Ester and Ketone were introduced by Gmelin. Until his death Gmelin worked on the fifth edition of the handbook, which he has made himself worthy of the chemical information and documentation. He also established the basis for the Gmelin system, which later was named after him, for unambiguous classification of inorganic substances.  At the age of 60 Gmelin suffered a first stroke, another in August 1850. In both strokes the right half of his body was hit, he was able to recover from the paralysis, but remained debilitated. In the spring of 1851 Gmelin applied for his retirement, which was granted him a few months later. In the two following years he suffered increasingly from the effects of a brain illness, at nearly 65 years Leopold Gmelin died on 13 April 1853 in Heidelberg and was buried at the Mountain Cemetery in Heidelberg. The grave complex is located in the department E. There also rests his wife Luise Gmelin and more family members.

Work.

In his works Leopold Gmelin dealt with physiology, mineralogy and chemistry. His experimental work was marked by his very thorough and comprehensive way of working; also some writing talent is attributed to him.  Gmelin's first physiological work was his dissertation on the black pigment of oxen's and calves' eyes, whose "coloring principle" he tried to fathom. Despite the simplest chemical means he could describe the properties of the pigment and recognized the carbon rightly as the cause of staining. Gmelin's most important physiological work was the 1826 released "digestion by experiments", which he made together with Friedrich Tiedemann. The work, which also described many new working techniques, contained groundbreaking insights into the gastric juice, in which they found hydrochloric acid, and bile, in which Gmelin and Tiedemann among others discovered cholesterol and taurine. Introduced by Gmelin, Gmelin's test enabled the detection of bile constituents in the urine of people suffering from jaundice. Furthermore, Gmelin and Tiedemann delivered a new, more refined view of the absorption of nutrients through the gastrointestinal tract; they were the founders of modern physiology.  The mineralogical works of Gmelin were analyses of various minerals, such as the Hauyne with which he made his habilitation in Göttingen, or the Laumontite and the Cordierite. In addition, Gmelin also analysed mineral waters and in 1825 published the work "try of a new chemical mineral system", since he knew that the time's usual division on outer or physical characteristics was inadequate. Leopold Gmelin's mineral system was taken largely critical among experts, but the basic idea of an order based on the chemical composition proved to be useful.  Gmelin released the "Handbook of theoretical chemistry", which was continued as the "Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry" until 1997 in about 800 volumes by the Gmelin Institute, and it is continued by the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker as a database. The manual, even during his lifetime his most important work, was initially intended to be a textbook, which should unite the whole chemical knowledge at that time. Due to the enormous increase in knowledge and the associated development of the handbook into a reference book, Gmelin published a compact textbook of chemistry in 1844. His chemical achievements include the discovery of the Croconic acid; he thus had synthesised the first cyclic organic compound, and the previously mentioned discovery of the red prussiate.  Leopold Gmelin besides also developed a forerunner of the Periodic table and improved chemical equipment.

Leopold Gmelin (2 August 1788 – 13 April 1853) was a German chemist. Gmelin was professor at the University of Heidelberg among other things, he worked on the red prussiate and created Gmelin's test.

Leopold Gmelin (* 2. August 1788 in Göttingen; † 13. April 1853 in Heidelberg) war ein deutscher Chemiker. Gmelin war Professor an der Universität Heidelberg und arbeitete unter anderem über Ferricyankalium (rotes Blutlaugensalz, Kaliumhexacyanidoferrat(III)).


Prehistory and antiquity.

After the glaciers of the Vistula Glacial Stage retreated from Pomerania during the Allerød oscillation, a warming period that falls within the Early Stone Age, they left a tundra. First humans appeared, hunting reindeer in the summer. A climate change in 8000 BC allowed hunters and foragers of the Maglemosian culture, and from 6000 BC of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture, to continuously inhabit the area. These people became influenced by farmers of the Linear Pottery culture who settled in southern Pomerania. The hunters of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture became farmers of the Funnelbeaker culture in 3000 BC. The Havelland culture dominated in the Uckermark from 2500 to 2000 BC. In 2400 BC, the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania and introduced the domestic horse. Both Linear Pottery and Corded Ware culture have been associated with Indo-Europeans. Except for Western Pomerania, the Funnelbeaker culture was replaced by the Globular Amphora culture a thousand years later.  During the Bronze Age, Western Pomerania was part of the Nordic Bronze Age cultures, while east of the Oder the Lusatian culture dominated. Throughout the Iron Age, the people of the western Pomeranian areas belonged to the Jastorf culture, while the Lusatian culture of the East was succeeded by the Pomeranian culture, then in 150 BC by the Oxhöft (Oksywie) culture, and at the beginning of the first millennium by the Willenberg (Wielbark) Culture.  While the Jastorf culture is usually associated with Germanic peoples, the ethnic category of the Lusatian culture and its successors is debated. Veneti, Germanic peoples (Goths, Rugians, and Gepids) and possibly Slavs are assumed to have been the bearers of these cultures or parts thereof.  Beginning in the 3rd century, many settlements were abandoned, marking the beginning of the Migration Period in Pomerania. It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during that stage, while some Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic groups remained, and formed the Gustow, Debczyn and late Willenberg cultures, which existed in Pomerania until the 6th century.

Early Middle Ages.

The southward movement of Germanic tribes and Veneti during the Migration Period had left Pomerania largely depopulated by the 7th century. Between 650 and 850 AD, West Slavic tribes settled in Pomerania. These tribes were collectively known as "Pomeranians" between the Oder and Vistula rivers, or as "Veleti" (later "Liuticians") west of the Oder. A distinct tribe, the Rani, was based on the island of Rügen and the adjacent mainland. In the 8th and 9th centuries, Slavic-Scandinavian emporia were set up along the coastline as powerful centres of craft and trade.  In 936, the Holy Roman Empire set up the Billung and Northern marches in Western Pomerania, divided by the Peene. The Liutician federation, in an uprising of 983, managed to regain independence, but broke apart in the course of the 11th century because of internal conflicts. Meanwhile, Polish Piasts managed to acquire parts of eastern Pomerania during the late 960s, where the Diocese of Kołobrzeg was installed in 1000 AD. The Pomeranians regained independence during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005.  During the first half of the 11th century, the Liuticians participated in the Holy Roman Empire's wars against Piast Poland. The alliance broke off when Poland was defeated, and the Liutician federation broke apart in 1057 during a civil war. The Liutician capital was destroyed by the Germans in 1068/69, making way for the subsequent eastward expansion of their western neighbour, the Obodrite state. In 1093, the Luticians, Pomeranians and Rani had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.

High Middle Ages.

The early 12th century, Obodrite, Polish, Saxon, and Danish conquests resulted in vassalage and Christianization of the formerly pagan and independent Pomeranian tribes. Local dynasties ruled the Principality of Rügen (House of Wizlaw), the Duchy of Pomerania (House of Pomerania), the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the House of Pomerania), and the duchies in Pomerelia (Samborides). Monasteries were founded at Grobe, Kolbatz, Gramzow, and Belbuck which supported Pomerania's Christianization and advanced German settlements.  The dukes of Pomerania expanded their realm into Circipania and Uckermark to the Southwest, and competed with the Margraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of her territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp, which changed hands numerous times.  Throughout the High Middle Ages, a large influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, and Low German language turned the area west of the Oder into a German one (Ostsiedlung). The Wends, who during the Early Middle Ages had belonged to the Slavic Rani, Lutician and Pomeranian tribes, were assimilated by the German Pomeranians. To the east of the Oder these development occurred later; in the area from Szczecin eastward, the number of German settlers in the 12th century was still insignificant. The Kashubians descendants of Slavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas in Pomerelia.  The conversion of Pomerania to Christianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts of Absalon and Otto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and by the assimilatory power of the Christian settlers. A Pomeranian diocese was set up in Wolin, the see was later moved to Cammin.

Late Middle Ages.

The towns of the Hanseatic League were acting as quasi autonomous political and military entities. The Duchy of Pomerania gained the Principality of Rugia after two wars with Mecklenburg, the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp and the Lauenburg and Bütow Land. Pomerelia was integrated into the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights after the Teutonic takeover of Danzig in 1308, and became a part of Royal Prussia in 1466.  The Duchy of Pomerania was internally fragmented into Pomerania-Wolgast, -Stettin, -Barth, and -Stolp. The dukes were in continuous warfare with the Margraviate of Brandenburg due to Uckermark and Neumark border disputes and disputes over formal overlordship of Pomerania.  In 1478, the duchy was reunited under the rule of Bogislaw X, when most of the other dukes had died of the plague.

Early Modern Age.

Throughout this time, Pomerelia was within Royal Prussia, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with considerable autonomy. In the late 18th century, it became a part of Prussia.  The Duchy of Pomerania was fragmented into Pomerania-Stettin (Farther Pomerania) and Pomerania-Wolgast (Western Pomerania) in 1532, underwent Protestant Reformation in 1534, and was even further fragmented in 1569. In 1627, the Thirty Years' War reached the duchy. Since the Treaty of Stettin (1630), it was under Swedish control. In the midst of the war, the last duke Bogislaw XIV died without an issue. Garrison, plunder, numerous battles, famine and diseases left two thirds of the population dead and most of the country ravaged. In the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg-Prussia agreed on a partition of the duchy, which came into effect after the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Western Pomerania became Swedish Pomerania, a Swedish dominion, while Farther Pomerania became a Brandenburg-Prussian province.  A series of wars affected Pomerania in the following centuries. As a consequence, most of the formerly free peasants became serfs of the nobles. Brandenburg-Prussia was able to integrate southern Swedish Pomerania into her Pomeranian province during the Great Northern War, which was confirmed in the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720. In the 18th century, Prussia rebuild and colonised her war-torn Pomeranian province.

Modern Age.

From the Napoleonic Wars to World War I, Pomerania was administered by the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Pomerania (Western and Farther Pomerania) and West Prussia (Pomerelia).  The Province of Pomerania was created from the Province of Pomerania (1653–1815) (Farther Pomerania and southern Vorpommern) and Swedish Pomerania (northern Vorpommern), and the districts of Schivelbein and Dramburg, formerly belonging to the Neumark. While in the Kingdom of Prussia, the province was heavily influenced by the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg and Otto von Bismarck. The industrial revolution had an impact primarily on the Stettin area and the infrastructure, while most of the province retained a rural and agricultural character. Since 1850, the net migration rate was negative, Pomeranians emigrated primarily to Berlin, the West German industrial regions and overseas. Also, more than 100,000 Kashubian Poles emigrated from Pomerania between 1855 and 1900, for economic and social reasons, in what is called the Kashubian diaspora. In areas where Polish population lived along with Germans a virtual apartheid existed, with bans on Polish language and religious discrimination, besides attempts to colonize the areas with Germans Prussian Settlement Commission introduced 154,000 German colonists before World War I, which were also located in Pomerania.  After the First World War, the Pomeranian Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic was established from the bulk of West Prussia. Poland became a democracy and introduced women's right to vote already in 1918  The German minority in Poland moved in large numbers to Germany, mostly on free will and due to their economic situation Poland build a large Baltic port at the site of the former village Gdynia. The Danzig (Gdańsk) area became the city state Free City of Danzig.  In the Province of Pomerania, that after the Kaiser's abdication was part of the Free State of Prussia within the Weimar Republic, democracy and the women's right to vote were introduced. The economic situation worsened due to the consequences of World War I and worldwide recession. As in the Kingdom of Prussia before, Pomerania was a stronghold of the nationalistic and anti-SemiticDNVP also in the Weimar Republic. The government of the state of Prussia, of which Pomerania was a province, was between 1920 and 1932 led by the Social Democrats, Otto Braun being Prussian minister-president almost continuously during this time. In contrast to its pre-war authoritarianism, Prussia was a pillar of democracy in the Weimar Republic.

Nazi era.

In 1933, the Province of Pomerania like all of Germany came under control of the Nazi regime. During the following years, the Nazis led by Gauleiter Franz Schwede-Coburg manifested their power by Gleichschaltung and repression of their opponents. Pomerelia then formed the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic. Concerning Pomerania, Nazi diplomacy aimed at incorporation of the Free City of Danzig and a transit route through the corridor, which was rejected by the Polish government.  In 1939, the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland. Inhabitants of the region from all ethnic backgrounds were subject to numerous atrocities by Nazi Germany forces, of which the most affected were Polish and Jewish civilians. Pomerelia was made part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Nazis set up concentration camps, ethnically cleansed Poles and Jews, and systematically exterminated Poles, Roma and the Jews. In Pomerania Albert Forster was directly responsible for extermination of non-Germans in Danzig-West Prussia. He personally believed in the need to engage in genocide of Poles and stated that "We have to exterminate this nation, starting from the cradle" and declared that Poles and Jews were not human.  Around 70 camps were set up for Polish populations in Pomerania where they were subjected to murder, torture and in case of women and girls, rape before executions Between 10 and 15 September Forster organised a meeting of top Nazi officials in his region and ordered the immediate removal of all "dangerous" Poles, all Jews and Polish clergy In some cases Forster ordered executions himself. On 19 October he reprimanded Nazi officials in the city of Grudziadz for not "spilling enough Polish blood"

Communist era and recent history.

In 1945, Pomerania was taken by the Red Army and Polish Armed Forces in the East during the East Pomeranian Offensive and the Battle of Berlin. After the post-war border changes, the German population that had not yet fled was expelled from what in Poland was propagated to be recovered territory. The area east of the Oder and the Szczecin (former Stettin) area was resettled primarily with Poles, who themselves were expelled from Eastern Poland that was re-attached to the USSR. Most of the German cultural heritage of the region was destroyed. Most of Western Pomerania stayed with Germany and was merged into Mecklenburg.  With the consolidation of Communism in East Germany and Poland, Pomerania was part of the Eastern Bloc. In the 1980s, the Solidarnosc movement in Gdańsk (Danzig) and the Wende movement in East Germany forced the Communists out of power and led to the establishment of democracy in both the Polish and German part of Pomerania.

Further reading.

English:  German and Polish:  Polish:  German:

The history of Pomerania starts shortly before 1000 AD with ongoing conquests by newly arrived Polans rulers. Before that the area was recorded nearly 2000 years ago as Germania, and in modern-day times Pomerania is split between Germany and Poland. The name "Pomerania" comes from the Slavic "po more", which means "Land at the Sea".

Pommern ist eine Region an der südlichen Ostseeküste zwischen der Mecklenburgischen Seenplatte im Westen und der Weichsel im Osten mit langer Geschichte. Der Teil westlich der Oder wird Vorpommern genannt und gehört (bis auf die Gegend um Stettin) heute zum deutschen Bundesland Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Das östlich der Oder gelegene Hinterpommern wurde – wie auch die Region um Stettin und die anderen Gebiete östlich der Oder-Neiße-Grenze – im Gefolge des Zweiten Weltkriegs zu einem Teil Polens.


Diagnosis.

In studies, white coat hypertension can be defined as the presence of a defined hypertensive average blood pressure in a clinic setting, although it isn't present when the patient is at home.  Diagnosis is made difficult as a result of the unreliable measures taken from the conventional methods of detection. These methods often involve an interface with health care professionals and frequently results are tarnished by a list of factors including variability in the individual’s blood pressure, technical inaccuracies, anxiety of the patient, recent ingestion of pressor substances, and talking, amongst many other factors. The most common measure of blood pressure is taken from a noninvasive instrument called a sphygmomanometer. "A survey showed that 96% of primary care physicians habitually use a cuff size too small," adding to the difficulty in making an informed diagnosis. For such reasons, white coat hypertension cannot be diagnosed with a standard clinical visit. It can be reduced (but not eliminated) with automated blood pressure measurements over 15 to 20 minutes in a quiet part of the office or clinic.  Patients with white coat hypertension do not exhibit the signs indicative of trepidation and their increased blood pressure is often not accompanied by tachycardia. This is supported by studies that repeatedly indicate that 15%–30% of those thought to have mild hypertension as a result of clinic or office recordings display normal blood pressure and no unusual response to pressure stimulus. These persons did not show any specific characteristics such as age that may be indicative of a higher susceptibility to white coat hypertension.  Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and patient self-measurement using a home blood pressure monitoring device is being increasingly used to differentiate those with white coat hypertension or experiencing the white coat effect from those with chronic hypertension. This does not mean that these methods are without fault. Daytime ambulatory values, despite taking into account stresses of everyday life when taken during the patient's daily routine, are still susceptible to the effects of daily variables such as physical activity, stress and duration of sleep. Ambulatory monitoring has been found to be the more practical and reliable method in detecting patients with white coat hypertension and for the prediction of target organ damage. Even as such, the diagnosis and treatment of white coat hypertension remains controversial.  Recent studies showed that home blood pressure monitoring is as accurate as a 24-hour ambulatory monitoring in determining blood pressure levels. Researchers at the University of Turku, Finland studied 98 patients with untreated hypertension. They compared patients using a home blood pressure device and those wearing a 24-hour ambulatory monitor. Researcher Dr. Niiranen said that "home blood pressure measurement can be used effectively for guiding anti-hypertensive treatment". Dr. Stergiou added that home tracking of blood pressure "is more convenient and also less costly than ambulatory monitoring."  Use of breathing patterns has been proposed as a technique for identifying white coat hypertension.  In one Turkish study of 438 consecutive patients, 38% were normotensive, 43% had white coat hypertension, 2% had masked hypertension, and 15% had sustained hypertension. Even patients taking medication for sustained hypertension who are normotensive at home may exhibit white coat hypertension in the office setting.

Implications for treatment.

In general, individuals with white coat hypertension have lower morbidity than patients with sustained hypertension, but higher morbidity than the clinically normotensive. However all published trials on the consequences of high blood pressure and the benefits of treating, are based on one-time measurement in clinical settings rather than the generally lower readings obtained from ambulatory recordings.  The debate and conflicting ideas revolve around whether or not it would be feasible to treat white coat hypertension, as there still is no conclusive evidence that a temporary rise in blood pressure during office visits has an adverse effect on health.  In fact, many cross sectional studies have shown that "target-organ damage (as exemplified by left ventricular hypertrophy) is less in white-coat hypertensive patients than in sustained hypertensive patients even after the allowance has been made for differences in clinic pressure". Many believe that patients with "white coat" hypertension do not require even very small doses of antihypertensive therapy as it may result in hypotension, but must still be careful as patients may show signs of vascular changes and may eventually develop hypertension. Even patients with established hypertension that is well-controlled based on home blood pressure monitoring may experience elevated readings during office visits.

White coat hypertension (WHT), more commonly known as white coat syndrome, is a phenomenon in which people exhibit a blood pressure level above the normal range, in a clinical setting, although they do not exhibit it in other settings. It is believed that the phenomenon is due to anxiety experienced during a clinic visit.

Der Begriff Weißkittelhypertonie (engl. "white coat hypertension") bezeichnet Blutdruckwerte, die aufgrund von situationsspezifischen Ängsten beim Patienten erhöht sind. Im Unterschied zu Selbst- und ambulanten Messungen (z. B. automatische Langzeitblutdruckmessung) sind die gemessenen Blutdruckwerte in einer Arztpraxis oder Klinik dann konsistent höher. Man spricht auch von isolierter klinischer Hypertonie.


Structure.

The molecule adopts tetrahedral molecular geometry with C symmetry.

Synthesis and reactions.

The synthesis of iodoform was first described by Georges-Simon Serullas in 1822, by reactions of iodine vapour with steam over red-hot coals, and also by reaction of potassium with ethanolic iodine in the presence of water; and at much the same time independently by John Thomas Cooper. It is synthesized in the haloform reaction by the reaction of iodine and sodium hydroxide with any one of these four kinds of organic compounds: a methyl ketone (CHCOR), acetaldehyde (CHCHO), ethanol (CHCHOH), and certain secondary alcohols (CHCHROH, where R is an alkyl or aryl group).  The reaction of iodine and base with methyl ketones is so reliable that the iodoform test (the appearance of a yellow precipitate) is used to probe the presence of a methyl ketone. This is also the case when testing for specific secondary alcohols containing at least one methyl group in alpha-position.  Some reagents (e.g. hydrogen iodide) convert iodoform to diiodomethane. Also conversion to carbon dioxide is possible: Iodoform reacts with aqueous silver nitrate to produce carbon monoxide. When treated with powdered elemental silver the iodoform is reduced, producing acetylene. Upon heating iodoform decomposes to produce diatomic iodine, hydrogen iodide gas, and carbon.

Natural occurrence.

The angel's bonnet mushroom contains iodoform, and shows its characteristic odor.

Applications.

The compound finds small-scale use as a disinfectant. Around the beginning of the 20th century, it was used in medicine as a healing and antiseptic dressing for wounds and sores, although this use is now superseded by superior antiseptics. It is the active ingredient in many ear powders for dogs and cats, along with zinc oxide and propionic acid, which are used to prevent infection and facilitate removal of ear hair.

Iodoform (also known as triiodomethane and, inaccurately, as carbon triiodide) is the organoiodine compound with the formula CHI. A pale yellow, crystalline, volatile substance, it has a penetrating and distinctive odor (in older chemistry texts, the smell is sometimes referred to as that of hospitals, where the compound is still commonly used) and, analogous to chloroform, sweetish taste. It is occasionally used as a disinfectant.

Iodoform (Summenformel CHI) ist eine gelbe, safranartig riechende chemische Verbindung aus Kohlenstoff, Wasserstoff und Iod und ein einfacher Halogenkohlenwasserstoff. Aufgrund seiner Struktur (CHX) ist es homolog zu Fluoroform, Chloroform und Bromoform und analog benannt.


Signs and symptoms.

Bad breath is when a noticeably unpleasant odor is believed to be present on the breath. It can result in anxiety among those affected. It is also associated with depression and symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder.

Causes.

Mouth.

In about 90% of genuine halitosis cases, the origin of the odor is in the mouth itself. This is known as intra-oral halitosis, oral malodor or oral halitosis.  The most common causes are odor producing biofilm on the back of the tongue or other areas of the mouth due to poor oral hygiene. This biofilm results in the production of high levels of foul odors. The odors are produced mainly due to the breakdown of proteins into individual amino acids, followed by the further breakdown of certain amino acids to produce detectable foul gases. Volatile sulfur compounds are associated with oral malodor levels, and usually decrease following successful treatment. Other parts of the mouth may also contribute to the overall odor, but are not as common as the back of the tongue. These locations are, in order of descending prevalence, inter-dental and sub-gingival niches, faulty dental work, food-impaction areas in between the teeth, abscesses, and unclean dentures. Oral based lesions caused by viral infections like herpes simplex and HPV may also contribute to bad breath.  The intensity of bad breath may differ during the day, due to eating certain foods (such as garlic, onions, meat, fish, and cheese), smoking, and alcohol consumption. Since the mouth is exposed to less oxygen and is inactive during the night, the odor is usually worse upon awakening ("morning breath"). Bad breath may be transient, often disappearing following eating, drinking, tooth brushing, flossing, or rinsing with specialized mouthwash. Bad breath may also be persistent (chronic bad breath), which affects some 25% of the population in varying degrees.

Tongue.

The most common location for mouth-related halitosis is the tongue. Tongue bacteria produce malodorous compounds and fatty acids, and account for 80 to 90% of all cases of mouth-related bad breath. Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are often found on the posterior dorsum of the tongue, where they are relatively undisturbed by normal activity. This part of the tongue is relatively dry and poorly cleansed, and the convoluted microbial structure of the tongue dorsum provides an ideal habitat for anaerobic bacteria, which flourish under a continually-forming tongue coating of food debris, dead epithelial cells, postnasal drip and overlying bacteria, living and dead. When left on the tongue, the anaerobic respiration of such bacteria can yield either the putrescent smell of indole, skatole, polyamines, or the "rotten egg" smell of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) such as hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan, allyl methyl sulfide, and dimethyl sulfide. The presence of halitosis-producing bacteria on the back of the tongue is not to be confused with tongue coating. Bacteria are invisible to the naked eye, and degrees of white tongue coating are present in most people with and without halitosis. A visible white tongue coating does not always equal the back of the tongue as an origin of halitosis, however a "white tongue" is thought to be a sign of halitosis. In oral medicine generally, a white tongue is considered a sign of several medical conditions. Patients with periodontal disease were shown to have sixfold prevalence of tongue coating compared with normal subjects. Halitosis patients were also shown to have significantly higher bacterial loads in this region compared to individuals without halitosis.

Gums.

Gingival crevices are the small grooves between teeth and gums, and they are present in health, although they may become inflamed when gingivitis is present. The difference between a gingival crevice and periodontal pocket is that former is <3mm in depth and the latter is >3mm. Periodontal pockets usually accompany periodontal disease (gum disease). There is some controversy over the role of periodontal diseases in causing bad breath. However, advanced periodontal disease is a common cause of severe halitosis. People with uncontrolled diabetes are more prone to have multiple gingival and periodontal abscess. Their gums are evident with large pockets, where pus accumulation occurs. This nidus of infection can be a potential source for bad breath. Removal of the subgingival calculus (i.e. tartar or hard plaque) and friable tissue has been shown to improve mouth odor considerably. This is accomplished by subgingival scaling and root planing and irrigation with an antibiotic mouth rinse. The bacteria that cause gingivitis and periodontal disease (periodontopathogens) are invariably gram negative and capable of producing VSC. Methyl mercaptan is known to be the greatest contributing VSC in halitosis that is caused by periodontal disease and gingivitis. The level of VSC on breath has been shown to positively correlate with the depth of periodontal pocketing, the number of pockets, and whether the pockets bleed when examined with a dental probe. Indeed, VSC may themselves have been shown to contribute to the inflammation and tissue damage that is characteristic of periodontal disease. However, not all patients with periodontal disease have halitosis, and not all patients with halitosis have periodontal disease. Although patients with periodontal disease are more likely to suffer from halitosis than the general population, the halitosis symptom was shown to be more strongly associated with degree of tongue coating than with the severity of periodontal disease. Another possible symptom of periodontal disease is a bad taste, which does not necessarily accompany a malodor that is detectable by others.

Other causes.

Other less common reported causes from within the mouth include:

Nose and sinuses.

In this occurrence, the air exiting the nostrils has a pungent odor that differs from the oral odor. Nasal odor may be due to sinus infections or foreign bodies.  Halitosis is often stated to be a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis, however gold standard breath analysis techniques have not been applied. Theoretically, there are several possible mechanisms of both objective and subjective halitosis that may be involved.

Tonsils.

There is disagreement as to the proportion of halitosis cases which are caused by conditions of the tonsils. Some claim that the tonsils are the most significant cause of halitosis after the mouth. According to one report, approximately 3% of halitosis cases were related to the tonsils. Conditions of the tonsils which may be associated with halitosis include chronic caseous tonsillitis (cheese-like material can be exuded from the tonsillar crypt orifi), tonsillolithiasis (tonsil stones), and less commonly peritonsillar abscess, actinomycosis, fungating malignancies, chondroid choristoma and inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor.

Esophagus.

The lower esophageal sphincter, which is the valve between the stomach and the esophagus, may not close properly due to a hiatal hernia or GERD, allowing acid to enter the esophagus and gases to escape to the mouth. A Zenker's diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus.

Stomach.

The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.  In the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since it does not get metabolized there.

Systemic diseases.

There are a few systemic (non-oral) medical conditions that may cause foul breath odor, but these are infrequent in the general population. Such conditions are:  Individuals afflicted by the above conditions often show additional, more diagnostically conclusive symptoms than bad breath alone.

Delusional halitosis.

One quarter of the people seeking professional advice on bad breath have an exaggerated concern of having bad breath, known as "halitophobia", delusional halitosis, or as a manifestation of olfactory reference syndrome. They are sure that they have bad breath, although many have not asked anyone for an objective opinion. Bad breath may severely affect the lives of some 0.5–1.0% of the adult population.

Diagnosis.

Self diagnosis.

Scientists have long thought that smelling one's own breath odor is often difficult due to acclimatization, although many people with bad breath are able to detect it in others. Research has suggested that self-evaluation of halitosis is not easy because of preconceived notions of how bad we think it should be. Some people assume that they have bad breath because of bad taste (metallic, sour, fecal, etc.), however bad taste is considered a poor indicator.  Patients often self-diagnose by asking a close friend.  One popular home method to determine the presence of bad breath is to lick the back of the wrist, let the saliva dry for a minute or two, and smell the result. This test results in overestimation, as concluded from research, and should be avoided. A better way would be to lightly scrape the posterior back of the tongue with a plastic disposable spoon and to smell the drying residue. Home tests that use a chemical reaction to test for the presence of polyamines and sulfur compounds on tongue swabs are now available, but there are few studies showing how well they actually detect the odor. Furthermore, since breath odor changes in intensity throughout the day depending on many factors, multiple testing sessions may be necessary.

Testing.

If bad breath is persistent, and all other medical and dental factors have been ruled out, specialized testing and treatment is required. Hundreds of dental offices and commercial breath clinics now claim to diagnose and treat bad breath. They often use some of several laboratory methods for diagnosis of bad breath:  Although such instrumentation and examinations are widely used in breath clinics, the most important measurement of bad breath (the gold standard) is the actual sniffing and scoring of the level and type of the odor carried out by trained experts ("organoleptic measurements"). The level of odor is usually assessed on a six-point intensity scale.

Classification.

Two main classification schemes exist for bad breath, although neither are universally accepted.  The Miyazaki "et al." classification was originally described in 1999 in a Japanese scientific publication, and has since been adapted to reflect North American society, especially with regards halitophobia. The classification assumes three primary divisions of the halitosis symptom, namely genuine halitosis, pseudohalitosis and halitophobia. This classification has been suggested to be most widely used, but it has been criticized because it is overly simplistic and is largely of use only to dentists rather than other specialties.  The Tangerman and Winkel classification was suggested in Europe in 2002. This classification focuses only on those cases where there is genuine halitosis, and has therefore been criticized for being less clinically useful for dentistry when compared to the Miyazaki "et al." classification.  The same authors also suggested that halitosis can be divided according to the character of the odor into 3 groups:  Based on the strengths and weaknesses of previous attempts at classification, a cause based classification has been proposed:  Any halitosis symptom is potentially the sum of these types in any combination, superimposed on the physiologic odor present in all healthy individuals.

Management.

Approaches to improve bad breath may include physical or chemical means to decrease bacteria in the mouth, products to mask the smell, or chemicals to alter the odor creating molecules. Many different interventions have been suggested and trialed such as toothpastes, mouthwashes, lasers, tongue scraping, and mouth rinses. There is no strong evidence to indicate which interventions work and which are more effective. It is recommended that in those who use tobacco products stop. Evidence does not support the benefit of dietary changes or chewing gum.

Mechanical measures.

Brushing the teeth may help. While there is evidence of tentative benefit from tongue cleaning it is insufficient to draw clear conclusions. A 2006 Cochrane review found tentative evidence that it might decrease levels of odor molecules. Flossing may be useful.

Mouthwashes.

A 2008 systematic review found that antibacterial mouthrinses may help. Mouthwashes often contain antibacterial agents including cetylpyridinium chloride, chlorhexidine, zinc gluconate, essential oils, hydrogen peroxide, and chlorine dioxide. Cetylpyridinium chloride and chlorhexidine can temporarily stain teeth.

Underlying disease.

If gum disease and cavities are present, it is recommended that these be treated.  If diseases outside of the mouth are believed to be contributing to the problem, treatment may result in improvements.  Counselling may be useful in those who falsely believe that they have bad breath.

Epidemiology.

It is difficult for researchers to make estimates of the prevalence of halitosis in the general population for several reasons. Firstly, halitosis is subject to societal taboo and stigma, which may impact individual's willingness to take part in such studies or to report accurately their experience of the condition. Secondly, there is no universal agreement about what diagnostic criteria and what detection methods should be used to define which individuals have halitosis and which do not. Some studies rely on self reported estimation of halitosis, and there is contention as to whether this is a reliable predictor of actual halitosis or not. In reflection of these problems, reported epidemiological data are widely variable.

History, society and culture.

The earliest known mention of bad breath occurs in ancient Egypt, where detailed recipes for toothpaste are made before the Pyramids are built. The 1550 BC Ebers Papyrus describes tablets to cure bad breath based on incense, cinnamon, myrrh and honey. Hippocratic medicine advocated a mouthwash of red wine and spices to cure bad breath. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes are now thought to exacerbate bad breath as they dry the mouth, leading to increased microbial growth. The Hippocratic Corpus also describes a recipe based on marble powder for female bad breath sufferers. The Ancient Roman physician Pliny wrote about methods to sweeten the breath.  Ancient Chinese emperors required visitors to chew clove before an audience. The Talmud describes bad breath as a disability, which could be grounds for legal breaking of a marriage license. Early Islamic theology stressed that the teeth and tongue should be cleaned with a siwak, a stick from the plant Salvadora persica tree. This traditional chewing stick is also called a Miswak, especially used in Saudi Arabia, an essentially is like a natural toothbrush made from twigs. During the Renaissance era, Laurent Joubert, doctor to King Henry III of France states bad breath is "caused by dangerous miasma that falls into the lungs and through the heart, causing severe damages".  In and "" (1919), the following recipe is offered: "[One] teaspoonful of the following mixture after each meal: One ounce chloride of soda, one ounce liquor of potassa, one and one-half ounces phosphate of soda, and three ounces of water."  In the present day, bad breath is one of the biggest social taboos. The general population places great importance on the avoidance of bad breath, illustrated by the annual $1 billion that consumers in the United States spend on deodorant-type mouth (oral) rinses, mints, and related over-the-counter products. Many of these practices are merely short term attempts at masking the odor. Some authors have suggested that there is an evolutionary basis to concern over bad breath. An instinctive aversion to unpleasant odors may function to detect spoiled food sources and other potentially invective or harmful substances. Body odors in general are thought to play an important role in mate selection in humans, and unpleasant odor may signal disease, and hence a potentially unwise choice of mate. Although reports of bad breath are found in the earliest medical writings known, the social stigma has likely changed over time, possibly partly due to sociocultural factors involving advertising pressures. As a result, the negative psychosocial aspects of halitosis may have worsened, and psychiatric conditions such as halitophobia are probably more common than historically. There have been rare reports of people committing suicide because of halitosis, whether there is genuine halitosis or not.

Etymology.

The word halitosis is derived from the Latin word "halitus", meaning 'breath', and the Greek suffix "-osis" meaning 'diseased' or 'a condition of'. With modern consumerism, there has been a complex interplay of advertising pressures and the existing evolutionary aversion to malodor. Contrary to the popular belief that Listerine coined the term "halitosis", its origins date to before the product's existence, being coined by physician Joseph William Howe in his 1874 book "The Breath, and the Diseases Which Give It a Fetid Odor", although it only became commonly used in the 1920s when a marketing campaign promoted Listerine as a solution for "chronic halitosis". The company was the first to manufacture mouth washes in the United States. According to Freakonomics: Listerine "...was invented in the nineteenth century as powerful surgical antiseptic. It was later sold, in distilled form, as both a floor cleaner and a cure for gonorrhea. But it wasn't a runaway success until the 1920s, when it was pitched as a solution for "chronic halitosis"— a then obscure medical term for bad breath. Listerine's new ads featured forlorn young women and men, eager for marriage but turned off by their mate's rotten breath. "Can I be happy with him in spite of "that"?" one maiden asked herself. Until that time, bad breath was not conventionally considered such a catastrophe, but Listerine changed that. As the advertising scholar James B. Twitchell writes, "Listerine did not make mouthwash as much as it made halitosis." In just seven years, the company's revenues rose from $115,000 to more than $8 million."

Alternative medicine.

According to traditional Ayurvedic medicine, chewing areca nut and betel leaf is a remedy for bad breath. In South Asia, it was a custom to chew areca or betel nut and betel leaf among lovers because of the breath-freshening and stimulant drug properties of the mixture. Both the nut and the leaf are mild stimulants and can be addictive with repeated use. The betel nut will also cause dental decay and red or black staining of teeth when chewed. Both areca nut and betel leaf chewing, however, can cause premalignant lesions such as leukoplakia and submucous fibrosis, and are recognised risk factors for oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (oral cancer).  Practitioners and purveyors of alternative medicine sell a vast range of products that claim to be beneficial in treating halitosis, including dietary supplements, vitamins, and oral probiotics. Halitosis is often claimed to be a symptom of "candida hypersensitivity syndrome" or related diseases, and is claimed to be treatable with antifungal medications or alternative medications to treat fungal infections.

Research.

In 1996, the International Society for Breath Odor Research (ISBOR) was formed to promote multidisciplinary research on all aspects of breath odors. The eighth international conference on breath odor took place in 2009 in Dortmund, Germany, while the ninth was held in 2011 in Salvador da Bahia, Brazil.

Bad breath, also known as halitosis, is a symptom in which a noticeably unpleasant breath odour is present. It can result in anxiety among those affected. It is also associated with depression and symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder. The concerns of bad breath may be divided into genuine and non-genuine cases. Of those who have genuine bad breath, about 85% of cases come from inside the mouth. The remaining cases are believed to be due to disorders in the nose, sinuses, throat, lungs, esophagus, or stomach. Rarely, bad breath can be due to an underlying medical condition such as liver failure or ketoacidosis. Non-genuine cases occur when someone feels they have bad breath but someone else cannot detect it. This is estimated to make up between 5% and 72% of cases. The treatment depends on the underlying cause. Initial efforts may include tongue cleaning, mouthwash, and flossing. Tentative evidence supports the use of mouthwash containing chlorhexidine or cetylpyridinium chloride. While there is tentative evidence of benefit from the use of a tongue cleaner it is insufficient to draw clear conclusions. Treating underlying disease such as gum disease, tooth decay, or gastroesophageal reflux disease may help. Counselling may be useful in those who falsely believe that they have bad breath. Estimated rates of bad breath vary from 6% to 50% of the population. Concern about bad breath is the third most common reason people seek dental care, after tooth decay and gum disease. It is believed to become more common as people age. Bad breath is viewed as a social taboo and those affected may be stigmatized. People in the United States spend more than $1 billion per year on mouthwash to treat the condition.

Mundgeruch oder Foetor ex ore (auch Halitosis genannt, von lateinisch "halitus": Atem, Hauch; auch "Ozostomie", und "Kakostomie") ist unangenehmer Geruch des Atems bzw. der Ausatemluft.


Early life and education.

Bruno Manser was born in Basel, Switzerland on 25 August 1954 in a family of three girls and two boys. During his younger days, Manser was an independent thinker. His parents wanted him to become a doctor, and he studied medicine informally. He later completed his upper secondary school, the first in his family to do so.  Manser spent three months in Lucerne prison when he was 19 years old because, as an ardent follower of non-violent ideologies espoused by Mahatma Gandhi (Satyagraha) he refused to participate in Switzerland's compulsory military service. After leaving prison in 1973, he worked as a sheep and cow herder at various Swiss Alpine pastures for twelve years. During this time, Manser became interested in handicrafts, therapeutics, and speleology. He laid bricks, carved leather, kept bees, and wove, dyed, and cut his own clothes and shoes. He also regularly pursued mountaineering and technical climbing.  At the age of 30, Manser went to Borneo, looking to live a simpler life.

Searching for Penans.

In 1983, Manser went to the Malaysian state of Terengganu and stayed with a family. In 1984, while learning more about the rainforests, Manser learned of a nomadic tribe known as the Penan. After learning more about the tribe, he decided to attempt to live amongst them for a few years and traveled to the East Malaysian state of Sarawak in 1984 on a tourist visa.  In Malaysia, Manser first joined an English caving expedition to explore Gunung Mulu National Park. After the expedition, he stepped deeper into the interior jungles of Sarawak, intending to find the "deep essence of humanity" and "the people who are still living close to their nature." However, he quickly became lost and ran out of food while exploring the jungle, then fell ill after eating a poisonous palm heart.  After these setbacks, Manser finally found Penan nomadic tribes near the headwaters of the Limbang river at Long Seridan in May 1984. Initially, the Penan people tried to ignore him. After a while, the Penan accepted him as one of their family members.  In August 1984, Manser went to Kota Kinabalu, Sabah to obtain a visa to visit Indonesia. On the Indonesian visa, he entered Kalimantan, then illegally crossed the border back into Long Seridan. His Malaysian visa expired on 31 December 1984.

Life with the Penans.

Manser learned about survival skills in the jungle and familiarized himself with the Penan's culture and language. The Penan tribal leader in Upper Limbang, named Along Sega, became Manser's mentor. During his stay with the Penan, Manser adopted their way of life. He dressed in a loincloth, hunted with a blowgun, and ate primates, snakes, and sago. Manser's decision to live as a member of the Penan was ridiculed in the West, and he was dismissed as a "White Tarzan". Within the Penan, however, Manser was known as "Laki Penan" (Penan Man), having earned the respect of the tribe that adopted him.  Manser created notebooks that were richly illustrated with drawings, notes, and 10,000 photographs during his six-year stay from 1984 to 1990 with the Penan people. Some of his sketches include cicada wing patterns, how to carry a gibbon with a stick, and how to drill holes on a blowpipe. These notebooks were later published by Christoph Merian Verlag press in Basel. Manser also created audio recordings of oral histories told by Penan elders and translated them. He claimed that the Penan people were never argumentative or violent during his time with them.  In 1988, Manser tried to reach the summit of Bukit Batu Lawi but was unsuccessful, finding himself hanging on a rope without anything to grab on for 24 hours. In 1989, he was bitten by a red tailed pit viper but was able to treat the snake bite himself. He also got a malaria infection while living in the jungles.  Unfortunately, deforestation of Sarawak's primeval forests started during Manser's stay with the Penan. As a result, the Penan suffered from reduced vegetation, contaminated drinking water, fewer animals available for hunting, and the desecration of their heritage sites. Manser worked with Along Sega to teach the Penan how to organize road blockades against advancing loggers. Manser organised his first blockade in September 1985.

Activism.

Manser gave many lectures in Switzerland and abroad, making connections to people within the European Union (EU) and the United Nations (UN). As an activist, he visited American and African jungles, staying in various locations for a few weeks.  He returned almost every year after leaving the Penan to follow up with the logging activities and to provide assistance to the tribe, often entering these areas illegally, crossing the border with Brunei and Kalimantan, Indonesia. He discovered that logging conglomerates such as Rimbunan Hijau, Samling, and the WTK Group continued their operations in Sarawak rainforests. As a result, Manser organised the Voices for the Borneo Rainforests World Tour after he left the Sarawak forests in 1990. Manser, Kelabit activist Anderson Mutang Urud, and two Penan tribe members travelled from Australia to North America, Europe, and Japan.  On 17 July 1991, during the 17th G7 summit, Manser climbed unaided to the top of a 30-foot high lamp post outside of the summit's media centre in London. After reaching the top, he unrolled a banner that displayed a message about the plight of Sarawak rainforests. He chained himself to the lamp post for two and a half hours. His protest also coincided with protests by Earth First! and the London Rainforest Action Group. Police used a hoist to reach the top of the lamp post and cut his chains. Manser climbed down the lamp post without force at 1:40 PM. He was then taken to the Bow Street police station and held until the summit ended at 6:30 PM, when he was released without being charged with an offense.  Later in 1991, Manser set up Bruno Manser Fonds (BMF), a fund designed to help conserve the rainforests and the indigenous population in Sarawak. He ran the fund from his home at Heuberg 25, Basel, Switzerland. In June 1992, Manser parachuted into a crowded stadium during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In December 1992, he led a twenty-day hunger strike in front of the Marubeni Corporation headquarters in Tokyo. In 1993, he went on a sixty-day hunger strike at the Federal Palace of Switzerland ('"Bundeshaus") to press the Swiss Federal Assembly on enforcing a ban on tropical timber imports and mandatory declarations of timber products. The hunger strike was supported by 37 organisations and political parties. Manser only stopped the hunger strike after his mother requested that he do so. After Manser's disappearance, the Federal Assembly finally adopted the Declaration of Timber Products on 1 October 2010, with a transition period allowed until the end 2011.  In 1995, Manser went to Congo rainforests to document the effects of wars and logging on Mbuti people. In 1996, on the German-language programme "fünf vor zwölf" ("At the Eleventh Hour"), Manser and his friend Jacques Christinet used auxiliary cable to drop themselves down 800 meters onto the Klein Matterhorn aerial cable car and hung sizable banners there. They reached the dangerous speed of 140 kilometers per hour while riding on a self-made rider with steel wheels and ball bearings.  In 1997, Manser and Christinet tried to enter Peninsular Malaysia from Singapore to fly a motorised hang-glider during the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur. However, he was recognised at the border and denied entry into Malaysia. They then decided to swim across the Straits of Johor into Malaysia, but later abandoned the plan as it involved a lengthy 25-kilometer swim and a passage through a swamp across the straits. They planned an alternative route, opting to row a boat from an Indonesian island into Sarawak. However, BMF received a warning from Malaysian embassy warning of the consequences for such an act. In 1998, Manser and Christinet travelled to Brunei and swam across the 300-metre wide Limbang river at night. Christinet was almost fatally injured by drifting logs along the river. They spent three weeks in Sarawak hiding from the police. During that period, they attempted to order four tons of 25-centimeter nails for the Penan to hammer into the tree trunks, which could have caused serious injuries to loggers when the embedded nails inevitably came into contact with chainsaws.

Impact.

In 1986, Manser's representative in Switzerland, Roger Graf, wrote about sixty letters to Western media outlets, but none took notice of them. It was only in March 1986 that Rolf Bökemeier, an editor for the "GEO" magazine based in Hamburg, Germany, who also specialised in indigenous people, wrote a letter of reply to Graf. In October 1986, "GEO" published a 24-page article entitled: "You have the world - leave us the wood!" which included photos taken during their undercover tours with Manser, as well as Manser's drawings. The article was later reprinted all over the world in Australia, Japan, and Canada, leading to the attention of human rights and environmental organisations and green parliamentarians around the world.  After hearing of Manser's actions, then-Congressman Al Gore condemned logging activities in Sarawak. Prince Charles also described the treatment for the Penan as "genocide." The BBC and the National Geographic Channel produced documentaries about the Penan, and Penan stories were also featured on ABC's "Primetime Live". Universal Studios started to develop an action-adventure horror script where the Penan used their forest wisdom to save the world from catastrophe. The Penan also received coverage in "Newsweek", "Time", and "The New Yorker". Warner Bros screenwriter David Franzoni also developed a script named "My Friend Bruno" after they signed a contract with Manser in January 1992. Manser received $20,000 a year until 1998 for the rights to film his life. However, due to its unsatisfying ending, the script was not taken up by the studio.

Response from Malaysian authorities.

Manser's actions drew anger from Malaysian authorities, who declared him "persona non grata" (an unwelcome person) in the country. A reported bounty for his capture ranging from US$30,000 to US$50,000 has been circulated by word-of-mouth, but the source of the bounty is unknown. By 1990, Malaysia declared Manser as the "number one enemy of the state" and sent special units to search for him. Using a forged passport and styling his hair differently, Manser returned to Switzerland in 1990 to inform the public about the situation in Sarawak through the Swiss media.

Response by Malaysian federal government.

Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad blamed Manser for disrupting law and order. Mahathir wrote a letter to Manser, telling him that it was "about time that you stop your arrogance and your intolerable European superiority. You are no better than the Penan." In March 1992, Mahathir wrote another letter to Manser:

Response by Sarawak state government.

The Sarawak government defended its logging policy by stating that revenue from timber sales is needed to feed more than 250,000 of the state population. Sarawak Chief Minister Abdul Taib Mahmud said, "It is hoped that outsiders will not interfere in our internal affairs, especially people like Bruno Manser. The Sarawak government has nothing to hide. Ours is an open liberal society." Sarawak Minister of Housing and Public Health James Wong said that, "We don't want them [the Penan] running around [in jungles] like animals. No one has the ethical right to deprive the Penans of the right to assimilation into Malaysian society." The Sarawak government tightened the entry of foreign environmentalists, journalists, and film crews into the state, and allowed logging companies to hire criminal gangs to subdue the indigenous people.

Arrest attempts.

Manser was first arrested on 10 April 1986 after being spotted by police inspector Lores Matios. He was delivering a document for Kelabit chiefs at Long Napir to sign to confirm their wish of further protecting their territories. At the same time, Matios was also on holiday at Long Napir. He immediately arrested Manser for breaking immigration law and brought him to Limbang police station for interrogation. Manser was not handcuffed, as the inspector did not carry them while on holiday. During the 90-minute ride to Limbang, the Land Rover that carried Manser came close to running out of petrol. While the vehicle stopped to refuel after crossing a bridge, Manser was urinating at the side of the road. While Matios was steps away giving orders to subordinates, Manser took the opportunity to run away, dive into dense undergrowth, and run across the Limbang river by jumping from stone to stone. Matios shouted at him and used his pistol to fire two shots at Manser, but he successfully escaped capture.  On 14 November 1986, Manser met with James Ritchie, a reporter from the "New Straits Times", in an isolated hut in the Limbang jungles. Ritchie came by helicopter to interview Manser. After the interview, Rithcie told Manser that: "As a human being, you are right. Yet as a citizen of this country I have to say no to you, Please don't be angry with me if the story doesn't sound too good." After Ritchie's team left, Manser stayed in the hut until the next day. As he went to the mouth of the Meté river to wash himself, he noticed a boat mooring at the river. He heard a friendly voice called him, "Oh, Laki Dja-au!" but instead saw two soldiers pursuing him. The soldiers were instructed to capture Manser alive without firing any bullets. Manser immediately put down his blowpipe and a rucksack on the river bank, then dove into the river and disappeared under the heavy undergrowth of the forest floor. Manser successfully evaded capture, but he lost seven months of his drawings and notebooks in the rucksack.  Manser was nearly arrested on 25 March 1990 after meeting Matios by chance on a flight from Miri to Kuching. Matios was on his way to take a law exam in Kuching. However, he did not arrest Manser.

Dealing with Abdul Taib Mahmud.

In mid-1998, Manser offered an end of hostilities with the Sarawak government if Chief Minister Taib Mahmud would be willing to cooperate with him in building a biosphere around the Penan's territory. Manser also wanted the government to forgive him for breaking Malaysian immigration laws. The offer was denied. His successive attempts to establish communications with Taib Mahmud failed. Manser planned to deliver a lamb named "Gumperli" to Taib Mahmud by air as a symbol of reconciliation during the Hari Raya Aidilfitri celebration. However, the Malaysian consulate at Geneva pressured airlines not to transport the lamb to Sarawak. Manser later carried the lamb with him on a plane and parachuted over the United Nations Office at Geneva, hoping to bring international attention to Sarawak.  In March 1999, Manser successfully passed Kuching immigration by disguising himself in a business suit, carrying a briefcase, and wearing a badly knotted tie. On 29 March, he flew a motorised paraglider, carrying a toy lamb knitted by himself while wearing a T-shirt with the image of a sheep, and made a few turns above Taib Mahmud's residence in Kuching. There were ten Penan tribe members waiting on the ground to greet Manser. At 11:30 AM, he landed the glider beside a road just outside Taib Mahmud's residence and was immediately arrested. He was then transported to Kuala Lumpur, briefly imprisoned, then deported back to Switzerland via Malaysia Airlines Flight MH2683. Manser was seen playing with his knitted toy lamb by his jailers.  By 2000, Manser admitted that his efforts did not bring positive changes to Sarawak. His success rate in Sarawak was "less than zero" and he was deeply saddened by the result. On 15 February 2000, just before his last trip to Sarawak, Manser said that, "[t]hrough his logging license policies, Taib Mahmud is personally responsible for the destruction of nearly all Sarawak rainforests in one generation."

Disappearance.

On 15 February 2000, Manser left to visit his Penan friends via the jungle paths of Kalimantan, Indonesia, accompanied by BMF secretary John Kuenzli and a film crew. After a period of time, Kuenzli and the film crew left Manser in the Kalimantan jungles. At the time, Manser was still writing postcards to his friends. Manser continued his journey with another friend who knew the way around the territory. The trip continued for two weeks, crossing mountains and rivers on foot and by boat. Manser slept on a hammock while his friend slept on the ground. On 18 May, they reached the Sarawak/Kalimantan border, spending their final night there. Manser asked his friend to carry a postcard back to Charlotte, his girlfriend in Switzerland. According to his friend, Manser looked healthy when they parted ways. Manser complained about diarrhea and a broken rib in the postcard.  According to Kuenzli, Manser crossed the Sarawak/Kalimantan border on 22 May with the help of a local guide. His last known communication was a letter mailed to Charlotte while hiding in Bario. In the letter, Manser said he was very tired while waiting for the sun to set before continuing his journey along the logging roads. The letter was deposited at the Bario post office and reached Switzerland with a Malaysian stamp, but without a post office stamp. Manser was last seen carrying a 30-kilogram backpack by his Penan friend, Paleu, and Paleu's son on 25 May 2000. They accompanied Manser until they saw Bukit Batu Lawi. Manser stated his intention to climb the mountain alone and requested Paleu to leave him there. Manser has not been seen since.

Search expeditions.

BMF and the Penan tried to search for Manser without any success. Areas around the Limbang river were searched by the Penan. Penan expedition teams tracked Manser to his last sleeping place. They followed Manser's machete cuts into the thick forests until the trail reached the swamp at the foot of Bukit Batu Lawi. There was no trace of him in the swamp, going back from the swamp, or trace of anyone else coming into the area. BMF sent a helicopter to circle the limestone pinnacles. However, none of the search teams were willing to scale the last 100 metres of steep limestone that formed the peak of Batu Lawi. It is possible that Manser fell down the side of the mountain, but neither his body nor his belongings have been found. However, two local guides who brought Manser across the jungles of Sarawak were found. In desperation, fortune tellers and Penan necromancers were called. All of them agreed Manser was still alive. On 18 November 2000, BMF requested that the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA) search for Manser. Investigations were carried out at the Swiss Consulate in Kuala Lumpur and the Swiss Honorary Consulate in Kuching.

Aftermath.

In January 2002, hundreds of Penan members organised a "tawai" ceremony to celebrate Manser. The Penan refer to Manser as "Laki Tawang" (man who has become lost) or "Laki e'h metat" (man who has disappeared), rather than his name, because speaking the names of the dead is taboo in Penan culture.  On 18 Nov 2001, eighteen months after his disappearance, he was awarded the International Society for Human Rights prize for Switzerland.  After search expeditions proved fruitless, a civil court in Basel-Stadt declared Manser to be legally dead on 10 March 2005. On 8 May 2010, a memorial service was held in Elisabethen church, Basel to mark the tenth anniversary of his disappearance. Roughly 500 people attended the service.  To celebrate Manser's 60th birthday on 25 August 2014, a species of goblin spider that was discovered by a Dutch-Swiss research expedition in Pulong Tau National Park in the 1990s is now named after Manser: "Aposphragisma brunomanseri".

Films.

Manser made a film documentary:  Several documentary films have been made about him. They are:

Bruno Manser (25 August 1954 – 10 March 2005) was a Swiss environmental activist. From 1984 to 1990, he stayed with the Penan tribe in Sarawak, Malaysia, organising several blockades against timber companies. After he emerged from the forests in 1990, he engaged in public activism for rainforest preservation and the human rights of indigenous peoples, especially the Penan, which brought him into conflict with the Malaysian government. He also founded the Swiss non-governmental organization (NGO) Bruno Manser Fonds in 1991. He disappeared during his last journey to Sarawak in May 2000 and is presumed dead.

Bruno Manser (* 25. August 1954 in Basel; vermisst seit 25. Mai 2000 in Malaysia und am 10. März 2005 amtlich für verschollen erklärt) war ein Schweizer Ethnologe und Umwelt- und Menschenrechtsaktivist.