History.

Macedonia national football team represents Macedonia in international football, and its controlled by the Football Federation of Macedonia. In the period between 1920 and 1991, Macedonia was ineligible to play as team for official matches. The team had mostly played exhibition matches against teams from other republics of SFRJ and was represented by Macedonian players under the traditional red, yellow and white colors. The first football clubs were formed at the beginning of the 20th century.From 1920 till 1991, Macedonia competed within the Federal team of SFRJ.Macedonian players played for the SFRJ federal team.

The beginning (1993–96).

In 1994, Macedonia became a single member of FIFA, and UEFA after the independence and split of the Yugoslavia. The national team began its football journey with a 4–1 victory against Slovenia in a friendly on 13 October 1993 under coach Andon Dončevski.  They went on to win their next two friendlies against Slovenia and Estonia. The inaugural Macedonian side featured Darko Pančev, who played for Inter Milan in Italy.

Euro 1996 qualifiers.

The Euro 96 Qualifiers was the first major qualifying tournament that Macedonia participated in as an independent nation and they were grouped with Spain, Denmark, Belgium, Cyprus and Armenia. In their opening game, which was also their first ever official match, Macedonia was drawn against the reigning European Champions Denmark.  The game was played in Skopje on 7 September 1994 and it finished 1–1 with Macedonia leading for most of the game after scoring in the fourth minute. In this qualifying stage, Macedonia suffered one of its worst defeats when they lost 0–5 to Belgium at home on 7 June 1995. They failed to qualify for Euro 96, finishing fourth in the group with seven points.

Hadžievski, Kanatlarovski and Jovanovski's era (1996–2001).

1998 World Cup qualifiers.

Macedonia's first qualifying attempt for the World Cup saw them grouped with Romania, Ireland, Lithuania, Iceland, and Liechtenstein.  The tournament began on 24 April 1996 with a 3–0 win at home against Liechtenstein. On 9 November 1996, Macedonia recorded their biggest win ever, an 11–1 thrashing of Liechtenstein. Half of the goals Macedonia scored in the entire campaign were scored in this match alone. Macedonia failed again to qualify for the 1998 World Cup in France, finishing fourth in the group on 13 points.

Euro 2000 qualifiers.

Macedonia's journey to qualify for the Euro 2000 tournament in the Netherlands and Belgium saw them grouped with FR Yugoslavia, Ireland, Croatia, and Malta. They once again opened their qualifying campaign with a win after beating Malta 4–0 at home on 6 September 1998. Their most notable result in the campaign was a 1–1 draw against Croatia in June 1999, with an equaliser of Gjorgji Hristov 10 minutes before the end of the game. They were helped Yugoslavia to qualify directly and eliminate Croatia, because were drawn 1–1 against Republic of Ireland with a last minute equaliser of Goran Stavrevski. However, they failed to qualify again, finishing fourth in the group with eight points.

2002 World Cup qualifiers.

Macedonia's 2002 World Cup qualifying campaign saw them grouped with Sweden, Turkey, Slovakia, Moldova, and Azerbaijan. They were unsuccessful in their opening match, going down to Slovakia 2–0 in Slovakia on 3 September 2000. The Macedonians once again failed to qualify for the 2002 World Cup, which was held in Japan and South Korea, as they finished fourth in the group with seven points.

Ups and downs (2001–06).

Euro 2004 qualifiers.

The Euro 2004 Qualifiers saw Macedonia grouped alongside England, Turkey, Slovakia, and Liechtenstein. Despite Macedonia failing to win its first four games of the campaign, they managed to record one of its most memorable results of its short history.  On 16 October 2002, Macedonia played former world champions England in Southampton, which was England's first home game in Southampton in almost 100 years. Macedonia grabbed the lead early in the first half after Artim Šakiri scored directly from a corner kick, leaving English goalkeeper David Seaman stunned. England soon levelled the game, but not before Macedonia managed to take the lead once again.  However, the game ended 2–2 after England managed to score a second equaliser in the second half. Macedonia lost to England 2–1 at home in the return leg, which took place in September 2003. Macedonia's only win of the campaign came on 7 June 2003, when they beat Liechtenstein 3–1 at home. Macedonia did not qualify for the Euro 2004 tournament, which was held in Portugal, finishing fourth in the group with six points.

2006 World Cup qualifiers.

Macedonia was drawn in Group 1 and was grouped with the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Romania, Finland, Armenia, and Andorra. They managed to open their campaign with a comfortable 3–0 win at home against Armenia on 18 August 2004. Macedonia did not win another home game for more than three years.  On 9 October 2004, Macedonia managed to hold the Netherlands to a surprise 2–2 draw in Skopje in front of a crowd of 17,000 at the Skopje City Stadium, but in their next game, just four days later, they suffered one of its most embarrassing defeats, a 1–0 loss away to Andorra, one of the world's weakest teams. Also in this tournament, Macedonia set a new team record for most goals conceded in a game when they lost 6–1 away to Czech Republic on 8 June 2005.  Macedonia went on to concede a further eight goals in the next two qualifying games, both against Finland. On 23 August 2005, coach Slobodan Santrač resigned as coach of Macedonia after just five months on the job due to personal problems, with former player Boban Babunski temporarily taking over as coach. The resignation came just days after they were beaten 3–0 by Finland in Skopje. Despite their poor performance during the 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign, Macedonia managed to end the campaign on a high with a 0–0 draw against the Netherlands in Amsterdam.  This result meant that Macedonia, with the two draws against the Netherlands, was the only team in the group not to have been defeated by the Netherlands. The Netherlands won 10 of their 12 games in the 2006 World Cup campaign. Macedonia failed to qualify for the 2006 World Cup in Germany, finishing fifth in the group with nine points.

Iran tournament.

Following the completion of the 2006 World Cup qualifying tournament, in November 2005, Macedonia took part in a friendly tournament in Iran consisting of four teams, each team from a different continent. The teams were Macedonia, Iran, Paraguay, and Togo. In their opening match, they won 2–1 against host nation Iran, booking a spot in the final against Paraguay. They lost the final against Paraguay 0–1. Macedonia was the only nation in this friendly tournament not to have qualified for the 2006 World Cup.

Srečko Katanec's era and best FIFA ranking (2006–10).

Euro 2008 qualifiers.

On 27 January 2006 in Switzerland, Macedonia was placed in Group E for the Euro 2008 qualifiers alongside England, Croatia, Russia, Israel, Estonia, and Andorra. On 17 February 2006, former Slovenian national team coach Srečko Katanec was appointed as the head coach and was given a two-year contract.  In the lead-up to the beginning of the qualifiers for Euro 2008, Macedonia managed two results against sides in friendly matches. They beat Ecuador 2–1 in Madrid, their first ever win against a South American nation, and a week later, followed that up with a 1–0 win against Turkey.  Macedonia opened their UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying campaign with a 0–1 win away to Estonia on 16 August 2006. Goce Sedloski scored for Macedonia in the 73rd minute, which meant that Macedonia was the first team to score a goal in the Euro 2008 qualifying campaign. Macedonia hosted England on 6 September 2006 in their second game of the qualifiers. England went on to win 0–1 after Peter Crouch scored for the away side in the 46th minute. This was the first time that Macedonia failed to score against England.  A month later, on 7 October 2006, the two teams met once again in Manchester, where England was held to a 0–0 draw in front of 72,062 people. On 17 October 2007, Macedonia recorded their first win on home soil since August 2004 when they easily defeated Andorra 3–0 in Skopje in an emotional game as it was the day after the death of pop icon Toše Proeski.  Macedonia then recorded one of their most impressive wins to date when they picked up a 2–0 victory over eventual group winners Croatia on 17 November 2007, causing the biggest upset of Group A; it was also a first win for Macedonia over a side that was ranked in the top ten of the FIFA World Rankings. Despite some surprising results, Macedonia once again failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals after finishing fifth in the group with 14 points.

2010 World Cup qualifiers.

On 25 November 2007, just days after Macedonia completed its qualifying campaign for Euro 2008, the groups for European qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup were held in Durban, South Africa, where Macedonia was seeded in Pot 4 and grouped along with the Netherlands, Scotland, Norway and Iceland. Manager Srečko Katanec received a two-year extension on 21 December 2007, which meant he would be under contract through the end of the 2010 World Cup qualifiers. In the lead up to the campaign, Macedonia played three friendlies against Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Poland, which all ended in draws.  Macedonia opened their campaign with a 1–0 home win against Scotland on 6 September 2008 when Ilčo Naumoski scored on a rebound after a well taken free kick by Goce Sedloski. Following these impressive results, Macedonia moved up 10 places to 46 in the FIFA World Rankings list for October 2008 which was their highest ever position on the rankings list. Srečko Katanec left the team following a 4–0 loss to the Netherlands in Amsterdam in April 2009 for allegedly getting into an argument with star player Goran Pandev.  Soon afterwards, the manager of the under-21 squad, Mirsad Jonuz, became the new coach of the Macedonian senior team and was signed until the end of the World Cup qualifying campaign. On 5 September, Macedonia lost 2–0 to Scotland and then suffered another loss to Norway, which meant that Macedonia once again did not qualify for the World Cup.

Fall and resurgence (2010–2018).

Euro 2012 qualifiers.

On 7 February 2010, Macedonia was placed in Group B for the Euro 2012 qualifiers alongside Russia, Slovakia, Republic of Ireland, Armenia and Andorra. In the lead up to the qualifiers, an under-strength Macedonia side played friendlies against Azerbaijan, Romania and Malta, winning the first two 3–1 and 1–0 respectively, and tied 1–1 against Malta later the summer.  However, the qualifications did not go as well. Instead, Macedonia finished in a disappointing fifth position in the group with only two wins against minnows Andorra and two draws, against Armenia and Slovakia, both at home. Due to the poor results in the qualifications, manager Mirsad Jonuz was dismissed on 18 June 2011 and replaced by John Toshack, who led Macedonia in the last four matches to one win, one draw and two losses.

2014 World Cup qualifiers.

Macedonia's 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign saw them grouped with Croatia, Serbia, Belgium, Scotland and Wales. In August 2012, prior to the qualifications, John Toshack would leave as manager and would be replaced by Čedomir Janevski. The national team would begin the qualification round with a loss to Croatia in Zagreb and would go on to draw against Scotland in Glasgow. They lost again to Croatia and won against Serbia in Skopje after a penalty kick taken by Agim Ibraimi. Later in qualification, the national team would go on to lose twice to the eventual group winners Belgium.  Macedonia would win against Wales and lose against Scotland at home. Around the end of September 2013, Janevski would leave the team for Belgian club R.A.E.C. Mons and would be replaced by Zoran Stratev for the last two matches. The national team would suffer a disastrous finish to their qualification campaign with away losses to Wales and Serbia. They would finish last in their group.  After the unsuccessful qualification run, Goran Pandev, Nikolče Noveski, Veliče Šumulikoski and others would retire from the national team due to turbulent relations with the Football Federation of Macedonia. In November 2013, Boško Gjurovski would be appointed the new national team manager.

Euro 2016 qualifiers.

On 23 February 2014, Macedonia was placed in Group C for the Euro 2016 qualifiers alongside Spain, Ukraine, Slovakia, Belarus and Luxembourg. However, the national team had a disastrous start against Spain in Valencia with a 1–5 loss. The only win they collected was against Luxembourg in Skopje.  After that match, Macedonia was brought into disastrous run of a four losses. Due to the poor results in the qualifications, manager Boško Gjurovski was dismissed on 7 April 2015 and replaced by Ljubinko Drulović. The miserable run, however, continued with the losses against Slovakia and surprisingly Luxembourg by late goal of Sébastien Thill, after a missed penalty kick of Besart Abdurahimi. Their disappointing performances was continued against Spain in Skopje, beside their good game, and against, Ukraine also home.  In the last match against Belarus in Barysaw, Macedonia played a draw which broke the black streak of seven losses. The team still ended the qualifications at the last place of the group with a worse head-to-head scoring with Luxembourg.

2018 World Cup qualifiers.

On 25 July 2015, in the middle of the Euro 2016 qualifying, the group draws for European qualifiers for the 2018 World Cup were held in Saint Petersburg. Macedonia was seeded in Pot 5 and grouped along with Spain again, for the first time with Italy, with the rival Albania and with Israel and Liechtenstein.  In October 2015, Drulović left the national team to join Serbian club Partizan and the manager place was taken over by the former manager of Rabotnički, and former assistant coach of the national team Igor Angelovski. In the same month, the Macedonian football superstar Goran Pandev came back to the national team after the two years of absence.  Macedonia started with another disappointing performance with a loss to Albania in Shkodër, with a goal scored by Bekim Balaj in the last moments of the game, in a match that was played over two days because of interruption in the 76th minute due to very bad weather conditions. Later on they also lost to Israel at home by missing a penalty kick by Adis Jahović in the last moments of the game. After that, the national team also lost to Italy beside their 2–1 lead with the goals scored by Ilija Nestorovski and Ferhan Hasani. At the end of the another year to forget Macedonia was outclassed by Spain in Granada (4–0) and after four rounds Macedonia had not scored a single point which was the worst qualifying start in the history of the national team.  Finally, in March 2017, Macedonia recorded their first win in the qualifying against Liechtenstein (3–0). Then again, expectantly, lost to Spain in Skopje (1–2). They also defeated Israel away through the lone goal by Goran Pandev, which was also a first ever win against Israel. However, in the next round Macedonia missed a good opportunity to collect yet another win, this time against Albania in Strumica, but the game ended with a draw (1–1).

Country's name change and recent years (2018–present).

2018–19 UEFA Nations League & Euro 2020 qualifiers.

In the first edition of the UEFA Nations League, Macedonia played in League D, the fourth and lowest division of that competition. Macedonia were drawn in Group 4 with Armenia, Liechtenstein and Gibraltar. The national team won the group with five wins and one loss, and were promoted to the League C for the next edition of the Nations League. Macedonia were assured of a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying play-offs place. Macedonia was renamed North Macedonia after the Prespa agreement came into force on 12 February 2019. For the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying North Macedonia were placed in Group G, along with Austria, Israel, Latvia, Poland and Slovenia. North Macedonia managed two first impressive results, drawing Slovenia 1–1 away and before that, defeated Latvia 3–1 at home, to put their hope high to qualify for the first ever UEFA Euro. However, North Macedonia would soon face setbacks when they faced off stronger sides, with the team fell 0–1 to Poland and 1–4 to Austria, both games were played in Skopje.

Stadiums.

Stadiums which have hosted North Macedonia international football matches:

Players.

Current squad.

Squad named for the UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying Group G matches against and, on 16 and 19 November 2019. "Caps and goals as of 16 November 2019 after game against Israel."

Recent call-ups.

The following players have also been called up for the team within the last 12 months and are still available for selection.

Competitive record.

FIFA World Cup.

The North Macedonia national football team has yet to qualify for a World Cup finals tournament. In their attempt at qualifying for the 2010 World Cup, they finished fourth in Group 9 with seven points. Surprisingly, due to the closeness of the group throughout the campaign (only five teams in the group), Macedonia remained in contention to qualify until the final group game, which Macedonia lost 2–1 away to Norway, although Norway would be the only runner up to not make the playoffs that year.

All-time head-to-head record.

, "after the match against Israel"

Statistics.

See all-time players list. "Updated as for 19 November 2019"

Captains.

This is a list of Macedonian captains for five or more official and friendly matches. Goran Pandev is the current captain of the North Macedonia national team.  Note: Some of the other players to have captained the team include: Dragi Kanatlarovski (1 cap) 1993, Ilija Najdoski (3) 1994, Dančo Celeski (2) 1995, Ljupčo Markovski (4) 1995 to 1997, Mitko Stojkovski (2) 1998, Boban Babunski (2) 1996 and 1999, Gjorgji Hristov (2) 2002 to 2003, Petar Miloševski (2) 2004 and 2008, Ilcho Naumoski (1) 2008, Igor Mitreski (4) 2007 to 2010, Aleksandar Lazevski (1) 2010, Nikolče Noveski (4) 2011 to 2013, Daniel Mojsov (1) 2012, Boban Grncharov (3) 2012 to 2014, Blazhe Ilijoski (1) 2014, Blagoja Todorovski (1) 2014, Vanche Shikov (4) 2015, Ivan Trichkovski (1) 2018, Ilija Nestorovski (1) 2019 and Stefan Ristovski (1) 2019.

Coaching history.

"Updated on 20 November 2019"

FIFA ranking history.

FIFA-ranking yearly averages for North Macedonia.

The North Macedonia national football team (; ) represents North Macedonia in international football, and is controlled by the Football Federation of North Macedonia. The national team plays its home matches at the Toshe Proeski Arena in Skopje.

Die nordmazedonische Fußballnationalmannschaft ist die Fußballnationalmannschaft Nordmazedoniens. Bei internationalen Turnieren trat das sich zunächst Republik Mazedonien nennende Land zuvor unter dem provisorischen Namen "Ehemalige Jugoslawische Republik Mazedonien", abgekürzt "EJR Mazedonien", an, unter dem sie auch in der FIFA-Weltrangliste geführt wurde. Am 12. Februar 2019 trat die Namensänderung des Landes in Kraft.


History.

Joshua C. Stoddard of Worcester, Massachusetts patented the calliope on October 9, 1855, though his design echos previous concepts, such as an 1832 instrument called a "steam trumpet," later known as a train whistle. In 1851, William Hoyt of Dupont, Indiana claimed to have conceived of a device similar to Stoddard's calliope, but he never patented it. Later, an employee of Stoddard's American Music, Arthur S. Denny, attempted to market an "Improved Kalliope" in Europe, but it did not catch on. In 1859, he demonstrated this instrument in Crystal Palace, London. Unlike other calliopes before or since, Denny's Improved Kalliope let the player control the steam pressure, and therefore the volume of the music, while playing.  While Stoddard originally intended the calliope to replace bells at churches, it found its way onto riverboats during the paddlewheel era. While only a small number of working steamboats still exist, each has a steam calliope. These boats include the "Delta Queen", the "Belle of Louisville", and "President". Their calliopes are played regularly on river excursions. Many surviving calliopes were built by Thomas J. Nichol, Cincinnati, Ohio, who built calliopes from 1890 until 1932. The Thomas J. Nichol calliopes featured rolled sheet copper (as used in roofing) for the resonant tube (the bell) of the whistle, lending a sweeter tone than cast bronze or brass, which were the usual materials for steam whistles of the day. David Morecraft pioneered a resurgence in the building of authentic steam calliopes of the Thomas J. Nichol style beginning in 1985 in Peru, Indiana. These calliopes are featured in Peru's annual Circus City Parade. Morecraft died on December 5, 2016.  Stoddard's original calliope was attached to a metal roller set with pins in the manner familiar to Stoddard from the contemporary clockwork music box. The pins on the roller opened valves that admitted steam into the whistles. Later, Stoddard replaced the cylinder with a keyboard, so that the calliope could be played like an organ.  Starting in the 19000’s calliopes began using music rolls instead of a live musician. The music roll operated in a similar manner to a piano roll in a player piano, mechanically operating the keys. Many of these mechanical calliopes retained keyboards, allowing a live musician to play them if needed. During this period, compressed air began to replace steam as the vehicle of producing sound.  Most calliopes disappeared in the mid-20th century, as steam power was replaced with other power sources. Without the demand for technicians that mines and railroads supplied, no support was available to keep boilers running. Only a few calliopes have survived, and these are rarely played.

Pronunciation.

The pronunciation of the word has long been disputed, and often it is pronounced differently inside and outside the groups that use it. The Greek muse by the same name is pronounced, but the instrument was usually pronounced by people who played it. A nineteenth century magazine, "Reedy's Mirror", attempted to settle the dispute by publishing this rhyme: This, in turn, came from a poem by Vachel Lindsay, called "The Kallyope Yell", in which Lindsay uses both pronunciations.  In the song "Blinded by the Light", written in 1972, Bruce Springsteen used the four-syllable () pronunciation when referring to a fairground organ, and this was repeated by Manfred Mann's Earth Band in their 1976 cover.

Related instruments.

Pyrophone.

The calliope is similar to the pyrophone. The difference between the two is that the calliope is an external combustion instrument and the pyrophone is an internal combustion instrument.  At 1998's Burning Man, a pyrophone referred to as "Satan's Calliope" was powered by ignition of propane inside resonant cavities. This device was incorrectly referred to as a "calliope", since a calliope is an external combustion instrument.

Calliaphone.

The Calliaphone is an invention of Norman Baker. He developed an air-blown (versus steam) instrument that could be easily transported.

Lustre chantant.

The "lustre chantant" (literally "singing chandelier") or musical lamp, invented by Frederik Kastner, was a large chandelier with glass pipes of varying lengths each illuminated and heated by an individual gas jet. A keyboard allowed the player to turn down individual jets; as the glass tube cooled, a note was produced. Kastner installed several such instruments in Paris.

Popular culture.

The Beatles, in recording "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!" from the album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band," used tapes of calliope music to create the atmosphere of a circus. Beatles producer George Martin recalled, "When we first worked on 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!' John had said that he wanted to'smell the sawdust on the floor', wanted to taste the atmosphere of the circus. I said to him, 'What we need is a calliope.' 'A what?' 'Steam whistles, played by a keyboard. Unable to find an authentic calliope, Martin resorted to tapes of calliopes playing Sousa marches. "[I] chopped the tapes up into small sections and had Geoff Emerick throw them up into the air, re-assembling them at random."  The song "The Tears of a Clown" from Smokey Robinson & the Miracles, first released in 1967 and whose music was composed by Stevie Wonder and Hank Cosby, features a distinctive circus calliope motif, which inspired Smokey Robinson with the lyrical theme of the sad clown.  The art rockers of the United States of America used the instrument on several tracks of their eponymous 1968 album (recorded 1967).  American rock band Kiss used a calliope on their song 'Flaming Youth' from their 1976 album Destroyer.  Tom Waits' 2002 release "Blood Money" features a track written for trumpet and calliope.  Vernian Process' 2011 single "Something Wicked (That Way Went)" features a sampled calliope throughout.  In the "Thomas & Friends" episode "Percy and the Calliope", Percy the Small Engine saves a calliope from the scrapyard.  In "In the Court of the Crimson King" by King Crimson, the main theme of the title song is played on a calliope towards the end of the piece.  During Madonna's The Girlie Show tour, during the encore for "Holiday", the credits include the statement, "contains excerpts from "Holiday for Calliope"," which was, in general, the hook for "Holiday" played with a calliope. Additionally, a generalized circus theme was played with a calliope sound through part of the song.  In the web series "Bravest Warriors", there is a theoretical system (similar to string theory) humorously dubbed the "Space Time Calliope" in which an infinite number of universes and timelines exist. The name is possibly referencing the mechanical complexity of calliopes.  The Bruce Springsteen song more popularly covered by Manfred Mann's Earth Band "Blinded by the Light" contains the line "the calliope crashed to the ground".  The Barclay James Harvest song "Medicine Man" uses the lyric "And didn't anybody want to ask the calliope to call the tune". This song was a great concert favourite and concerned a sinister travelling fair and carousel.  At one point in the "SpongeBob SquarePants" episode "Free Samples", SpongeBob uses a calliope to lure potential customers to his free samples stand. Instead, the calliope does the opposite.  In "The Red Green Show" episode "Out of the Woods", Red makes a calliope using a v8 engine and an assortment of old exhaust pipes.  In "Girl Genius", the main character Agatha Heterodyne is given a calliope to repair by a travelling circus that had been wrecked(a circus that had been wrecked?), and thought to be beyond repair, in volumes 4 and 5. In the climax of volume 6, it is revealed she had modified it to control an army of small robots.  The Italian alternative metal band Ravenscry released a song called "Calliope" on their 2009 self-titled album.  In Larry Niven's "The Ringworld Engineers": "The puppeteer wasn't in sight, but presently Louis heard the sound of a steam calliope dying in agony."  In Terry Pratchett's novel "Moving Pictures", the theater-owner's daughter who sells banged grains and sings between shows is named "Calliope", which may be used to evoke the ornate movie house as "temple" of ancient gods, or else a play on the daughter's singing abilities.

A calliope (see below for pronunciation) is a musical instrument that produces sound by sending a gas, originally steam or, more recently, compressed air, through large whistles—originally locomotive whistles.

Die Dampforgel, auch Calliope (nach der Muse Kalliope), ist eine Orgel, deren Pfeifen nicht mit Luft, sondern mit Wasserdampf betrieben werden. Sie wird trotzdem zu den Aerophonen gezählt.


Origins.

The word "congee" comes from Tamil ("kanji"), a prominent food of the Tamil people of Ancient India. The English form may have arrived in the language via Portuguese traders. The food may have its origins attributed to koozh, a porridge made of millet that was a staple dish of the ancient Tamil people.  In China, thick congee was known as, or,, and thin congee as, or,.  Congee is easy to digest and very simple to cook.

Etymology.

The word “congee” may have different pronunciations in different languages, such as kanji in south Asian linguistic groups, chou or zhou in many east and south-east Asiatic regions.

Preparation.

To prepare the dish, rice is boiled in a large amount of water until it softens significantly. Congee can be made in a pot or in a rice cooker. Some rice cookers have a "congee" setting, allowing it to be cooked overnight. The type of rice used can be either short- or long-grain, depending on what is available and regional cultural influences. Culture also often dictates the way congee is cooked and eaten.  In some cultures, congee is eaten primarily as a breakfast food or late supper; in others, it is eaten as a substitute for rice at other meals. It is often considered particularly suitable for the sick as a mild, easily digestible food.

By country.

Burma.

In Burma (now called Myanmar), rice congee is called "hsan byok", literally "boiled rice". It is very thin and plain porridge, often made with just rice and water, but sometimes with chicken or pork stock and served with a simple garnish of chopped spring onions and crispy fried onions. Besides being an everyday meal, Congee is considered to be food therapy for the unwell.

China.

While congee is a staple dish in China, it is called "congee" only in Hong Kong English, and is known by other local names such as "báizhōu" () in Central and Northern China.  Chinese congees () vary considerably by region. For example, to make Cantonese congee, white rice is boiled in many times its weight in water for a long time until the rice breaks down and becomes a fairly thick, white porridge. Congees made in other regions may use different types of rice with different quantities of water, producing congees of different consistencies: it can be left watery, or cooked until it has a texture similar to Western oatmeal porridge. Congee can also be made from brown rice, although this is less common and takes longer to cook. Congee made from other grains, such as cornmeal, millet, barley, and sorghum, are common in the north of China where rice does not grow as well as other grains suited for a colder climate. Multigrain congee mixes are sold in the health food sections of Chinese supermarkets.  Savory congee, generally cooked with salt and often fresh ginger and other flavorful ingredients, is usually eaten with "zhacai", salted duck eggs, lettuce and "dace" (Chinese mud carp paste), bamboo shoots, "youtiao", "rousong", pickled tofu, wheat gluten, with other condiments, meats and organ meats including tripe and intestine, crab or hundred-year eggs. Other seasonings such as white pepper and soy sauce may be added after the congee is cooked. Grilled or steamed and deboned fish may be mixed in to provide a different texture.  Plain congee is commonly eaten with "youtiao" (lightly salted fried crullers) as breakfast in many areas in China. Congee with mung beans is usually eaten with sugar, as is red bean congee, or in "Laba congee".  Besides being an everyday meal, congee is considered to be food therapy for the unwell. Ingredients can be determined by their supposed therapeutic value as well as flavor. It is also used to feed infants.  The origin of congee is unknown, but from many historical accounts, it was usually served during times of famine, or when numerous patrons visited the temples, as a way to stretch the rice supply to feed more people.  The Autumn porridge festival is celebrated by villagers eating congee together on that day, the meaning being that they pray for everything to go smoothly and to build a good relationship with the neighborhood. A village called Lingshuicun to the West of Beijing celebrates Liu Maoheng, a Qing-era Juren who helped villagers during a period of famine, through the autumn porridge festival.

Cambodia.

In Cambodia, បបរ (bobar) congee in Khmer, is one of the options for breakfast along with Kuy teav noodle soup (គុយទាវ) another popular Cambodian breakfast dish. Bobar is eaten throughout Cambodia from the countryside to the city.  Bobar can be eaten plain or with a variety of side dishes and toppings such as soy sauce, added to enhance taste, also eaten with dried salted fish or chhakhvay (ឆាខ្វៃ fried bread stick).  There are two main versions of bobar, plain congee, and chicken congee, rice soup. The chicken rice soup, Bobor Sach Mon(បបរសាច់មាន់), is exactly the same as bobar but is filled with more herbs and chicken. Usually eaten during cold seasons or when someone is sick. Once the bobar is finished just like regular bobar, a variety of toppings can be added to enhance the taste such as, bean sprout, green onions, cilantro, pepper, along with the dried fish and chhakhvay on the side.

Taiwan.

In Taiwan, congee is made from rice, water, and other ingredients, and is called xifan or zhou in Mandarin. Like adjacent Asian countries, xifan is often consumed for breakfast or as an easily digestible food for children and those who are ill. Sweet potato, taro root, or century egg is often added for taste. When century egg is added, ground pork is also a common ingredient, creating the dish known as pidan shourou zhou, or literally translated, century egg with lean meat porridge.

India.

In Tamil Nadu, a plain rice porridge, or the thick supernatant water from overcooked rice, is known as "kanji" (கஞ்சி). Kanji or Congee is also prepared with different grains available in different parts of Tamil Nadu, for example minor millet or pearl millet, finger millet, broken wheat, maize. The people of Kerala also call this preparation of rice in a watery state "kanji", and it is eaten as a porridge with green lentils or chutney. "Kanji" is prepared with rice or "ragi". Nuts and spices are added to the "kanji" depending on the economic status or health requirements. Rice "kanji" is prepared by boiling rice in large amounts of water. To this preparation, either milk and sugar (usually "jaggery") or curd (yoghurt) and salt are added. "Ragi kanji" is prepared by drying "ragi" sprouts in shade, and then grinding them into a smooth powder. This powder is added to water and cooked. Milk and brown sugar are added to this cooked preparation for taste. "Ragi kanji" can be given to infants after six months. Another kanji preparation uses "jevvarisi" (sago in English, "sabudana" in Hindi) in "kanji". Sago is dry roasted and powdered with/ without sugar. Powdered sago is boiled in water until cooked. This is eaten by all ages from adults to infants as young as three months.  In the Konkan region of India, Kanji, also known as Pez, is a home remedy for treating a fever as it is easy to digest. The farming and manual labour community of the same region, on the other hand, consume on a daily basis in the late morning as a source of energy. Variants of the dish include nachnyachi pez (ambil) which is made with ragi grains and rice, athwal or metheachi pez is a sweeter version which is made with rice, Fenugreek seeds and jaggery, which is usually served to a nursing mother. The rice here is usually of boiled variety and is often accompanied with dry fish, vegetable or pickle.  In the state of Kerala, Kanji is considered as the main course particularly for dinner by the majority. This is normally taken with roasted coconut chutney, tossed Moong dal popularly known as Payar, roasted Pappadam (lentil crackers), puzhukku (a side dish consisting mainly of roottubers\underground stems, especially during Thiruvathira); sometimes coconut scrapings are also added to the kanji to increase the flavour. The royal households as well as rich people used to have a special kind of Kanji called as Palkanji (Milk Congee) where milk was substituted for water base. During the Malayalam month of Karkkidakam, a medicinal kanji is made using Ayurvedic herbs, milk and jaggery. Karkkidakam is known as the month of diseases since the monsoon starts during Karkkidakam. Karikkidaka Kanji is eaten to promote the immune system.  Poor households of Kerala used to re-cook leftover rice and all available leftover curries into Congee water and take as a mix-mash dish known as Pazhamkanji (Old Congee).  Pazhamkanji means old congee (leftover from the previous day). It is not necessarily eaten by poor people, neither it is necessarily re-heated with leftover curries.  According to the Indian writer Madhur Jaffrey, "kanji" is, or derives from, a Tamil word for "boilings"—which refers to the porridge and also to any water in which rice has been cooked.  Muslims of south India especially Tamil Muslim, Mappila and Beary prepare special congee during Ramadhan called "nombu kanji" literally "fasting porridge." This is prepared by adding spices like turmeric, dry ginger, pepper, onion, and coconut paste to the congee. Sometimes fenugreek seeds are added to it to enhance the flavor.  In the Goa, Udupi and Mangalore districts, people usually eat rice "ganji" in a variant manner made by Kannada-speaking, Tulu-speaking or Konkani people in and around Udupi and Mangalore (Karnataka, South India). There, parboiled rice ("kocheel akki" in Kannada, "oorpel aari" for black rice, "bolenta aari" for white rice in Tulu or "ukde tandool" in Konkani) is steamed with a large amount of water. "Jain ganji matt" are famous in these districts. Usually, simple "ganji" with pickle and milk are served, in "jain matts". Fresh coconut is grated, and the resulting milk skimmed and added to the "ganji" (called "paez or pyaaz" in Konkani), which is served hot with fish curry, coconut chutney, or Indian pickles. In Goa, it is normally served with dried or fresh cooked fish, "papad" or vegetables.  In the state of Andhra Pradesh, it is called "ganji" in Telugu and mostly eaten by the very poor. Ganji is made by boiling rice in large amounts of water and then the filtered liquid is known as Ganji. Ganji mixed with buttermilk is believed to add to the flavor, and is also suggested by doctors for patients with ailing health.  "Kaanji" is a traditional Odia dish. It is a soup-based dish like "dal", but tastes a little sour. It is made of rice starch fermented for a few days in an earthen pot. This is considered a very healthy dish as lots of winter vegetables are used as main ingredients. It is seasoned with mustard seeds and turmeric and served hot.. Pakhala is a separate dish with certain similarities to the congee.  In the Buddhist Yāgu Sutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 5.207), the Buddha recommends eating rice porridge, "yāgu": "There are these five benefits in rice porridge. What five? It stills hunger, dispels thirst, settles wind, cleans out the bladder, and promotes the digestion of the remnants of undigested food. These are the five benefits of rice porridge.".

Indonesia.

In Indonesian, congee is called "bubur", and it is a favourite breakfast food in the country. Travelling "bubur ayam" vendors frequently pass through residential streets in the morning selling the dish. A popular version is "bubur ayam", which is rice congee with shredded chicken meat. It is also served with many condiments, such as green onion, crispy fried shallot, fried soybean, Chinese crullers ("youtiao", known as "cakwe" in Indonesia), both salty and sweet soy sauce, and sometimes it is topped with yellow chicken broth and "kerupuk" (Indonesian style crackers). Unlike many other Indonesian dishes, it is not spicy; "sambal" or chili paste is served separately.  The food hawkers sometimes have "sate" to go with it, made from quail egg or chicken intestine, liver, gizzard, or heart.  On Bali's north coast, famously in a village called Bondalem, there is a local congee dish called "mengguh", a popular local chicken and vegetable rice congee that is spicier than common "bubur ayam" and more similar to "tinutuan", using a spice mix of onions, garlic, coriander seeds, pepper and chili.  In another region of Indonesia — the city of Manado in North Sulawesi, there is a very popular type of congee called "tinutuan", or also known as "bubur Manado" (Manadonese porridge). It is rice porridge served with ample amount of vegetables. A bit different from the one sold in Java, it is made from rice porridge, enriched with vegetables, including "kangkung" (water spinach), corn kernels, yam or sweet potato, dried salted fish, "kemangi" (lemon basil) leaves and "melinjo" ("Gnetum gnemon") leaves.  Sago flour is made into porridge in eastern Indonesia, as the staple food of Maluku and Papuan people. The sago congee is called "papeda", and usually is eaten with yellow soup made from tuna or "mubara" fish spiced with turmeric and lime.

Japan.

, or often is the name for the type of congee eaten in Japan, which typically uses ratios of 5:1 or 7:1 and is cooked for about 30 minutes.  "Kayu" may be made with just rice and water, and is often seasoned with salt. Eggs can be beaten into it to thicken it into gruel. Toppings may be added to enhance flavour; Welsh onion, salmon, roe, ginger, and "umeboshi" (pickled "ume" fruit) are among the most common. "Miso" or chicken stock may be used to flavor the broth. Most Japanese electric rice cookers have a specific setting for cooking congee.  In Japan "kayu" – because it is soft and easily digestible – is regarded as a food particularly suitable for serving to invalids and the elderly. For similar reasons "kayu" is commonly the first solid food served to Japanese infants; it is used to help with the transition from liquids to normally cooked "plain" rice, the latter being a major part of the Japanese diet.  A type of "kayu" referred to as "nanakusa-gayu" (, "seven herb porridge") is traditionally eaten on 7 January with special herbs that some believe protect against evils and invite good luck and longevity in the new year. As a simple, light dish, "nanakusa-gayu" serves as a break from the many heavy dishes eaten over the Japanese New Year.  "Kayu" is also used in Shinto divination rituals.

Korea.

"Juk" (; ) is a Korean category for porridges made by boiling rice and/or other grains or legumes, such as beans, sesame, nuts, and pumpkin, with much more water than "bap". "Juk" is often eaten warm, especially as a morning meal, but is now eaten at any time of the day.  Depending on the ingredients and consistency, "juk" can be considered as a food for recuperation, a delicacy, or famine food. It is known to have nutritional benefits, and is considered to be beneficial to digestion because of its soft texture. It is a staple "get well" dish; a dish to eat when one is sick or recovering from bad health. "Juk" is also considered an ideal food for babies, the ill or elderly, as it is easily eaten and digested. It is also sold commercially by many chain stores in South Korea, and is a common takeout dish.  There are more than forty varieties of "juk" mentioned in old documents. The most basic form of "juk", made from plain rice, is called "ssaljuk" (; "rice porridge") or "huinjuk" (; "white porridge"). Being largely unflavored, it is served with a number of more flavorful side dishes, such as "jeotgal" (salted seafood), various types of kimchi, and other side dishes.  Notable varieties include "jatjuk" made from finely ground pine nuts, "jeonbok-juk" made with abalones, "yulmu-juk" made from yulmu ("Coix lacryma-jobi" var. "ma-yuen"), and "patjuk" made from red beans.

Laos.

In Laos, congee is called "khao piak", literally "wet rice" (, ). It is cooked with rice and chicken broth or water. The congee is then garnished with fried garlic, scallions and pepper. The dish will sometimes be served with chicken, quail eggs, century eggs or "youtiao". In Laos, congee is usually eaten as breakfast and during the cold season.

Philippines.

"Lugaw" (pronounced ) is the Filipino generic term for rice gruel. It encompasses a wide variety of dishes, ranging from savory dishes very similar to Chinese-style congee to dessert dishes. In the Visayan regions, savory "lugaw" are known as "pospas". "Lugaw" typically use glutinous rice (Tagalog: "malagkit"; Visayan: "pilit"). It is usually thicker than other Asian congees, retaining the shape of the rice, yet with a similar texture.  Savory versions of "lugaw" are flavored with ginger and traditionally topped with scallions and toasted garlic. Dried red safflower ("kasubha") may also be used as a topping, mainly as a visual garnish and to impart a more appealing yellow tinge to the dish. As with Japanese "okayu", fish or chicken stock may be used to flavor the broth. The most popular variants of "lugaw" include "arroz caldo" (chicken), "goto" (beef tripe), "lugaw na baboy" (pork), "lugaw na baka" (beef), and "lugaw na tokwa't baboy" (diced tofu and pork). Other versions can also use "tinapa" (smoked fish), "palaka" (frog legs), "utak" (brain [of pig]), "dila" (tongue [of pig]), and "litid" ([beef] ligaments). They are traditionally seasoned with calamansi, fish sauce ("patis"), soy sauce ("toyo"), and black pepper. It is often served to the ill and the elderly, and is favored among Filipinos living in colder climates because it is warm, soft, and easy to digest.  Dessert versions of "lugaw" include "champorado" ("lugaw" with home-made chocolate topped with milk), "binignit" ("lugaw" in coconut milk with various fruits and root crops), and "ginataang mais" ("lugaw" with sweet corn and coconut milk), among others. Like the savory versions, they are usually eaten for breakfast, but can also be eaten as a snack. In Hiligaynon-speaking areas, "lugaw" may refer to "binignit".

Portugal.

In Portugal, a traditional soup made of rice and chicken meat is named "canja" or "Canja de galinha". The Portuguese likely picked up the dish from their colony in Goa, India; where the soup remains a staple (particularly for the ill). The rice is not cooked for as long as in Asian congee, so it is very soft, but not disintegrated. Traditionally, a boiling fowl containing small, immature eggs is used; the eggs are carefully boiled and served in the "canja". This soup is sometimes served with a fresh mint leaf on top. Strongly valued as comfort food, it is traditionally given to people recovering from disease, as in Asia, and in some regions of Portugal, there is even an ancient custom of feeding the mother a strict diet of "canja" in the first weeks after childbirth. It is also eaten traditionally in Brazil and Cape Verde, former Portuguese colonies.

Singapore.

In Singapore, Teochew porridge or Singapore-style porridge is a version of Singapore congee. In Singapore, it's considered a comfort food for both breakfast as well as supper. Teochew porridge dish often accompanied with various small plates of side dishes. Usually, it's served as a banquet of meats, fish egg and vegetables eaten with plain rice porridge. The recipes that early immigrants prepared in Singapore have been modified over the generations to suit local tastes. Singapore Teochew style porridge is usually consumed with a selection of Singaporean Chinese side dishes like Nasi Padang. There is no fixed list of side dishes, but in Singapore, accompaniments typically include lor bak (braised pork), steamed fish, stir-fried water spinach (kangkong goreng), salted egg, fish cake, tofu, omelette, minced meat, braised tau kway, Hei Bee Hiang (fried shrimp chilli paste), and vegetables.

Sri Lanka.

In Sri Lanka, several types of congee are known as "kenda" in Sinhalese. Sinhala people use congee as a breakfast, a side dish, an accessory to indigenous medical therapies, and a sweet. "Kenda" can be prepared with many ingredients, including rice, roasted rice, rice flour, finger millet flour, sago, coconut milk, herbs, tubers, "kitul" flour, and mung bean. When it is prepared with rice and water only, it is known as "hal kenda". If salt is added to bring a much saltier taste, it is known as "lunu kenda," a dish commonly used as a supplementary diet in purgation therapy in indigenous medical traditions. If roasted rice is used, the congee becomes "bendi hal kenda", utilized to treat diarrheal diseases. If rice flour and coconut milk are the main ingredients, such congee is known as "kiriya". If finger millet flour and water is used, it is known as "kurakkan anama". If coconut milk is added, the dish is called "kurakkan kenda". If sago is used, such congee is known as "sawu kenda". A special type of congee prepared from the byproducts of coconut oil production is known as "pol kiri kenda". There are many varieties of "kola kenda", congee with herbs as an ingredient; sometimes, a "vaidya" or "veda mahttaya" (a physician trained in indigenous medical traditions) might prescribe a special type of "kola kenda", known under such circumstances as "behet kenda". Sinhala villagers use specific tubers for preparing congee, such as "Diascorea" species tubers. If "kitul" flour is mixed with boiling water and coconut milk added to it, this special type of congee is known as "kitul piti kenda". "Kenda" prepared with mung beans is known as "mung eta kenda".  Most of the time, "kiriya", "kurakkan kenda", "sawu kenda", "pol kiri kenda" and "kitul piti kenda" are used as sweets. Sugar, candy, dates, raisins, cashew nut, jaggery, and treacle are among the ingredients that may be added to sweeten these congees.  Congee is also eaten by Sri Lankan Moors for "iftar" during Ramadan. It is also occasionally made with oats. Tamils and Moors in Sri Lanka call it "aarisi kanji" (rice "kanji") and use chicken or beef for it. It is sometimes made with milk ("paal kanji"), and there are many other combinations with appropriate prefixes in Tamil.

Thailand.

In Thai cuisine, rice congee, known as "chok" (,, a loanword from Min Nan Chinese), is often served as breakfast with a raw or partially cooked egg added. Minced pork or beef and chopped spring onions are usually added, and the dish is optionally topped with a small donut-like "pathongko", fried garlic, slivered ginger, and spicy pickles such as pickled radish. Although it is more popular as a breakfast dish, many stores specializing in "chok" sell it throughout the day. Variations in the meat and toppings are also frequently found. It is especially popular during Thailand's cool season. Thai congee is prepared similarly to Lao congee.  Plain rice congee, known as "khao tom kui" (), is served at specialty restaurants, which serve a multitude of side dishes to go with it, such as "yam kun chiang" (a Thai salad made with sliced dried Chinese sausages), "mu phalo" (pork stewed in soy sauce and five-spice powder), and "mu nam liap" (minced pork fried with chopped Chinese olives).  For notable "chok" eateries in Bangkok viz Bang Rak on Charoen Krung, which is the Bib Gourmand from Michelin Guidebook, and Talat Noi in Chinatown beside Wat Traimit near Hua Lamphong, with Chok Chai neighbourhood in Lat Phrao, for sale here 24 hours and has many franchise in various places.  In "khao tom kui" such as Yaowarat, and Wong Wian Yi Sip Song Karakadakhom (July 22 Circle) neighbourhoods etc.  In a popular reference within the 2011 US comedy film The Hangover Part II set in Thailand, "chok" is described as being a food for ′′small babies and very old people′′ with ′′no taste′′ that is nourishment ′′everybody can digest′′. The reference is used to describe the character of the protagonist Stu Price (portrayed by Ed Helms).

Vietnam.

In Vietnam, rice congee, called "cháo" (), is sometimes cooked with pandan leaves or Asian mung bean. In its simplest form (plain rice porridge, known as "cháo hoa"), it is a food for times of famine and hardship to stretch the rice ration. Alternately, as is especially common among Buddhist monks, nuns and lay persons, it can be a simple breakfast food eaten with pickled vegetables or fermented tofu ("chao").  Despite its ubiquity among the poor, it is also popular as a main dish when cooked with a variety of meats. For example, "cháo gà" is cooked with chicken, garlic, and ginger. The rice porridge is cooked in chicken broth, and when the chicken is cooked, the meat is sliced and layered on a bed of shredded raw cabbage and sliced scallions and drizzled with a vinegar-based sauce, to be eaten as a side dish. Other combinations include "cháo vịt" (duck porridge), which is cooked in the same manner as chicken porridge. "Cháo lòng heo" is made with "lòng heo", a variety of offal from pork or duck with sliced portions of congealed pork blood. "Cháo" is typically served with "quẩy" on the side.  Youtiao is usually added to congee especially at congee vendors.  It is also common to eat "cháo" when ill, as it is believed the porridge is easy to digest while being fortifying. For such purposes, the "cháo" is sometimes cooked with roasted white rice, giving the porridge broth a more nuanced body and a subtle, nutty flavor. In some parts of Vietnam, local customs call for making "cháo" as offerings for the "wandering souls" during the Buddhist Vu Lan summer feast.

Congee or conjee () is a type of rice porridge or gruel. When eaten as plain rice congee, it is most often served with side dishes. When additional ingredients such as meat, fish, and flavourings are added while preparing the congee, it is most often served as a meal on its own, especially for persons who are ill. Names for congee are as varied as the style of its preparation. Despite its many variations, it is usually a thick porridge of rice largely disintegrated after prolonged cooking in water.

Reis-Congee (Tamil "kanji", IPA []; Thai: Chok, auch: Joke - ; viet.: "cháo"; Tagalog: Lugaw;, ) ist ein Reisbrei, der in Asien, besonders in China, vor allem zum Frühstück gegessen wird.


Location and geography.

The island is located on the southwestern side of the archipelago. To the east of Solovetsky Island there are Anzersky Island and Bolshaya Muksalma Island. From the Bolshaya Muksalma side, a bay, Dolgaya Bay (), several kilometers long, is connected by a narrow passage to the White Sea. Another bay in the north of the island is Sosnovaya Bay (). Solovetsky and Anzersky islands are separated by the Anzerskaya Salma strait, and Solovetsky and Bolshaya Muksalma islands are separated by two straits: Severnye Zheleznye Vorota and Yuzhnye Zheleznye Vorota (literally translated as Northern and Southern Iron Gates). Bolshoy Solovetsky and Bolshaya Muksalma Islands are connected by a dam built by the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery. There are many lakes on the island, the biggest of which is Lake Krasnoye. The area of the island is, with the length and the width being and, respectively. The highest point of the island is Sekirnaya Mountain (), high.ost of the island is covered by coniferous forest.  The only inhabited locality on the island is the settlement of Solovetsky, which serves as the administrative center of Solovetsky District and of Solovetskoye Rural Settlement of Primorsky Municipal District of Arkhangelsk Oblast. The population of Solovetsky is about 1,000 inhabitants. The monastery is located in the settlement, on the western side of the island. In addition, there are a number of sketes, used by the monks, and several tonyas, seasonal houses on the shore, which are not used and belong to the museum.

History.

Solovetsky Island were visited by Pomor fishermen and hunters on a regular basis at least in the 14th century. In 1429, the monks Savvatiy and German (Herman) arrived to the islands in the search of remote places. Savvatiy died in 1435, and German left and eventually returned to the island in 1436 with Zosima, who founded the monastery. Solovetsky Monastery soon became one of the most prosperous monasteries in Russia and owned extensive lands. From 1548 till 1565, its hegumen was Filipp Kolychev, the future Metropolitan of Moscow. In the end of the 17th century, the monastery refused to accept the reforms of Russian Orthodox Church, introduced by Patriarch Nikon, a former monk of the monastery, and after the seven-year-long siege (Solovetsky Monastery Uprising) it was seized by the government forces, and most of the insurgents were executed. In 1920, the monastery was abolished, and its buildings turned into a prison camp. The prison was closed in 1939 because the Second World War was imminent, and the camp was situated close to the border with Finland. The buildings were then transformed into a naval base. The navy cadet corps was deployed in the monastery buildings, one of the notable cadets was the future author Valentin Pikul. In 1965, the islands were transferred to the future museum to be open at the premises of the monastery, and the general public was for the first time allowed to the islands. The museum was open in 1967. In 1992, the Russian Orthodox Church reestablished the monastery. In the same year the ensemble was included into UNESCO's World Heritage List.  The monastery, being the only land-owner on the island during the whole period of its existence before 1920, took care of the civil construction. In particular, the monks built the dam to the Bolshaya Muksalma Island, all of the roads, and the canals connecting some of the lakes between themselves and with the sea.

Economy and transport.

Currently, tourism is the main source of income of the civil population of the island.  The island is served by the Solovki Airport and connected by regular passenger service to Arkhangelsk. There is also regular passenger sea connections (only in summer) to Arkhangelsk, Kem, and Belomorsk.

Bolshoy Solovetsky Island (), or simply Solovetsky Island () is the biggest island of the Solovetsky Islands archipelago in the White Sea, northern Russia. The island is home to Solovetsky Monastery, a medieval monastery and a fortress included in the World Heritage list.

Solowezki () ist eine der russischen Solowezki-Inseln im Weißen Meer. Sie liegt südwestlich der kleineren Insel Anserski. Solowezki wurde zu Zeiten von Katharina der Großen und später von den Bolschewiki als Gefängnisinsel – u. a. zur Inhaftierung von Kosaken – genutzt und gilt als Teil des Archipels Gulag. Solowezki dient heute als Wohnort für Mönche.


Background.

The compromise proposed six constitutional amendments and four Congressional resolutions. Crittenden introduced the package on December 18. It was tabled on December 31.  It guaranteed the permanent existence of slavery in the slave states and addressed Southern demands in regard to fugitive slaves and slavery in the District of Columbia. It proposed re-instating the Missouri Compromise (which had been functionally repealed in 1854 by the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and struck down entirely in 1857 by the Dred Scott decision), and extending the compromise line to the west, with slavery prohibited north of the 36° 30′ parallel and guaranteed south of it. The compromise included a clause that it could not be repealed or amended.  The compromise was popular among Southern members of the Senate, but it was generally unacceptable to the Republicans, who opposed the expansion of slavery beyond the states where it already existed into the territories. The opposition of their party's leader, President-elect Abraham Lincoln, was crucial. Republicans said the compromise "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego." The only territories south of the line were parts of New Mexico Territory and Indian Territory. There was considerable agreement on both sides that slavery would never flourish in New Mexico. The South refused the House Republicans' proposal, approved by committee on December 29, to admit New Mexico as a state immediately. However, not all opponents of the Crittenden Compromise also opposed further territorial expansion of the United States. "The New York Times" referred to "the whole future growth of the Republic" and "all the Territory that can ever belong to the United States—the whole of Mexico and Central America."

Results.

President-elect Abraham Lincoln vehemently opposed the Crittenden compromise on grounds that he opposed any policy permitting the continued expansion of slavery. Both the House of Representatives and the Senate rejected Crittenden's proposal. It was part of a series of last-ditch efforts to provide the Southern states with sufficient reassurances to forestall their secession during the final session of Congress prior to the Lincoln administration taking office.  The Crittenden proposals were also discussed at the Peace Conference of 1861, a meeting of more than 100 of the nation's leading politicians, held February 8-27, 1861, in Washington, D.C. The conference, led by former President John Tyler, was the final formal effort of the states to avert the start of war. There too, the Compromise proposals failed, as the provision guaranteeing slave ownership throughout all Western territories and future acquisitions again proved unpalatable.  A February 1861 editorial in the "Charleston Courier" (Charleston, Missouri) summed up the mood prevalent in Southern-leaning border counties as the Crittenden proposals went down in defeat: "Men at Washington think there is no chance for peace, and indeed we can see but little, everything looks gloomy. The Crittenden resolutions have been voted down again and again. Is there any other proposition which will win, that the South can accept? If not—there comes war—and woe to the wives and daughters of our land; beauty will be but an incentive to crime, and plunder but pay for John Brown raids. Let our citizens be prepared for the worst, it may come." This statement by editor George Whitcomb came in response to a fiery "letter to the editor" excoriating "disunion", from US Representative John William Noell, whose district included Charleston.

In popular culture.

The novel "Underground Airlines" (2016) by Ben Winters is set in an alternate history where the Crittenden Compromise was accepted.

The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful proposal to permanently enshrine slavery in the United States Constitution, and thereby make it unconstitutional for future congresses to end slavery. It was introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden (Constitutional Unionist of Kentucky) on December 18, 1860. It aimed to resolve the secession crisis of 1860–1861 that eventually led to the American Civil War by addressing the fears and grievances of Southern pro-slavery factions, and by quashing anti-slavery activities.

Der Crittenden-Kompromiss oder auch das Crittenden Amendment (engl. "Crittenden Compromise" bzw. "Crittenden Amendment") (18. Dezember 1860) war ein erfolgloser Versuch des Senators John J. Crittenden aus Kentucky, die Südstaaten der USA davon abzuhalten, die Union zu verlassen und somit den sich anbahnenden Sezessionskrieg zu verhindern.


History.

Gallup was founded in 1881 as a railhead for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. The city was named after David Gallup, a paymaster for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. During World War II, the city fought successfully to prevent 800 Japanese American residents from being placed in wartime internment, the only New Mexico city to do so. Gallup is known as the "Heart of Indian Country" or "The Heart of Indians" because it is on the edge of the Navajo reservation and is home to members of many other tribes as well.

Culture.

U.S. Route 66 passed through Gallup, and the town's name is mentioned in the lyrics of the song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" ("You'll see Amarillo and Gallup, NM"). In 2003, the U.S. and New Mexico Departments of Transportation renumbered US Highway 666, the city's other major highway, as Route 491. Former Governor Bill Richardson pushed for (and got) the number changed because "666" is associated with Satan and Devil worship, and thus it was considered "cursed" or a "Beast" to some locals. The situation was exacerbated by the high death toll on the highway, which was largely a result of high rates of drivers under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and budget shortfalls among both the New Mexico Department of Transportation and state and local law enforcement agencies.  Gallup has a modestly lively night time culture downtown, Indian dances during summertime nights, art crawls, small museums including a Navajo Code Talk museum. Gallup commissioned a number of murals highlighting local culture and contributions dot downtown.  Being the largest city between Flagstaff and Albuquerque, Gallup claims many notable buildings, places, events and people. The historic El Rancho Hotel & Motel has hosted a numerous array of movie stars including John Wayne, Ronald Reagan, Humphrey Bogart, Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn, Joan Crawford, Kirk Douglas, Doris Day, Gregory Peck, and Burt Lancaster. The rugged terrain surrounding Gallup was popular with Hollywood filmmakers during the 1940s and 50s for the on-location shooting of Westerns. Actors and film crews would stay at that hotel during filming. Films made in Gallup include "Billy the Kid" (1930), "Pursued" (1947), "The Sea of Grass" (1947), "Four Faces West" (1948), "Only the Valiant" (1951), "Ace in the Hole" (1951), "Escape from Fort Bravo" (1953), "A Distant Trumpet" (1964), and "The Hallelujah Trail" (1965). Other movies shot here are "Redskin" (1928) and "Superman" (1980).  Gallup is sometimes called the "Indian Capital of the World", for its location in the heart of Native American lands, and the presence of Navajo, Zuni, Hopi, and other tribes. 1/3 of the city's population has Native American roots. Gallup's nickname references the huge impact of the Native American cultures found in and around the city.  In 2013, Gallup was named by Rand McNally as the "Most Patriotic Small Town in America 2013."

Geography.

Gallup is located at (35.5280783, −108.7425843). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 20,209 people, 6,810 households, and 4,869 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,513.7 people per square mile (584.5/km2). There were 7,349 housing units at an average density of 550.5 per square mile (212.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 43.8% Native American, 35.2% White, 31.7% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 2.0% Asian, 1.2% African American, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 12.0% from other races, and 5.8% from two or more races.  There were 6,810 households out of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.3% were married couples living together, 19.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.5% were non-nuclear families. 23.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.39.  In the city, the population was spread out with 32.7% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.2 males.  It has close proximity to Native American reservations, and historic lack of economic development in addition to many mine closures in the last century. As a result of these mine closures, a large proportion of Gallup's households are low-income. The median income for a household in the city was $34,868, and the median income for a family was $39,197. Males had a median income of $33,380 versus $24,441 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,789. About 16.6% of families and 20.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.8% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over.

Crime.

Crime is a serious problem in Gallup. In 2012, violent crime was nearly five times the national average. As a result, the city has the highest violent crime rate in the state of New Mexico. According to an article published in November 2014, "Gallup saw 463 violent crimes last year including murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault. That’s an eleven percent increase from the year before and two times the rate of Albuquerque, the state’s largest city."

Transportation.

Airports  Major highways  Train

Climate.

Gallup, like most of the interior Mountain West, has a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk"). The summers are hot during the day, but the high altitude and low humidity means that nights remain distinctly cool: as late as July 2 of 1997 the temperature fell to. Despite the large diurnal temperature range, most rain falls in the summer from afternoon thunderstorms. Despite the dry atmosphere, hot sun and an average of only 7.4 days with maxima below, winter nights are so cold snow is common and sometimes heavy: the maximum in a month is in December 1992 and the most in a year between July 1990 and June 1991. Actual snow "cover", with the hot sun at Gallup's altitude, however, has never exceeded, and for no day averages over.

Gallup ( /nɑ̀ʔnɪ́ʒòːʒɪ́/; Zuni: "Kalabwakin") is a city in McKinley County, New Mexico, United States, with a population of 21,678 as of the 2010 census. A substantial percentage of its population is Native American, with residents from the Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni tribes. Gallup is the county seat of McKinley County and the most populous city between Flagstaff and Albuquerque, along the historic U.S. Route 66.

Gallup (Navajo: Na'nízhoozhí) ist eine Stadt im Nordwesten des US-Bundesstaates New Mexico im McKinley County. Gallup hatte bei der US-Volkszählung 2010 21.678 Einwohner und eine Fläche von 34,6 km2. Die Stadt liegt am Puerco River. In Gallup liegt auch die University of New Mexico-Gallup Campus.


Origins.

Medieval.

The comital House of Urach were part of Swabian nobility in the 12th to 13th centuries, with their ancestral seat at Urach.  Earliest mention of the name dates to the early 11th century, with the brothers Egino and Rudolf, whose seat was at Dettingen. Older historiography points to an origin of the name in the given name "Unruoch", possibly Unruoch III (d. 874) of the Unruochings. More recent literature prefers an origin of the name in toponymy, derived from name of Aura. The two brothers built Achalm Castle in c. 1050. Rudolf and his heirs form the lineage of the Counts of Achalm, while Egino's heirs (either Egino II or Egino III) in the 12th century built another castle in the upper Erms valley (now Bad Urach). After the extinction of the Zähringer line in 1218, Egino IV inherited parts of the Zähringer possessions due to his 1180 marriage with Agnes of Zähringen. Egino V won a dispute over further parts of the Zähringen inheritance, and he moved his seat to Freiburg where he ruled as Egino I, count of Freiburg. Egino V (I) and his brothers supported the rebellion Henry VII of Germany but were beaten in a field battle in 1235. The counts of Urach declined in the 1250s; their line was extinct in 1261 and their territories were incorporated into the County of Württemberg.

Modern.

The title of count or duke of Urach was revived in the 18th and 19th centuries for morganatic lineages of the House of Württemberg.  The Duchy of Württemberg the early modern period often found itself in the theatre of war as French and Austrian armies fought to extend the hegemony of the rival houses of Bourbon and Habsburg on the European continent. During the 17th and 18th centuries the duchy resisted repeated French invasions.  Although Duke Frederick III was nominally a subject of the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, as an ally of Napoleon I he assumed the higher title of Elector in 1803, and when the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806 leaving the Duchy of Württemberg without a suzerain, the Elector embraced complete independence, assuming the title King of Württemberg.  The Kingdom of Württemberg survived until 1918 as part of the Confederation of the Rhine and later the German Empire, and was ruled by four kings:  The House of Urach was founded by the secret marriage of Duke Wilhelm of Württemberg (1761–1830), a younger brother of the reigning Duke Frederick III (later King Frederick I), with Wilhelmine Rhodis von Tunderfeld (1777-1822) at Coswig, Anhalt on 28 August 1800. Although she signed the wedding contract as "Baroness von Tunderfeld-Rhodis", the bride's father Karl August Rhodis held no barony, and his family had assumed "Burgrave von Tunderfeld" as a hereditary title since an ancestor had once held the post of burgrave at Narva. Although by dynastic arrangement Duke Wilhelm's wife was officially recognised as a Württemberg princess on 30 April 1801 and the marriage was acknowledged publicly on 1 August 1801, Duke Wilhelm's formal renunciation of his dynastic rights in Württemberg was also accepted on the latter date. The male-line, non-dynastic descendants of this marriage constitute the House of Urach.

Members of the family.

However, not all of the issue of the marriage were recognised as princes or dukes. Initially, the children of this marriage were accorded only the title "Count/Countess von Württemberg". The eldest son, Count Alexander (1801-1844), married Countess Ilona Festetics von Tolna in 1832 (daughter of the Croatian Count Ladislas Festetics and his wife, born Princess Josephine of Hohenzollern-Hechingen). The last of his four children died in 1911, the two sons leaving no issue to bear the Württemberg comital title.  Alexander's sister Marie (1815-1866) was Countess von Württemberg until her marriage in 1842, and she became Countess von Taubenheim.  King Frederick and Duke Wilhelm's youngest brother, Duke Karl Heinrich of Württemberg (1772–1838), also married morganatically, under the alias "Count von Sontheim" in 1798, with Christiane-Caroline Alexei (d. 1838), who received from the King, along with her children, the titles "Baroness/Baron von Hochberg und Rottenburg" in 1807 and, in 1825, "Countess/Count von Württemberg". The two surviving daughters, Marie (1802-1882) and Alexandrine (1803-1884), married, respectively, Karl, Prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg in 1821 and Charles, Count Arpeau de Gallatin in 1830.

Dukes.

Count Wilhelm von Württemberg (1810-1869), Duke Wilhelm's third son, would become the first Duke von Urach in 1867 and ancestor of the current princely Urach line. Although both of his marriages were to dynastic princesses, he wed them as a count, marrying Théodelinde de Beauharnais, Princess of Leuchtenburg (1814–1857) in 1841 and Princess Florestine of Monaco (1833–1897) in 1863.  Following the 1863 marriage of the widowed Count Wilhelm von Württemberg to Princess Florestine, sister of Prince Charles III of Monaco (1818–1889) and second in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne after her nephew, Hereditary Prince Albert (1848–1922), Count Wilhelm took up residence in Monte Carlo while retaining property in Württemberg. On 28 May 1867, King Karl raised his cousin, Count Wilhelm, to Duke of Urach in the nobility of Württemberg. Urach had been an hereditary fief of the family for centuries, whose territorial designation the new duke would bear without thereby acquiring any actual prerogatives or property in Urach or Württemberg. Although the new ducal house remained ineligible to succeed to the crown of the Kingdom of Württemberg, it could succeed to that of the Principality of Monaco.  The 2nd Duke von Urach, Wilhelm, who first married Duchess Amalie in Bavaria (1865–1912) in 1892 and then Princess Wiltrud of Bavaria (1884-1975) in 1924, not only came close to wearing the crown of Lithuania, but lost the prospect of the Monegasque throne in the Monaco Succession Crisis of 1918. Given that his kinsmen the Dukes of Teck had been Anglicized, he might have been next in the line of succession to inherit the Kingdom of Württemberg in 1921 after the death of its last king, William II, had morganatic status not been a hindrance, and had the monarchy not been abolished in 1918. In 1913, Wilhelm had been one of several princes considered for the throne of Albania, which, despite support for Wilhelm from Catholic groups in the north, was conferred instead upon Prince William of Wied in 1914.  The current and 5th duke (according to the 1867 grant) is Wilhelm Albert, Duke of Urach (b. 1957), who since 1991 has been married to Karen von Brauchitsch ("Grafin" Berghe von Trips, by 1988 adoption). They have a son, Prince Karl-Philipp (born 1992) and two daughters. Wilhelm inherited the dukedom from his brother, the 4th Duke Karl Anselm (born 1955), who renounced the title on 16 February 1991, a few weeks after his marriage to Saskia Wüsthof. Their uncle, Karl Gero (1899–1981), had been the 3rd Duke, but left no children. He had been preceded in the title by his father Duke Wilhem (1864-1928), his elder brother Prince Wilhelm ((1897-1957) having renounced his right of succession in January 1928 to marry Elisabeth Theurer.

Property.

The House of Urach established three "Familienfideikommissen" during its history: the Württemberg Countship Trust for the Counts of Württemberg, the Urach Ducal Trust for the Dukes of Urach, and the Urach Princely Trust for Prince Karl of Urach (1865-1925), the younger son of Duke Wilhelm who was not expected to inherit his father's dukedom and who died childless.  The comital trust was set up in October 1837, originally for the brothers Count Alexander (1801-1844) and Count Wilhelm (1810-1869, later 1st Duke of Urach), funded by an inheritance from a childless uncle, Duke Ferdinand of Württemberg (1763–1834), as stipulated in his will. Still extant, although subject to substantial modern legal restrictions, the ducal trust came to include, besides liquid assets, several castles, town houses, farmlands, hunting grounds, commercial and rental buildings, and other property in Germany, France and Monaco, notably Lichtenstein Castle which remains the hereditary seat of the dukes.  Like the ducal trust, the title "Duke of Urach" was hereditary by agnatic primogeniture in the legitimate descent of the first duke, with cadets and females bearing the title of "Prince/Princess of Urach" (the royal letters patent mandated use of the term "Fürst/Fürstin" for "Prince/Princess" rather than the term "Prinz/Prinzessin". Although both words translate as "prince" in English, "Fürst", when used for cadets and not referring to a reigning sovereign, indicates noble rather than dynastic status, whereas "Prinz" was usually confined in use to cadets of ruling and mediatized families). In Württemberg, only dynasts descended in male-line from the nation's kings were titled "Prinz", while those descending from the first king's brothers remained dukes). The name and title "Count/Countess von Württemberg" was explicitly preserved for the Urach dukes and princes rather than being replaced by the higher titles.

Lithuania.

Despite being ineligible to reign in Germany, in 1918 the House of Urach was invited to rule another country – the Kingdom of Lithuania. On June 4, 1918, the "Taryba" voted to offer the Lithuanian throne to the German prince Wilhelm, 2nd Duke of Urach. He was elected on 11 July 1918 and accepted, taking the name of Mindaugas II, King of Lithuania.  The Kingdom of Lithuania was a short-lived constitutional monarchy created toward the end of World War I when Lithuania was part of the German Empire. The "Taryba" declared Lithuania's independence on February 16, 1918, but was unable to form a government, police, or other state institutions due to the continued presence of German troops.  The Germans presented various proposals to incorporate Lithuania into an expanded German Empire. The Lithuanians resisted this idea and hoped to preserve their independence by creating a separate constitutional monarchy, so they invited Prince Wilhelm of Urach to become their king.  The reign of Mindaugas II was accepted by the Catholic Church and by several European countries, as is seen in the letter from Pope Benedict XV welcoming Wilhelm's selection as the future King of Lithuania. Such authoritative registers as the "Almanach de Gotha" also acknowledged the new monarchy.

Rules of succession.

According to the rules of the old House of Urach and to the requirements imposed by the "Taryba" in 1918, the Head of the House of Urach and of Lithuanian monarchy must: Be firstborn in the male line; hold military rank; undertake to learn the Lithuanian language; reside in Lithuania.  Succession to the throne of Lithuania was to be hereditary in the House of Urach. Although born the youngest of five children, Prince Inigo is the only one of three brothers alleged to comply with all the requirements to become King of Lithuania (House of Urach rules + "Taryba" rules): His wife, Baroness Danielle von und zu Bodman (b. 1963), belongs to a "Uradel" family whose nobility in Swabia has been authenticated back to 1152, and whose mother, born Isabelle de Guyard, Countess von Saint Julien von und zu Wallsee is a direct descendant of Pierre Guyard (fl. 1418), to which family had belonged the crusader Guillaume Guyard who flourished in 1280, the family being made Imperial counts in 1627. The couple wed civilly 21 September 1991, their elder son, Eberhard, being born in 1990 and the younger, Anselm, on 29 November 1992.

The House of Urach is a morganatic cadet branch of the formerly royal House of Württemberg. Although the Württemberg dynasty was one of many reigning over small realms in Germany into the 20th century, and despite the fact that marital misalliance in these dynasties usually disinherited the descendants thereof, the Dukes of Urach unusually managed to elicit consideration for candidacy for the thrones of several European states, "viz." the Kingdom of Württemberg, the Principality of Monaco, the abortive Kingdom of Lithuania and even the Principality of Albania. Although none of these prospects came to fruition, they reflected monarchical attempts to accommodate the rapid shifts in national allegiance, regime and international alliances that intensified throughout the 19th century, leading up to and following Europe's Great War of 1914-1918.

Die Grafen von Urach waren ein schwäbisches Adelsgeschlecht des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts, die von ihrem Hauptsitz bei Urach (heute Bad Urach in Baden-Württemberg) wirkten. Die Grafen von Urach waren stammesverwandt mit den Grafen von Achalm. Aus ihrem Geschlecht gingen die Grafen von Freiburg und die Grafen von Fürstenberg hervor, von denen letzteres Adelshaus noch besteht. Die Uracher Linie endete bereits um das Jahr 1261, Urach war fortan Teil der Grafschaft Württemberg.


Biography.

He was born in Munich, where he studied until 1588 under Hans Donauer the Elder. In 1593-4 (and perhaps earlier) he was in Rome, and he then settled in Venice from 1595-6 to 1606, before returning to Germany and settling in Augsburg, working also in Munich. He died in Augsburg, apparently in some poverty, and according to some sources an alcoholic.

Work.

In Venice he gained a reputation for small highly finished cabinet paintings on copper, of religious and mythological subjects, combining German and Italian elements of style. In particular he combines the landscape tradition of the North with the compositional and figure styles of Tintoretto and Veronese. He was the first German artist to specialize in cabinet paintings. In Rome he knew the earlier members of the Bamboccianti, a circle of Northern artists (before the name itself arose), and remained in regular contact with Paul Bril, a Flemish artist living in Rome, sending him plates with the figures painted on for Bril to supply the landscape, according to a dealer's letter of 1617. He also collaborated with Jan Brueghel the Elder in a similar way. He was commissioned in 1600 to paint a "Feast of the Gods" for Emperor Rudolph II (now Hermitage). A good example of his early style, in which he approaches Tintoretto, is his "Death of Adonis" in the Louvre.  Once back in Germany, he worked on larger altarpieces and decorative schemes for palaces, including the Munich Residenz and Schloss Bückeborg(Goldener Saal), more in the style of Northern Mannerism than his Italian work.  He is believed to have employed Adam Elsheimer as an assistant in 1598 or 1599, and no doubt gave Elsheimer an introduction to Bril; when Elsheimer moved on to Rome he and Bril became close friends. Two drawings by Rottenhammer (now in Copenhagen) belonged to Elsheimer, and have an inscription noting they were a gift from Rottenhammer. Elsheimer's mature paintings are all small and on copper, and continue to develop Rottenhammer's synthesis of German and Italian styles, and use of landscape. Among his noted works are those painted for Emperor Rudolph II of Austria: "Nativity" (1608), "Battle Between Centaurs and Lapithæ", and four others, in the Vienna Museum.

Galleries.

There are paintings in the main galleries in London, Munich (3), Augsburg, Berlin, Cambridge, St Petersberg, Amsterdam (2), Schwerin, Milan, Los Angeles, Dunedin and elsewhere. Most of his altarpieces and decorative schemes can still be seen in situ.

Johann Rottenhammer, or Hans Rottenhammer (1564 – 14 August 1625), was a German painter. He specialized in highly finished paintings on a small scale.

Johannes Rottenhammer der Ältere (* 1564 in München; † 14. August 1625 in Augsburg) war ein deutscher Zeichner und Maler des Manierismus und des Frühbarock. Seine auf Kupfer gemalten "Kabinettbilder" hängen in vielen bedeutenden Galerien Europas.


Subspecies.

The green-backed twinspot has four sub-species:

Habitat.

The green-backed twinspot inhabits lowland moist forests of the tropical region. It may also be found in grassland and shrubland habitats.  Males are distinguished from females by their bright red facial feathers. Females have an olive-green face and darker (almost black) beak.

Aviculture.

The green backed twinspot prefers its privacy in regards to breeding. Males in the breeding season will raise their heads, looking straight up while "dancing" on the perch next to the female, moving in a side-stepping fashion. The female, if receptive, will crouch down and point her tail to the male. Green backed twinspots tend to pair with one female and care for her and the young while breeding. Up to four eggs are laid about five days after mating, usually one daily. The female will go in and out of the nest frequently until all eggs are laid and will sit in place to incubate thereafter, ensuring all hatch in relatively close proximity.  This species enjoys a large, planted aviary with plenty of privacy for breeding. Temperatures in captivity should not dip below 70 °F or exceed 84 °F. Green back twinspots may be housed as single pairs, singles, or in groups up to four pairs in a large flight.  The birds eat millet, dark leafy greens, fresh bananas, cooked brown rice and mixed finch seed.

Origin.

Origin and phylogeny has been obtained by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al. Estrildinae may have originated in India and dispersed thereafter (towards Africa and Pacific Ocean habitats).

The green-backed twinspot or green twinspot ("Mandingoa nitidula") is an estrildid finch found in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. The IUCN has classified the species as being of least concern.

Der Grüne Tropfenastrild ("Mandingoa nitidula"), auch Tropfengrünastrild, Grüner Tropfenfink oder Schlegels Tropfenfink genannt, ist eine afrikanische Art aus der Familie der Prachtfinken. Er ist der einzige rezente Vertreter der Glockenastrilde und in der Afrotropis ein weit verbreiteter und stellenweise auch häufiger Vogel. Grüne Tropfenastrilde sind kleine, grünlich gefiederte Vögel mit einem kurzen Schwanz und einem rötlichen Gesichtsmaske. Der Sexualdimorphismus ist nur geringfügig ausgeprägt. Sie werden in Europa gelegentlich als Ziervogel gehalten, gelten aber wegen ihrer Nahrungs- und Halteanforderungen als schwierig zu pflegende Vögel.


Career.

A New York City native, Morris began working in the theater in the 1950s, appearing as an actor in a number of Broadway plays including a 1961 production of "Daughter of Silence" by Morris West and based on West's novel. He also appeared in Jennie, a 1963 musical starring Mary Martin. During that period, he worked as a television actor, making guest appearances on "Naked City", "The Honeymooners", "Car 54, Where Are You?", "WKRP in Cincinnati". He continued his television acting career through the 1990s, with guest roles on "Cheers", "Mad About You", "NewsRadio" and "Frasier". He also directed episodes of "Barney Miller", "Fish", "Diff'rent Strokes", "Too Close for Comfort", "Quincy, M.E." and "Tony Orlando and Dawn", among other series.  In his theater work, Morris focused on directing from the early 1970s. One of his first major assignments was directing the touring production of Neil Simon's "The Gingerbread Lady" in 1972. In 1973 he directed Anne Meara and Jerry Stiller in a production of The Prisoner Of Second Avenue that toured the midwest including the infamous Kenley Playhouse in Warren,Ohio. All in all, he helmed hundreds of productions, on and off Broadway, on national tours and in regional theaters, directing legends such as Al Pacino, Jose Ferrer and Mickey Rooney.  In 1989, Morris accepted a job as artistic director of the Actors Alley theater in the San Fernando Valley. During his more than 10 years with the company, the eclectic program list featured works by George Bernard Shaw and Charles Dickens as well as modern plays, including Susan Sandler's "Crossing Delancey", produced in partnership with the University of Judaism (now the American Jewish University). The Actors Alley moved into the historic El Portal Theatre in North Hollywood in 1995 and performed in a small space for several years until the main stage was renovated. Morris left the artistic director post in 2000.

Jeremiah Morris ("Jerome Maurice Gomberg": April 4, 1929 in Bronx, New York – March 5, 2006 in Culver City, California) was an American actor and television and theater director. Morris, influential in Los Angeles theater, appeared in Broadway plays and on popular television series for close to 40 years and directed television and theater productions.

Jeremiah Morris (* 4. April 1929 in New York, NY, USA als "Jerome Maurice Gomberg"; † 5. März 2006 in Culver City, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler und Regisseur.


History.

In the course of the construction of the oil mill of Franz Köcheln at Stephanitorsbollwerk in Bremen during the 1810s, the master miller, who came from Groningen, brought along many assistants, among whom was the 30-year-old Berend Erling, who was singled out as "uncommon skilled". Erling remained in Bremen after the construction, established himself as a miller, and raised his own first windmill in 1832. The Am Wall Windmill ("Herdentorswallmühle") stands today as the last windmill along the old Bremen city wall (Wallanlagen). It was followed in 1846 by the mill at Stephanitor ("Stephanitorsmühle"), whose upper part burned down in 1911. The bottom part served until 1930 as housing, and was demolished during the renovation of the platforms of the Weserbahnhof train station. Erling's son Johann took over the company and built the steam mill at Tannenstraße in Vegesack in 1882, which burned down in 1897.  After the first steam mill was destroyed, and with windmills no longer being economically profitable, Carl Erling founded in 1897 a stock company and built a brick building with a steam mill at the Bremen Holzhafen. It had a capacity of 100 tons per day. The wheat that it used was imported from around the world, and the flour that it produced was shipped by barge within Germany. For overseas export, seagoing ships were used.  In the following years the mill was enlarged and its capacity grew to about 800 tons per day. In 1925, the first silo tower was built to a plan by Carl Heinrich Behrens-Nicolai, and five years later it made its first acquisition of another mill. In 1940 a second silo was inaugurated that gave the Rolandmühle a storage capacity of 30,000 tons.  After acquiring competitors like the "Grohner Mühlenwerke" and the "Hansamühle AG" during the Great Depression, Hans Erling made the "Bremer Rolandmühle AG" a family-run company in 1937 with himself as the board director.  The demolition of the mill by explosion on the instigation of the Wehrmacht was interrupted in 1945 by the Second World War.  At the beginning of the 1970s, a steel grain silo at the Rolandmühle broke open due to corrosion and emptied out its grain onto the street, without causing any injuries or further property damage.

Flour-dust explosion.

The plant made headlines again on 6 February 1979 because of a fire. The cause was one of the largest peace-time explosions to date. A cable fire triggered the most powerful dust explosion in German history in a sample chamber on the quayside. From here, the fire spread across a conveyor bridge through further smaller dust explosions along this bridge, which filled the upper storage area with flour dust. In this room another small explosion triggered the catastrophe, that also set the flour silo on fire.  The roof of the silo was blown off by the pressure wave, the walls collapsed, and the whole building was torn apart. Windows were broken in houses even a large distance away from the mill, and flour dust rained down across an area of about 30 hectares. 14 people died in the detonation, and 17 were seriously injured. The fire burned until 12 March 1979. The incident caused damage to a cost of about 100 million Deutsche Mark (about 206 million Euro today). The Rolandmühle was afterwards completely rebuilt.

The mill today.

The mill complex is equipped today with modern silos, totalling twelve small and three large silos.  The mill is an important component of the harbour economy in Bremen, and is a major employer in its district. The majority of its production is exported. About 360,000 tons of grain were processed annually (2014) by the mill. 100 to 200 vessels lie directly by the silos.  The company is currently led by Hans-Christoph Erling and Dieter Bohling.  In 2004, the company merged with two smaller enterprises. The three family-run companies, "Bremer Rolandmühle Erling", "Mills United Hovestadt & Münstermann", and "Heyl-Mühlen" grouped themselves under the name "Grain Millers" in 2004. Since 2013 the cooperative has used the name "Roland Mills United".

The Rolandmühle ("Roland Mill") in Bremen is an industrial grain mill that is one of the most important private production facilities in the harbour of Bremen. The company has about 100 employees and processes 350,000 tons of grain into flour annually for commercial and industrial use. Both imported and regionally grown grain are processed. The products have been supplied to both regional and export customers.

Die Rolandmühle in Bremen ist eine industrielle Getreidemühle, die als eines der wichtigsten privaten Produktionsunternehmen der bremischen Hafenwirtschaft gilt. Das Unternehmen hat ca. 100 Beschäftigte und verarbeitet nach eigenen Angaben jährlich 350.000 Tonnen Getreide zu Mehlprodukten für Handwerk und Industrie. Verarbeitet werden Importgetreide und regionale Getreideaufkommen. Beliefert werden regionale Abnehmer und Exportkunden.