Early life and career.

Hayakawa was born in the village of Nanaura, now part of a town called Chikura, in the city of Minamibōsō in Chiba Prefecture, Japan, on June 10, 1886. From a young age he yearned to go overseas and took on English studies in preparation. His father was a head of fishermen's union with some wealth. He had five siblings.  From an early age, Hayakawa's family intended him to become an officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy. However, while a student at the naval academy in Etajima, he swam to the bottom of a lagoon (he grew up in a shellfish diving community) on a dare and ruptured his eardrum. The injury caused him to fail the navy physical. His father felt shame and embarrassment by his son's failure and this drove a wedge between them. The strained relationship drove the 18-year-old Hayakawa to attempt "seppuku" (ritual suicide). One evening, Hayakawa entered a shed on his parents' property and prepared the venue. He put his dog outside and attempted to uphold his family's samurai tradition by stabbing himself more than 30 times in the abdomen. The barking dog brought Hayakawa's parents to the scene and his father used an axe to break down the door, saving his life.  After he recovered from the suicide attempt, Hayakawa moved to the United States and began to study political economics at the University of Chicago to fulfill his family's new wish that he become a banker. While a student, he played quarterback for the football team and was once penalized for using jujitsu to bring down an opponent. Hayakawa graduated from the University of Chicago in 1912, and subsequently made plans to return to Japan. He traveled to Los Angeles and awaited a transpacific steamship. During his stay, he discovered the Japanese Theatre in Little Tokyo and became fascinated with acting and performing plays. It was around this time that Hayakawa first assumed the stage name, meaning "snowy field" (雪 means "snow" and 洲 means "north field"). One of the productions in which Hayakawa performed was called "The Typhoon". Tsuru Aoki, a member of the acting troupe, was so impressed with Hayakawa's abilities and enthusiasm that she enticed film producer Thomas H. Ince to see the play. Ince saw the production and offered to turn it into a silent film with the original cast. Anxious to return to Japan, Hayakawa tried to dissuade Ince by requesting the then-astronomic fee of $500 a week, but Ince agreed to his request. However according to Daisuke Miyao, professor of Japanese language and literature at UC San Diego, Hayakawa’s turn to acting was in reality less dramatic. There are no records of him at University of Chicago, in course enrollments or football team rosters or otherwise. His acting career likely followed a series of odd jobs in California: dishwasher, waiter, ice cream vendor, and factory worker. His theatrical appearances seemed like another temporary pursuit. Author Orie Nakagawa writes that Hayakawa had always aimed to go to California, his plan being to first help his older brother who was working in San Francisco, and that it was only his father who had convinced him to study at Chicago, and so Hayakawa left his studies in his first year to head where he wanted to go in the first place.  "The Typhoon" (1914) became an instant hit and was followed by two additional pictures produced by Ince, "The Wrath of the Gods" (1914) co-starring Hayakawa's new wife, Aoki, and "The Sacrifice" (1914). With Hayakawa's rising stardom, Jesse L. Lasky soon offered Hayakawa a contract, which he accepted, making him part of Famous Players-Lasky (now Paramount Pictures).

Stardom.

Hayakawa's second film for Famous Players-Lasky was "The Cheat" (1915), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. "The Cheat" co-starred Fannie Ward as Hayakawa's love interest and was a huge success, making Hayakawa a romantic idol and sex symbol to the female movie-going public. "It caused a sensation," says Stephen Gong, the executive director of San Francisco's Center for Asian American Media. "The idea of the rape fantasy, forbidden fruit, all those taboos of race and sex—it made him a movie star. And his most rabid fan base was white women." With his popularity and "broodingly handsome" good looks, Hayakawa commanded a salary that reached over $3,500 a week at the height of his fame in 1919. In 1917, he built his residence, a castle-styled mansion, at the corner of Franklin Avenue and Argyle Street in Hollywood, which was a local landmark until it was demolished in 1956.  Following "The Cheat", Hayakawa became a leading man for romantic dramas in the 1910s and early 1920s. He also began acting in Westerns and action films. Sought after for roles, but dissatisfied with being constantly typecast, Hayakawa decided to form his own production company. There is some lack of clarity on how Haworth Pictures Corporation got its original funding. Hayakawa offered two versions, one in his autobiography of William Joseph Connery, a fellow University of Chicago alumnus introducing him to A.B.C. Dohrmann, the president of a china and glassware company in San Francisco who was willing to pay one million dollars to establish the company, and one where Connery's own parents were multimillionaire coal mine owners who provided the million dollars.  Over the next three years, Hayakawa produced 23 films and had earned $2 million by 1920, of which he was able to pay back the 1 million he had loaned from Connery. Hayakawa produced, starred in, and contributed to the design, writing, editing, and directing of the films. Critics hailed Hayakawa's understated, Zen-influenced acting style. Hayakawa sought to bring "muga", or the "absence of doing", to his performances, in direct contrast to the then-popular studied poses and broad gestures. In 1918, Hayakawa personally chose the American serial actress Marin Sais to appear opposite him in a series of films, the first being the racial drama "The City of Dim Faces" (1918), followed by "His Birthright" (1918), which also starred Aoki. His collaboration with Sais ended with "Bonds of Honor" (1919). Hayakawa also appeared opposite Jane Novak in "The Temple of Dusk" (1918) and Aoki in "The Dragon Painter" (1919). According to Goldsea Hayakawa's fame rivaled that of Douglas Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin and John Barrymore. Hayakawa drove a gold plated Pierce-Arrow and entertained lavishly in his "Castle", which was known as the scene of some of Hollywood's wildest parties. Shortly before Prohibition took effect in 1920, he bought a large supply of liquor, leading him to joke that he owed his social success to his liquor supply. He took Aoki on a trip to Monaco where he gambled at the Monte Carlo Casino.  Hayakawa left Hollywood in 1922, for which different authors give various explanations such as prevailing anti-Japanese sentiment and business difficulties. Nakagawa focuses on three events in particular: firstly on the set of "The Swamp" (1921) his appendix ruptured and while he was at the hospital there was an attempt to usurp his insurance money, secondly there was a baseless tabloid report that Aoki had attempted suicide, and thirdly Hayakawa believed there was also an attempt on his life by the Robertson-Cole Pictures Corporation (also accused of supporting anti-Japanese legislation) for insurance money by the collapse of an unsafe earthquake sequence on the set of "The Vermilion Pencil", leading to him suing the studio. He visited Japan with Aoki for the first time since he had come to the US. He returned back soon after however and played the lead role in "Tiger Lily" on Broadway in 1923. The next decade and a half saw him also perform in Japan and Europe. In London, Hayakawa starred in "The Great Prince Shan" (1924) and "The Story of Su" (1924). In 1925, he wrote a novel, "The Bandit Prince", and adapted it into a short play. In 1930, Hayakawa performed in "Samurai", a one-act play written specifically for him, in front of Great Britain's King George V and Queen Mary. Hayakawa became widely known in France, where audiences "enthusiastically embraced" him and made his French debut, "La Bataille" (1923), a critical and financial success. German audiences found Hayakawa "sensational" and in Russia he was considered one of the "wonderful actors" of America. In addition to numerous Japanese films, Hayakawa also produced a Japanese-language stage version of "The Three Musketeers". In the initial decades of his career, Hayakawa established himself as the first leading man of Asian descent in American and European cinema. He was also the first non-Caucasian actor to achieve international stardom.

Later career.

Returning to the United States again in 1926 to appear on Broadway—and later in vaudeville—Hayakawa opened a Zen temple and study hall on New York’s Upper West Side. Hayakawa later transitioned into doing talkies; his return to Hollywood and sound film debut came in "Daughter of the Dragon" (1931), starring opposite Chinese American performer Anna May Wong. His accent did not go over well when sound was added to movies. Hayakawa played a Samurai in the German-Japanese co-production "The Daughter of the Samurai" (1937). The same year, Hayakawa went to France to perform in "Yoshiwara" (1937), but ended up trapped in the country and separated from his family when the German occupation of France began in 1940. Hayakawa made few films in the following years, but financially supported himself by selling his watercolor paintings. He became friends with writer Jirōhachi Satsuma who was also stuck in France. Goldsea states that he joined the French Resistance and helped Allied flyers during World War II, although Nakagawa lists mainly helping the local Japanese community during the war and after. His nomadic lifestyle continued until 1950.  In 1949, Humphrey Bogart's production company located Hayakawa and offered him a role in "Tokyo Joe." Before issuing a work permit, the American Consulate investigated Hayakawa's activities during the war and found that he had in no way contributed to the German war effort. Hayakawa followed "Tokyo Joe" with "Three Came Home" (1950), in which he played real-life POW camp commander Lieutenant-Colonel Suga, before returning to France.  After the war, Hayakawa's on-screen roles can best be described as "the honorable villain", a figure exemplified by his portrayal of Colonel Saito in "The Bridge on the River Kwai" (1957). The film won the Academy Award for Best Picture and Hayakawa earned a nomination for the Best Supporting Actor; he was also nominated for a Golden Globe for the role that he called the highlight of his career. After the film, Hayakawa largely retired from acting. Throughout the following years he performed guest appearances on a handful of television shows and films, making his final performance in the animated film "The Daydreamer" (1966).  After retiring, Hayakawa dedicated himself to Zen Buddhism, became an ordained Zen master, worked as a private acting coach, and wrote his autobiography "Zen Showed Me the Way".

Racial barriers.

Throughout Hayakawa's career, many segments of the American society were filled with feelings of anti-Japanese sentiment, partly from nationalism rising from World War I and World War II. This left Hayakawa constantly typecast as a villain or forbidden lover and unable to play parts that would be given to white actors such as Douglas Fairbanks. Hayakawa stated: "Such roles [in The Wrath of the Gods, The Typhoon, and The Cheat] are not true to our Japanese nature... They are false and give people a wrong idea of us. I wish to make a characterization which shall reveal us as we really are." In 1949, he lamented, "My one ambition is to play a hero." Hayakawa can be seen as a precursor to Rudolph Valentino, 9 years his junior. Both were foreign born, typecast as exotic or forbidden lovers, wildly popular for their time. His contract with Famous Players expired in May 1918, but the studio still asked him to star in "The Sheik". Hayakawa refused the picture in favor of starting his own company, most likely not happy with another "forbidden villain lover" role. With influence from June Mathis, the role went to the barely known Valentino and turned him into a screen icon overnight.  In 1930, the Production Code came into effect (enforced after 1934) which forbade portrayals of miscegenation in film. This meant that unless Hayakawa's co-star was an Asian actress, he would not be able to portray a romance with her. Hayakawa was placed into an awkward position due to his ethnicity and fame in the English-speaking world. Due to naturalization laws of that time, Hayakawa would be unable to become a U.S. citizen and because of anti-miscegenation laws he could not marry someone of another race.  Hayakawa's early films were not popular in Japan because many felt that his roles portrayed an image of Japanese men being sadistic and cruel. Many Japanese viewers found this portrayal—which made him popular in the U.S.—insulting. Nationalistic groups in particular were censorious. Some Japanese believed that Hayakawa was contributing to increased anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S., and regarded him as a traitor to the Japanese people. After Hayakawa established himself as an American superstar, the negative tone in the press that regarded him as a national and racial shame lessened by noticiable degree, and Japanese media started publicizing Hayakawa's cinematic achievements instead. His later films were also not popular, because he was seen as "too Americanized" during a time of nationalism.

Personal life.

On May 1, 1914, Hayakawa married fellow "Issei" and performer Tsuru Aoki, who co-starred in several of his films. Hayakawa's first child, a son, was born in New York in 1929, to a white actress named Ruth Noble, a vaudeville co-performer from The Bandit Prince. Noble sued for custody but lost the case. The boy was known as Alexander Hayes, but the name was changed to Yukio after Sessue and Aoki adopted the child and took him to be raised and educated in Japan. Later, they adopted two more daughters: Yoshiko, an actress, and Fujiko, a dancer. Aoki died in 1961.  Physically, Hayakawa possessed "an athlete's physique and agility". A 1917 profile on Hayakawa stated that he "is proficient in jiu-jitsu, an expert fencer, and can swim like a fish. He is a good horseman and plays a fast tennis racket. He is tall for a Japanese, being five feet seven and a half inches in height, and weighs 157 pounds."  Hayakawa was known for his discipline and martial arts skills. While filming "The Jaguar's Claws", in the Mojave Desert, Hayakawa played a Mexican bandit, with 500 cowboys as extras. On the first night of filming, the extras drank all night and well into the next day. No work was being done, so Hayakawa challenged the group to a fight. Two men stepped forward. Hayakawa said of the incident, "The first one struck out at me. I seized his arm and sent him flying on his face along the rough ground. The second attempted to grapple and I was forced to flip him over my head and let him fall on his neck. The fall knocked him unconscious." Hayakawa then disarmed yet another cowboy. The extras returned to work, amused by the way the small man manhandled the big bruising cowboys.

Death and legacy.

Hayakawa retired from film in 1966. He died in Tokyo on November 23, 1973, from a cerebral thrombosis, complicated by pneumonia. He was buried in the Chokeiji Temple Cemetery in Toyama, Japan.  Many of Hayakawa's films are lost. However, most of his later works, including "The Bridge on the River Kwai", the Jerry Lewis comedy "The Geisha Boy" in which Hayakawa lampoons his role in "The Bridge on the River Kwai", "Swiss Family Robinson", "Tokyo Joe", and "Three Came Home" are available on DVD. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Hayakawa was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1645 Vine Street, in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California.  A musical based on Hayakawa's life, "Sessue", played in Tokyo in 1989. In September 2007, the Museum of Modern Art held a retrospective on Hayakawa's work entitled: "Sessue Hayakawa: East and West, When the Twain Met". Japanese film director Nagisa Oshima had planned to create a biopic entitled "Hollywood Zen" based on Hayakawa's life. The script had been allegedly completed and set to film in Los Angeles, but due to constant delays and the eventual death of Oshima himself in 2013, the project went unrealized.  In 2020, Hayakawa’s life story was told as part of PBS’s documentary "Asian Americans."  His lasting legacy is large especially to the Asian-American community. Media professor Karla Rae Fuller wrote in 2010: "What is even more remarkable about Hayakawa's precedent-setting career in Hollywood as an Asian American is the fact that he is virtually ignored in film history as well as star studies.... Furthermore, the fact that he reached such a rare level of success whereby he could form and run his own production company makes his omission from the narrative of Hollywood history even more egregious."

References.

Notes Bibliography  Documentary films

Kintaro Hayakawa (June 10, 1886 – November 23, 1973), known professionally as Sessue Hayakawa, was a Japanese actor and a matinée idol. He was one of the biggest stars in Hollywood during the silent film era of the 1910s and early 1920s. Hayakawa was the first actor of Asian descent to achieve stardom as a leading man in the United States and Europe. His "broodingly handsome" good looks and typecasting as a sexually dominant villain made him a heartthrob among American women during a time of racial discrimination, and he became one of the first male sex symbols of Hollywood.

Sessue Hayakawa (jap., "Hayakawa Sesshū"; * 10. Juni 1889 in Nanaura (heute: Minamibōsō), Präfektur Chiba, Japan als "Kintarō Hayakawa" (, "Hayakawa Kintarō"); † 23. November 1973 in Tokio) war ein japanischer Schauspieler.


Location and connections.

Ipameri is located east of Caldas Novas and 65 km. northwest of Catalão. It is part of the statistical micro-region of Catalão.  Ipameri is 193 km from the state capital, Goiânia, and 300 km. from the federal capital, Brasília. The city is on the railroad linking Goiânia and Anápolis with São Paulo and Belo Horizonte. It is also accessible by highway from Goiânia, which lies to the northwest.  Highway connections from Goiânia are by BR-352 / Bela Vista de Goiás / Cristianópolis / GO-020 / Pires do Rio / GO-330. Other distances from Ipameri are: Catalão 50 km, Campo Alegre 55 km, Goiandira 63 km, Três Ranchos 89 km, Caldas Novas 60 km and Urutaí 32 km.

History.

The region of Ipameri was first settled by Europeans in the middle of the nineteenth century. The first houses were built along the banks of the Vai-Vem River, on the Fazenda Vai-Vem, belonging to Francisco José Dutra. According to legend this rancher was bitten by a poisonous snake and promised, if he were cured, to donate all the lands he could see from the heights of a hill called São Domingos to the Divine Holy Spirit. As he survived he donated all the lands which would make up the future municipality of Ipameri. The origin of the name of the first settlement, Vai-Vem" (It comes and goes), has two versions. One is that it refers to the comings and goings of the Indians (Xavantes and Caiapós), who crossed the river on a makeshift bridge, and another that the name refers to the stream seemed to zigzag. In 1845 Vai-Vem was made a district of Catalão, becoming a municipality in 1870, with the name "Entre-Rios". In 1904 the name was changed to Ipameri, from the Indigenous word "Ipau-meri", meaning "entre-rios" (in Portugues) or 'between the rivers'.  In 1913 the first hydroelectric station in Goiás was built here. In 1915 a cinema was opened. The automobile appeared in 1914 and a newspaper was founded in 1917. In 1921 the first bank in the state opened its doors here. In 1922 a military base was built. In 1938 the main Catholic church, the Igreja Matriz do Divino Espírito Santo, was inaugurated. After the middle of the twentieth century the city began a period of decline, caused by the decadence of the national railroad system and the distance of the main national highways. Ipameri became known as the city that "already had", or "already was". The city began to prosper again the 1980s with rural electrification, mechanization of agriculture and paved highways leading to other centers. Agroindustries began to arrive together with institutes of higher education. Today Ipameri is considered one of the more prosperous small cities in the state.

Religion.

Its Catedral Divino Espírito Santo, dedicated to the Holy Ghost in 1845, is the episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Ipameri.

The economy.

Lying in rolling uplands between the Veríssimo and Corumbá rivers, tributaries of the Paranaíba, Ipameri is primarily a cattle-shipping centre that also houses meat-processing and rice-hulling plants.  Ipameri has a modern and mechanized agriculture. The municipality is the largest producer of cereals in the Southeast region of Goiás and one of the biggest in the state. The most important crops are cotton and soy, but there is also cultivation of corn, rice, potato, tomato, coffee, manioc, and garlic.  Main agricultural products in total planted area (2006)  Cattle raising is also very important. There was a herd of approximately 180,000 head, divided between beef and dairy cattle.  Main industries are in cotton processing, soybean oil production, dairy products, and bricks and tiles.  Economic data  Agricultural data 2006

Education and health.

Municipal Human Development Index

Ipameri is a municipality and Latin Catholic bishopric in southeastern Goiás state, in Brazil. The population was 23,114 (2007) in a total area of 4,368.6 km2 (10/10/2002). It is a major producer of soybeans, corn and livestock.

Trevor Bolder (* 9. Juni 1950 in Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, England; † 21. Mai 2013 ebenda) war ein britischer Rock-Bassist, Songwriter und Musikproduzent.


Distribution.

Its range is in the western Mediterranean Basin, extending from Portugal and Northern Spain (especially in Galicia) to southern and Western France, east to western Italy, Croatia and south to northern Tunisia, Algeria and northern Morocco. It favors a Mediterranean climate, which is one that has cool, rainy winters and hot, dry summers.  It generally occurs at low to moderate altitudes, mostly from sea level to 600 m, but up to 2,000 m in the south of its range in Morocco. The high degree of fragmentation in the current natural distribution is caused by two factors: the discontinuity and altitude of the mountain ranges causing isolation of even close populations, and human activity.

History.

"Pinus pinaster" is a popular topic in ecology because of its problematic growth and spread in South Africa for the past 150 years after being imported into the region at the end of the 17th century (1685–1693). It was found spreading in the Cape Peninsula by 1772. Towards the end of the 18th century (1780), "P. pinaster" was widely planted, and at the beginning of the 19th century (1825–1830), "P. pinaster" was planted commercially as a timber resource and for the forestry industry. The pine tree species invades large areas and more specifically fynbos vegetation. Fynbos vegetation is a fire-prone shrubland vegetation that is found in the southern and southwest cape of South Africa. It is found in greater abundance close to watercourses. Dispersal, habitat loss, and fecundity are all factors that affect spread rate. The species favors acidic soils with medium to high-density vegetation, but it can also grow in basic soils and even in sandy and poor soils, where only few commercial species can grow.

Description.

"Pinus pinaster" is a medium-size tree, reaching 20–35 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 1.2 m, exceptionally 1.8 m.  The bark is orange-red, thick, and deeply fissured at the base of the trunk, somewhat thinner in the upper crown.  The leaves ('needles') are in pairs, very stout (2 mm broad), up to 25 cm long, and bluish-green to distinctly yellowish-green. The maritime pine features the longest and most robust needles of all European pine species.  The cones are conic, 10–20 cm long and 4–6 cm broad at the base when closed, green at first, ripening glossy red-brown when 24 months old. They open slowly over the next few years, or after being heated by a forest fire, to release the seeds, opening to 8–12 cm broad.  The seeds are 8–10 mm long, with a 20–25 mm wing, and are wind-dispersed.  Maritime pine is closely related to Turkish pine, Canary Island pine, and Aleppo pine, which all share many features with it. It is a relatively non-variable species, with constant morphology over the entire range.

Ecology.

Larvae of the moth "Dioryctria sylvestrella" feed on this pine. Their boring activity causes large quantities of resin to flow from the wounds which weakens the tree and allows fungi and other pathogens to gain entry.

Uses.

"Pinus pinaster" is widely planted for timber in its native area, being one of the most important trees in forestry in France, Spain and Portugal. Landes forest in southwest France is the largest man-made maritime pine forest in Europe. "Pinus pinaster" resin is also a useful source of turpentine and rosin.  In addition to industrial uses, maritime pine is also a popular ornamental tree, often planted in parks and gardens in areas with warm temperate climates. It has become naturalised in parts of southern England, Argentina, South Africa and Australia.  It is also used as a source of flavonoids, catechins, proanthocyanidins, and phenolic acids. A dietary supplement derived from extracts from "Pinus pinaster" bark called Pycnogenol is marketed with claims it can treat many conditions; however, according to a 2012 Cochrane review, the evidence is insufficient to support its use for the treatment of any chronic disorder.

Invasiveness.

Results of "P. pinaster" invasion.

"Pinus pinaster" is a successful invasive species in South Africa. One of the results of its invasion in South Africa is a decrease in the biodiversity of the native environment. The increase of extinction rates of the native species is correlated with the introduction of these species to South Africa. Invasive species occupy habitats of native species often forcing them to extinction or endangerment. For example, invasive species have the potential to decrease the diversity of native plants by 50–86% in the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. As discussed above, "P. pinaster" is a tree species found in shrubland in South Africa. When compared to other environment, shrublands have the largest decline of species richness when invaded by an invasive species (Z=–1.33, p<0.001). Compared to graminoids; trees, annual herbs, and creepers have a larger effect on decline of species richness (Z=–3.78; p<0.001). Lastly, compared to other countries, South Africa had the largest species richness decline when faced with invasive species. South Africa is not home to many insects and diseases that limit the population of "P. pinaster" back in its native habitat. Not only is there evidence that alien plant invasions decrease biodiversity, but there is also evidence that the location of "P. pinaster" increases its negative effect on the species richness.  In addition, depending on the regions "P. pinaster" invades, "P. pinaster" has the potential to dramatically alter the quantity of water in the environment. If "P. pinaster" invades an area covered with grasses and shrubs, the water level of the streams in this area would lower significantly because "P. pinaster" are evergreen trees that take up considerably more water than grasses and shrubs all year around. They deplete run-off in catchment areas and water flow in rivers. This depletes the resources available for other species in the environment. "P. pinaster" tends to grow rapidly in riparian zones, which are areas with abundant water where trees and plants grow twice as fast and invade. "P. pinaster" takes advantage of the water available and consequently reduces the amount of water in the area available for other species. The fynbos catchments on the Western Cape of South Africa are a habitat negatively affected by "P. pinaster". Twenty-three years after planting the pines, there was a 55% decrease in streamflow in this area. Similarly, in KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg there was an 82% reduction in streamflow 20 years after introducing "P. pinaster" to the area. In the Mpumalanga Province, 6 streams completely dried up 12 years after grasslands were replaced with pines. To reinforce that, there is a negative effect from the invasive species "P. pinaster", these areas of dense "P. pinaster" were thinned and the number of trees in the area decreased. As a result, the streamflow in the fynbos catchments of the Western Cape increased by 44%. The streamflow in the Mpumalanga Province increased by 120%. As a result of "P. pinaster" growth, there is often less understory vegetation for livestock grazing. Once again there was a positive effect when some of the pines were removed and agreeable range grasses were planted. The grazing conditions for the sheep of the area were greatly improved when the "P. pinaster" plantation was thinned to 300 trees per hectare. The invasion of "P. pinaster" leads to the decrease of understory vegetation and therefore a decrease in livestock.  It is sporadically naturalizing in Oakland and San Leandro in northern California.

Ecological interactions.

"Pinus pinaster" is particularly successful in regions with fynbos vegetation because it is adapted to high-intensity fires, thus allowing it to outcompete other species that are not as well adapted to high-intensity fires. In areas of fire-prone shrubland, the cones of "P. pinaster" will release seeds when in a relatively high-temperature environment for germination as a recovery mechanism. This adaptation increases the competitive ability of "P. pinaster" amongst other species in the fire-prone shrubland. In a 3-year observational study done in Northwestern Spain, "P. pinaster" showed a naturally high regeneration rate. Observations showed a mean of 25.25 seedlings per square metre within the first year and then slowly decreased the next two years due to intraspecific competition. So not only does "P. pinaster" compete with other species, they also compete within their own species as well. When the height of "P. pinaster" increased there was a negative correlation with the number of "P. pinaster" seedlings, results showed a decrease in "P. pinaster" seedlings (r=–0.41, p<0.05).  Several other characteristics contribute to their success in the regions they have invaded, including their ability to grow rapidly and to produce small seeds with large wings. Their ability to grow quickly with short juvenile periods allows them to outcompete many native species while their small seeds aids in their dispersal. The small seeds with large wings are beneficial for wind dispersal, which is the key to reaching new areas in regions with fynbos vegetation. Vertebrate seed dispersers are not commonly found in mountain fynbos vegetation; therefore those species that require the aid of vertebrate dispersal would be at a disadvantage in such an environment. For this reason, the small seed, low seed wing loading, and high winds found in mountainous regions all combine to provide a favorable situation for the dispersal of "P. pinaster" seeds. Without this efficient dispersal strategy, "P. pinaster" would not have been able to reach and invade areas, such as South Africa, that are suitable for its growth. Its dispersal ability is one of the key factors that have allowed "P. pinaster" to become such a successful invasive species.  In addition to being an efficient disperser, "P. pinaster" is known to produce oleoresins, such as oily terpenes or fatty acids, which can inhibit other species within the community from growing. These resins are produced as a defense mechanism against insect predators, such as the large pine weevil. According to an experiment done in Spain, the resin canal density was twice as high in the "P. pinaster" seedlings attacked by the weevils compared to the unattacked seedlings. Since "P. pinaster" has the ability to regulate their production of defense mechanisms, it can protect itself from predatory in an energy-efficient manner. The resins make the "P. pinaster" less vulnerable to damage from insects, but they are only produced in high concentrations when "P. pinaster" is under attack. In other words, "P. pinaster" does not waste energy producing resins in safe conditions, so the conserved energy can be used for growth or reproduction. These characteristics enhance the ability of "P. pinaster" survive and flourish in the areas it invades. Both the traits of "P. pinaster" and the habitat in South Africa are conducive to the success of "P. pinaster" in this region of the world.

Options for biological control.

Insects and mites that feed on the seeds and cones of "P. pinaster" can be effective biological control options. An insect or mite that acts as an ideal biological control should have a high reproductive rate and be host-specific, meaning that it preys specifically on "P. pinaster". The life cycle of the predator should also match that of its specific host. Two key characteristics the predator should also exhibit are self-limitation and the ability to survive in the presence of a declining prey population. Seed feeding insects are an effective control because they have high reproductive rates and target the seeds without diminishing the positive effect of the plant on the environment. Controlling the spread of "P. pinaster" seeds in the region is the key to limiting the growth and spread of this species because "P. pinaster" has the ability to produce a large number of seeds that are capable of dispersing very efficiently. One possible option is Trisetacus, an eriophyid mite. The main advantage to using this mite to control the population of "P. Pinaster" is its specificity to "P. pinaster"; it can effectively control the population of "P. pinaster" by destroying the growing conelets in "P. pinaster" while limiting its impact to only this species. Another possible option is "Pissodes validirostris", a cone-feeding weevil that lays eggs in developing cones. When the larvae hatch, they feed on the growing seed tissue, preventing "P. pinaster" seeds from forming and dispersing. Although the adults feed on the trees as well, they do not do any damage to the seeds and only feed on the shoots of the tree, so they do not appear to negatively impact the growth of the trees. Different forms of "P. validirostris" have diverged to become host-specific to different pine trees. The type of "P. validirostris" that originated from Portugal appears to have specialized to "P. pinaster"; therefore, this insect may be used in the future to control the spread of "P. pinaster" in South Africa. The uncertainties regarding the host-specificity of different types of "P. validirostris", however, require more research to be completed before the introduction of the weevils into South Africa. An introduction of a species that is not host-specific to "P. pinaster" can lead to detrimental effects on both the environment and commercial industries that are dependent on certain tree species. Two other biological control possibilities include the pyralid moth species "Dioryctria mendasella" and "D. mitatella", but these species attack the vegetative tissue instead of just the seeds of "P. pinaster", harming the plant itself. As of now, the eriophyid mite and cone-feeding weevil seem to hold the most potential to controlling the spread of "P. pinaster" in the regions it has invaded because they destroy the reproductive structures of the target invasive species.

Pinus pinaster, the maritime pine or cluster pine, is a pine native to the Mediterranean region. It is a hard, fast growing pine containing small seeds with large wings.

Die See-Kiefer ("Pinus pinaster"), auch Bordeaux-Kiefer, Igel-Kiefer, Stern-Kiefer, Meer-Kiefer, Seestrand-Kiefer oder Strand-Kiefer genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Kiefern ("Pinus") in der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae). Sie stammt aus dem westlichen Mittelmeerraum und wird bis zu 300 Jahre alt.


Biography.

Peissel was the son of a French diplomat, raised in England after his father was posted to London, and able to speak English from early childhood. He later became fluent in several languages, including Tibetan. He studied for a year at Oxford University and the Harvard Business School and obtained a doctorate in Tibetan Ethnology from the Sorbonne, Paris.

First journey.

In 1958, at the age of 21 — stranded on the coast of Quintana Roo, Mexico,— he walked down the coast to Belize discovering, on the way, 14 unrecorded Mayan archeological sites. This journey changed his life, and is an account of Quintana Roo State that unveils a world where 'chicleros', 'cocaleros' and Mayan fishermen ruled a vast and mostly unexplored region of North America. Today millions of vacationers stay in places Peissel once walked, and his often humorous accounts tell us much about contemporary Mayan culture. He left the Harvard Business School after a year, deciding to study ethnology and explore the last unknown regions of Tibet and the Himalayas.

Himalayan expeditions.

In 1959, Peissel organised his first Himalayan expedition out of Harvard to study the Sherpas of the Everest district.  In 1964, he set out across the Himalayas to explore Mustang, a minute, Tibetan-speaking kingdom whose identity had escaped the attention of both scholars and the general public. His written account of the expedition, "Mustang: A Lost Tibetan Kingdom", was published in 1967 and became an international best seller.  The Mustang expedition was followed by 28 others to the remotest regions of the Tibetan-speaking world. In 1968, he became one of the first foreigners to cross Bhutan and study its little-known eastern districts. He then made the first detailed study of the Kingdom of Zanskar in Kashmir, later studying the Minaro (Dards) of Baltistan and Ladakh, while attempting to locate precisely the "land of the gold digging ants" of Herodotus.  In 1973, he crossed the Himalayas by hovercraft, between Mounts Annapurna and Dhaulaghiri. Later, he travelled by hovercraft up the Ganges, in India, and also down the eastern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, in Mexico, after having invented and patented the first single-fan hovercraft.(patent). He enjoyed saying he had "pioneered the sport of shooting up rapids".  In 1986, he became one of the very first foreigners to penetrate Tsari and the gorges of the Brahmaputra in tropical Tibet.  In 1994, he led an expedition to locate the elusive source of the Mekong River, following the Dza Nak (the black Mekong, the historical main branch of the river), believing that he had discovered the source of Asia's third longest river. Ten years later, a Sino-Japanese expedition proved that the geographical source (the farthest from the sea) lies at the headwaters of the white Mekong, Dza Kar, which satellite photos show to be 4500 meters longer than what Peissel called the historical branch. Thus, like the Mississippi, the Yellow and countless other rivers, the Mekong is considered to have a geographical source and a historical source.  In 1995, after previous investigations and research on Tibetan breeds of horses during which he had discovered the Nangchen horse, he organised an expedition with the veterinary scholar Dr Ignasi Casas which led to the identification of a yet unknown archaic breed of horses: the Riwoche horse. (See note below.)

From Yucatan to Belize.

In 1987, with Mexican archeologists, Peissel built a giant seagoing Mayan dugout canoe and paddled and sailed down the Yucatan and Belize coasts to demonstrate the role of maritime commerce by the Chontal Itzas in the 10th century collapse of the Mayan lowland cities.

In the wake of the Varangians.

In 1989, having built a replica of a Viking long boat, Peissel and a crew of six rowed and sailed up the river Dvina and down the Dnieper across the Soviet Union, from the Baltic to the Black Sea; an expedition meant to recreate that of the Varangians, the founding fathers of Kievan Rus' in the 8th century.

Films.

Peissel produced, directed or initiated 22 documentary films on his expeditions, including a four-part series in 1980 by the BBC on "Zanskar, the Last Place on Earth" and a Smithsonian exploration special for the Arts and Entertainment Channel on the source of the Mekong. Other films and videos are viewable on the French National Archives website.(INA)

Marriages and children.

Michel Peissel was married first to Marie-Claire de Montaignac, with whom he had two sons, and then to Missy Allen, with whom he had a daughter and a son. All of his children survived him.

Michel Georges Francois Peissel (February 11, 1937 – October 7, 2011) was a French ethnologist, explorer and author. He wrote twenty books mostly on his Himalayan and Tibetan expeditions. Peissel was an emeritus member of the Explorers Club and a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

Michel Peissel (eigentlich: "Michel Georges Francois Peissel"; * 11. Februar 1937 in Paris; † 7. Oktober 2011 ebenda) war ein französischer Ethnologe.


History.

Rousseau probably wrote his text in 1762, but hesitated to put on a production of it, complaining of his lack of skill (in Pygmalion's case in life-giving, in Rousseau's in music-writing). The merchant and amateur composer Horace Coignet allowed him to realise it by writing a score and an overture, and the complete work was put on by amateurs in the town hall in Lyon in private rooms. As with his one-act opera "Le devin du village" (1752), Rousseau modelled the production on the Parisian 'Théâtre de la foire'.  Without Rousseau's consent, affirmed by the uniqueness of the premiere and the truth of the statue's first interpreter, the play remained in the repertory of the Comédie-Française for about five years in his own 1775 version.

Motivation.

During the creation of the sculpture without divine help, music plays a crucial role, just as Rousseau had planned. The inclusion of music seems to have been more important than the type of music included, since the composition of the musical numbers was not nearly as ambitious as in his ballet-opera "Les muses galantes" (1745). This shows a change of intention in the use of music - the music no longer complains of its inevitable fading away, but is instead a sign of the statue coming to life, as a cipher for the imagination of the viewer.

Analysis.

The tale of the sculptor Pygmalion, who unhappily falls in love with one of his own sculptures until the goddess Venus takes pity on him and brings the sculpture to life, stems from Ovid's "Metamorphoses". The myth remained taboo during the Middle Ages, when any talk of idolatry was forbidden, but from the Renaissance onwards it was adapted in various forms. During the Baroque it provided the plot for several ballets. All the adaptations and ballets showed the futility and hopelessness of Pygmalion's efforts to give the sculpture life and his problem as being solved by divine grace, making Pygmalion an important symbol of vanitas.  Rousseau's version seems to be the first where Pygmalion brings his perfect image to life without divine help - 'Galathée' (Galatea) comes to life at the last stroke of his chisel, beginning to speak and recognising her creator as her mirror image. She touches herself and says "me", then touches another sculpture and says "not me", and finally Pygmalion and says "Me again". This dialogue with her mirror image is genuine dialogue, reversing the vanitas motif. Importantly, Pygmalion is shown as swearing eternal fidelity to his sculpture, rather than as a collector of sculptures or women. In Jean-Philippe Rameau's opera "Pigmalion" (1748), from which Rousseau worked hard to differ, the main character is always fixated on the image of the unfaithful lover, drawing on a long tradition of portraying Pygmalion as a misogynist. In the opera, the statue is not brought to life by the artist but by Cupid's help.  1762 also saw the composition of the libretto for Gluck's opera "Orfeo ed Euridice", premiered later that year, in which Orpheus gives his dead wife Eurydice life through song, instead of losing faith in the gods. Unlike "Pygmalion", the opera still insists on divine intervention to give life, again via Eros, who intervenes to rescue her and bring her back to life after Orpheus turns around and condemns her back to death. Even so, "Orfeo" and "Pygmalion" both demonstrate the 1760s theme of an apparent failure by overturning an artist's success, which arose again around the time of Beethoven and then held sway until the First World War (it can also be seen in Strauss's "Also sprach Zarathustra").

Pygmalion () is the most influential dramatic work by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, other than his opera "Le devin du village". Though now rarely performed, it was one of the first ever melodramas (that is, a play consisting of pantomime gestures and the spoken word, both with a musical accompaniment). It is formed of spoken monodrama with instrumental musical interludes and thus can be credited with spreading a new theatrical genre, especially in German-speaking areas of Europe. He wrote it in 1762, with music by Horace Coignet. It was first performed at the Hôtel de Ville, Lyon in 1770. The work is considered a turning point for its author, who also wrote "The Social Contract" that same year.

Pygmalion, (Originaltitel: "Pigmalion, scène lyrique"), ist neben dem "Dorfwahrsager" ("Le devin du village", 1752) das einflussreichste, wenn auch heute selten aufgeführte Bühnenwerk des Philosophen Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Es ist eines der ersten Melodramen (das heißt, es bestand aus gesprochenem Text und pantomimischer Gestik mit Musikbegleitung) und begründete vor allem im deutschen Sprachgebiet, wo es sich in neuen Vertonungen (z. B. von Anton Schweitzer und Georg Benda) verbreitete, eine neue Theatergattung.


Youth and education.

Julius von Soden was born on 5 February 1846 in the barracks of the 7th Infantry Regiment in Ludwigsburg, where his father was lieutenant colonel. He was a member of the Evangelical Church. In 1849 the family moved to Stuttgart. His parents died early. His mother, whose maiden name had been Marie von Neurath, died on 28 March 1849, and his father Julius on 13 April 1854.  Soden and his three older sisters were raised by his grandmother, Charlotte von Neurath.  Soden started school in Korntal, then went on to high school in Stuttgart. His temporary tutor Julius Klaiber and his schoolmasters in high school inspired him with an interest in antiquity, and he aspired to become a classical scholar. Throughout his life, Soden enjoyed classical authors, especially Homer and Dante. His view of the world was at first strongly influenced by David Strauss and then increasingly by Immanuel Kant.  After leaving school in 1864, Soden began the study of law at the University of Tübingen, where he joined the "Corps Suevia Tübingen", a student duelling society. In the fourth semester, he moved to Göttingen. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 created a problem, since Soden had by then become a reserve officer and was a strong supporter of the Prussian Otto von Bismarck, while his family sympathized with Austria. He avoided the problem by remaining in Göttingen on the basis that it was impossible to travel to the south in wartime, only returning to Tübingen for his examinations in 1869.  Soden then became a law clerk in Heilbronn, even though he had more interest in jurisprudence. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, Soden was an enthusiastic volunteer, serving in the 4th Württemberg Cavalry. He saw little action, and when peace returned left the military and returned to his legal studies, passing his second legal examination in the fall of 1871.

Travel and consulates.

Julius von Soden felt an urge to travel and see the world. He heard that German consuls, who had usually been merchants, were being replaced by civil servants, often lawyers, and took up a consular career, ready to go anywhere. He first obtained a position as vice-consul in Bucharest, then in 1872, after half a year, transferred to the newly established German consulate in Algiers.  Soden loved to travel and, in the next few years, made many long voyages. After his first voyage from Marseilles to Algiers, in 1876 he was sent to Canton and then Hong Kong. In 1879 he was assigned to Havana. From 1881 to 1882 he was Resident Representative of the Minister to Lima, and in 1884 he was Consul General to St. Petersburg. In these positions, he came to the conclusion that promotion of trade contacts was a job for businessmen, not consuls. He also began to take a broad view of the economic importance of developing German industry, shipping, and trade.

West Africa.

With the tentative start of German colonialism, Soden moved from a diplomatic into an administrative role. In July 1884, he was appointed as the first head commissioner of the German colony of Togoland. A year later, in March 1885, he was appointed by Kaiser Wilhelm I as the first governor of Kamerun. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had a negative attitude towards Soden's colonial aspirations and gave him few instructions.  Soden's job was made difficult by lack of resources to support a colonial empire and by lack of infrastructure. Without a telegraph system, it was very difficult to simultaneously fulfill the offices of Chief Commissioner of Togoland and Consul General of the Gulf of Guinea.  In the circumstances, Soden emphasized a strategy of "peaceful" development of the "protected area", with the goal of maximizing the economic benefits of the colony. He envisioned a network of schools throughout the colony, with teachers to follow merchants, planters and officials. The schools would assist missionary activity as well as industrial and commercial enterprises.  Soden quickly realized the potential of Cameroon for plantations, and encouraged the Hamburg-based "Land- und Plantagengesellschaft" in their project in Man O' War Bay. He established an advisory council under the governor, an arbitration court, and an initial customs administration. He brought the trade in spirits and arms under control.  He dealt with risings in 1886 and 1887 caused by attempts by the government to break the monopoly that the coastal tribes had over trade with the interior. Although his policy was apparently succeeding, during a vacation at home from 13 May 1887 to 17 January 1888, he was invited by Bismarck to Friedrichsruh, where he learned that there had not been more enthusiasm for German colonial policy than before. Bismark's fall from power in 1890 did not immediately relieve him of his difficulties.

East Africa.

In 1890, the new German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi asked for a study of the prospects for establishing a new colony in East Africa. Despite a sobering report, the project went ahead, and Soden was appointed governor of the colony of German East Africa on 1 January 1891. However, in his new post Soden was handicapped by infrastructure problems and by constant interference by the Foreign Office in Berlin.  Without consulting him, the government appointed three commissioners with vague powers: Eduard Schnitzer, known as Emin Pasha, Carl Peters, and Hermann von Wissmann, Soden's two immediate predecessors in the colonial administration. Soden was handicapped in his main task of reorganizing the local security forces by being a civilian whose authority was not readily recognized by the military. He found that the principles of colonial policy that he had formulated over years of experience were in conflict with the "global politics" of Kaiser Wilhelm II.  Soden founded the first secular state school, the Tanga School, against the wishes of the home government. His objective was to train Swahili-speaking junior administrators who would help him in his policy of limiting administration to the coast and using the coastal people as his intermediaries in establishing trade links with the interior. To overcome the distrust of a purely secular education by the upper-class Swahili families, a Koranic teacher was employed, but he was swiftly dismissed after the missionary lobby caused an uproar in Germany. In 1893, frustrated by the obstacles imposed on his administration from Berlin, Soden asked Chancellor Caprivi to allow him to retire.

Later career.

For the six years following his retirement, Soden lived on his estate in Germany, for the first time undertaking the duties of a landowner. He also traveled throughout Germany, coming into closer contact with the governments of the states, and also continued to be involved in colonial affairs as a consultant. In 1896, he became a member of the board of the West Africa Plantations Company ("Westafrikanische Pflanzungsgesellschaft"), an enterprise in Cameroon.  In 1899, Soden was surprised to be offered the post of Chief of Cabinet at the court of King William II of Württemberg. He accepted, and was successful in this very different role from his previous offices. He was trusted and respected by the king and all with whom he came into contact as someone who would give clear and impartial opinions. His kind and always helpful nature and his sunny temperament was of great value. On 1 September 1900, Soden married Helene von Sick (born 1856), a daughter of Major-General Hermann von Sick of Ludwigsburg. Julius was 54 years old, ten years older than his bride. Their marriage was childless, probably due to the bride's advanced age.  In November 1900, Soden left the King's cabinet and became foreign minister in the Württemberg State Government. In this position, he promoted improvements in the transport sector, driving forward the unification of the railroads and expanding the Württemberg branch lines. He resigned from this post in 1906, and resumed his former post as royal cabinet chief, remaining in office until 1916. He also accepted various honorary positions, including that of chairman of the Swabian Schiller Society (1900 to 1902 and 1906 to 1917).  After the war and the November Revolution, Soden decided to resume his studies. In September 1920, aged 74, he returned to Tübingen, where he attended lectures. His chosen subjects were spiritual in nature, philosophy, philology and aesthetics.  His retirement was short. A few months after a new semester began in January 1921, Soden suffered a physical collapse, and on 2 February 1921, after a 14-day illness, he died three days before his 75th birthday.

Julius Freiherr von Soden (5 February 1846 – 2 February 1921) was a German colonial administrator and politician. He was the Governor of the colonies of Kamerun and German East Africa, and later became "Chef de Cabinet" and Foreign Minister of the King of Württemberg.

Julius Freiherr von Soden (* 5. Februar 1846 in Ludwigsburg; † 2. Februar 1921 in Tübingen) war ein deutscher Beamter und Politiker, unter anderem Gouverneur der Kolonien Kamerun und Deutsch-Ostafrika, sowie Kabinettschef des Königs von Württemberg und dessen Außenminister.


Life.

As a child she learned to sing and play guitar, lute, mandolin and balalaika, but apparently never considered a career as a musician.  In 1930 she married Willi Weber and settled in Prague, where she wrote for children's periodicals and became a producer for Czech Radio. Following the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939 the Webers were able to get their oldest son Hanuš safely to Sweden on a "Kindertransport" before they were confined to Prague's Jewish Ghetto. Hanuš was sent first to the U.K. to live with a friend of his mother who was the daughter of a Swedish diplomat, and he may well be the Hans Weber listed as No. 1292 in the records of the kindertransports to the U.K. organised by Nicholas Winton. He survived the war in Sweden, and lives in Stockholm in retirement. His son, Tommy, born in 1977, is named in honor of his younger brother, murdered with his mother in Auschwitz.  The Webers arrived at the Theresienstadt concentration camp in February 1942. Ilse Weber worked as a night nurse in the camp's children's infirmary, doing everything she could for the young patients without the aid of medicine (which was forbidden to Jewish prisoners). She wrote around 60 poems during her imprisonment and set many of them to music, employing deceptively simple tunes and imagery to describe the horror of her surroundings. In performance she accompanied herself on guitar. Her songs include "Lullaby," "I Wandered Through Theresienstadt," "The Lidice Sheep," "Wiegala," "And the Rain Falls," and "Avowal of Belief."  When her husband was deported to Auschwitz in October 1944, Ilse Weber volunteered to join him with their son Tommy because she didn't want to break up the family. She and the boy were sent to the gas chamber on arrival. Willi Weber survived them by 30 years.

Writings.

Her most popular book was "Mendel Rosenbusch: Tales for Jewish Children" (1929). The title character, a kind elderly man, mysteriously receives a magic coin that enables him to become invisible at will. He uses this power to perform anonymous good deeds for his neighbors. Weber's sharp observations and gentle humor make these stories appealing for all ages.  Her early fiction, dating from 1925, was collected as "The Scooter Race and Other Stories" (1930).  Weber's Theresienstadt poetry was collected in the book "Inside These Walls, Sorrow Lives" (1991). Her songs have been frequently recorded, particularly "Lullaby," most recently by mezzo-soprano Anne Sofie von Otter and Christian Gerhaher (2007). In 2008, the Munich-based publisher Carl Hanser Verlag brought out a collection of her letters and poems entitled: "Wann wohl das Leid ein Ende hat" (When will the suffering come to an end) collected by the German historian Ulrike Migdal. Weber's surviving son Hanuš participated in a cultural program commemorating his mother's work in Berlin on 22 May 2008. He is the author of a book on her life, "Ilse: A Love Story Without a Happy Ending."  Her song "Wiegala" is used in Paula Vogel's play, Indecent.

Ilse Weber (11 January 1903 – 6 October 1944) née Herlinger, was born in Witkowitz near Mährisch-Ostrau. A Jewish poet, she wrote in German, most notably songs and theater pieces for Jewish children. She married Willi Weber in 1930. She was voluntarily transported to Auschwitz with the children of Theresienstadt and killed in the gas chambers, along with her son, Tommy. Her most popular book was "Mendel Rosenbusch: Tales for Jewish Children" (1929).

Ilse Weber, geborene "Herlinger" (geboren am 11. Januar 1903 in Witkowitz, Österreich-Ungarn; gestorben am 6. Oktober 1944 im KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau) war eine tschechoslowakische deutschsprachige jüdische Schriftstellerin.


Gibbs' inequality.

Suppose that  is a probability distribution. Then for any other probability distribution  the following inequality between positive quantities (since p and q are between zero and one) holds:  with equality if and only if  for all "i". Put in words, the information entropy of a distribution P is less than or equal to its cross entropy with any other distribution Q.  The difference between the two quantities is the Kullback–Leibler divergence or relative entropy, so the inequality can also be written:  Note that the use of base-2 logarithms is optional, and allows one to refer to the quantity on each side of the inequality as an "average surprisal" measured in bits.

Proof.

For simplicity, we prove the statement using the natural logarithm (ln), since  the particular logarithm we choose only scales the relationship.  Let formula_7 denote the set of all formula_8 for which "p" is non-zero. Then, since formula_9 for all "x > 0", with equality if and only if "x=1", we have:  The last inequality is a consequence of the "p" and "q" being part of a probability distribution. Specifically, the sum of all non-zero values is 1. Some non-zero "q", however, may have been excluded since the choice of indices is conditioned upon the "p" being non-zero. Therefore the sum of the "q" may be less than 1.  So far, over the index set formula_7, we have:  or equivalently  Both sums can be extended to all formula_15, i.e. including formula_16, by recalling that the expression formula_17 tends to 0 as formula_18 tends to 0, and formula_19 tends to formula_20 as formula_21 tends to 0. We arrive at  For equality to hold, we require  This can happen if and only if formula_31 for formula_32.

Alternative proofs.

The result can alternatively be proved using Jensen's inequality, the log sum inequality, or the fact that the Kullback-Leibler divergence is a form of Bregman divergence. Below we give a proof based on Jensen's inequality:  Because log is a concave function, we have that:  Where the first inequality is due to Jensen's inequality, and the last equality is because formula_21 is a probability distribution.  Furthermore, since formula_35 is strictly concave, by the equality condition of Jensen's inequality we get equality when  Suppose that this ratio is formula_37, then we have that  Where we use the fact that formula_39 are probability distributions. Therefore the equality happens when formula_40.

Corollary.

The entropy of formula_41 is bounded by:  The proof is trivial – simply set formula_43 for all "i".

In information theory, Gibbs' inequality is a statement about the mathematical entropy of a discrete probability distribution. Several other bounds on the entropy of probability distributions are derived from Gibbs' inequality, including Fano's inequality. It was first presented by J. Willard Gibbs in the 19th century.

In der Informationstheorie ist die Gibbs-Ungleichung (nach J. W. Gibbs) eine Aussage über die Entropie einer diskreten Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilung. Man erhält mit ihr eine untere Schranke der mittleren Codewortlänge von optimalen Präfixcodes und eine untere Schranke der mittleren Laufzeit von vergleichsbasierten Sortierverfahren.


Description.

"Carpobrotus edulis" is a creeping, mat-forming succulent species and member of the fig-marigold family, Aizoaceae, one of about 30 species in the genus "Carpobrotus".  "C. edulis" is easily confused with its close relatives, including the more diminutive and less aggressive "Carpobrotus chilensis" (sea fig), with which it hybridizes readily. "C. edulis" can, however, be distinguished from most of its relatives by the size and colour of its flowers. The large, diameter flowers of "C. edulis" are yellow or light pink, whereas the smaller, diameter "C. chilensis" flowers are deep magenta. On the flowers, two of the calyx lobes are longer, extending further than the petals.  The leaves of "C. edulis" are only very slightly curved and have serrated sides near the tips.

In South Africa.

Distribution.

The sour fig grows on coastal and inland slopes from Namaqualand in the Northern Cape through the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape. It is often seen as a pioneer in disturbed sites.

Ecology.

Flowers are pollinated by solitary bees, honey bees, carpenter bees, and many beetle species. Leaves are eaten by tortoises. Flowers are eaten by antelopes and baboons. Fruits are eaten by baboons, rodents, porcupines, antelopes, who also disperse the seeds. The clumps provide shelter for snails, lizards, and skinks. Puff adders and other snakes, such as the Cape cobra, are often found in "Carpobrotus" clumps, where they ambush the small rodents attracted by the fruits.

Growth.

Ice plants grow year round, with individual shoot segments growing more than 3 ft (1 m) per year. Ice plants can grow to at least 165 ft (50 m) in diameter.  Flowers are produced mainly during late winter-spring (August–October). They open in the morning in bright sunlight, and close at night.

Invasive species.

"Carpobrotus edulis" has naturalised in many other regions throughout the world, and is an invasive species in several parts, notably Australia, California and the Mediterranean, all of which have similar climates. The ice plant has escaped from cultivation and has become invasive, posing a serious ecological problem by forming vast monospecific zones, lowering biodiversity, and competing directly with several threatened or endangered plant species for nutrients, water, light, and space.

Mediterranean.

On the Mediterranean coast, "Carpobrotus" has spread out rapidly and now parts of the coastline are completely covered by this invasive species. Moreover, another invasive species, the black rat, has been shown to enhance the spreading of the ice plant through its feces. As the ice plant represents a food resource for the rat, both benefit from each other (invasive mutualism).

New Zealand.

In New Zealand "C. edulis" and its hybrids are classed as unwanted organisms and are listed on the National Pest Plant Accord.

US.

Although the ice plant may have arrived by ship as early as the 16th century, "C. edulis" was actively introduced in the early 1900s to stabilize dunes and soil along railroad tracks; it was later put to use by Caltrans for ground cover along freeway embankments. Thousands of acres were planted in California until the 1970s. It easily spreads by seed (hundreds per fruit) and from segmentation (any shoot segment can produce roots). Its succulent foliage, bright magenta or yellow flowers, and resistance to some harsh coastal climatic conditions (salt) have also made it a favored garden plant. The ice plant was, for several decades, widely promoted as an ornamental plant, and it is still available at some nurseries. Ice plant foliage can turn a vibrant red to yellow in color. Despite its use as a soil stabilizer, it actually exacerbates and speeds up coastal erosion. It holds great masses of water in its leaves, and its roots are very shallow. In the rainy season, the added weight on unstable sandstone slopes and dunes increases the chances of slope collapse and landslides.  The ice plant is still abundant along highways, beaches, on military bases, and in other public and private landscapes. It spreads beyond landscape plantings and has invaded foredune, dune scrub, coastal bluff scrub, coastal prairie, and, most recently, maritime chaparral communities. In California, the ice plant is found in coastal habitats from north of Eureka, south at least as far as Rosarito in Baja California. It is intolerant of frost, and is not found far inland or at elevations greater than about 500 ft (150 m).  Flowering occurs almost year-round, beginning in February in southern California and continuing until the autumn in northern California, with flowers present for at least a few months in any given population.

Removal of plants.

Control of ice plants can be attempted by pulling out individual plants by hand, or with the use of earth-moving machinery such as a skid-steer or tractor, though it is necessary to remove buried stems, and mulch the soil to prevent re-establishment. For chemical control, glyphosate herbicides are used. Because of the high water content of shoot tissues, burning of live or dead plants is not a useful method of control or disposal.

Cultivation.

It needs well-drained soil, a sunny position, and room to spread. It is an excellent evergreen, drought- and wind-resistant groundcover; it can be planted on flat, sandy ground, on loose sand dunes, lime-rich and brackish soils, and gravelly gardens, as well as in containers, rockeries, and embankments, and will cascade over terrace walls.

Uses.

Its leaves are edible, as are its fruit, as with some other members of the family Aizoaceae. In South Africa the sour fig's ripe fruit are gathered and either eaten fresh or made into a very tart jam.  "Carpobrotus edulis", also known as "igcukuma" in the Xhosa language, is a medicinal plant used by the traditional healers in cases of common infections in HIV/AIDS patients.

Chemistry.

Rutin, neohesperidin, hyperoside, catechin and ferulic acid can be found in "C. edulis", and contribute to the antibacterial properties of the plant. It also contains procyanidins and propelargonidins.

Carpobrotus edulis is a ground-creeping plant with succulent leaves in the genus "Carpobrotus", native to South Africa. It is also known as Hottentot-fig, ice plant, highway ice plant, or pigface, and in South Africa as the sour fig ().

Die Essbare Mittagsblume ("Carpobrotus edulis"), auch Gelbe Mittagsblume, Pferdefeige, Hottentottenfeige oder Hexenfinger genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart, die zur Gattung "Carpobrotus" gehört, einer der Gattungen, die Mittagsblumen genannt werden, innerhalb der Familie der Mittagsblumengewächse (Aizoaceae).


Summary.

On a freezing New Year's Eve a poor young girl, shivering and barefoot, tries to sell matches in the street. Afraid to go home because her stepfather will beat her for failing to sell any matches, she huddles in the angle between two houses and lights matches to warm herself.  In the flame of the matches she sees a series of comforting visions: a warm stove, a holiday feast, a happy family, and a Christmas tree. In the sky she sees a shooting star, which her late grandmother had told her means someone is on their way to Heaven. In the flame of the next match she sees her grandmother, the only person to have treated her with love and kindness. To keep the vision of her grandmother alive as long as possible, the girl lights the entire bundle of matches.  When the matches are gone the girl dies, and her grandmother carries her soul to Heaven. The next morning, passers-by find the girl frozen, and express pity. They do not know about the wonderful visions she had seen, or how happy she is with her grandmother in heaven.

Publication.

"The Little Match Girl" was first published December 1845, in "Dansk Folkekalender for 1846". The work was re-published as a part of "New Fairy Tales" (4 March 1848), Second Volume, Second Collection ("Nye Eventyr" (1848), Andet Bind, Anden Samling), and again 18 December 1849 as a part of "Fairy Tales" (1850; "Eventyr"). The work was also published 30 March 1863 as a part of "Fairy Tales and Stories" (1863), Second Volume ("Eventyr og Historier" (1863), Andet Bind).

"The Little Match Girl" (, meaning "The little girl with the matchsticks") is a short story by Danish poet and author Hans Christian Andersen. The story, about a dying child's dreams and hope, was first published in 1845. It has been adapted to various media, including animated and live-action films, television musicals, and video games.

Das kleine Mädchen mit den Schwefelhölzern (dänisch: "Den lille Pige med Svovlstikkerne") zählt zu den bekanntesten Kunstmärchen von Hans Christian Andersen. Er hat es im Jahre 1845 während eines neuntägigen Aufenthalts auf dem Schloss Gravenstein an der Flensburger Förde geschrieben. Es ist die tragische Geschichte eines kleinen Mädchens, das frierend auf der Straße Schwefelhölzchen verkauft und dabei in den Tod gleitet. In der späteren Rezeption wurde die Erzählung oft als sentimentales Rührstück verkitscht; strenggenommen handelt es sich aber um geschickt verpackte scharfe Sozialkritik.


Phylogeny.

A new systematic has been proposed recently after findings of a new squirrel poxvirus in Berlin, Germany.

Structure.

"Poxviridae" viral particles (virions) are generally enveloped (external enveloped virion), though the intracellular mature virion form of the virus, which contains different envelope, is also infectious. They vary in their shape depending upon the species but are generally shaped like a brick or as an oval form similar to a rounded brick because they are wrapped by the endoplasmic reticulum. The virion is exceptionally large, its size is around 200 nm in diameter and 300 nm in length and carries its genome in a single, linear, double-stranded segment of DNA. By comparison, Rhinovirus is 1/10 as large as a typical "Poxviridae" virion.

Replication.

Replication of the poxvirus involves several stages. The virus first binds to a receptor on the host cell surface; the receptors for the poxvirus are thought to be glycosaminoglycans. After binding to the receptor, the virus enters the cell where it uncoats. Uncoating of the virus is a two step process. Firstly the outer membrane is removed as the particle enters the cell; secondly the virus particle (without the outer membrane) fuses with the cellular membrane to release the core into the cytoplasm. The pox viral genes are expressed in two phases. The early genes encode the non-structural protein, including proteins necessary for replication of the viral genome, and are expressed before the genome is replicated. The late genes are expressed after the genome has been replicated and encode the structural proteins to make the virus particle. The assembly of the virus particle occurs in five stages of maturation that lead to the final exocytosis of the new enveloped virion. After the genome has been replicated, the immature virion assembles the A5 protein to create the intracellular mature virion. The protein aligns and the brick-shaped envelope of the intracellular enveloped virion. These particles are then fused to the cell plasma to form the cell-associated enveloped virion, which encounters the microtubules and prepares to exit the cell as an extracellular enveloped virion. The assembly of the virus particle occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is a complex process that is currently being researched to understand each stage in more depth. Considering the fact that this virus is large and complex, replication is relatively quick taking approximately 12 hours until the host cell dies by the release of viruses.  The replication of poxvirus is unusual for a virus with double-stranded DNA genome because it occurs in the cytoplasm, although this is typical of other large DNA viruses. Poxvirus encodes its own machinery for genome transcription, a DNA dependent RNA polymerase, which makes replication in the cytoplasm possible. Most double-stranded DNA viruses require the host cell's DNA-dependent RNA polymerase to perform transcription. These host DNA are found in the nucleus, and therefore most double-stranded DNA viruses carry out a part of their infection cycle within the host cell's nucleus.

Evolution.

The ancestor of the poxviruses is not known but structural studies suggest it may have been an adenovirus or a species related to both the poxviruses and the adenoviruses.  Based on the genome organisation and DNA replication mechanism it seems that phylogenetic relationships may exist between the rudiviruses ("Rudiviridae") and the large eukaryal DNA viruses: the African swine fever virus ("Asfarviridae"), Chlorella viruses ("Phycodnaviridae") and poxviruses ("Poxviridae").  The mutation rate in these genomes has been estimated to be 0.9-1.2 x 10 substitutions per site per year. A second estimate puts this rate at 0.5-7 × 10 nucleotide substitutions per site per year. A third estimate places the rate at 4-6 × 10.  The last common ancestor of the extant poxviruses that infect vertebrates existed. The genus Avipoxvirus diverged from the ancestor 249 ± 69 thousand years ago. The ancestor of the genus Orthopoxvirus was next to diverge from the other clades at. A second estimate of this divergence time places this event at 166,000 ± 43,000 years ago. The division of the Orthopox into the extant genera occurred ~14,000 years ago. The genus Leporipoxvirus diverged ~137,000 ± 35,000 years ago. This was followed by the ancestor of the genus Yatapoxvirus. The last common ancestor of the Capripoxvirus and Suipoxvirus diverged 111,000 ± 29,000 years ago.  An isolate from a fish - Salmon Gill Poxvirus - appears to be the earliest branch in the Chordopoxvirinae.

Smallpox.

The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled. It most likely evolved from a rodent virus between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago. The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock. One clade was the variola major strains (the more clinically severe form of smallpox) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1,600 years ago. A second clade included both alastrim minor (a phenotypically mild smallpox) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1,400 and 6,300 years before present. This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago.  A second estimate has placed the separation of variola from Taterapox at 3000–4000 years ago. This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin. However, if the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses the divergence date between variola from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50,000 years ago. While this is consistent with the other published estimates it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete. Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed.

Taxonomy.

The following subfamilies and genera are recognized (-"virinae" denotes subfamily and -"virus" denotes genus):  The name of the family, "Poxviridae", is a legacy of the original grouping of viruses associated with diseases that produced poxes in the skin. Modern viral classification is based on phenotypic characteristics; morphology, nucleic acid type, mode of replication, host organisms, and the type of disease they cause. The smallpox virus remains the most notable member of the family.  The species in the subfamily "Chordopoxvirinae" infect vertebrates and those in the subfamily "Entomopoxvirinae" infect insects. There are 10 recognised genera in the "Chordopoxvirinae" and 3 in the "Entomopoxvirinae". Both subfamilies also contain a number of unclassified species for which new genera may be created in the future. Cotia virus is an unusual virus that may belong to a new genus. Two more poxviruses are NY_014 and Murmansk poxvirus.

Notes.

The GC-content of these genomes differs considerably. Avipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Cervidpoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, Suipoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus and one Entomopox genus (Betaentomopoxvirus) along with several other unclassified Entomopoxviruses have a low G+C content while others - Molluscipoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, Parapoxvirus and some unclassified Chordopoxvirus - have a relatively high G+C content. The reasons for these differences are not known.  Phylogenetic analysis of 26 Chordopoxviruses genomes has shown that the central region of the genome is conserved and contains ~90 genes. The termini in contrast are not conserved between species. Of this group Avipoxvirus is the most divergent. The next most divergent is Molluscipoxvirus. Capripoxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Yatapoxvirus genera cluster together: Capripoxvirus and Suipoxvirus share a common ancestor and are distinct from the genus Orthopoxvirus. Within the Othopoxvirus genus Cowpox virus strain Brighton Red, Ectromelia virus and Monkeypox virus do not group closely with any other member. Variola virus and Camelpox virus form a subgroup. Vaccinia virus is most closely related to CPV-GRI-90.

Vaccinia virus.

The prototypical poxvirus is vaccinia virus, known for its role in the eradication of smallpox. The vaccinia virus is an effective tool for foreign protein expression, as it elicits a strong host immune-response. The vaccinia virus enters cells primarily by cell fusion, although currently the receptor responsible is unknown.  Vaccinia contains three classes of genes: early, intermediate and late. These genes are transcribed by viral RNA polymerase and associated transcription factors. Vaccinia replicates its genome in the cytoplasm of infected cells, and after late-stage gene expression undergoes virion morphogenesis, which produces intracellular mature virions contained within an envelope membrane. The origin of the envelope membrane is still unknown. The intracellular mature virions are then transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is wrapped with an additional two membranes, becoming the intracellular enveloped virus. This is transported along cytoskeletal microtubules to reach the cell periphery, where it fuses with the plasma membrane to become the cell-associated enveloped virus. This triggers actin tails on cell surfaces or is released as external enveloped virion.

History.

Diseases caused by pox viruses, especially smallpox, have been known about for centuries. One of the earliest suspected cases is that of Egyptian pharaoh Ramses V who is thought to have died from smallpox circa 1150 years BCE. Smallpox was thought to have been transferred to Europe around the early 8th century and then to the Americas in the early 16th century, resulting in the deaths of 3.2 million Aztecs within two years of introduction. This death toll can be attributed to the American population's complete lack of exposure to the virus over millennia. A century after Edward Jenner showed that the less potent cow pox could be used to effectively vaccinate against the more deadly smallpox, a worldwide effort to vaccinate everyone against smallpox began with the ultimate goal to rid the world of the plague-like epidemic. The last case of endemic smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977. Extensive searches over two years detected no further cases, and in 1979 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the disease officially eradicated. In 1986, all virus samples were destroyed or transferred to two approved WHO reference labs: at the headquarters of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (the C.D.C.) in Atlanta, Georgia (the United States) and at the Institute of Virus Preparations in Moscow. After September 11, 2001 the American and UK governments have had increased concern over the use of smallpox, or a smallpox-like disease, in bioterrorism.

Poxviridae is a family of viruses. Humans, vertebrates, and arthropods serve as natural hosts. There are currently 83 species in this family, divided among 22 genera, which are divided into two subfamilies. Diseases associated with this family include smallpox.

Die Poxviridae (Pockenviren) sind eine Familie von Viren, die dem Phylum der "Nucleocytoviricota" (veraltet "Nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses", NCLDV; frühere Vorschläge hatten auf „"Nucleocytoplasmaviricota"“ bzw. – im Rang einer Ordnung – „"Megavirales"“ gelautet) zugerechnet wird. Zu dieser Familie gehören die Unterfamilien "Chordopoxvirinae" und "Entemopoxvirinae".


Biography.

The son of an aristocratic Sardinian admiral, Mameli was from Genoa where he was born, and where his father was in command of the fleet of the Kingdom of Sardinia. At the age of seven he was sent to Sardinia, to his grandfather's place, to escape the risk of cholera, but soon came back to Genoa to complete his studies.  The achievements of Mameli's very short life are concentrated in only two years, during which time he played major parts in insurrectional movements and the Risorgimento.  In 1847 Mameli joined the "Società Entelema", a cultural movement that soon would have turned to a political movement, and here he became interested in the theories of Giuseppe Mazzini.  Mameli is mostly known as the author of the lyrics of the Italian national anthem, "Il Canto degli Italiani" (music by Michele Novaro), better known in Italy as "Inno di Mameli" (Mameli's Hymn). These lyrics were used for the first time in November 1847, celebrating King Charles Albert of Sardinia in his visit to Genoa after his first reforms. Mameli's lyrics to a "hymn of the people" —"Suona la tromba"— were set by Giuseppe Verdi the following year.  Mameli was deeply involved in nationalist movements and some more "spectacular" actions are remembered, such as his exposition of the "Tricolore" (current Italian flag, then prohibited) to celebrate the expulsion of Austrians in 1846. Yet, he was with Nino Bixio (Garibaldi's later major supporter and friend) in a committee for public health, already on a clear Mazzinian position. In March 1848, hearing of the insurrection in Milan, Mameli organised an expedition with 300 other patriots, joined Bixio's troops that were already on site, and entered the town. He was then admitted to Garibaldi's irregular army (really the volunteer brigade of general Torres), as a captain, and met Mazzini.  Back in Genoa, he worked more on a literary side, wrote several hymns and other compositions, he became the director of the newspaper "Diario del Popolo" ("People's Daily"), and promoted a press campaign for a war against Austria. In December 1848 Mameli reached Rome, where Pellegrino Rossi had been murdered, helping in the clandestine works for declaration (9 February 1849) of the Roman Republic. Mameli then went to Florence where he proposed the creation of a common state between Tuscany and Latium.  In April 1849 he was again in Genoa, with Bixio, where a popular insurrection was strongly opposed by General Alberto La Marmora. Mameli soon left again for Rome, where the French had come to support the Papacy (Pope Pius IX had actually escaped from the town) and took active part in the combat.

Death.

During the siege of Rome, he was an aide of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who fought in Palestrina (9 May) and in Velletri (19 May). In particular he fought in the defense of the Villa del Vascello on the Janiculum hill. He was wounded in the left leg by the French during the last assault of 3 June at Villa Corsini, occupied by the French. However, there is a theory that he was accidentally wounded by the bayonet of a fellow soldier.  Mameli suffered from gangrene, which doctor Pietro Maestri observed after four days. After a consultation with Maestri and other doctors, it was decided to amputate the leg, performed by surgeon Paolo Maria Raffaello Baroni. Despite this, the infection gradually increased to the point of causing death by sepsis, on 6 July 1849, at the age of 21, in the hospice of Trinità dei Pellegrini. He was originally buried at Campo Verano in Rome, however, his remains were moved to the Mausoleo Ossario del Gianicolo in 1941.

Goffredo Mameli (; 5 September 1827 – 6 July 1849) was an Italian patriot, poet, writer and a notable figure in the Risorgimento. He is also the author of the lyrics of "Il Canto degli Italiani", the national anthem of Italy.

Goffredo Mameli (* 5. September 1827 in Genua; † 7. Juli 1849 in Rom) war ein italienischer Patriot, Dichter und wichtiger Vertreter der italienischen Risorgimento. Bekannt ist Mameli hauptsächlich als Autor der italienischen Nationalhymne "Il Canto degli Italiani" („Fratelli d’Italia“).


George.

The "George" explosion was the world's first thermonuclear burn, though it was just a test design, unsuitable for weaponization. Shaped like a torus, the "George" device had a small amount of heavy isotopes of liquid hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) placed at its center. The vast majority of its yield derived from fission. The energy output from the thermonuclear fusion in this test was insignificant in comparison. The "George" device was more like a "boosted" nuclear bomb than a thermonuclear one. The small amount of heavy deuterium and tritium in this test fused, but its role was to generate a strong flurry of fast neutrons - ones that sparked more fissions in the uranium nuclei that were present, and which also caused fission in uranium-238 - which does not fission under bombardment with slow neutrons, as does uranium-235.  The George design was a 'Classical Super' prototype with a binary triggering device using radiation implosion upon a cylinder. The design of the triggering system in this test was based on the one patented by Klaus Fuchs and von Neumann in 1946. Its success played a vital role in the history of the Teller–Ulam design.  The "George" test validated the principles which would be used for the first full-scale thermonuclear bomb test, "Ivy Mike", one year later, on November 1, 1952, at Enewetak Atoll.

Item.

Conducted on May 25, 1951, "Item" was the first test of an actual boosted fission weapon, nearly doubling the normal yield of a similar non-boosted weapon. In this test, deuterium-tritium (D-T) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb. The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas. While not enough to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb, the large number of high-energy neutrons released nearly doubled the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction.

Dog.

The "Dog" explosion is more popularly known for an image taken of those viewing it than the actual explosion itself; the photograph depicts numerous VIPs wearing safety goggles sitting on Adirondack chairs while being illuminated by the flash of the detonation. This photograph takes up the bottom portion of the cover of the 1995 documentary "Trinity and Beyond" by Peter Kuran. The safety goggles worn by all those viewing the test in the picture have become somewhat of a museum collectors item, with a possibility that Norman F. Ramsey may have been present. Cynthia Miller claims that her father, Van Dine, is the first man on the left in the photo. The blast wave safely arrived at the location of the VIPs some 45 seconds after the initially silent flash of the detonation as observed from their position on Parry island.

Operation Greenhouse was the fifth American nuclear test series, the second conducted in 1951 and the first to test principles that would lead to developing thermonuclear weapons ("hydrogen bombs"). Conducted at the new Pacific Proving Ground, on islands of the Enewetak Atoll, all of the devices were mounted in large steel towers, to simulate air bursts. This series of nuclear weapons tests was preceded by Operation Ranger and succeeded by Operation Buster-Jangle.

Operation Greenhouse war die fünfte amerikanische Kernwaffentestserie und die zweite im Jahre 1951. Sie fand auf dem Eniwetok-Atoll im Pazifik statt und bestand aus vier einzelnen Tests.


Biography.

Waldorf was born in Los Angeles, California. He attended UCLA where he was on the golf team from 1982 to 1985. He was a two-time NCAA All-American, 1985 College Player of the Year, and was selected for the 1985 Walker Cup.  Waldorf turned professional in 1985 and joined the PGA Tour.  Waldorf's career PGA Tour earnings are over $11.9 million. He has featured in the top 50 of the Official World Golf Rankings, peaking at 35th in 2000.  Waldorf finished T-14 in the 2007 Q-School to regain his 2008 PGA Tour card. However, after playing in only 4 events, he underwent knee surgery in May 2008. A recurring knee problem hindered Waldorf, who sat out the entire 2009 and 2010 seasons. He played in 14 events during the 2011 season. He failed to satisfy his Medical Extension and split the 2012 season among the PGA Tour, Nationwide Tour, and Champions Tour.

Professional wins (10).

PGA Tour wins (4).

PGA Tour playoff record (2–1)

PGA Tour Champions wins (2).

PGA Tour Champions playoff record (0–1)

Results in major championships.

CUT = missed the half-way cut<br> "T" = tied

Results in The Players Championship.

CUT = missed the halfway cut<br> "T" indicates a tie for a place

Results in World Golf Championships.

Cancelled due to 9/11
 QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play
 "T" = Tied
 NT = No tournament

U.S. national team appearances.

Amateur

James Joseph "Duffy" Waldorf, Jr. (born August 20, 1962) is an American professional golfer who plays on the PGA Tour Champions. He was previously a member of the PGA Tour, where he won four times.

James Joseph "Duffy" Waldorf, Jr. (* 20. August 1962 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Berufsgolfer der PGA TOUR. Er gehört zu den schillerndsten Figuren und Veteranen der nordamerikanischen Turnierserie.


Definition.

Latin American studies critically examines the history, culture, international relations, and politics, of Latin America. It is not to be confused with Latino Studies, an academic discipline which studies the experience of people of Hispanic ancestry in the United States.  Latin Americanists consider a variety of perspectives and employ diverse research tools in their work. The interdisciplinary disciplines of study varies, depending on the school, association, and academic program. For example, the Latin American Centre of the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies (SIAS) at the University of Oxford heavily focuses on the social sciences, such as the economics, politics, and development of the region. On the other hand, schools like Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies (LLILAS) at The University of Texas at Austin, focus on the humanities; with the language, culture, and history of Latin America as a central component. Others include the study of environment and ecology of the region.  Latin American studies is usually quite open and often includes or is closely associated with, for instance, Development studies, Geography, Anthropology, Caribbean studies, and Transatlantic studies.

History.

Latin America has been studied in one way or another ever since Columbus's voyage of 1492. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scientist explorers such as Alexander von Humboldt published extensively about the region. Towards the end of the nineteenth century and at the turn of the twentieth, within the region itself writers such as José Martí and José Enrique Rodó encouraged a consciousness of regional identity.  In 1875, the International Congress of Americanists held its first meeting in Nancy, France, and has met regularly ever since, alternating between venues in Europe and in the Western hemisphere. However, unlike the scholarly organizations of the twentieth century, the ICA does not have an ongoing organization, nor is there a journal of the ICA. The creation of formal and ongoing scholarly organizations focusing on Latin America is a product of the twentieth century.  In the US, historians with an interest in Latin American history within the American Historical Association created a group focusing on Latin America. In 1918, they founded "The Hispanic American Historical Review", which has published quarterly since that time and has built a reputation as one of the premier scholarly journals. The Latin Americanists within the AHA created the Conference on Latin American History in 1926, which is now separately incorporated (since 1964), but continues to coordinate its annual meetings with the American Historical Association. In 1936, US Latin Americanists also founded the "Handbook of Latin American Studies," with editorial offices in the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress. In a pre-digital era, the compilation of annotated bibliographic references in the humanities and social science organized by subject and country was a vital tool for scholars in the field. In 1954 was founded in Paris the Institute of Latin American Studies (IHEAL), by the geographer Pierre Monbeig.  With the Cuban Revolution of 1959, the US government began seriously focusing on Latin America as Cuba and the hemisphere was seen to be an integral element of Cold War politics. The Latin American historian who wrote the early history of the founding of the Latin American Studies Association wryly suggested in 1966 that at some future date Latin Americanists should erect a statue to Fidel Castro, the "remote godfather" of the field, who instigated a renewed US interest in the region.  Interest in Latin American studies increased starting in the 1950s. In the US, Latin American studies (like other area studies) was boosted by the passing of Title VI of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958, which provided resources for Centers of Area and International Studies. In the UK, the 1965 "Parry Report" provided similar impetus for the establishment of Institutes and Centres of Latin American Studies at Oxford, London, Cambridge, and Liverpool. In Canada, York University in Toronto established the first Latin American center, "in part thanks to the inflow of exiled intellectuals from South America." Germany's Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut in Berlin had been founded in 1930, but not until the 1970s did it experience expansion.

Some notable Latin Americanists.

See also

Latin American studies (LAS) is an academic and research field associated with the study of Latin America. The interdisciplinary study is a subfield of area studies, and can be composed of numerous disciplines such as economics, sociology, history, international relations, political science, geography, gender studies, and literature.

Lateinamerikanistik, auch Ibero-Amerikanistik, ist die Wissenschaft, die sich traditionell mit den lateinamerikanischen Sprachen und der lateinamerikanischen Literatur und Kultur beschäftigt. In der Lateinamerikanistik werden alle auf spanisch und portugiesisch verfassten oder gesprochenen Texte und alle spanisch- bzw. portugiesischsprachigen amerikanischen Kulturen erforscht. Manche Lateinamerikainstitute wie z. B. das LAI an der FU Berlin haben daneben einen sozialwissenschaftlichen Schwerpunkt.