Properties.

The set of "m"×"n" matrices with entries in a ring K forms a ring formula_2. The zero matrix formula_3 in formula_4 is the matrix with all entries equal to formula_5, where formula_5 is the additive identity in K.  The zero matrix is the additive identity in formula_4. That is, for all formula_9 it satisfies  There is exactly one zero matrix of any given size "m"×"n" having entries in a given ring, so when the context is clear one often refers to "the" zero matrix. In general the zero element of a ring is unique and typically denoted as 0 without any subscript indicating the parent ring. Hence the examples above represent zero matrices over any ring.  The zero matrix represents the linear transformation sending all vectors to the zero vector.  The zero matrix is idempotent, meaning that when it is multiplied by itself the result is itself.  The zero matrix is the only matrix whose rank is 0.

Occurrences.

The mortal matrix problem is the problem of determining, given a finite set of "n" × "n" matrices with integer entries, whether they can be multiplied in some order, possibly with repetition, to yield the zero matrix. This is known to be undecidable for a set of six or more 3 × 3 matrices, or a set of two 15 × 15 matrices.  In ordinary least squares regression, if there is a perfect fit to the data the annihilator matrix is the zero matrix.

In mathematics, particularly linear algebra, a zero matrix or null matrix is a matrix all of whose entries are zero. Some examples of zero matrices are

Eine Nullmatrix ist in der linearen Algebra eine reelle oder komplexe Matrix, deren Einträge alle gleich der Zahl Null sind. Allgemeiner heißt eine Matrix über einem Körper oder Ring Nullmatrix, wenn alle Matrixelemente dem neutralen Element der Addition in dem Körper oder Ring entsprechen. Die Nullmatrix repräsentiert die Nullabbildung zwischen endlichdimensionalen Vektorräumen und ist selbst das neutrale Element im Vektorraum oder Ring der Matrizen. Die wichtigsten Kenngrößen einer Nullmatrix, wie Determinante, Spur und Rang, sind jeweils Null. Die transponierte, adjungierte oder komplementäre Matrix einer Nullmatrix ist wieder eine Nullmatrix.


History.

Wau was initially established by the French as Fort Desaix and later was established as a "zariba" (fortified base) by slave-traders in the 19th century. During the time of condominium rule, the city became an administrative center. Burr and Collins in 1994 described Wau: as follows:  "No one has ever been "at home" in Wau. It is surrounded by a host of disorganized and diverse peoples... It was and remains a town belonging to no single ethnic group But a civil Dinka chief, deriving its importance only from its position as a commercial and administrative center... Located in the midst of the vast Nilotic plain hundreds of miles from nowhere, it was miserable under the best of circumstances... And the research reveal that the first people in the were a people tall with smooth dark skin today the Dinka that have inhabited the area back in the early 17s to 18s. "  During the Second Sudanese Civil War, it was a garrison town of the Khartoum-based Sudanese Armed Forces, and was the scene of extensive fighting in the spring of 1998. Battles erupted again in the town in the spring of 1980s, killing several hundred people. And this forced the Dinka wau to seek refugee since the other tribes which they shared the land joined with khartoumn armed forces and only targeted the Dinka which forced them to seek safety in the eastern side of wau. The Dinka were said to have migrated to the state today known as Warrap state.  In 2010 the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment (South Sudan) proposed to reshape the city as a giraffe.

South Sudanese Civil War.

Following the outbreak of the South Sudanese Civil War, the town has experienced numerous clashes, massacres, and much destruction at the hands of anti-government as well as government forces. In April 2014, Nuer soldiers belonging to the local SPLA garrison mutinied after hearing of a massacre at Mapel. They clashes with SPLA loyalists, and then fled into the Bush, joining a long march of other deserters to Sudan. About 700 Nuer civilians subsequently sought protection at Wau's UNMISS base; most of them were family members of the deserted soldiers, while others were students.  In 2016, Wau experienced heavy clashes that displaced much of its Fertit population and led to widespread destruction. In April 2017, Dinka soldiers of the SPLA and Mathiang Anyoor militiamen carried out a massacre of non-Dinka civilians in the town, killing up to 50 people, and displacing thousands.

Population.

The population of Wau is ethnically diverse. Most of the inhabitants are Dinka and Fertit, as the town lies on the tribal boundary between these two peoples. Furthermore, minorities belonging to the Luo, Jur Modo/Jur Beli, Balanda Boor/Balanda Bviri, and Nuer peoples can be found in Wau. Due to its diversity, Wau has repeatedly suffered from ethnic violence.

Demographics.

In 2008, Wau was the third-largest city in South Sudan, by population, behind national capital Juba and Malakal, in Upper Nile State. At that time, the estimated population of the city of Wau was about 128,100. In 2011, the city's population was estimated at about 151,320.

Religion.

Its Cathedral of St. Mary (built 1905, before the erection of the former Apostolic Prefecture of Bahr el-Ghazal) is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Wau, which serves the province's religious majority.

Economy.

Wau is a vibrant economic center by the standards of the newly established Republic of South Sudan, and serves as hub for trade between Darfur, Bahr al Ghazal, and Equatoria. The major contributors to the local economy include:

Geography and climate.

Wau has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification "Aw"). The city has two seasons: a dry season from November to March, and a rainy season the rest of the year, as depicted in the referenced box below:

Notable locals.

Some of the notable people from Wau include

Wau (Arabic: واو "Wāw"; also known as Wow, Waw, or Wau Town) is a city in northwestern South Sudan, on the western bank of the Jur River, that serves as capital for Western Bahr el Ghazal (and formerly Wau State). It lies approximately northwest of the capital Juba. A culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse urban center and trading hub, Wau is also the former headquarters of Western Bahr el Ghazal.

Wau ( "Wāw"; Alternativschreibung "Wow") ist die Hauptstadt des südsudanesischen Bundesstaates Wau (bis 2015 des Bundesstaates Western Bahr el Ghazal). Die Stadt wurde während des südsudanesischen Bürgerkrieges bekannt wegen der nahe gelegenen Flüchtlingslager und war Schauplatz heftiger Kämpfe. Die zweitgrößte Stadt im Südsudan liegt rund 500 Kilometer Luftlinie nordwestlich der Landeshauptstadt Juba und 1000 Kilometer südwestlich von Khartum am Fluss Jur.


History.

Single parenthood has been common historically due to parental mortality rate due to disease, wars and maternal mortality. Historical estimates indicate that in French, English, or Spanish villages in the 17th and 18th centuries at least one-third of children lost one of their parents during childhood; in 19th-century Milan, about half of all children lost at least one parent by age 20; in 19th-century China, almost one-third of boys had lost one parent or both by the age of 15. Such single parenthood was often short in duration, since remarriage rates were high.  Divorce was generally rare historically (although this depends by culture and era), and divorce especially became very difficult to obtain after the fall of the Roman Empire, in Medieval Europe, due to strong involvement of ecclesiastical courts in family life (though annulment and other forms of separation were more common).

Demographics.

Households.

Among all households in OECD countries in 2011, the proportion of single-parent households was in 3-11% the range, with an average of 7.5%. It was highest in Australia (10%), Canada (10%), Mexico (10%), United States (10%), Lithuania (10%), Costa Rica (11%), Latvia (11%) and New Zealand (11%), while it was lowest in Japan (3%), Greece (4%), Switzerland (4%), Bulgaria (5), Croatia (5%), Germany (5%), Italy (5%) and Cyprus (5%). The proportion was 9% in both Ireland and the United Kingdom.  Among households with children in 2005/09, the proportion of single-parent households was 10% in Japan, 16% in the Netherlands, 19% in Sweden, 20% in France, 22% in Denmark, 22% in Germany, 23% in Ireland, 25% in Canada, 25% in the United Kingdom, and 30% in the United States. The U.S. proportion increased from 20% in 1980 to 30% in 2008.  In all OECD countries, most single-parent households were headed by a mother. The proportion headed by a father varied between 9% and 25%. It was lowest in Estonia (9%), Costa Rica (10%), Cyprus (10%), Japan (10%), Ireland (10%) and the United Kingdom (12%), while it was highest in Norway (22%), Spain (23%), Sweden (24%), Romania (25%) and the United States (25%). These numbers were not provided for Canada, Australia or New Zealand.

Children.

In 2016/17, the proportion of children living in a single-parent household varied between 6% and 28% in the different OECD countries, with an OECD country average of 17%. It was lowest in Turkey (2015, 6%), Greece (8%), Croatia (8%) and Poland (10%), while it was highest in France (23%), United Kingdom (23%), Belgium (25%), Lithuania (25%), United States (27%) and Latvia (28%). It was 19% in Ireland and Canada.  Among children living in a single-parent household, most live primarily with their mother, others primarily with their father, while other children have a shared parenting arrangement where they spend an approximately equal amount of time with their two parents. Among those living primarily with one single parent, most live with their mother. In 2016 (or latest year available), the proportion of 6-12 year olds living primarily with their single father ranged between 5% and 36% among the different OECD countries. It was highest in Belgium (17%), Iceland (19%), Slovenia (20%), France (22%), Norway (23%) and Sweden (36%), while it was lowest in Lithuania (4%), Ireland (5%), Poland (5%), Estonia (7%), Austria (7%) and the United Kingdom (8%). It was 15% in the United States.  In 2005/06, the proportion of 11-15 year old children living in a shared parenting arrangement versus with only one of their parents varied between 1% and 17%, being the highest in Sweden. It was 5% in Ireland and the United States, and 7% in Canada and the United Kingdom. By 2016/17, the percentage in Sweden had increased to 28%.

Impact on parents.

Single mothers.

Over 9.5 million American families are run by one woman. Single mothers are likely to have mental health issues, financial hardships, live in a low income area, and receive low levels of social support. All of these factors are taken into consideration when evaluating the mental health of single mothers. The occurrence of moderate to severe mental disability was more pronounced among single mothers at 28.7% compared to partnered mothers at 15.7%. These mental disabilities include but are not limited to anxiety and depression. Financial hardships also affect the mental health of single mothers. Women, ages 15–24, were more likely to live in a low socio-economic area, have one child, and not to have completed their senior year of high school. These women reported to be in the two lowest income areas, and their mental health was much poorer than those in higher income areas.  A similar study on the mental health of single mothers attempted to answer the question, "Are there differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, between married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers?" Statistically, never married, and separated/divorced mothers had the highest regularities of drug abuse, personality disorder and PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.  Studies from the 1970s showed that single mothers who are not financially stable are more likely to experience depression. In a more current study it was proven that financial strain was directly correlated with sky rocket levels of depression. Among low-income, single mothers, depressive symptoms may be as high as 60%.  Inadequate access to mental health care services is prevalent amongst impoverished women. Low-income women are less likely to receive mental health care for numerous reasons. Mental health services remain inequitable for low-income, more so, low-income single women are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and other poor mental health outcomes. Researchers Copeland and Snyder (2011) addressed the barriers low-income single mothers have on receiving mental health care, "Visible barriers often include the lack of community resources, transportation, child care, convenient hours, and financial resources." Meanwhile, low-income single mothers are more likely to bring their children in for mental health treatment than themselves. Researchers Copeland and Snyder analyzed sixty-four African American mothers who brought their children in for mental health treatment. These mothers were than screened for mild, moderate, and severe depression and/or anxiety. After three months the researchers used an ethnographic interview to address whether or not the participants used mental health services that were referred to them. Results indicated that the majority of the participants did not use the referred mental health care services for reasons that included: fear of losing their children, being hospitalized and/or stigmatized by their community counterparts.

Impact on children.

According to David Blankenhorn, Patrick Fagan, Mitch Pearlstein David Popenoe and Barbara Dafoe Whitehead, living in a single parent family is strongly correlated with school failure and problems of delinquency, drug use, teenage pregnancies, poverty, and welfare dependency in the United States. Using multilevel modeling, Suet-Ling Pong has shown that a high proportion of American children from single parent families perform poorly on mathematics and reading achievement tests.  In Sweden, Emma Fransson et al. have shown that children living with one single parent have worse well-being in terms of physical health behavior, mental health, peer friendships, bullying, cultural activities, sports, and family relationships, compared to children from intact families. As a contrast, children in a shared parenting arrangement that live approximately equal amount of time with their divorced mother and father have about the same well-being as children from intact families and better outcomes than children with only one custodial parent.  The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics has reported that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems, including being twice as likely to suffer from mental illness. Both British and American researchers show that children with no fathers are three times more likely to be unhappy, and are also more likely to engage in anti-social behavior, abuse substance and engage in juvenile deliquency.

Impact on American society.

In 2017 the U.S Census Bureau published a report breaking down the number of children living in single parent households by the race of the family. The report found dramatic disparities in the rates of single parent families among the races examined.

Cultural norms and attitudes.

There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, particularly in the US, centering on whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the children's parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single parent family is not even really a family. In American society, where living standard is very high, single moms and single dads are more likely to be poor, not only because they don't have help in the household, but also because they didn't have much money to begin with. With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered on whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment. In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of children with incarcerated parents, and how losing one or both parents to incarceration affects their academic performance and social well-being with others.  It is encouraged that each parent respect the other, at least in the child's presence, and provide child support for the primary caregiver, when parents are not married or separated. The civil behavior among separated parents has a direct effect on how child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.

Causes of single-parenthood.

Widowed parents.

Historically, death of a partner was a common cause of single parenting. Diseases and maternal death not infrequently resulted in a widower or widow responsible for children. At certain times wars might also deprive significant numbers of families of a parent. Improvements in sanitation and maternal care have decreased mortality for those of reproductive age, making death a less common cause of single parenting.

Divorced parents.

Divorce statistics.

In 2009, the overall divorce rate was around 9/1000 in the United States. It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000. This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year. Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 40% chance of ending in divorce. And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of children in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical nuclear family. This was broken down into about 30% living with a stepparent, 23% living with a biological mother, 6% with grandparents as caregivers, 4% with a biological father, 4% with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1% living with a foster family.  Around the mid-1990s, there was a significant amount of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single mothers in the United States alone. However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.

Children and divorce.

Child custody in reference to divorce refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. Physical custody refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child's life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.  Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings. Keeping in touch with both parents and having a healthy relationship with both mother and father appears to have the most effect on a child's behavior; which leads to an easier time coping with the divorce as well as development through the child's life. Children will do better with their parents divorce if they have a smooth adjustment period. One way to make this adjustment easier on children is to let them "remain in the same neighborhoods and schools following divorce."

Single woman births.

Unintended pregnancy.

Some out-of-wedlock births are intended, but many are unintentional. Out-of-wedlock births are frequently not acceptable to society, and they often result in single parenting. A partner may also leave as he or she may want to shirk responsibility of bringing up the child. This also may harm the child. Where they are not acceptable, they sometimes result in forced marriage, however such marriages fail more often than others.  In the United States, the rate of unintended pregnancy is higher among unmarried couples than among married ones. In 1990, 73% of births to unmarried women were unintended at the time of conception, compared to about 44% of births overall.  Mothers with unintended pregnancies, and their children, are subject to numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of violence and death, and the children are less likely to succeed in school and are more likely to live in poverty and be involved in crime.  "Fragile Families" are usually caused by an unintended pregnancy out of wedlock. Usually in this situation the father is not completely in the picture and the relationship between the mother, father, and child is consistently unstable. As well as instability "fragile families" are often limited in resources such as human capital and financial resources, the kids that come from these families are more likely to be hindered within school and don't succeed as well as kids who have strictly single parents or two parent homes. Usually within these families the father plans to stick around and help raise the child but once the child is born the fathers do not stay for much longer and only one third stay after five years of the child's birth. Most of these fragile families come from low economic status to begin with and the cycle appears to continue; once the child grows up they are just as likely to still be poor and live in poverty as well. Most fragile families end with the mother becoming a single parent, leaving it even more difficult to come out of the poverty cycle. The gender of the baby seems to have no effect if the father is not living with the mother at the time of the birth, meaning they are still likely to leave after one year of the child's birth. Yet there is some evidence that suggests that if the father is living with the mother at the time of the birth he is more likely to stay after one year if the child is a son rather than a daughter.

Choice.

Some individuals choose to become pregnant and parent on their own. Others choose to adopt. Typically referred to in the West as "Single Mothers by Choice" or "Choice Moms" though, fathers also (less commonly) may choose to become single parents through adoption or surrogacy. Many turn to single parenthood by choice after not finding the right person to raise children with, and for women, it often comes out of a desire to have biological children before it is too late to do so.

Single-parent adoption.

History of single parent adoptions.

Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Often, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965, the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families could not be found. In 1968, the Child Welfare League of America stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.  Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s. However, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.

Considerations.

Single parent adoptions are controversial. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child. In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent. A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them. Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.

By country.

Australia.

In 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. In Australia 2011, out of all families 15.9% were single parent families. Out of these families 17.6% of the single parents were males, whilst 82.4% were females.  Single people are eligible to apply for adoption in all states of Australia, except for Queensland and South Australia. They are able to apply for adoption both to Australian born and international born children, although not many other countries allow single parent adoptions.  Single parents in Australia are eligible for support payments from the government, but only if they are caring for at least one child under the age of eight.

New Zealand.

At the 2013 census, 17.8% of New Zealand families were single-parent, of which five-sixths were headed by a female. Single-parent families in New Zealand have fewer children than two-parent families; 56% of single-parent families have only one child and 29% have two children, compared to 38% and 40% respectively for two-parent families.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families, 8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line (after housing costs). Single parents in the UK are almost twice as likely to be in low-paid jobs as other workers (39% of working single parents compared with 21% of working people nationally). This is highlighted in a report published by Gingerbread, funded by Trust for London and Barrow Cadbury Trust.

United States.

In the United States, since the 1960s, there has been a marked increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The jump was caused by an increase in births to unmarried women and by the increasing prevalence of divorces among couples. In 2010, 40.7% of births in the US were to unmarried women. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never been married, 15.6% of children lived with a divorced parent, and 1.2% lived with a parent who was widowed. The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the emerging trend noted in 2000. The most recent data of December 2011 shows approximately 13.7 million single parents in the U.S. Mississippi leads the nation with the highest percent of births to unmarried mothers with 54% in 2014, followed by Louisiana, New Mexico, Florida and South Carolina.  In 2006, 12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a female.  The newest census bureau reports that between 1960 and 2016, the percentage of children living in families with two parents decreased from 88 to 69. Of those 50.7 million children living in families with two parents, 47.7 million live with two married parents and 3.0 million live with two unmarried parents.  The percentage of children living with single parents increased substantially in the United States during the second half of the 20th century. According to a 2013 Child Trends study, only 9% of children lived with single parents in the 1960s—a figure that increased to 28% in 2012. The main cause of single parent families are high rates of divorce and non-marital childbearing.  https://www.academia.edu/6799750/Wrapped_in_the_Flag_of_Israel_Mizrahi_Single_Mothers_and_Bureaucratic_Torture

A single parent is a person who lives with a child or children and who does not have a spouse or live-in partner. Reasons for becoming a single parent include divorce, break-up, abandonment, death of the other parent, childbirth by a single woman or single-person adoption. A "single parent family" is a family with children that is headed by a single parent.

Eine alleinerziehende (gemäß reformierter Rechtschreibung auch allein erziehende) Person ist eine Person, die ohne Hilfe einer anderen erwachsenen Person mindestens ein Kind unter 18 Jahren großzieht. Man spricht auch von Ein-Eltern-Familien.


History.

La Troisième Chaîne Couleur (1972–1974).

"La Troisième Chaîne Couleur" began broadcasting at 7:00pm CET on 31 December 1972. The station's first President Director General (PDG), Jean-Louis Guillaud, decided to call on the ORTF's regional television services and aspiring young staff to join the new network, which would broadcast in colour, with no advertising or continuity announcers (although out-of-vision announcers were later introduced). Upon launch, Jean-Louis Guillaud and the head of ORTF, Arthur Conte, went on the air and together laid out a vision of the new service.  To begin with, "La 3e Chaîne Couleur"'s broadcasts were restricted to three hours each evening and only reached a potential audience of 26% of the population – its transmissions primarily covered Paris, the Ile-de-France and Northern regions.

Autonomous from the state (1974–1999).

On 7 October 1974, law reforms signalled the breakup of the ORTF into seven separate state-owned companies. In the case of the third channel, the "Société nationale de programme de télévision France Régions 3" ("FR3") was given responsibility for management and development of 22 regional television services and 29 regional radio stations under the editorialship of 11 broadcasting centres.  "FR3" was launched on 6 January 1975 with its PDG, Claude Contaime, choosing to concentrate on film, debate and local opt-outs as the network's main output. By 22 March 1975, daily local programming for the regions had commenced. Some national programming, including "Les Jeux de 20 Heures", made heavy use of the regional network by linking up to studios around the country for live features. In the case of "Les Jeux de 20 Heures", it is said that such programming led the State government to understand the importance of regionalism and to gradually undertake measures to decentralise France administratively and economically.  On the programming front, the network's first national news programme was introduced in 1978 in the form of "Soir 3", a late night national and international bulletin. 21 October 1981 saw FR3 begin regular live coverage of the ministers' questions of the National Assembly. Advertising was introduced to the network in January 1983. By September 1983, the twelve broadcasting centres around the country were airing an average of 3 hours a day of regional output. Popular programming on Saturday night included the first airings of the American soap opera "Dynasty" and a "Disney Channel" strand. National and regional news at peaktime was integrated into a new nightly programme, "19|20", launched on 6 May 1986.  In 1982, FR3 DOM-TOM was separated and renamed RFO.

Plans to privatisation (1986–1989).

In 1986, the then government of Jacques Chirac put forward the proposal of privatising one of the three public television companies. The original suggestion was to transform FR3 into a private body, however the final decision was that of TF1. The broadcasting authority at the time, the CNCL, appointed Rene Han to become programme controller of FR3, with the result that the networked programmes took an even more highbrow and cultural focus.  Changes to the schedule included a supplementary Friday night edition of "Thalassa- le magazine de la mer" whilst an televised opera was aired every Wednesday night. Popular quiz show "Questions pour un champion" made its broadcasting début in November 1988. "La Classe", an entertainment programme which replaced "Les Jeux de 20 heures" and followed "19|20", was also introduced. Having launched without utilising "speakerines", the network introduced in-vision announcers in September 1987 and retained live continuity until 1993, a year after TF1 and France 2 had abandoned in-vision presentation.

Reaffirmation of the public sector (1989–1990).

At the turn of the decade, the French television landscape which had been previously dominated by the three public stations now consisted of a strong private sector in the form of TF1 and Canal+ and the now-fragmented public sector of "Antenne 2" and "FR3". In 1990, the State, through the "Conseil Supérieure de l'Audiovisuel" (CSA), decided to merge the separate public entities into a new corporation.  At the same time, FR3 was already closing down on Saturday afternoons to allow nine hours of airtime to the educational station La Sept. The arrangement continued until 1992 when the launch of the Franco-German network Arte led to the broadcaster's demise. On FR3 itself, the network aired current affairs programming on Saturday mornings including "Continentales" and "L'Eurojournal", both presented by Alex Taylor.

The public reunification (1990–2009).

On 7 September 1992, FR3 and Antenne 2 were reunificated in the new France Télévisions entity and rebranded as "France 3" and "France 2" respectively. Their logos match to the French flag like TF1. In 1998, "France 3" partnered with TPS to launch a satellite station called "Régions".  Between 2000 and 2005, La Cinquième (now France 5), RFO (along with RFOsat, now France Ô) and France 4 joined France 2 and "France 3" under the France Télévisions corporate identity.  Under the direction of "France Télévisions" président Patrick de Carolis and director of channels Patrice Duhamel, October 2006 saw the introduction of a new daily cultural programme called "Ce soir (ou jamais!)" presented by Frederic Taddei, marking a new, more cultural focus to the network's programming. The late night news programme "Soir 3" was given a new, fixed timeslot of 11 pm.

At present (2009–present).

On 5 January 2009 all on-air advertising on France Télévisions, (including France 3) between 20:00 and 06:00 were eliminated, meaning the traditional start of primetime viewing in France of 20:45 was brought forward by ten minutes to 20:35.  With the establishment of digital terrestrial television, France 3 has seen its national audience share down to under 10%, behind M6.

Mission.

France 3 is a general entertainment channel which has missions to deliver domestic and regional programming, offering cultural and educational advantages. Its local and regional vocation has been assured by its new mission statement. (" Elle doit privileger l'information décentralisée et les événements régionaux ")Translated it reads: 'It must promote local news and regional events and to introduce and familiarise the different regions of France and Europe and « to give space to our lively spectacles ».'

Headquarters.

France 3 was originally based at 13–15 rue Cognacq-Jay in Paris, which housed the television services of the former Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française (ORTF).  Since TF1 became independent from the ORTF, FR3 was based at the Maison de la Radio in the 16th arrondissement of Paris with its editorial base located at 28 Cours Albert 1er in the 8th arrondissement.  In 1998, France 3 moved to a new base at 7 Esplanade Henri de France in the 15th arrondissement. This also houses the rest of France Télévisions' operations. The headquarters are accessible by taking the RER Line C at Boulevard Victor.

Programmes.

France 3 has fewer audience constraints when compared to sister channel France 2, with France 2 being the flagship public channel. This allows the channel to concentrate on specialist and cultural programming.  Every morning, France 3 airs the children block Okoo. While France 5 broadcasts preschool programmes, France 3 target the older age range. Okoo airs all day on France 4.

News bulletins ("Journal télévisé").

There are three weekday news bulletins broadcast as part of the channel's schedule:

"12|13".

is broadcast every day between 11:45 and 13:00 CET, presented by Emilie Tran Nguyen on weekdays and Catherine Matausch at weekends.  A typical edition of "12|13" consists of national news headlines at 11:45 followed by an Outre-Mer bulletin from the studios of RFO Paris at 11:50. The regional opt-out bulletins ("midi-pile") air at noon, followed by the national news from 12:25–12:55 CET.

"19|20".

France 3's flagship evening news programming block, 19|20, airs nightly between 18:40 and 20:00 CET. The nationwide sections of "19|20" are presented by Carole Gaessler from Monday to Thursday and Catherine Matausch from Friday to Sunday.  A typical edition of "19|20" opens with a short summary of the national and regional headlines. This is then followed by an opt-out for either regional news or local features, with the main regional news airing after this at 19:00. The national news concludes the programming block at 19:30.  Previously, a 15-minute programme, launched in July 2010 called 18:30 Aujourd'hui opened the 19|20 news sequence, presenting the leading news stories from France 3's regional news bureaux. It was cancelled in September 2011, with the regional round-up moving to the 12|13 news programme.

"Soir 3".

Soir 3, broadcast every night at 22:30 CET, is the network's late night news programme, presented by Francis Letellier ("ad interim") on weeknights and Sandrine Aramon at weekends.  On 5 January 2009, the programme began to incorporate a 5-minute regional news opt-out as part of a revamp of France 3's schedule to accommodate the end of prime-time advertising.

Entertainment.

One of France 3's most well-known programmes is "Plus belle la vie", a recurring soap opera based in the fictional neighbourhood of Mistral, Marseille. The show has garnered critical acclaim within France and commands one of the highest viewing figures for the channel.  Quiz shows make up an important part of the channel's schedule. Word and numbers game "Des chiffres et des lettres" and general knowledge show "Questions pour un Champion" both make regular appearances in the daytime.  Other well-known programmes are personality talk show "Vie privée, vie publique", "(Private life, Public Life)", "Thalassa", a programme about all things concerning the sea, magazine show "Des racines et des ailes" and children's science show "C'est pas sorcier". Cookery and home-improvement shows also feature, with "Côté Cuisine", "Côté Jardin" and "A Table!". Live music shows also feature weekly. "Taratata" focuses on rock music, whilst "Chabada" rediscovers forgotten French pop songs. A selection of these programmes are also broadcast internationally, via TV5Monde.

Imported.

Amongst the programmes imported by France 3, British dramas feature prominently. Popular detective dramas "A Touch of Frost", "Lewis", Inspector George Gently and "Midsomer Murders" are shown and have different title names, such as "Inspecteur Frost", "Inspecteur Lewis" and "Inspecteur Barnaby".

Regional structure.

From its historical origins, the Third Channel has utilised regional editorial and production centres which were developed since 1963 and owned by the ORTF.  The regional centres are often grouped in two levels – two half-hour news programmes and a short late night bulletin are produced and broadcast each day (in many cases, separate bulletins are produced for various parts of the region). The centres also produce shorter, more localised news bulletins for broadcast within "19|20". For example, "France 3 Nord Pas-de-Calais Picardie" produces localised bulletins for Côte d'Opale, Lille Métropole and Picardy. Various sport, features, current affairs and entertainment programming produced for and about the regions are also broadcast.  13 regional stations make up the network. Between them, the stations provide 24 sub-regional services, whose broadcast areas approximately match the 22 former metropolitan régions of France (the exceptions being that Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Rhône-Alpes are sub-divided into two). Each sub-regional news service emanates from a distinct centre of production. In addition, the stations provide 42 more localised news opt-outs.  Some news reports sourced from "France 3 Ouest" were aired by Channel Television for the now-defunct weekly news programme "Rendezvous Dimanche". In Belgium, local programming from "France 3 Nord Pas-de-Calais Picardie" has been known to receive twice the number of viewers than in its intended coverage area.

19|20 local opt-outs.

Within the main "19|20" programming block and depending on where the viewer receives France 3 via terrestrial transmitters, local opt-out bulletins (some live, some pre-recorded) concentrating on specific are aired. The ten-minute opts air at around 1845 CET before the main regional news.

Regional languages.

France 3 also produces and airs programmes regionally for the various regional languages of France. Outside of regional news bulletins, France 3 also airs general interest programmes in the target language.

Occitan.

Regional programming in the Occitan language started sporadically, with 15 minutes daily of news reports. After audience protests, by 1982 the time devoted to the language rose to over 3 hours weekly.

Breton.

Programmes in the Breton language started with a daily news bulletin from predecessor RTF Télé-Bretagne.

Corsican.

Despite having special status as a semi-autonomous region, only 40 minutes a week are devoted to the Corsican language. The first programme in Corsican was in 1966 and was a weekly poetry reading from a Corsican-language school.

Alsatian.

Since the creation of its predecessor RTF Télé-Strasbourg, there have been sporadic programmes in the Alsatian language. By 1974 there was a weekly show of 45 minutes, in 1989 "Rund Um", a magazine programme aired its first episode. After the merger of France 2 and France 3 into France Télévisions, France 3 Alsace has financed an Alsatian version of animated series Tintin.

Organization.

Directors.

Chairmen and chief executive officers:  General managers:

France 3 () is a French free-to-air public television channel and part of the France Télévisions group, which also includes France 2, France 4, France 5, and France Ô.

France 3 ist der zweitgrößte öffentlich-rechtliche und insgesamt drittgrößte Fernsehsender Frankreichs. Er gehört zu "France Télévisions". Sendestart des damaligen dritten Senders "La troisième chaîne" der ORTF war am 31. Dezember 1972. Mit der Aufgliederung der ORTF Ende 1974 wurde der Sender eigenständig und nannte sich "France Régions 3" (FR3).


Location.

Highgrove House is located in Doughton, near Tetbury in the county of Gloucestershire in South West England. Gatcombe Park, the country residence of The Prince of Wales's sister, Anne, Princess Royal, is six miles away between the villages of Minchinhampton and Avening. In addition to Her Royal Highness, the Princess Royal, The Prince of Wales's cousin, Prince Michael of Kent, bought nearby Nether Lypiatt Manor shortly after the duchy purchased Highgrove, although he sold it in 2006.  As the country residence of the heir to the throne, Highgrove House is well protected by security. The house is one of several designated sites proscribed under the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 that are protected by law from criminal trespass, a high stone wall surrounds the estate, and the duchy and the chief constable of Gloucestershire supported the moving of two public footpaths that ran close to the house for security reasons in 1983. Several people have been arrested in the vicinity of Highgrove since The Prince of Wales's occupation, including two French journalists and a photographer from "The Sun". A 1.5 nautical mile aerial exclusion zone for civilian aircraft and microlights was imposed over Highgrove in 1991.

History.

The Crawley-Boevey Baronetcy (originally Barrow Baronetcy), termed "of Highgrove in the County of Gloucester", was created on 22 January 1784. The family had inherited Flaxley Abbey in 1727, which was their seat until 1960. Highgrove House was built in 1796 to 1798 by John Paul Paul, and believed to have been designed by architect Anthony Keck. The estate itself came to the family through the marriage in 1771 of Josiah Paul Tippetts later Paul (his mother's family name, which he adopted under the terms of the will of his uncle, her brother) with Mary Clark, whose father Robert was the local squire. It belonged to Paul's descendants until 1860. In 1850 his granddaughter Mary Elizabeth Paul died after her gown caught fire during a soiree held for her brother in the ballroom. The house was sold again in 1864 to a barrister, William Yatman. During his time at Highgrove Yatman was described as one of the "chief preservers of foxes" in an 1872 discussion on the Duke of Beaufort's hounds. Yatman rebuilt the medieval spire of Tetbury church in honour of his son, and paid for the rehanging of the church bells in 1891. Yatman left Highgrove following a fire in 1893 which destroyed much of the interiors of the house. The house was rebuilt at a cost of £6,000 by Arthur Mitchell, whose son, Lt Col. Francis Mitchell, Commander of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, lived at nearby Doughton Manor. The Mitchells sold Highgrove after World War II to Lt Col. Gwyn Morgan.  The estate had been bought by the Macmillan family in 1956 for £89,000 and was put up for sale by the Conservative politician and businessman Maurice Macmillan, the son of former Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, for £730,000 in 1980. Macmillan sold Highgrove so he could spend more time at Birch Grove, his father's Sussex home. At the time of its sale Highgrove was described as a "distinguished Georgian house standing in superb parkland in the Duke of Beaufort's hunt" and possessing 347 acres, with nine bedrooms and six bathrooms.  In August 1980 the Highgrove estate was purchased by the Duchy of Cornwall for a figure believed to be between £800,000 and £1,000,000 with funds raised for its purchase by the sale of three properties from the duchy's holdings, including part of the village of Daglingworth. The Duke of Cornwall, Charles, Prince of Wales, was subsequently appointed a tenant for life of Highgrove by the duchy. Upon its purchase, essential repairs were carried out, the interior was stripped out, and the rooms were painted white, in preparation for their redecoration. The swimming pool at Highgrove was given to The Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales as a wedding present from the British Army.  The Prince of Wales had previously occupied Chevening in Kent, a house that had been left to him by The 7th Earl Stanhope in 1967. The Prince of Wales found the journey from Chevening to Buckingham Palace inconvenient as a result of traffic congestion in South London, and it was also far away from Wales and the Duchy of Cornwall. The estate was also run by a board of trustees, appointed by the government which was seen as a disadvantage to any future changes The Prince of Wales wished to make. As £1 million of renovations had been made to Chevening before The Prince of Wales's occupancy, the purchase of Highgrove was criticised by Labour MP Reg Race, who said that it was "...bloody outrageous on a day that the Government are cutting social security benefits for millions of people". A spokesperson for the duchy said, "It is coincidental that this estate has a house on it which is suitable for the Prince of Wales. The Royal Family are rather short of residences and the prince only has a set of rooms at Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle that he can use...when you are 31 you want a place of your own".  The Prince of Wales had looked at a number of properties in different counties before the duchy purchased Highgrove. The Prince of Wales rejected houses at Stoke Climsland in Cornwall and Orchardleigh in Somerset. The Prince of Wales was attracted to Gloucestershire as it was equidistant between London and Cornwall and he had known the locality around Badminton since his childhood, often hunting with the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt.  The duchy's local holdings were expanded after the purchase of Highgrove, with the addition of Broadfield Farm, a 420-acre farm on the opposite side of Tetbury and other holdings to a total of 1,112 acres by 1993.  In 1981 model maker Rosalind Hudson made a scale model of Highgrove as a wedding present for The Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales. Hudson later altered the model as Highgrove was altered.  Highgrove was initially occupied at weekends by The Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales, after their 1981 marriage, and their two children, Prince William and Prince Harry, spent much of their childhoods at the house.  Two former members of Highgrove's staff, butler Paul Burrell and housekeeper Wendy Berry, have chronicled their time at the house. Burrell's book "A Royal Duty" was published in 2003 and covers his time at Highgrove from The Prince of Wales's purchase of the house until Burrell's departure with Diana in 1995. Berry's 1995 book, "A Housekeeper's Diary", detailed her time at Highgrove from 1984 to 1993 and it was the subject of a worldwide publishing ban from the High Court.

Design.

Highgrove House was built between 1796 and 1798; it was believed to have been designed by architect Anthony Keck. The house is a rectangular detached three-storey building made from ashlar blocks with a stone and slate roof. The exterior of the house features neo-classical decorations. In its 1985 listing for the house, English Heritage described its design as "Principal block, rectangular of five bays by three and of 3 storeys. Pilasters through the upper floors, cornice and parapet. The garden front (south-west) of 5 bays with a central canted bay of 2 storeys. Mid C19. 12-pane sashes. Sashes on south-east set in arched recesses." The house has four reception rooms, nine main bedrooms, with a nursery wing and staff quarters.  In 1893 a fire caused severe damage to the house, and it was rebuilt to its former appearance in 1894 by the Bristol architect John Hart. The fire gutted the interior and damaged the west façade, where a window collapsed onto the terrace, bringing down the wall above. A porch was added to the south-east front in 1894. An office wing to the north west of the house was demolished in 1966.  At the behest of The Prince of Wales, the artist Felix Kelly created an artist's impression of a remodeled Highgrove with neo-classical additions. Kelly had previously painted a vision of Henbury Hall in Henbury, Cheshire based on Andrea Palladio's Villa Rotonda. Kelly's artwork had formed the basis for the construction of Henbury Hall, and a similar painting of Highgrove subsequently formed the basis for a remodelling of the house in December 1987, undertaken by architect Peter Falconer. The remodeling saw the exterior embellished with a new balustrade, pediment, and classical pilasters. A new single-storey staff annexe was also added. The additions were praised by the Georgian Group.  Other buildings built by The Prince of Wales at Highgrove include beehive pavilions and a beef-yard designed by Willie Bertram, built in traditional Cotswold stone. Four semi-detached cottages dubbed 'the council houses' by The Prince of Wales were also renovated. Highgrove House was given Grade II listed status in March 1985. In addition to the main house, the Coach House to the north west, and Lodge and Gate Piers to the east, were also given Grade II listed status.  After the marriage of The Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales in 1981 rooms at Highgrove were decorated by Dudley Poplak who regarded the commission as the "most important assignment I have ever had." Poplak's obituary in "The Times" later described his decorations for Highgrove as "...a youthful variant of the chintzy country-house look that was seen everywhere that year..." with a pallet of clean fresh colours - plenty of lime green and aquamarine - he created a gentle relaxed mood with no flights of fancy other than the odd experiment with interesting textures". Poplak also decorated The Prince and Princess of Wales's apartments at Kensington Palace. Following Diana's departure from Highgrove, Poplak's designs were replaced with those of Robert Kime at the behest of Camilla. In 2003 Kime decorated rooms at The Prince of Wales's London residence, Clarence House, following the death of the Queen Mother.  The Prince of Wales's environmental beliefs have been reflected in changes to Highgrove. Solar panels have been installed on the farm and the house is heated by a wood chip boiler, in addition, waste from the house is filtered through a natural sewage system, and the use of aerosols was banned in the house in the 1980s. The lights at Highgrove were turned off for Earth Hour in 2008.

Gardens.

The Prince of Wales has created a wild garden, a formal garden and a walled kitchen garden at Highgrove. He has also planted a large number of trees in the grounds, and holds the NCCPG national beech collection. Individual features in the gardens include the Carpet Garden, Southern Hemisphere Garden, Walled Garden, the Autumn Walk, Sundial Garden, and a Woodland Garden featuring two classical temples made from green oak and a stumpery. The Prince of Wales has described his efforts as representing "...one very small attempt to heal the appalling short-sighted damage done to the soil, the landscape and our own souls" and has written that "Some may not like it, others may scoff that it is not in the'real world' or it is merely an expensive indulgence. Whatever the case, my enduring hope is that those who visit the garden may find something to inspire, excite, fascinate or soothe them".  In 1980 the Prince of Wales was especially drawn to the 200-year-old Highgrove Cedar of Lebanon to the west of the house. After the diseased tree had to be felled in 2007 for safety reasons, a new oak pavilion with church-like spire was constructed over the base of the tree. The organic design by Mark Hoare has a rustic cruck frame on Cotswold staddle stones.  The Head Gardener is Debs Goodenough, who in July 2008 replaced David Howard. Charles was initially assisted in his creation of Highgrove's gardens by Miriam Rothschild. He was further assisted by Lady Salisbury, who had restored the gardens of Hatfield House, and Rosemary Verey.  The Highgrove Estate consists of parkland fringed by woods surrounding Highgrove House, a number of farm buildings and around 900 acres (364ha) of land farmed by the Duchy of Cornwall—the Home Farm. The beef herd based at Highgrove includes pedigree Aberdeen-Angus females and yearlings, Angus bulls and Angus cross Friesian cows. Sharing the permanent pasture with the beef herd is the flock of Masham and Mule sheep. The estate backs onto the grounds of Westonbirt Arboretum.  In 1985, organic farming was introduced on three blocks of land as part of a move to what has been called biologically sustainable farming linked to conservation. The step to full organic status on the whole estate was completed in 1996.  Pre-booked tours of the gardens are available to individuals and groups, between April and mid-October. Over 30,000 people visit the gardens annually.  The gardens were the source of inspiration for the British composer Patrick Hawes when he was asked to write a piece of music for The Prince of Wales's 60th birthday in 2008. The resultant piece entitled "Goddess of the Woods" was first performed on the Prince's birthday in the Floral Hall of the Royal Opera House. Three further movements ensued to create the "Highgrove Suite" each depicting different areas of the gardens at Highgrove. The suite was premiered at Highgrove on 8 June 2010 with the royal harpist Claire Jones and the Philharmonia orchestra.  The Sundial Garden was the first garden at Highgrove to be created by The Prince of Wales and had formerly been known as the South Garden. It is named for the stone sundial at its centre, sculpted by Walter Crang, a wedding present to The Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales from the Duke of Beaufort and outside staff and gardeners. The garden faces south and its layout has remained largely unchanged since its creation. The Sundial Garden was originally planted with roses, and was briefly planted as a 'black-and-white garden'. The garden is presently planted with herbaceous plants in pinks, blues, and purples, and surrounded by a large yew hedge planted in the Winter of 1982.  A section of the garden contains busts of people admired by The Prince of Wales, including Debo Devonshire, composer John Tavener, naturalist Dame Miriam Rothschild, poet Kathleen Raine, activist Vandana Shiva, and the Bishop of London, Richard Chartres. Other people honoured by busts in the garden include the former museum director and art historian who helped design the Highgrove gardens Sir Roy Strong, and Léon Krier, who created Poundbury, a village built to The Prince of Wales's architectural principals in Dorset.  Busts of the former owner of Highgrove, Maurice Macmillan (sculpted by Angela Conner), the explorer and confidant of The Prince of Wales, Sir Laurens van der Post (sculptured by Frances Baruch), and pilot and psychiatrist Alan McGlashan are situated in Highgrove's Cottage Garden, in recesses in a yew hedge. A path of stone cobbles leaves the Cottage Garden, before surrounding a stone obelisk inscribed with 'York, Weymouth and Bath', given to The Prince of Wales for his 60th birthday by stone-masonry colleges.

Highgrove House shops.

In 1992, The Prince of Wales opened the Highgrove retail shops which sells products for home and gardens. The shops are located in Tetbury and in London where the products are available at Fortnum & Mason. A shop in Bath closed down in 2014. All profits from the sale of the products are paid to The Prince of Wales's Charitable Foundation. In 2014, the shops began selling products online.

Further reading.

Books by Charles, Prince of Wales on Highgrove and its gardens:  The "Highgrove Florilegium", a book of botanical illustrations limited to 175 copies, was published on the flora of Highgrove in April 2008.  Memoirs of Highgrove:

Highgrove House is the family residence of the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall, situated southwest of Tetbury in Gloucestershire, England. Built in the late 18th century, Highgrove and its estate were owned by various families until it was purchased in 1980 by the Duchy of Cornwall from Maurice Macmillan. The Prince of Wales remodelled the Georgian house with neo-classical additions in 1987. The duchy manages the estate and the nearby Duchy Home Farm. The house is noted for its extensive gardens which receive more than 30,000 visitors a year. The house and gardens are run according to The Prince of Wales's environmental principles, and have been the subject of several books and television programmes. The Prince of Wales frequently hosts various charitable events at the house.

Highgrove House ist der Landsitz von Prince Charles, Fürst von Wales, bei Tetbury in Gloucestershire, England. Es gehört zum Herzogtum Cornwall.


House of Wessex.

Alfred was king of Wessex from 871.

Disputed.

There is some evidence that Ælfweard of Wessex may have been king in 924, between his father Edward the Elder and his brother Æthelstan, although he was not crowned. A 12th-century list of kings gives him a reign length of four weeks, though one manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says he died only 16 days after his father. However, the fact that he ruled is not accepted by all historians. Also, it is unclear whether—if Ælfweard was declared king—it was over the whole kingdom or of Wessex only. One interpretation of the ambiguous evidence is that when Edward died, Ælfweard was declared king in Wessex and Æthelstan in Mercia.

House of Denmark.

England came under the control of Sweyn Forkbeard, a Danish king, after an invasion in 1013, during which Æthelred abandoned the throne and went into exile in Normandy.

House of Wessex (restored, first time).

Following the death of Sweyn Forkbeard, Æthelred the Unready returned from exile and was again proclaimed king on 3 February 1014. His son succeeded him after being chosen king by the citizens of London and a part of the Witan, despite ongoing Danish efforts to wrest the crown from the West Saxons.

House of Denmark (restored).

Following the decisive Battle of Assandun on 18 October 1016, King Edmund signed a treaty with Cnut (Canute) under which all of England except for Wessex would be controlled by Cnut. Upon Edmund's death just over a month later on 30 November, Cnut ruled the whole kingdom as its sole king for nineteen years.

House of Wessex (restored, second time).

After Harthacnut, there was a brief Saxon Restoration between 1042 and 1066.

House of Godwin.

Disputed claimant (House of Wessex).

After King Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings, the Witan elected Edgar Ætheling as king, but by then the Normans controlled the country and Edgar never ruled. He submitted to King William the Conqueror.

House of Normandy.

In 1066, several rival claimants to the English throne emerged. Among them were Harold Godwinson (recognised as king by the Witenagemot after the death of Edward the Confessor), Harald Hardrada (King of Norway who claimed to be the rightful heir of Harthacnut) and Duke William II of Normandy (vassal to the King of France, and first cousin once-removed of Edward the Confessor). Harald and William both invaded separately in 1066. Godwinson successfully repelled the invasion by Hardrada, but ultimately lost the throne of England in the Norman conquest of England.  After the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, William the Conqueror made permanent the recent removal of the capital from Winchester to London. Following the death of Harold Godwinson at Hastings, the Anglo-Saxon Witenagemot elected as king Edgar the Ætheling, the son of Edward the Exile and grandson of Edmund Ironside. The young monarch was unable to resist the invaders and was never crowned. William was crowned King William I of England on Christmas Day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, and is today known as William the Conqueror, William the Bastard or William I.

House of Blois.

Henry I left no legitimate male heirs, his son William Adelin having died in the "White Ship" disaster. This ended the direct Norman line of kings in England. Henry named his eldest daughter, Matilda (Countess of Anjou by her second marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, as well as widow of her first husband, Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor), as his heir. Before naming Matilda as heir, he had been in negotiations to name his nephew Stephen of Blois as his heir. When Henry died, Stephen invaded England, and in a coup d'etat had himself crowned instead of Matilda. The period which followed is known as The Anarchy, as parties supporting each side fought in open warfare both in Britain and on the continent for the better part of two decades.

Disputed claimants.

Matilda was declared heir presumptive by her father, Henry I, after the death of her brother on the "White Ship", and acknowledged as such by the barons. Upon Henry I's death, the throne was seized by Matilda's cousin, Stephen of Blois. During the ensuing Anarchy, Matilda controlled England for a few months in 1141—the first woman to do so—but was never crowned and is rarely listed as a monarch of England.  Count Eustace IV of Boulogne (c. 1130 – 17 August 1153) was appointed co-king of England by his father, King Stephen, on 6 April 1152, in order to guarantee his succession to the throne (as was the custom in France, but not in England). The Pope and the Church would not agree to this, and Eustace was not crowned. Eustace died the next year aged 23, during his father's lifetime, and so never became king in his own right.

House of Anjou.

King Stephen came to an agreement with Matilda in November 1153 with the signing of the Treaty of Wallingford, where Stephen recognised Henry, son of Matilda and her second husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, as the designated heir. The royal house descended from Matilda and Geoffrey is widely known by two names, the House of Anjou (after Geoffrey's title as Count of Anjou) or the House of Plantagenet, after his sobriquet. Some historians prefer to group the subsequent kings into two groups, before and after the loss of the bulk of their French possessions, although they are not different royal houses.  The Angevins (from the French term meaning "from Anjou") ruled over the Angevin Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries, an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland. They did not regard England as their primary home until most of their continental domains were lost by King John. The direct, eldest male line from Henry II includes monarchs commonly grouped together as the House of Plantagenet, which was the name given to the dynasty after the loss of most of their continental possessions, while cadet branches of this line became known as the House of Lancaster and the House of York during the War of the Roses.  The Angevins formulated England's royal coat of arms, which usually showed other kingdoms held or claimed by them or their successors, although without representation of Ireland for quite some time. "Dieu et mon droit" was first used as a battle cry by Richard I in 1198 at the Battle of Gisors, when he defeated the forces of Philip II of France It has generally been used as the motto of English monarchs since being adopted by Edward III.  Henry II named his son, another Henry (1155–1183), as co-ruler with him but this was a Norman custom of designating an heir, and the younger Henry did not outlive his father and rule in his own right, so he is not counted as a monarch on lists of kings.

Disputed claimant.

Louis VIII of France briefly won two-thirds of England over to his side from May 1216 to September 1217 at the conclusion of the First Barons' War against King John. Prince Louis landed on the isle of Thanet, off the north Kent coast, on 21 May 1216, and marched more or less unopposed to London, where the streets were lined with cheering crowds. At a grand ceremony in St. Paul's Cathedral, on 2 June 1216, in the presence of numerous English clergy and nobles, the Mayor of London and Alexander II of Scotland, Prince Louis was proclaimed King Louis I of England (though not crowned). In less than a month, King Louis I controlled more than half of the country and enjoyed the support of two-thirds of the barons. By signing the Treaty of Lambeth in September 1217, Louis gained 10,000 marks and agreed he had never been the legitimate king of England. King Louis I of England remains to this day one of the least known kings to have ruled over England.

House of Plantagenet.

The House of Plantagenet takes its name from Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, husband of the Empress Matilda and father of Henry II. The name Plantagenet itself was unknown as a family name "per se" until Richard of York adopted it as his family name in the 15th century. It has since been retroactively applied to English monarchs from Henry II onward. It is common among modern historians to refer to Henry II and his sons as the "Angevins" due to their vast continental Empire, and most of the Angevin kings before John spent more time in their continental possessions than in England.  It is from the time of Henry III, after the loss of most of the family's continental possessions, that the Plantagenet kings became more English in nature. The Houses of Lancaster and York are cadet branches of the House of Plantagenet.

House of Lancaster.

This house descended from Edward III's third surviving son, John of Gaunt. Henry IV seized power from Richard II (and also displaced the next in line to the throne, Edmund Mortimer (then aged 7), a descendant of Edward III's second son, Lionel of Antwerp).

House of York.

The House of York claimed the right to the throne through Edward III's second surviving son, Lionel of Antwerp, but it inherited its name from Edward's fourth surviving son, Edmund of Langley, first Duke of York.  The Wars of the Roses (1455–1485) saw the throne pass back and forth between the rival houses of Lancaster and York.

House of Tudor.

The Tudors descended in the female line from John Beaufort, one of the illegitimate children of John of Gaunt (third surviving son of Edward III), by Gaunt's long-term mistress Katherine Swynford. Those descended from English monarchs only through an illegitimate child would normally have no claim on the throne, but the situation was complicated when Gaunt and Swynford eventually married in 1396 (25 years after John Beaufort's birth). In view of the marriage, the church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate via a papal bull the same year. Parliament did the same in an Act in 1397. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunt's legitimate son, King Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts' legitimacy, but declared them ineligible ever to inherit the throne. Nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunt's other descendants, the Royal House of Lancaster.  John Beaufort's granddaughter Lady Margaret Beaufort was married to Edmund Tudor. Tudor was the son of Welsh courtier Owain Tudur (anglicised to Owen Tudor) and Catherine of Valois, the widow of the Lancastrian King Henry V. Edmund Tudor and his siblings were either illegitimate, or the product of a secret marriage, and owed their fortunes to the goodwill of their legitimate half-brother King Henry VI. When the House of Lancaster fell from power, the Tudors followed.  By the late 15th century, the Tudors were the last hope for the Lancaster supporters. Edmund Tudor's son became king as Henry VII after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, winning the Wars of the Roses. King Henry married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, thereby uniting the Lancastrian and York lineages. (See family tree.)  With Henry VIII's break from the Roman Catholic Church, the monarch became the Supreme Head of the Church of England and of the Church of Ireland. Elizabeth I's title became the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.

Disputed claimant.

Edward VI named Lady Jane Grey as his heir in his will, overruling the order of succession laid down by Parliament in the Third Succession Act. Four days after his death on 6 July 1553, Jane was proclaimed queen—the first of three Tudor women to be proclaimed queen regnant. Nine days after the proclamation, on 19 July, the Privy Council switched allegiance and proclaimed Edward VI's Catholic half-sister Mary queen. Jane was executed for treason in 1554, aged 16.  Under the terms of the marriage treaty between Philip I of Naples (Philip II of Spain from 15 January 1556) and Queen Mary I, Philip was to enjoy Mary's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. An Act of Parliament gave him the title of king and stated that he "shall aid her Highness... in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions" (although elsewhere the Act stated that Mary was to be "sole queen"). Nonetheless, Philip was to co-reign with his wife.  As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish. Coins were minted showing the heads of both Mary and Philip, and the coat of arms of England "(pictured right)" was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign. Acts were passed in England which made it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority and Ireland. In 1555, Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.

House of Stuart.

Following the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 without issue, her first cousin twice removed, King James VI of Scotland, succeeded to the English throne as James I in the Union of the Crowns. James was descended from the Tudors through his great-grandmother, Margaret Tudor, the eldest daughter of Henry VII and wife of James IV of Scotland. In 1604, he adopted the title "King of Great Britain". However, the two parliaments remained separate until the Acts of Union 1707.

Interregnum.

No monarch reigned between the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. Between 1649 and 1653, there was no single English head of state, as England was ruled directly by the Rump Parliament with the English Council of State acting as executive power during a period known as the Commonwealth of England. After a coup d'etat in 1653, Oliver Cromwell forcibly took control of England from Parliament. He dissolved the Rump Parliament at the head of a military force and England entered a period known as The Protectorate, under Cromwell's direct control with the title Lord Protector.  It was within the power of the Lord Protector to choose his heir and Oliver Cromwell chose his eldest son, Richard Cromwell, to succeed him. Richard lacked both the ability to rule and confidence of the Army, and he was forcibly removed by the English Committee of Safety under the leadership of Charles Fleetwood in May 1659. England again lacked any single head of state during several months of conflict between Fleetwood's party and that of George Monck. Monck took control of the country in December 1659, and after almost a year of anarchy, the monarchy was formally restored when Charles II returned from France to accept the throne of England. This was following the Declaration of Breda and an invitation to reclaim the throne from the Convention Parliament of 1660.

House of Stuart (restored).

After the Monarchy was restored, England came under the rule of Charles II, whose reign was relatively peaceful domestically, given the tumultuous time of the Interregnum years. Tensions still existed between Catholics and Protestants. With the ascension of Charles's brother, the openly Catholic James II, England was again sent into a period of political turmoil.  James II was ousted by Parliament less than three years after ascending to the throne, replaced by his daughter Mary II and her husband (also his nephew) William III during the Glorious Revolution. While James and his descendants would continue to claim the throne, all Catholics (such as James and his son Charles) were barred from the throne by the Act of Settlement 1701, enacted by Anne, another of James's Protestant daughters. After the Acts of Union 1707, England as a sovereign state ceased to exist, replaced by the new Kingdom of Great Britain. ! class=noprint colspan=2 style="font-weight:normal" |! class=noprint colspan=6 style="font-weight:normal" |

Acts of Union.

The Acts of Union 1707 were a pair of Parliamentary Acts passed during 1706 and 1707 by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland to put into effect the Treaty of Union agreed on 22 July 1706. The acts joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate sovereign states, with separate legislatures but with the same monarch) into the Kingdom of Great Britain.  England, Scotland, and Ireland had shared a monarch for more than a hundred years, since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when King James VI of Scotland inherited the English and Irish thrones from his first cousin twice removed, Queen Elizabeth I. Although described as a Union of Crowns, until 1707 there were in fact two separate crowns resting on the same head.  There had been attempts in 1606, 1667, and 1689, to unite England and Scotland by Acts of Parliament but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the support of both political establishments behind it, albeit for rather different reasons.

Titles.

The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was " ("King of the English"). In addition, many of the pre-Norman kings assumed extra titles, as follows:  In the Norman period'remained standard, with occasional use of'("King of England"). The Empress Matilda styled herself " ("Lady of the English").  From the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of'or '.  In 1604 James I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) "King of Great Britain". The English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707 under Queen Anne (who was "Queen of Great Britain" rather than king).

This list of kings and queens of the Kingdom of England begins with Alfred the Great, who initially ruled Wessex, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which later made up modern England. Alfred styled himself King of the Anglo-Saxons from about 886, and while he was not the first king to claim to rule all of the English, his rule represents the start of the first unbroken line of kings to rule the whole of England, the House of Wessex.

Die Liste der Herrscher Englands enthält die souveränen Staatsoberhäupter des Königreichs England von dessen Einigung im 9. Jahrhundert bis zum Jahr 1707, als es durch den "Act of Union" im Königreich Großbritannien aufging.


Early life.

Konstantin Paustovsky was born in Moscow. His father, descendant of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, was a railroad statistician, and was “an incurable romantic and Protestant”. His mother came from the family of a Polish intellectual.  Konstantin grew up in Ukraine, partly in the countryside and partly in Kiev. He studied in “the First Imperial” classical Gymnasium of Kiev, where he was the classmate of Mikhail Bulgakov. When he was in the 6th grade his father left the family and he was forced to give private lessons in order to earn a living. In 1912 he entered the faculty of Natural History in University of Kiev. In 1914 he transferred to the Law faculty of the University of Moscow, but World War I interrupted his education.  At first he worked as a trolley-man in Moscow, then as a paramedic in a hospital train. During 1915, his medical unit retreated all the way through Poland and Belarus. After two of his brothers died on the front line, he returned to his mother in Moscow but later left and wandered around, trying his hands at many jobs, initially working in the metallurgical factories in Yekaterinoslav (now: Dnipro, Ukraine) and Yuzovka (now: Donetsk, Ukraine). In 1916 he lived in Taganrog, where he worked at the Taganrog Boiler Factory (now: Krasny Kotelschchik).  Later he joined a cooperative association of fishermen (artel) in Taganrog, where he started his first novel Романтики ("Romantiki", Romantics) which was published in 1935. The novel, whose content and feelings are reflected in its title, described what he had seen and felt in his youth. One of the heroes, the old Oscar, was an artist who resisted all of his life being forced to become a moneymaker. He returned to the main theme of Romantics, the destiny of an artist who strives to overcome his loneliness, and his experiences in Taranrog in later works, including Разговор о рыбе (“Razgovor o ribe”, Conversation about the Fish), Азовское подполье (“Azovskoe podpolie”, Azov Underground) and Порт в траве (“Port v trave”, Seaport in The Grass).

Novels and poetry.

Paustovsky began writing while still in Gymnasium. His first works were imitative poetry but he restricted his writing to prose after Ivan Bunin wrote in a letter to him: "I think that your sphere, your real poetry, is prose. It is here, if you are determined enough, that I am sure you can achieve something significant." His first stories to be published were “Na vode” (“On The Water”) and “Chetvero” (“The Four”) in 1911 and 1912. During World War I, he wrote sketches of life at the front, one of which was published. His first book, "Morskiye Nabroski" (“Sea Sketches”), was published in 1925, but received little attention. This was followed by "Minetoza" in 1927, and the romantic novel "Blistaiushie Oblaka" (“Shining Clouds”) in 1929. His work of this period was influenced by Alexander Grin as well as the writers of the "Odessa school", (Isaac Babel, Valentin Kataev, and Yuri Olesha). In the 1930s, Paustovsky visited various constructions sites and wrote in praise of the industrial transformation of the country. To that period belong the novels "Kara-Bugaz" (1932) and "Kolkhida" (1934). "Kara-Bugaz" won particular praise. It is essentially a tale of adventure and exploration in the region around Kara-Bugaz Bay, where the air is mysteriously heavy. It begins in 1847 and moves to the Russian Civil War period when a group of Red Guards is abandoned to near-certain death on a desolate island. Some of them, though do survive and are rescued by an explorer and stay on to help in the exploration, development and study of the natural wealth of the region.  Paustovsky continued to explore historical themes in "Severnaya Povest" ("Tale of the North", 1938). In this tale, after the anti-Tsarist Decembrist uprising in Saint Petersburg, a wounded officer who had taken part in the uprising and a sailor try to make it by foot across the ice to Sweden but are captured in a sequence of dramatic events. Years later, in Leningrad in the 1930s, the great-grandsons of the participants unexpectedly meet. In the late 1930s, Russian nature emerged as a central theme for Paustovsky, for example, in "Letniye Dni" ("Summer Days", 1937) and "Meshcherskaya Storona" (1939) in which he treats nature was a many-faceted splendor in which man can free himself from daily cares and regain his spiritual equilibrium. This focus on nature drew comparisons with Mikhail Prishvin. Prishvin himself wrote in his diary, "If I were not Prishvin, I would like to write like Paustovsky."  During World War II Paustovsky served as a war correspondent on the southern front. In 1943 he produced a screenplay for the Gorky Film Studio production of "Lermontov", directed by Albert Gendelshtein. Another work of note is "Tale of the Woods" (1948). This story opens in a remote forest in the 1890s, where Tchaikovsky is composing a symphony. The young daughter of a local forester often brings Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky berries. Half a century later, the daughter of this girl is a laboratory technician working in the local forest station.  From 1948 until 1955, Paustovsky taught at the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute. He also edited literary collections including Literary Moscow (1956) and "Pages from Tarusa", in which he sought to bring new writers to the public's attention and to publish writers suppressed during the Joseph Stalin years.  Other major works include "Snow", "Crossing Ships" (1928); "The Black Sea" (1936); and "The Rainy Dawn" (1946). Paustovsky was also the author of several plays and fairy tales, including "Steel Ring" and of Zolotaya Rosa "The Golden Rose" (1955), in which he discusses the process of literary creation.

Autobiography.

Perhaps Paustovsky's most famous work is his autobiography “Povest o Zhizni” (“Story of a Life”). It is not a strictly historical document but rather a long, lyrical tale focusing on the internal perceptions and poetic development of the writer. It has been called a "biography of the soul" rather than a biography of events. Nonetheless, it does provide a unique view of life in Russia during the turbulent years of World War I, the Russian Civil War and rise of the Soviets, all of which Paustovsky participated in.

Nobel prize nomination.

In 1965, Paustovsky was nominated for a Nobel Prize for literature, the prize was awarded instead to Mikhail Sholokhov.  In February 1966 he was one of the 25 prominent figures from science and the arts who signed a letter to the 23rd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, appealing against re-Stalinization in the wake of the Sinyavsky-Daniel trial.  He died in Moscow on July 14, 1968.

References.

2. Frank Westerman, "Engineers of the Soul," Overlook Press, 2011.  Volume 1: "Story of a Life - Childhood and Schooldays" (pub. 1964) Volume 2: "Slow Approach of Thunder" (pub. 1965) Volume 3: "In That Dawn" (pub. 1967) Volume 4: "Years of Hope" (pub. 1968) Volume 5: "Southern Adventure" (pub. 1969) Volume 6: "The Restless Years" (pub. 1974)

Konstantin Georgiyevich Paustovsky (; – July 14, 1968) was a Russian Soviet writer nominated for the Nobel Prize for literature in 1965.

Konstantin Georgijewitsch Paustowski (, wiss. Transliteration ""; * in Moskau; † 14. Juli 1968 ebenda) war ein russischer Schriftsteller und Journalist.


Early life.

Vera Duss was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the daughter of John Duss Jr. and Elizabeth Vignier Duss. Her paternal grandparents, John Duss and Susanna Creese Duss, were members of the Harmony Society, an experimental religious community in western Pennsylvania. She was raised by her mother and maternal grandmother in France. She trained as a surgeon, earning her medical degree from the Sorbonne in 1936.

Religious life.

Duss entered became "Sister Benedict" ("Soeur Benoit") when she entered a French Benedictine abbey, Notre Dame de Jouarre, in 1936, the day after finishing her medical training. She worked as a doctor and teacher in Jouarre, and (facing the danger of capture, as an American) went into hiding for part of the town's Nazi occupation during World War II. She was present when the town and abbey were liberated by American troops in 1944.  Duss and Mother Mary Aline Trilles de Warren moved to the United States in 1946, and founded the Regina Laudis monastic community in 1947, near the farm of artists Lauren Ford and Frances W. Delehanty in Bethlehem, Connecticut. The community's founding inspired a film, "Come to the Stable" (1949), starring Loretta Young and Celeste Holm. Mother Benedict became an abbess in 1975, when the community became an abbey. "The secret to keeping this place going was to do the next thing that had to be done – without wasting time on worrying," she told her biographer. "If you do something concrete, that opens the possibilities."

Vatican investigation and aftermath.

Mother Benedict's leadership methods came under question, and a Vatican investigation was ordered. She stepped down as abbess in 1998. Duss spent the last years of her life as abbess emerita at Regina Laudis, where she died in 2005, aged 94 years. Her grave is in the abbey's cemetery. A biography of Mother Benedict Duss was published in 2007.

Vera Duss (November 21, 1910 — October 2, 2005), better known in her adult work as Mother Benedict Duss, O.S.B., was an American-born French medical doctor and Roman Catholic nun, founder and head of the Abbey of Regina Laudis in Bethlehem, Connecticut from 1947 until 1995.

Mutter Benedict Duss, ursprünglich: Vera Duss, (* 21. November 1910 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; † 2. Oktober 2005 in Bethlehem, Connecticut) war eine amerikanische Benediktinerin und Gründerin des ersten Klosters der Benediktinerinnen in den Vereinigten Staaten.


Family and early life.

Bona was the third of six children born to Prince Thomas, Duke of Genoa and his wife Princess Isabella of Bavaria. Her father was a grandson of King Charles Albert of Sardinia. Among her siblings were Ferdinando, 3rd Duke of Genoa; Filiberto, 4th Duke of Genoa; and Eugenio, 5th Duke of Genoa. Her mother Isabella was a granddaughter of Ludwig I of Bavaria.  Through her aunt Margherita of Savoy, she was a cousin of Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.  Bona was born at Castle d'Agliè, Piedmont. Her father had bought the eleventh-century castle shortly before his marriage with Isabella. They passed their honeymoon there.

Marriage.

On 8 January 1921, Bona married her second cousin, Prince Konrad of Bavaria. He was the youngest son of Prince Leopold of Bavaria and Archduchess Gisela of Austria. Through his father, he was a great-grandson of Ludwig I of Bavaria, and through his mother was a grandson of Franz Joseph I of Austria. The wedding took place at Castle Agliè in Piedmont, Italy (where she was born). It was attended by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, Crown Prince Umberto, and the Duke of Aosta, among others. The wedding is notable for being the first royal marriage between two enemy houses since World War I began and ended. It was also remarkable as a gathering of royalty representing the Houses of Habsburg, Savoy, and Wittelsbach.  The couple had two children:

Later life.

At the end of the Second World War, Prince Konrad was arrested by the French military at Hinterstein. He was brought to Lindau and temporarily interned in the hotel Bayerischer Hof, together with among others the German Crown Prince Wilhelm and the former Nazi diplomat Hans Georg von Mackensen. Princess Bona, who worked during the war as a nurse, stayed afterwards with her relatives in Savoy. She was prohibited from entering Germany and was not reunited with her family until 1947. In later years Prince Konrad worked on the Board of German automaker NSU.  Bona died on 2 February 1971 in Rome. Her tomb can be found in the church of the Andechs Abbey, in Germany. Her husband Prince Konrad died on 6 September 1969.

Princess Bona of Savoy-Genoa, later Princess Bona of Bavaria (Maria Bona Margherita Albertina Vittoria; 1 August 1896 – 2 February 1971), was a daughter of Prince Thomas, Duke of Genoa and Princess Isabella of Bavaria.

Maria Bona Margherita Albertina Vittoria von Savoyen (* 1. August 1896 im Castello d'Agliè, Piemont; † 2. Februar 1971 in Rom) war eine Prinzessin von Savoyen.