Sources.

Two hagiographies of Bernardino of Siena were written by two of his friends; the one the same year in which he died, by Barnaba of Siena; the other by humanist Maffeo Veggio. Another important contemporary biographical source is that written by Sienese diplomat, Leonardo Benvoglienti, who was another personal acquaintance of Bernardino. However, as historian Franco Mormando notes, "The first works to be produced about Bernardino right after his death [in 1444] were biographical: by the year 1480, there were already over a dozen written accounts of the preacher's life."

Life.

Early life.

Bernardino was born in 1380 to the noble Albizzeschi family in Massa Marittima (Tuscany), a Sienese town of which his father, Albertollo degli Albizzeschi, was then governor. Left orphaned at six, he was raised by a pious aunt. In 1397, after a course of civil and canon law, he joined the Confraternity of Our Lady attached to the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala church. Three years later, when the plague visited Siena, he ministered to the plague-stricken, and, assisted by ten companions, took upon himself for four months entire charge of this hospital. He escaped the plague but was so exhausted that a fever confined him for several months. In 1403 he joined the Observant branch of the Order of Friars Minor (the Franciscan Order), with a strict observance of St. Francis' Rule. Bernardino was ordained a priest in 1404 and was commissioned as a preacher the next year. About 1406 St. Vincent Ferrer, a Dominican friar and missionary, while preaching at Alessandria in the Piedmont region of Italy, allegedly foretold that his mantle should descend upon one who was then listening to him, and said that he would return to France and Spain, leaving to Bernardino the task of evangelizing the remaining peoples of Italy.

Bernardino as preacher.

Preaching style.

Before Bernardino, most preachers either read a prepared speech or recited a rhetorical oration. Instead of remaining cloistered and preaching only during the liturgy, Bernardino preached directly to the public. For more than 30 years, he preached all over Italy and played a great part in the religious revival of the early fifteenth century. Although he had a weak and hoarse voice, he is said to have been one of the greatest preachers of his time. His style was simple, familiar, and abounding in imagery. Cynthia Polecritti, in her biography of Bernardino, notes that the texts of his sermons “are acknowledged masterpieces of colloquial Italian.” He was an elegant and captivating preacher, and his use of popular imagery and creative language drew large crowds to hear his reflections. Invitations were often extended by the civil authorities rather than the ecclesiastical, as sometimes the towns would make money from the crowds that came to hear him.  Unlike many of his contemporaries, Bernardino chose his themes not from the daily liturgy, but from the ordinary lives of the people of Siena. He selected biblical themes to focus on the immediate interests of his audience. This proved effective in drawing their attention. Women comprised the majority of listeners, and the size of the crowd varied according to the day, time, and topic of the sermon. Polecritti notes, the subject matter of his sermons reveals much about the contemporary context of 15th-century Italy.  He travelled from place to place, remaining nowhere more than a few weeks. These journeys were all made on foot. In the towns, the crowds assembled to hear him were at times so great that it became necessary to erect a pulpit on the market-place. Like Vincent Ferrer, he usually preached at dawn. His hearers, so as to ensure themselves standing room, would arrive beforehand, many coming from far-distant villages. The sermons often lasted three or four hours. He was invited to Ferrara in 1424, where he preached against the excess of luxury and immodest apparel. In Bologna, he spoke out against gambling, much to the dissatisfaction of the card manufacturers and sellers. Returning to Siena in April 1425, he preached there for 50 consecutive days. His success was claimed to be remarkable. "Bonfires of the Vanities" were held at his sermon sites, where people threw mirrors, high-heeled shoes, perfumes, locks of false hair, cards, dice, chessmen, and other frivolities to be burned. Bernardino enjoined his listeners to abstain from blasphemy, indecent conversation, and games of hazard, and to observe feast days.  Bernardino was not universally popular. In L'Aquila someone sawed the legs off the pulpit causing him to fall into the crowd.  In 1427, he was called to Siena to allay factional strife. However, Bernardino preferred preaching rather than being an arbitrator. When he spoke against factions and vendettas, he was uncharacteristically tactful. To Policretti, this suggests that the situation could have become violent at the least provocation.  Both while he was alive and after his death (the first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, was printed at Lyon in 1501), Bernardino's legacy was far from benign: of fanatical moralizing temperament, he preached fiery, intransigent sermons against many classes of people. His sermons were riddled with ostensible anti-Semitism, misogyny, and homophobia. He demonized many women as "witches", and called for homosexuals (or "sodomites" as he called them) to be either completely isolated from society or eliminated from the human community. He thus became a major exponent of what historian Robert Moore has called "the persecuting society" of late medieval Christian Europe.

On women.

As historian Franco Mormando points out, in the twenty large volumes of Bernardino's extant printed works, Bernardino has much to say about women and to women, "married, unmarried, widowed, and those enclosed in nunneries." However, at the end of his exhaustive study, "Bernardino of Siena: 'Great Defender' or 'Merciless Betrayer' of Women?,'" Mormando concludes: "...despite his sincere moments of greater empathy with women, Bernardino proves to be very much in the mainstream of writings on women of the Trecento and Quattrocento...Though, in his compassion for her, Bernardino would have the woman's domestic and social 'cage' be as comfortable and as humane as possible, it is there in the same traditional cage that Bernardino nonetheless wants her to remain, under the guard of father, brother, husband, or parish priest."  Bernardino presented the Virgin Mary as an example for women. He advised girls never to talk to a man unless one of their parents was present. In one sermon Bernardino cautions women about marrying men who care more for their dowries than for them. On one occasion he asked mothers to come to church with their daughters alone so that he speak to them frankly about sexual abuse in marriage. He also spoke against the confinement of unwilling girls to convents. He presented Saint Joseph as an example for men, while emphasizing Mary's obedience to her husband.

Against sodomy and homosexuality.

On sodomy (predominantly directed towards homosexual men), Bernardino keenly pointed out the reputation of the Italians beyond their own borders. He particularly decried Florentine lenience to men having sex with men; in Verona, he approvingly reminded listeners that a man was quartered and his limbs hung from the city gates for homosexual intercourse; in Genoa, men were regularly burned if found guilty of sodomy; and in Venice a sodomite had been tied to a column along with a barrel of pitch and brushwood and set to fire. He advised the people of Siena to do the same. In 1424 he dedicated three consecutive sermons in Florence to the subject, in the course of a Lenten sermon preached in Santa Croce, he admonished his hearers:  ""Whenever you hear sodomy mentioned, each and every one of you spit on the ground and clean your mouth out as well. If they don't want to change their ways by any other means, maybe they will change when they're made fools of. Spit hard! Maybe the water of your spit will extinguish their fire.""  In Siena he preached a full sermon against sodomy (including homosexuality) in 1425 and then 1427; linking it directly with fears about the depopulation as it did not lead to children and was therefore unproductive: ""You don't understand that [sodomy] is the reason you have lost half your population over the last twenty-five years"". Over time his teachings helped mould public sentiment and dispel indifference over controlling sodomy and homosexual conduct more vigorously. Everything unpredictable or calamitous in human experience he attributed to sodomy, including floods and the plague, as well as linking the practice to local population decline. After one of his sermons in Siena four "irate sodomites" attempted to beat him with clubs.

Trial in Rome.

Especially known for his devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus, previously associated with John of Vercelli and the Dominican order, Bernardino devised a symbol—IHS—the first three letters of the name of Jesus in Greek, in Gothic letters on a blazing sun. This was to displace the insignia of factions (for example, Guelphs and Ghibellines). The devotion spread, and the symbol began to appear in churches, homes and public buildings. Opponents thought it a dangerous innovation. Nonetheless, Bernardino used the devotion to calm strife-torn cities, reconciling feuds and factionalism by his counsel.  In 1426 Bernardino was summoned to Rome to stand trial on charges of heresy himself for his promotion of this devotion to the Holy Name of Jesus Theologians including Paulus Venetus gave their opinions. Bernardino was found innocent of heresy, and he impressed Pope Martin V sufficiently that Martin requested he preach in Rome. He thereupon preached every day for 80 days. Bernardino's zeal was such that he would prepare up to four drafts of a sermon before starting to speak. That same year, he was offered the bishopric of Siena, but declined in order to maintain his monastic and evangelical activities. In 1431, he toured Tuscany, Lombardy, Romagna, and Ancona before returning to Siena to prevent a war against Florence. Also in 1431, he declined the bishopric of Ferrara, and in 1435 he declined the bishopric of Urbino.  John Capistran (Giovanni da Capistrano) was his friend, and James of the Marches (Giacomo della Marca) was his disciple during these years. Cardinals urged both Pope Martin V and Pope Eugene IV to condemn Bernardino, but both almost instantly acquitted him. A trial at the Council of Basel also ended with an acquittal. Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund sought Bernardino's counsel and intercession and Bernardino accompanied him to Rome in 1433 for his coronation.

"On Contracts and Usury".

Economic theory.

Bernardino was the first theologian after Pierre de Jean Olivi to write an entire work systematically devoted to Scholastic economics. His greatest contribution to economics was a discussion and defense of the entrepreneur. His book, "On Contracts and Usury", written during the years 1431–1433, dealt with the justification of private property, the ethics of trade, the determination of value and price, and the usury question.  One of his contributions was a discussion on the functions of the business entrepreneur, whom Bernardino saw as performing the useful social function of transporting, distributing, or manufacturing goods. According to Murray Rothbard, Bernardino's insight in determining just value prefigured "...the Jevons/Austrian analysis of supply and cost over five centuries later." He extended this to a theory of the "just wage", which would be determined by the demand for labor and the available supply. Wage inequality is a function of differences of skill, ability and training. Skilled workers are scarcer than unskilled, so that the former will command a higher wage.

Usury.

Usury was one of the principal objects of his attacks, and he did much to prepare the way for the establishment of the beneficial loan societies, known as Monti di Pietà.  Bernardino followed earlier scholastic philosophers Anselm of Canterbury and Thomas Aquinas (who quotes Aristotle) in condemning the practice of usury, which they defined as charging interest on a loan. Scholastic analysis of usury, based in part on Roman law, was both complex and, in some instances, seemingly contradictory. Interest on delayed payment was deemed valid as it was considered compensation for damages suffered by the creditor being deprived of his property.  Bernardino saw usury as concentrating all the money of the city into a few hands. However, he did accept the theory of "lucrum cessans", interest charged to compensate for profits foregone in lieu of capital investment. A distinction was also drawn for joint ventures, in which the creditor assumed some portion of the risk.  In Milan, he was visited by a merchant who urged him to inveigh strenuously against usury, only to find that his visitor was himself a prominent usurer, whose activities were prompted by a wish to lessen competition.

Anti-Semitism.

Bernardino is particularly regarded today as being a "major protagonist of Christian anti-semitism" In January 1427 he was in Orvieto, where he preached on the topic of usury, urging the executive to take stringent steps against all such as were addicted to this business, many of whom were Jews. Blaming the poverty of local Christians on Jewish usury, his call for Jews to be banished and isolated from their wider communities led to segregation. His audiences often used his words to reinforce actions against Jews, and his preaching left a legacy of resentment on the part of Jews.

Franciscan Vicar General.

Soon thereafter, he withdrew again to Capriola to compose a further series of sermons. He resumed his missionary labours in 1436, but was forced to abandon them when he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans in Italy in 1438.  Bernardino had worked to grow the Observants from the outset of his religious life: although he was not in fact its founder (the origins of the Observants, or "Zelanti", can be traced back to the middle of the fourteenth century). Nevertheless, Bernardino became to the Observants what St. Bernard had been to the Cistercians, their principal support and indefatigable propagator. Instead of one hundred and thirty Friars constituting the Observance in Italy at Bernardino's reception into the order, it counted over four thousand shortly before his death. Bernardino also founded, or reformed, at least three hundred convents of Friars. Bernardine sent missionaries to different parts of Asia, and it was largely through his efforts that many ambassadors from different schismatical nations attended the Council of Florence in which we find the saint addressing the assembled Fathers in Greek.  Being Vicar General inevitably cut back his opportunities to preach, but he continued to speak to the public when he could. Having in 1442 persuaded the pope to finally accept his resignation as vicar-general so that he might give himself more undividedly to preaching, Bernardino again resumed his missionary work. Despite a Papal Bull issued by Pope Eugene IV in 1443 which charged Bernardino to preach the indulgence for the Crusade against the Turks, there is no record of his having done so. In 1444, notwithstanding his increasing infirmities, Bernardino, desirous that there should be no part of Italy which had not heard his voice, set out to the Kingdom of Naples.  He died that year at L'Aquila in the Abruzzi and is buried in the Basilica of San Bernardino. According to tradition, his grave continued to leak blood until two factions of the city achieved reconciliation.

Canonisation and iconography.

Reports of miracles attributed to Bernardino multiplied rapidly after his death, and Bernardino was canonized as a saint in 1450, only six years after his death, by Pope Nicholas V. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is on 20 May, the day of his death.  As historian Franco Mormando observes, "Bernardino's lifetime coincided with the blossoming not only of art in general but also of full-fledged, realistic portraiture as a distinct genre. This may explain why Bernardino, it seems, has the distinction of being the first saint in Church history for whom we have an indisputably authentic portrait in art. Many of the earliest portraits were presumably based on his death mask..." Bernardino also lived into the early days of the print and was the subject of portraits in his lifetime, as well as a death-mask, which were copied to make prints, so that he is one of the earliest saints to have a fairly consistent appearance in art; though many Baroque images, such as that by El Greco, are idealized compared to the realistic ones made in the decades after his death.  After his death, the Franciscans promoted an iconographical program of diffusion of images of Bernardino, which was second only to that of the founder of the order. As such, he is one of the earliest saints whose appearance was given a distinct and readily recognisable iconography. Artists of the late medieval and Renaissance periods often represented him as small and emaciated, with three mitres at his feet (representing the three bishoprics which he had rejected) and holding in his hand the "IHS" monogram with rays emanating from it (representing his devotion to the "Holy Name of Jesus"), which was his main attribute. He appears to have been a favourite in the works of Luca della Robbia, and one of the finest examples of Renaissance art includes relief carvings of the saint, which can be seen in the oratory of Perugia Cathedral.  A portrait is known to have circulated in Siena just after Bernardino's death which, on the basis of physiognomic similarities with his death mask at L'Aquila, is believed to have been a good likeness. It is thought probable that many subsequent depictions of the saint derive from this portrait.  The most famous depictions of Bernardino are found in the cycle of frescoes of his life, which were executed towards the end of the fifteenth century by Pinturicchio in the Bufalini Chapel of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome.

Veneration.

Saint Bernardino is the Roman Catholic patron saint of advertising, communications, compulsive gambling, respiratory problems, as well as any problems involving the chest area. He is the patron saint of Carpi, Italy; the Philippine barangays of Kay-Anlog in Calamba, Laguna and Tuna in Cardona, Rizal; and the diocese of San Bernardino, California, USA. Siena College, a Franciscan Catholic liberal arts college in New York, USA, was named after him and placed under his spiritual patronage. The mountain pass in the Alps, "Il Passo di San Bernardino," is named in honor of the saint, whose fame reached well into northern Italy and southern Switzerland.  His cult also spread to England at an early period, and was particularly promulgated by the Observant Friars, who first established themselves in the country in Greenwich, in 1482, not forty years after his death, but who were later suppressed.

Bernardino of Siena (also known in English as Bernardine; 8 September 138020 May 1444) was an Italian priest and Franciscan missionary. He was a systematizer of Scholastic economics. His popular preaching made him famous during his own lifetime because it was frequently directed against sorcery, gambling, infanticide, witchcraft, sodomy (specifically homosexuality), Jews, and usury. Bernardino was later canonised by the Catholic Church as a saint - where he is also referred to as “the Apostle of Italy” - for his efforts to revive the country's Catholic faith during the 15th century.

Bernhardin von Siena OFM (* 8. September 1380 in Massa Marittima; † 20. Mai 1444 in L’Aquila) ist ein italienischer Heiliger.


History.

It was founded with the name "Villa Real" ("Royal Town") under the auspice of Alfonso X The Wise, who granted it a charter that followed the model of Cuenca's. Located within the dominion of the Military Order of Calatrava, the repopulation struggled initially.  During the Middle Ages, four kilometres of walls and one hundred and thirty towers protected a population made up of Christians, Muslims and Jews.  Villa Real hosted the Cortes of Castile in 1346.  Juan II of Castile granted "Villa Real" the status of city in 1420, thus becoming "Ciudad Real" ("Royal City"). The city most probably did not have more than 2000 inhabitants by the time and despite having celebrated Cortes once, the dominant city in the area was still Almagro. After the unification of the Iberian kingdoms under the Catholic Monarchs, Ciudad Real became the capital of the province of La Mancha in 1691. This fact favoured its economic development which was shown by the construction of several important buildings. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed many of these buildings. In 1809, during the Peninsular War, French troops defeated the Spanish army and occupied the town, using the local hospital as their headquarters and barracks.  Much of the centre was destroyed during the Spanish civil war.

Main sights.

The Plaza Mayor sits in the centre of Ciudad Real. Today, only two parts of the wall that surrounded the city in medieval times remain standing: The Toledo Gate. Don Quixote's Museum is situated next to Parque de Gasset.  The Museo Elisa Cendreros exhibits an old collection of fans and carved wood.  The Ermita de Alarcos is the oldest church in Ciudad Real. The Iglesia of Santiago is also the most beautiful and oldest church in Ciudad Real, it was built at the end of the 13th century in romanic style. Its style is Gothic. It is decorated with gothic paintings and with seven-headed dragons, the ceiling is decorated with stones forming eight pointed stars.  Another important church in Ciudad Real is Iglesia de San Pedro (Church of Saint Peter). It is the most interesting and typical monument of the city. It was built during the 14th and 15th centuries. Its style is Gothic, and it houses the tomb of Chantre de Coca, confessor and chaplain of the Catholic Monarchs.  Ciudad Real Cathedral, built in the 16th century, has the second-largest nave in Spain and a magnificent Baroque altarpiece.

Sports.

The city previously had a handball team, the BM Ciudad Real, which was the winner of the handball EHF Champions League in 2006, 2008 and 2009.  The handball club was one of the best in the world and its home arena, the Don Quixote Arena, was one of the biggest in the Spanish professional league. BM Ciudad Real, however, moved its team to Madrid in 2011; renamed as "Atlético Madrid", it dissolved in 2013.

Transport.

The city has a railway station on the AVE high-speed rail line, the Ciudad Real railway station.  A high-capacity airport (Ciudad Real Central Airport) was built in the city, but closed in 2012. The privately funded airport cost an estimated €1 billion to build, and is now for sale for €100 million plus payment of the developer's debt. Although in July 2014 this was reduced to €80 million in a further attempt to find a buyer. In July 2015 the airport was auctioned resulting in only one bidder, Chinese company Tzaneem International offering €10,000.  The airport was reopened on 12 September 2019.  The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Ciudad Real, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 33 min. 3% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 8 min, while 1% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 2 km, while 0% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.

Climate.

The city has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen:"Csa"), bordering on semi-arid ("Bsk"), with cool winters (due to its altitude) and very hot dry summers.

Education.

Ciudad Real has 24 primary schools and 6 secondary schools.  The high school "Torreón del Alcázar" was founded in 1987. In the first years there were only vocational studies, thirty teachers and 350 students. Some years later the high school incorporated the compulsory secondary studies and A levels. At the moment there are 80 teachers and 1200 students. In the year 1995 the high school was offered the opportunity to become a bilingual school. In the year 2005 the first bilingual group arrived.  See University of Castilla–La Mancha (UCLM), Campus of Ciudad Real.

Events.

One of the most popular festivals in the city is "La Pandorga", which takes place July 30 and 31. On the last day of the month the festival honours its patroness, "La Virgen del Prado". The usual attire of the participants consists of jeans, a white shirt, and the traditional handkerchief.

Ciudad Real (, ; ) is a municipality of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, capital of the province of Ciudad Real. It is the 5th most populated municipality in the region.

Ciudad Real [] (auf Deutsch "königliche Stadt", gegründet als "Villa Real", auch "Zumba Real" genannt) ist eine spanische Stadt und Hauptstadt der gleichnamigen Provinz. Sie liegt in der Autonomen Region Kastilien-La Mancha.


History.

By Christmas of 1982, Coleco had sold more than 500,000 units, in part on the strength of "Donkey Kong" as its bundled game. ColecoVision's main competitor was the less commercially successful Atari 5200 which used the same custom graphics and sound chips developed for the Atari 8-bit family of computers launched in 1979.  The ColecoVision was distributed by CBS Electronics outside of North America, and was branded the CBS ColecoVision. In Europe the console was released in July 1983, nearly one year after the North American release.  Sales quickly passed 1 million in early 1983, before the video game crash of 1983. By the beginning of 1984, quarterly sales of the ColecoVision had dramatically decreased.  Over the next 18 months, the Coleco company ramped down its video game division, ultimately withdrawing from the video game market by the end of the summer of 1985. The ColecoVision was officially discontinued by October 1985. Total sales of the ColecoVision are uncertain but were ultimately in excess of 2 million units, due to the console continuing to sell modestly up until its discontinuation the following year. The video game crash of 1983 has been cited as the main cause of the ColecoVision's being discontinued less than three years after its launch.  In 1983, Spectravideo announced the SV-603 ColecoVision Video Game Adapter for its SV-318 computer. The company stated that the $70 product allowed users to "enjoy the entire library of exciting ColecoVision video-game cartridges".

Hardware.

On NTSC ColecoVision consoles, all first-party cartridges and most third-party software titles feature a 12.7 second pause before presenting the game select screen. CBS Electronics reduced this pause in the BIOS to 3.3 seconds for their PAL and SECAM ColecoVision consoles.

Expansion Modules and accessories.

From its introduction, Coleco touted the ColecoVision's hardware expandability by highlighting the "Expansion Module Interface" on the front of the unit. These hardware expansion modules and accessories were sold separately.

Atari 2600 expansion.

"Expansion Module #1" makes the ColecoVision compatible with Atari 2600 cartridges and controllers. Functionally, this gave the ColecoVision the largest software library of any console of its day. The expansion module prompted legal action from Atari. Coleco and Atari settled out of court with Coleco becoming licensed under Atari's patents. The royalty based license also applied to Coleco's Gemini game system, a stand-alone clone of the 2600.

Driving controller.

"Expansion Module #2" is a driving controller (steering wheel / gas pedal) that came packaged with the cartridge "Turbo". The gas pedal is merely a simple on/off switch. Although Coleco called the driving controller an expansion module, it actually plugs into the controller port, not the "Expansion Module Interface". The driving controller is also compatible with the cartridges "Destructor", "Bump 'n' Jump", "Pitstop", and "The Dukes of Hazzard".

Adam computer expansion.

"Expansion Module #3" converts the ColecoVision into the Adam computer, complete with keyboard, digital data pack (DDP) cassette drive, 64 kB RAM, and printer.

Roller Controller.

The "Roller Controller" is a trackball that came packaged with the cartridge "Slither", a conversion of the arcade game. The roller controller uses a special power connector that is not compatible with Expansion Module #3 (the Adam computer). Coleco mailed an adapter to owners of both units who complained. The other cartridge programmed to use the roller controller is "Victory". A joystick mode switch on the roller controller allows it to be used with all cartridges including WarGames, "Omega Race", and Atarisoft's Centipede.

Super Action Controller.

The "Super Action Controller Set" is a set of two handheld joystick controllers that came packaged with the cartridge "Super Action Baseball". Each controller has a ball-top joystick, four finger triggered action buttons, a 12-button numeric keypad, and a "speed roller". The cartridges "Super Action Football", "Rocky" "Super Action Boxing", and a conversion of the arcade game "Front Line" are also designed to be used with the "Super Action Controller".

Unreleased.

Expansion Module #3 was originally the Super Game Module. It was advertised for an August 1983 release but was ultimately cancelled and replaced with the Adam computer expansion. The Super Game Module added a tape drive known as the Exatron Stringy Floppy with 128KB capacity, and the additional RAM, said to be 30KB, to load and execute programs from tape. Games could be distributed on tiny tapes, called "wafers", and be much larger than the 16KB or 32KB ROM cartridges of the day. "Super Donkey Kong", with all screens and animations, "Super Donkey Kong Jr", and "Super Smurf Rescue" were demonstrated with the Super Game Module. The Adam computer expansion with its 256KB tape drive and 64KB RAM fulfilled the specifications promised by the Super Game Module.

Legacy.

During the creation of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the ColecoVision was a huge influence. Takao Sawano, chief manager of the project, brought a ColecoVision home to his family, who were impressed by the system's capability to produce smooth graphics, which contrasted with the flickering commonly seen on Atari 2600 games. Masayuki Uemura, head of Famicom development, stated that the ColecoVision set the bar that influenced how he approached the creation of the Famicom.  In 1986, Bit Corporation produced a ColecoVision clone called the Dina, which was sold in the United States by Telegames as the Telegames Personal Arcade.  IGN named the ColecoVision their 12th-best video-game console out of their list of 25, citing "its incredible accuracy in bringing current-generation arcade hits home."  In 1996, programmer Kevin Horton released the first homebrew game for the ColecoVision, a Tetris clone entitled "Kevtris".  In 1997, Telegames released "Personal Arcade Vol. 1", a collection of ColecoVision games for Microsoft Windows, and a 1998 follow-up, "Colecovision Hits Volume One".  In 2012, Opcode Games released their own Super Game Module expansion, which increases RAM from 16KB to 32KB and adds four additional sound channels. This expansion brings the ColecoVision close to the MSX architecture standard, allowing MSX software to be more easily ported.  In 2014, AtGames began producing the ColecoVision Flashback console that includes 60 games, but not the original pack-in game, "Donkey Kong".

The ColecoVision is Coleco Industries' second-generation home video-game console that was released in August 1982. The ColecoVision offered a closer experience to more powerful arcade game systems, compared to competitors such as the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200, along with the means to expand the system's basic hardware.

Die ColecoVision ist eine Spielkonsole von Coleco, die im August 1982 erschien. Grafik und Gamepad entsprechen etwa dem Standard damaliger Arcade-Spiele; bei Markteinführung standen 12 Softwaretitel zur Auswahl, die in Form von Modulen verkauft wurden. Im Laufe der Jahre wuchs die Palette auf annähernd 170 Titel heran, darunter hauptsächlich Umsetzungen von Automatenspielen.


Trial juries.

In countries with a jury system, the jury's deliberation in criminal matters can involve both rendering a verdict and determining the appropriate sentence. In civil cases, the jury decision is whether to agree with the plaintiff or the defendant and rendering a resolution binding actions by the parties based on the results of the trial.  Typically, a jury must come to a unanimous decision before delivering a verdict; however, there are exceptions. When a unanimous decision is not reached and the jury feels that one is not possible, they declare themselves a 'hung jury', a mistrial is declared and the trial will have to be redone at the discretion of the plaintiff or prosecutor.  One of the most famous dramatic depictions of this phase of a trial in practice is the film, "12 Angry Men".

In political philosophy.

In political philosophy, there is a wide range of views regarding how deliberation becomes a possibility within particular governmental regimes. Most recently, the uptake of deliberation by political philosophy embraces it alternatively as a crucial component or the death-knell of democratic systems. Much of contemporary democratic theory juxtaposes an optimism about democracy against excessively hegemonic, fascist, or otherwise authoritar regimes. Thus, the position of deliberation is highly contested and is defined variously by different camps within contemporary political philosophy. In its most general (and therefore, most ambiguous) sense, deliberation describes a process of interaction between various subjects/subjectivities dictated by a particular set of norms, rules, or fixed boundaries.  The origins of philosophical interest in deliberation can be traced to Aristotle’s concept of "phronesis", understood as “prudence” or “practical wisdom” and its exercise by individuals who deliberate in order to discern the positive or negative consequences of potential actions.  For many contemporary political philosophers, the rigidity of a particular set of norms, rules, or fixed boundaries about either the way that subjects who would qualify for deliberation are constituted (a position perhaps epitomized by John Rawls) or regarding the kinds of argument which qualify as deliberation (a position perhaps epitomized by Jürgen Habermas) constitute a foreclosure of deliberation, making it impossible.  "Existential deliberation" is a term coined by the theorists of the emotional public sphere. Existential deliberation theorists contend that deliberation is an ontological state, rather than a process that can be deployed. As such, deliberation is a rare thing that only might happen in face-to-face encounters. This utilizes the insights of radical deliberation, in that the political is a rare discharge of potential into an otherwise sterile social field.  "Pragmatic deliberation" is the epistemic variant on existential deliberation, frequently focusing on the ways in which groups could be assisted with producing positive outcomes that both aggregate and transform the views of effected publics.  Advocates of “public deliberation” as an essential democratic practice focus on processes of inclusiveness and interaction in making political decisions. The validity and reliability of public opinion improves with the development of “public judgment” as citizens consider multiple perspectives, weigh possible options, and accept the outcomes of decisions made together.

Radical deliberation.

Radical deliberation refers to a philosophical view of deliberation inspired by the events of the student revolution in May 1968. Political theory concerned with radical democracy, particularly that of such theorists as Michel Foucault, Ernesto Laclau, Chantal Mouffe, Jacques Ranciere, and Alain Badiou also focus upon deliberation insofar as the process of engagement between disparate positions create the conditions of possibility for a politics. Notably for these thinkers, the task of radical democracy is always and already unfinalized, subject to a series of changes which occur outside of the conscious influence of any single actor and are instead the discursive effects of the contingent assemblies of larger bodies politic.  Michel Foucault's use of 'technologies of discourse' and'mechanisms of power' describes how deliberation is either foreclosed or is a product of a series of technologies of discourse which produce a semblance of agency through the reproductions of power as they occur between individual subjects. The account of'mechanisms' or 'technologies' is in some sense paradoxical: on the one hand, these technologies are inseparable from the subjects which enunciate them. On the other, to speak of the machine or technology which coordinates suggests an infrastructure through which the social is collectively organized, which suggests the removal of subjects from the means of their organization: a god's eye view of the social that is only coordinated by the movement of the parts.  Chantal Mouffe uses 'the democratic paradox' to generate a self-sustaining model of politics which is built on foundational contradictions - the non-resolution of which produces a productive agonism between subjects who recognize the other's right to speak. For Mouffe, the fact of the configuration of the social is the only foundational political stability - that and the certainty of a penultimate articulation's deferral. That is to say: re-articulations of the social will always occur. Again, process overwhelms content: the paradox of liberalism and popular sovereignty is the generative motor of radical democracy. The rhetorical gesture of the foundational paradox becomes a mechanism; an interface between the human and a language machine which produces the conditions of possibility for continued reconfiguration: a positive feedback loop for politics.  Although Chantal Mouffe and Jacques Ranciere differ in their stance on what the conditions of the political are (for Mouffe, this is an internal reorganization of existing social arrangements in what are called 'articulations), for Ranciere, it is the incursion of an externality which had not yet been accounted for. In the 'arithmatic/geometric' distinctions of politics, there is a(n) (near) explicit appeal to the mechanical or mathematical: the political sustains itself by perpetuating a dialectic between homeostasis and reconfiguration (what N. Katherine Hayles might call 'pattern' and 'randomness') through a 'count' of what is internal to the police order. The mechanism of politics makes it possible for future reconfigurations only by making new inclusions, thereby rearranging the social, returning to homeostasis, and perpetuating the impossibility of a complete 'whole'. It is again a kind of rhetorical paradox which is the motor of politics: a foundational arbitrariness in who is or who is not permitted to speak.

Deliberation theory.

Deliberation theory is a non-political and non-legal subject dealing with the technical aspects of making decisions with varying amounts of information.

Deliberation is a process of thoughtfully weighing options, usually prior to voting. Deliberation emphasizes the use of logic and reason as opposed to power-struggle, creativity, or dialog. Group decisions are generally made after deliberation through a vote or consensus of those involved.

Deliberation ist ein aus dem Lateinischen entlehntes Fremdwort mit der Bedeutung „Beratschlagung“ oder „Überlegung“, das zugehörige Verb lautet deliberieren, das Adjektiv deliberativ.


History.

Zierfandler is probably a cross between Roter Veltliner and something like Traminer. A "weiss" (white) form is found in Hungary.  Zierfandler may be the inadvertent origin of the name Zinfandel, which has its roots in a Croatian grape collected by the Habsburg monarchy in Vienna. George Gibbs, a horticulturist on Long Island, received several shipments of vines from the Imperial nursery in the 1820s, one of which he called "Black Zinfardel of Hungary". This doesn't correspond to any known grape, but Webster suggests that Zinfandel is a corruption of "tzinifándli" ("czirifandli"), a Hungarian word derived from the German word Zierfandler. Since Zierfandler is very different from Zinfandel, someone would have had to have mixed up labels along the way.

Distribution and wines.

There were 98.24ha in Austria in 2005, less than 0.3% of Austria vineyards, of which 85.03ha were in Thermenregion. It is traditionally blended with Rotgipfler in that region. These wines, known as Spätrot-Rotgipfler, are a particular speciality of Gumpoldskirchen, south of Vienna.  It is grown in Hungary under the name Cirfandli and in Slovenia as Zerjavina.

Vine and viticulture.

The characteristic of the grapes is the way the sides exposed to the sun turns red as they ripen. Zierfandler ripens late, and is prone to noble rot. The leaves are large and 3-5 lobed. The bunches are large, conical and sometimes winged.

Synonyms.

Cilifai, Cilifan, Cirfandli, Cirifai, Cirifai Piros, Cirifan, Gumpoldskirchener, Gumpoldskirchener Spätrot, Gumpoldskirchener Spätroth, Kesoei Piros, Kirmizi Zierfahndler, Nemes Cirfandli, Piros Cirfandli, Piroscirfandli, Raifler, Reifler Rot, Roter Raifler, Roter Reifler, Roter Zierfandler, Roth Hensch, Rother Raifler, Rother Zierfahndler, Rothhinschen, Rothreifler, Rotreifler, Rubiner, Spätrot, Zerjavina and Zierfandler Rot.

Zierfandler is a grape variety used to make white wine in the Thermenregion of Austria. It is also known as Spätrot ("late red") because it turns red just before harvest time. It is traditionally blended with Rotgipfler but is increasingly being sold as a single varietal wine. Zierfandler wines are typically elegant and quite sweet, but with much balancing acidity and a nutty bouquet of pistachios and almonds. They are capable of ageing well.

Zierfandler oder auch Spätrot ist eine autochthone Weißweinsorte aus Österreich, die fast ausschließlich im österreichischen Weinbaugebiet Thermenregion rund um Gumpoldskirchen angebaut wird.


Location.

Forschungszentrum Jülich is situated in the middle of the Stetternich Forest in Jülich (Kreis Düren, Rheinland) and covers an area of 2.2 square kilometres.

Financing.

The annual budget of Forschungszentrum Jülich is approximately € 530 million (in 2009). Public funds are split between the German Federal Government (90%) and the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia (10%).

Staff/size.

Forschungszentrum Jülich employs more than 5,700 members of staff (2015) and works within the framework of the disciplines physics, chemistry, biology, medicine and engineering on the basic principles and applications in the areas of health, information, environment and energy. Amongst the members of staff, there are approx. 1,500 scientists including 400 PhD students and 130 diploma students. Around 600 people work in the administration and service areas, 500 work for project management agencies, and there are 1,600 technical staff members, while around 330 trainees are completing their training in more than 20 different professions.  More than 800 visiting scientists come to Forschungszentrum Jülich every year from about 50 different countries.

Training and apprenticeships.

In 2003, 367 people were trained in 20 different professions at Forschungszentrum Jülich. The proportion of trainees lies around 9% and is more than twice as high as the German national average (for companies with more than 500 employees). In cooperation with RWTH Aachen University and Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich also offers combined practical and academic courses. After they have successfully completed their exams, graduates are offered six months employment in their chosen profession. Between 1959 and 2007 around 3,800 trainees completed their training in more than 25 different professions.  No lectures are held at Forschungszentrum Jülich itself, but in line with the so-called "Jülich model", the directors of the institutes are appointed professors at nearby universities in a joint procedure with the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia (usually Aachen, Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, but also universities farther away such as Duisburg-Essen or Münster). By holding a lectureship there, they can fulfil their teaching duties. Many other scientists at Forschungszentrum Jülich who have achieved habilitation also undertake lectureships in the nearby universities. In cooperation with the universities, what are known as "research schools" (e.g. "German Research School for Simulation Science" with RWTH Aachen University or "International Helmholtz Research School of Biophysics and Soft Matter" with the universities of Cologne and Düsseldorf) are founded in an effort to support the scientific training of students.  An exception to this is the training of mathematical-technical software developers. In cooperation with Aachen University of Applied Sciences (Campus Jülich), the lectures required for the B.Sc. in "Applied Mathematics and Computer Science" are largely held in the Central Institute for Applied Mathematics (ZAM) by university professors and ZAM instructors. For the subsequent M.Sc. in "Technomathematics", the same model applies and some of the lectures are held by ZAM staff.  Every year, Forschungszentrum Jülich hosts a two-week IFF Summer School, which addresses current issues in solid-state physics.

Structure.

Organisation.

Forschungszentrum Jülich is organised into

Bodies.

The bodies of Forschungszentrum Jülich are:

Committees.

Committees of Forschungszentrum Jülich are:

Research at Forschungszentrum Jülich.

Research at Jülich is divided into four research areas: health, information, environment, and energy. The key competencies of physics and scientific computing provide the basis for world-class research in these areas.

Large-scale facilities at Forschungszentrum Jülich.

Cooler Synchrotron COSY.

COSY (Cooler Synchrotron) is a particle accelerator (synchrotron) and storage ring (circumference: 184 m) for accelerating protons and deuterons operated by the Institute of Nuclear Physics (IKP) at Forschungszentrum Jülich.  COSY is characterised by what is known as beam cooling, which reduces the deviation of particles from their predetermined path (can also be understood as the thermal motion of particles) using electron or stochastic cooling. At COSY there are a number of experimental facilities for studies in the field of hadron physics. These include the ANKE magnetic spectrometer, the TOF flight spectrometer and the WASA universal detector, which was moved to COSY from the CELSIUS storage ring of The Svedberg Laboratoriet (TSL) in Uppsala, Sweden in 2005.  COSY is one of the only accelerators in the medium energy range with both electron cooling and stochastic cooling.  The synchrotron is used by scientists from German and international research institutions at internal and external target stations. It is one of the research facilities used for collaborative research supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany).

Research reactor FRJ-2.

FRJ-2 was a reactor of the same class as DIDO and was used for neutron scattering experiments. It has been operated by the Central Research Reactors Division (ZFR). FRJ-2 was the strongest neutron source in the Helmholtz Association and it was primarily used to conduct scattering and spectroscopic experiments on condensed matter. On May 2, 2006, FRJ-2 was shut down after almost 44 years or 18,875 days of operation. The experiments at FRJ-2 were dismantled bit by bit and transferred to Jülich's outstation at the FRM II research reactor in Garching near Munich.  In May 2006, the Jülich Centre for Neutron Science JCNS was founded as response to the shut down of FRJ-2. JCNS operates instruments at the national and international leading sources FRM II, Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble, France, and Spallation Neutron Source SNS in OakRidge, USA, under a common scientific objective and provides external users with access to world class instruments under standardized conditions. The breadth of JCNS is comparable to a facility based around a medium flux research reactor, though it offers the quality of high flux sources. JCNS also provides a frame for the method and instrument development program of FZJ and for its in-house research in the condensed matter and key technology programmes.

Supercomputers.

The following supercomputers are all operated in Jülich by the Central Institute for Applied Mathematics (ZAM) within the framework of the John von Neumann Institute for Computing (NIC).

JUGENE - Petascale BlueGene/P system.

From autumn 2007 the JUGENE, an IBM Blue Gene/P computer is running and was officially started in February 2008. Its 65,000 processors reached 220 TFLOPS. It started out as the fastest computer in Europe and the second fastest in the world. On May 26, 2009, the newly upgraded JUGENE was unveiled. It includes 294 912 processor cores, 144 terabyte memory, 6 petabyte storage in 72 racks. With a peak performance of about one PetaFLOPS, it was the third fastest computer and fastest computer in Europe and it currently (November 2010) is the ninth fastest supercomputer in the world.

JUROPA.

JuRoPA ("Jülich Research on Petascale Architecture") is an Intel Xeon X5570 based Cluster supercomputer with a peak performance of 308 TFLOPS and 79 terabyte main memory; in June 2009 it was the 10th fastest computer of the world and the second fastest (after JUGENE) in Europe. It currently (November 2010) is the 23rd fastest supercomputer worldwide.

JUBL.

JUBL ("Jülich BlueGene/L") was a massively parallel supercomputer, based on IBMs Blue Gene/L architecture, with 16,384 processors (8192 nodes each with two processors) and an internal memory of 4.1 terabytes (512 megabytes per node). It was capable of a peak performance (R) of 45.87 TFLOPS. The LINPACK performance (R) is 37.33 TFLOPS. At the time when it officially went into operation, JUBL was the 6th most powerful computer in the world.

JUICE.

Since spring 2007, JUICE (Juelich Initiative Cell Cluster) has been in operation. It is a cluster based on IBMs Cell microprocessor. Twelve QS20 blades with 24 Cell CPUs and 12GB RAM provide a peak LINPACK performance of 4.8 TFLOP/s. The cluster uses Mellanox 4x Infiniband cards and a 24-port Voltaire switch for highspeed communication.

IBM p690 Cluster Jump.

The massively parallel supercomputer IBM p690 Cluster Jump has been in operation since the beginning of 2004.  With 1312 processors (41 nodes each with 32 processors) and an internal memory of 5 terabytes (128 gigabytes per node), the computer can achieve a maximum performance of 5.6 TFLOPS, which placed it at number 21 in the list of the most powerful computers in the world at the time of its inauguration. The nodes are linked to each other through a high performance switch (HPS). Through a globally parallel data system, applications have access to more than 60 terabytes of storage space and an integrated cassette storage with a capacity of one petabyte. The IBM p690 Cluster Jump is run on the AIX 5.1 operating system.  A new building (1,000 m2) was built especially for the IBM p690 Cluster Jump beside the Central Institute for Applied Mathematics.

CRAY SV1ex.

"No longer in operation"  The vector computer CRAY SV1ex was the successor of CRAY J90, which was in operation between 1996 and 2002. It represented the next stage in the computer series of the parallel vector computers with a shared memory, CRAY X-MP, Y-MP and C90. With 16 CPUs and an internal memory of 32 gigabytes, the CRAY SV1ex had a performance of 32 GFLOPS. It was run on the UNICOS 10.0 operating system. This computer was decommissioned on June 30, 2005.

CRAY J90.

"No longer in operation"  The vector computer CRAY J90 was used as a file server. It had 12 processors, an internal memory of 2 gigabytes and boasted a performance of 3 GFLOPS. CRAY J90 was also run on UNICOS 10.0 and it too was decommissioned on June 30, 2005.

TEXTOR tokamak.

TEXTOR (Tokamak EXperiment for Technology Oriented Research) was a tokamak in the field of plasma-wall interaction operated by the Institute of Energy Research - Plasma Physics (IEK-4) at Forschungszentrum Jülich.  Until it was decommissioned in December 2013, TEXTOR was used for research into nuclear fusion. In experiments, hydrogen was heated to a temperature of up to 50 megakelvins so that it took the form of a plasma. Studies of the interaction of this plasma with the surrounding wall constituted a major part of the research performed. The knowledge gained is mainly being applied to a new experimental reactor, ITER, which is currently under construction in Cadarache (South France) with the help of Forschungszentrum Jülich among others.

Magnetic resonance tomography.

The Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-4) houses several magnetic resonance scanners, the largest of which is a 9.4 tesla combined PET-MRI machine for scanning humans, which is one of the highest field devices in Europe. The institute also houses a 3T combined PET-MR system, a 3T and a 7T MR system, all for human use, and a 9.4T small-animal scanner.

SAPHIR Atmosphere Simulation Chamber.

In the 20-meter long SAPHIR chamber (Simulation of Atmospheric PHotochemistry In a large Reaction Chamber), a group in the Institute of Chemistry and Dynamics of the Geosphere - Troposphere (ICG-II) investigates photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.

PhyTec experimental facility for cultivating plants.

Since 2003, a greenhouse with cutting-edge technology has been available at Forschungszentrum Jülich. The maximum transparency of the panels (over 95%) is achieved in the spectral range important for photosynthesis thanks to a special type of glass and an anti-reflective coating. Moreover, UV-B rays can pass through the glass panels. The CO concentration can be increased and decreased in two chambers, the humidity can be varied, and the temperatures can be kept at 25 °C, even in summer when the sun is constantly shining. Scientists at the Institute of Chemistry and Dynamics of the Geosphere - Phytosphere (ICG-III) simulate different climate scenarios here and investigate their influence on the key processes in plants, such as growth, transport, exchange processes with the atmosphere and soil, and biotic interactions.

Beamlines at synchrotrons.

The Peter Grünberg Institute (PGI) supports a number of beamlines for research with synchrotron radiation at various synchrotrons:

Further research projects at Forschungszentrum Jülich.

CLaMS: Atmosphere Model for Climate Research.

Understanding the chemical processes in the atmosphere is the basis of many climate models. Environmental researchers at Forschungszentrum Jülich investigate the chemistry of the atmosphere with airplanes, balloons and satellites. They use their findings to generate chemical models such as CLaMS, which are then used in simulations on supercomputers.

MEM-BRAIN: carbon dioxide separation.

Together with its research partners, Forschungszentrum Jülich is developing ceramic membranes. These membranes could be put to use as filters in power plants, which would separate process gases and effectively retain carbon dioxide.

UNICORE: easy access to computing resources.

Today, computing and storage resources are often split between a number of computer systems, computer centres or even between different countries. Science and industry therefore need tools that will allow easy and secure access to these resources. UNICORE from Jülich is one such grid-based software package.

Infrastructure.

As well as research institutions and large-scale facilities, Forschungszentrum Jülich has a variety of infrastructure units and central institutions that it needs for its day-to-day operations, including:

Forschungszentrum Jülich ("Jülich Research Centre") is a member of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres and is one of the largest interdisciplinary research centres in Europe. It was founded on 11 December 1956 by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia as a registered association, before it became "Kernforschungsanlage Jülich GmbH" or Nuclear Research Centre Jülich in 1967. In 1990, the name of the association was changed to "Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH". It has close collaborations with RWTH Aachen in the form of Jülich-Aachen Research Alliance (JARA).

Die Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH (FZJ) betreibt, gestützt auf die Schlüsselkompetenzen Physik und Supercomputing, interdisziplinäre Forschung in den Bereichen Gesundheit, Energie und Umwelt sowie Information. Mit rund 5800 Mitarbeitern (2018) gehört es zu den größten Forschungseinrichtungen Europas.


Teams.

The 18 teams on top of the UCI rankings at the start of 1996 automatically qualified for the Tour. Four wildcards were given, for a total of 22 teams.  The teams entering the race were:  Qualified teams Invited teams

Route and stages.

The highest point of elevation in the race was at the summit of the Sestriere climb on stage 9.

Race overview.

The prologue was won by Alex Zülle two seconds ahead of specialist Chris Boardman as overall contenders Bjarne Riis and Miguel Indurain came in sixth and seventh respectively. Zulle held onto the yellow jersey through the first few flat stages but in stage 4 a half dozen riders not in overall contention escaped in a breakaway and stayed away finishing several minutes ahead of the main field putting Stephane Heulot in the yellow jersey for a few days.  Stage six was an intermediate stage run in terrible weather conditions and was won by Dutchman Michael Boogerd. The inclement weather caused well over a dozen riders to abandon the race including Lance Armstrong who merely thought he was sick from riding in the rainy, cold weather as most of the other riders who abandoned were, but within a few months he would be diagnosed with the cancer that nearly killed him.  As the Tour entered the Alps there was a mountain ITT in stage eight which was won by Evgeni Berzin, whom had seized the lead in the overall classification following stage seven. In the time trial he finished more than thirty seconds better than Riis and gained just over a minute on Indurain, Tony Rominger and debutant Jan Ullrich who was having an impressive start to his first Tour.  Stage nine was a mountain stage that was shortened due to foul weather and was won by Riis, who in the process took enough time to put himself into yellow. He would maintain a narrow lead over the next several stages and by the time the race reached the Pyrenees Abraham Olano was in second just under a minute behind with Berzin in third, Rominger in fourth, Riis’ teammate Ullrich in fifth and five-time defending champion Miguel Indurain struggling to stay in the top ten nearly 5:00 back.  During stage sixteen Riis made a number of false attacks, even falling back and feigning exhaustion to get a look at Indurain, Rominger, Luttenberger, Virenque, Dufaux, Leblanc and Alano to read their faces before finally launching an attack on the Hautacam. He put close to a minute into most of the elite riders and beyond that into everybody else effectively winning the Tour and putting it beyond doubt that Indurain would not win his sixth tour.  Stage seventeen was won by Laurent Dufaux who in the process moved into fourth place overall, but Riis finished in the same time. A group of eight riders dropped the rest of the field in this stage and as a result Riis distanced himself from all of his rivals with his own teammate Ullrich moving into second overall and Richard Virenque moving into third place overall.  Stage nineteen ITT was the last opportunity for major changes to be made in the general classification and the stage was won by Ullrich who finished nearly a minute ahead of second-placed Indurain who had completely dominated Individual Times Trials at the Tour De France for the previous several years. Riis had plenty of time to spare and was 1:41 ahead of his teammate Ullrich in the General Classification. Richard Virenque rounded out the podium also winning the mountains classification.  Even though rider admissions and investigations in the subsequent years showed that Tours during this time period were undoubtedly tainted by doping 1996 winner Riis, 1997 winner Ullrich and 1998 winner Pantani all officially retain their Tour victories. Pantani died just a few years after his Tour victory, as a result of mental health issues resulting from constant attacks from the press and Ullrich had some results voided later in his career, but his four 2nd place finishes to Lance Armstrong and his 1996 2nd place to Riis remain on his record.

Classification leadership and minor prizes.

There were several classifications in the 1996 Tour de France. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey; the winner of this classification is considered the winner of the Tour.  Additionally, there was a points classification, which awarded a green jersey. In the points classification, cyclists got points for finishing among the best in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints. The cyclist with the most points lead the classification, and was identified with a green jersey.  There was also a mountains classification. The organisation had categorised some climbs as either "hors catégorie", first, second, third, or fourth-category; points for this classification were won by the first cyclists that reached the top of these climbs first, with more points available for the higher-categorised climbs. The cyclist with the most points lead the classification, and wore a white jersey with red polka dots.  The fourth individual classification was the young rider classification, which was not marked by a jersey. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders under 26 years were eligible.  For the team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time.  In addition, there was a combativity award given after each mass-start stage to the cyclist considered most combative. The decision was made by a jury composed of journalists who gave points. The cyclist with the most points from votes in all stages led the combativity classification. Richard Virenque won this classification, and was given overall the super-combativity award. The Souvenir Henri Desgrange was given in honour of Tour founder Henri Desgrange to the first rider to pass the summit of the Col d'Aubisque on stage 17. This prize was won by Neil Stephens.

The 1996 Tour de France was the 83rd edition of the Tour de France, starting on 29 June and ending on 21 July, featuring 19 regular stages, 2 individual time trials, a prologue and a rest day (10 July). It was won by Danish rider Bjarne Riis.

Die 83. Tour de France fand vom 29. Juni bis 21. Juli 1996 statt. Es starteten 198 Fahrer, 129 Fahrer erreichten das Ziel in Paris.


Early life and education.

Del Ponte was born in Bignasco, Switzerland, in 1947. Her first language is Italian and she speaks fluent German, French and English. Del Ponte studied law in Bern and Geneva, as well as in the United Kingdom. She obtained her LL.M. in 1972.  After completing her studies, Del Ponte joined a private law firm in Lugano, leaving in 1975 to set up her own practice.

Career.

Prosecutor in Switzerland.

In 1981, Del Ponte was appointed an investigating magistrate, and later public prosecutor at the Lugano district attorney's office. As public prosecutor, she dealt with cases of money laundering, fraud, drug trafficking, arms smuggling, terrorism and espionage, often looking into the many international links forged in Switzerland's role as a global business centre.  During her time in office, Del Ponte became well known in Europe for breaking a Sicilian Mafia money-laundering operation in Switzerland, pursuing former Soviet bloc officials who may have been stowing illegal funds in Switzerland and investigating Swiss bankers suspected of misappropriating money, in some cases in collaboration with Latin Americans. She also produced the evidence for Pakistan to bring money-laundering charges against Benazir Bhutto, a former Prime Minister, and her husband, Asif Ali Zardari.  It was during that period that she and Investigative Judge Giovanni Falcone uncovered the link between Swiss money launderers and the Italian drug trade in the so-called "pizza connection." Judge Falcone was killed by a large Mafia bomb. Del Ponte was more fortunate as the half a tonne of explosives planted in the foundations of her Palermo home were discovered in time for her to escape the attempted assassination unhurt. Falcone's death nurtured Del Ponte's resoluteness to fight organised crime. Her enemies in the Cosa Nostra call her "La Puttana" ("the whore"). She therefore became the first public figure in Switzerland to require round-the-clock protection and armour-plated car.  In 1999, Del Ponte suffered a setback when Switzerland's highest court overturned the confiscation by her office of $90 million from Swiss accounts belonging to Raúl Salinas de Gortari, the brother of a former President of Mexico. The court ruled that Del Ponte had no authority to seize the $90 million only on the suspicion that it included money from drug-trafficking. But the ruling did not absolve Salinas of the charges.

Career at the ICTY.

After serving for five years as Switzerland's attorney general, in 1999 Del Ponte joined the ICTY and ICTR to deal with war crimes as prosecutor. Del Ponte was the first experienced prosecutor to hold the job on the war crimes tribunals; her predecessors, Louise Arbour and Richard Goldstone, were both judges. At the time, Switzerland was not a member of the United Nations, which was considered an advantage for Del Ponte.  In an interview in late 2001 about war crimes committed during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s, Del Ponte said: "Justice for the victims and the survivors requires a comprehensive effort at international and national level."  As reported by Reuters on March 18, 2003, according to Del Ponte, Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić had predicted his own assassination on February 17, just weeks before it happened on March 12, 2003.  In August 2003, after being on the Rwandan genocide case for four years, Del Ponte was removed from the appointment for political reasons and replaced by Hassan Bubacar Jallow.  In an interview in Intellectum website in 2004 she boldly stated that she would like to try in ICTY Bin Laden and Saddam Hussein.  In 2005, she accused the Vatican of helping Croatia's most wanted war crimes suspect Ante Gotovina evade capture. He has since been acquitted of all charges by ICTY. The Croatian Bishops' Conference, which heads the Croatian Roman Catholic Church, dismissed Del Ponte's allegations. Its spokesman Antun Suljic said the conference "has no knowledge or indications of the whereabouts" of General Gotovina.  On January 30, 2007 Del Ponte announced her intention to resign as Chief Prosecutor at the ICTY at the end of the year, stating it was "time to return to normal life." She was succeeded by Serge Brammertz on January 1, 2008.

Career as Swiss diplomat.

Del Ponte served as Switzerland's Ambassador to Argentina from January 2008 until early 2011, when she retired.

Post-retirement.

From September 2012 to August 2017, Del Ponte was a member of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, under the auspices of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights.  In May 2013 she accused the Syrian rebels of using chemical weapons, a view diametrically opposed by the majority of Western government officials. She stated, "We still have to deepen our investigation, verify and confirm (the findings) through new witness testimony, but according to what we have established so far, it is at the moment opponents of the regime who are using sarin gas." The following day, in an apparent reaction to Del Ponte's comments, the Commission issued a press release clarifying that it "has not reached conclusive findings as to the use of chemical weapons in Syria by any parties in the conflict".  In March 2014, the Commission published a report that stated that the chemical agents used in the Khan al-Assal chemical attack bore "the same unique hallmarks as those used in Al-Ghouta" in the August 2013 chemical attack. The report also indicated, based on "evidence available concerning the nature, quality and quantity of the agents used" that the perpetrators of the Al-Ghouta attack "likely had access to the chemical weapons stockpile of the Syrian military". In none of the incidents, however, was the commission’s "evidentiary threshold" met in regards to identifying the perpetrators of the chemical attacks.  In August 2017, Del Ponte resigned from the Commission, due to frustration at the lack of support from the international community: “We could not obtain from the international community and the Security Council a resolution putting in place a tribunal, an ad hoc tribunal for all the crimes that are committed in Syria... Seven years of crime in Syria and total impunity. That is not acceptable.” She blamed Russia for vetoing action: "Now a prosecutor should continue our work and bring the war criminals before a special court. But that is exactly what Russia is blocking with its veto in the U.N. Security Council". She said that the Commission has gathered enough evidence for President al-Assad to be convicted of war crimes. Del Ponte told Syria's ambassador that she had been right to quickly reach the conclusion that Assad's government used chemical weapons during an attack on the town of Khan Sheikhoun in April 2017.

Controversy.

Comments on NATO.

In late December 1999, in an interview with "The Observer" in London, Del Ponte was asked if she was prepared to press criminal charges against NATO personnel for alleged war crimes in Kosovo by NATO pilots and their commanders. She replied, "If I am not willing to do that, I am not in the right place. I must give up my mission".  That was followed by various negative official responses, military and civilian, from the US and Canada. Del Ponte's office subsequently issued a statement dated four days later: "NATO is not under investigation by the Office of the Prosecutor of the ICTY. There is no formal inquiry into the actions of NATO during the conflict in Kosovo".

Organ smuggling allegations.

In 2008, Del Ponte published a book "The Hunt" in which she claimed that the Kosovo Albanians had smuggled human organs of kidnapped Serbs after the Kosovo war ended in 1999. Her book created an international controversy. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia stated on Del Ponte's allegations: "The Tribunal is aware of very serious allegations of human organ trafficking raised by the former Prosecutor, Carla Del Ponte, in a book recently published in Italian under her name. No evidence in support of such allegations was ever brought before the Tribunal’s judges."  On 4 April 2008, Human Rights Watch asked Kosovar Prime Minister Hashim Thaci and Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha to open investigations on the matter under international supervision. They ignored the letters and instead publicly rejected Del Ponte's claims as unsubstantiated. On 5 May 2008 Human Rights Watch called the Del Ponte allegations "serious and credible" and publicly called on Tirana and Pristina to cooperate.  Del Ponte alleged that the victims were more than 300 Serbs missing from the war. ""Serious and credible allegations have emerged about horrible abuses in Kosovo and Albania after the war,"" said Fred Abrahams, HRW Senior emergencies researcher of HRW.  In 2008, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe authorized an investigation and employed Dick Marty to report the findings to the Parliament.  According to a draft Council of Europe report cited by "The Daily Telegraph", Prime Minister Hashim Thaci was one of the key players in the traffic of organs of Serb prisoners after the 1998-99 conflict.  In November 2012, Haradinaj and all of the accused in the matter were acquitted for the second time of the accusations.  Del Ponte talked about the issue in Boris Malagurski's documentary film "The Weight of Chains 2" (2014). In the interview, she claimed that the UN Mission in Kosovo did not provide the Hague Tribunal with the necessary evidence regarding organ trafficking in Kosovo and that "NATO and the KLA, as allies in the war, couldn't act against each other".

Carla Del Ponte (born February 9, 1947) is a former Chief Prosecutor of two United Nations international criminal law tribunals. A former Swiss attorney general, she was appointed prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in August 1999, replacing Louise Arbour.

Carla Del Ponte (* 9. Februar 1947 in Bignasco, Kanton Tessin) ist eine Schweizer Juristin und Diplomatin. Sie war von 1994 bis 1998 Bundesanwältin der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft und von 1999 bis 2007 Chefanklägerin des Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes für die Kriegsverbrechen im ehemaligen Jugoslawien sowie für den Völkermord in Ruanda in Den Haag. Von 2008 bis 2011 war sie Botschafterin der Schweiz in Argentinien.


Life and career.

Sedgwick was born in Dent, Yorkshire, the third child of an Anglican vicar. He was educated at Sedbergh School and Trinity College, Cambridge.  He studied mathematics and theology, and obtained his BA (5th Wrangler) from the University of Cambridge in 1808 and his MA in 1811. On July 20, 1817 he was ordained a deacon, then a year later he was ordained as a priest. His academic mentors at Cambridge were Thomas Jones and John Dawson. He became a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge from 1818, holding the chair until his death in 1873. His biography in the Cambridge Alumni database says that upon his acceptance of the position, reverend Sedgwick had no working knowledge of geology. An 1851 portrait of Sedgwick by William Boxall hangs in Trinity's collection.  Sedgwick studied the geology of the British Isles and Europe. He founded the system for the classification of Cambrian rocks and with Roderick Murchison worked out the order of the Carboniferous and underlying Devonian strata. These studies were mostly carried out in the 1830s. The investigations into the Devonian meant that Sedgwick was involved with Murchison in a vigorous debate with Henry De la Beche, in what became known as the great Devonian controversy.  Sedgwick investigated the phenomena of metamorphism and concretion, and was the first to distinguish clearly between stratification, jointing, and slaty cleavage. He was elected to Fellow of the Royal Society on 1 February 1821. In 1844, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  As a co-trustee of the will of Ann Sill, an owner of slaves in plantations in Jamaica, in 1835 Sedgwick was awarded half of £3783 in compensation for 174 slaves, following the abolition of slavery by the British government. A liberal Whig in politics, Sedgwick had long been a passionate supporter of abolition.

Geological views and evolution.

The Church of England, by no means a fundamentalist or evangelical church, encloses a wide range of beliefs. During Sedgwick's life there developed something of a chasm between the conservative high church believers and the liberal wing. After simmering for some years, the publication of "Essays and Reviews" by liberal churchmen in 1860 pinpointed the differences. In all this, Sedgwick, whose science and faith were intertwined in a natural theology, was definitely on the conservative side, and extremely outspoken about it. He told the February 1830 meeting of the Geological Society of London:  As a geologist in the mid-1820s he supported William Buckland's interpretation of certain superficial deposits, particularly loose rocks and gravel, as "diluvium" relating to worldwide floods, and in 1825 he published two papers identifying these as due to a "great irregular inundation" from the "waters of a general deluge", Noah's flood. Sedgwick's subsequent investigations and discussions with continental geologists persuaded him that this was problematic. In early 1827, after spending several weeks in Paris, he visited geological features in the Scottish Highlands with Roderick Murchison. He later wrote "If I have been converted in part from the diluvian theory...it was...by my own gradual improved experience, and by communicating with those about me. Perhaps I may date my change of mind (at least in part) from our journey in the Highlands, where there are so many indications of local diluvial operations... Humboldt ridiculed [the doctrine] beyond measure when I met him in Paris. Prévost lectured against it." In response to Charles Lyell's 1830 publication, "Principles of Geology," which is known for promoting uniformitarian geology Sedgwick talked of floods at various dates, then on 18 February 1831 when retiring from the Presidency of the Geological Society he recanted his former belief in Buckland's theory.  He strongly believed that species of organisms originated in a succession of Divine creative acts throughout the long expanse of history. Any form of development that denied a direct creative action smacked as materialistic and amoral. For Sedgwick, moral truths (the obtainment of which separates man from beast) were to be distinguished from physical truths, and to combine these or blur them together could only lead to disastrous consequences. In fact, one's own hope for immortality may ultimately rest on it.  He stated in 1830 that Scriptural geologists proposed "a deformed progeny of heretical and fantastical conclusions, by which sober philosophy has been put to open shame, and sometimes even the charities of life have been exposed to violation." In 1834 he continued, "They have committed the folly and SIN of dogmatizing," having "sinned against plain sense," and "of writing mischievous nonsense," "Their eyes cannot bear to look upon" truth and suppose an "ignorant and dishonest" theory. They show "bigotry and ignorance," of nature's laws and natural phenomena. Henry Cole then responded in 1834 in a 136-page "letter," "Popular Geology Subversive of Divine Revelation". He referred to Sedgwick's ideas as "unscriptural and anti-Christian," "scripture-defying", "revelation-subverting," and "baseless speculations and self-contradictions," which were "impious and infidel".  While he became increasingly Evangelical with age, he strongly supported advances in geology against conservative churchmen. At the September 1844 British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at York he achieved national celebrity for his reply defending modern geology against an attack by the Dean of York, the Reverend William Cockburn, who described it as unscriptural. The entire chapter house of the cathedral refused to sit down with Sedgwick, and he was opposed by conservative papers including "The Times", but his courage was hailed by the full spectrum of the liberal press, and the confrontation was a key moment in the battle over relations between Scripture and science.  When Robert Chambers anonymously published his own theory of universal evolutionism as his "development hypothesis" in the book "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" published in October 1844 to immediate popular success, Sedgwick's many friends urged him to respond. Like other eminent scientists he initially ignored the book, but the subject kept recurring and he then read it carefully and made a withering attack on the book in the July 1845 edition of the "Edinburgh Review". "Vestiges" "comes before [its readers] with a bright, polished, and many-coloured surface, and the serpent coils a false philosophy, and asks them to stretch out their hands and pluck the forbidden fruit", he wrote in his review. Accepting the arguments in "Vestiges" was akin to falling from grace and away from God's favour.  He lashed out at the book in a letter to Charles Lyell, bemoaning the consequences of it conclusions. "...If the book be true, the labours of sober induction are in vain; religion is a lie; human law is a mass of folly, and a base injustice; morality is moonshine; our labours for the black people of Africa were works of madmen; and man and woman are only better beasts!" Later, Sedgwick added a long preface to the 5th edition of his "Discourse on the Studies of the University of Cambridge" (1850), including a lengthy attack on "Vestiges" and theories of development in general.  Charles Darwin was one of his geology students in 1831, and accompanied him on a field trip to Wales that summer. The two kept up a correspondence while Darwin was on the "Beagle" expedition, and afterwards. However, Sedgwick never accepted the case for evolution made in "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 any more than he did that in "Vestiges" in 1844. In response to receiving and reading Darwin's book, he wrote to Darwin saying:  Sedgwick regarded natural selection as  He emphasised his distinction between the moral and physical aspects of life, "There is a moral or metaphysical part of nature as well as a physical. A man who denies this is deep in the mire of folly". If humanity broke this distinction it "would suffer a damage that might brutalize it—& sink the human race into a lower grade of degradation than any into which it has fallen since its written records tell us of its history".  In a letter to another correspondent, Sedgwick was even harsher on Darwin's book, calling it ""utterly false"" and writing that "It repudiates all reasoning from final causes; and seems to shut the door on any view (however feeble) of the God of Nature as manifested in His works. From first to last it is a dish of rank materialism cleverly cooked and served up".  Despite this difference of opinion, the two men remained friendly until Sedgwick's death. In contrast to Sedgwick, liberal church members (who included biologists such as George Rolleston, William Henry Flower and William Kitchen Parker) were usually comfortable with evolution.

Links to Slavery.

Sedgwick is listed in the University college London database, Legacies of British Slave Ownership as being an awardee in receipt of £3783 1s 8d on 8th Feb 1836 for "174 Enslaved". He was one of 46,000 people paid compensation during the abolition of slavery in the United Kingdom.

Legacy.

The Sedgwick Club, the oldest student-run geological society in the world, was set up in honour of him in 1880.  On the death of Sedgwick it was decided that his memorial should take the form of a new and larger museum. There was brief, later discarded, talk of opening a Sedgwick youth summer program. Hitherto the geological collections had been placed in the Woodwardian Museum in Cockerell's Building. Through the energy of Professor T. McK. Hughes (successor to Sedgwick) the new building, termed the Sedgwick Museum, was completed and opened in 1903.  In 1865, the University of Cambridge received from A. A. Van Sittart the sum of 500 pounds sterling "for the purpose of encouraging the study of geology among the resident members of the university, and in honour of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick". Thus was founded the Sedgwick Prize to be given every third year for the best essay on some geological subject. The first Sedgwick Prize was awarded in 1873. After that, the controversy of the brochure ended the prize giving.  To celebrate the bicentenary of Sedgwick's birth a geological trail was created near Dent, the village where he was born and developed his passion for geology (amongst other things). The Sedgwick Trail follows the River Clough, highlighting rock features and exploring the Dent Fault.  Mount Sedgwick in British Columbia, Canada, was officially named after him in 1951.

Adam Sedgwick (; 22 March 1785 – 27 January 1873) was a British geologist and priest, one of the founders of modern geology. He proposed the Cambrian and Devonian period of the geological timescale. Based on work which he did on Welsh rock strata, he proposed the Cambrian period in 1835, in a joint publication in which Roderick Murchison also proposed the Silurian period. Later in 1840, to resolve what later became known as the Great Devonian Controversy about rocks near the boundary between the Silurian and Carboniferous periods, he and Murchison proposed the Devonian period.

Adam Sedgwick (* 22. März 1785 in Dent, Yorkshire; † 27. Januar 1873 in Cambridge) war einer der Begründer der modernen Geologie. Er schlug sowohl die Devon- als auch die Kambrium-Periode als Bestandteile für die geologischen Zeitskala vor. Der letztere Vorschlag basierte auf den stratigraphischen Forschungen, die er in Wales vorgenommen hatte.


Parishes.

Administratively, the municipality is divided into 4 civil parishes ("freguesias"):

General information.

The area has been settled since at least Neolithic times, as evidenced by excavations at places such as the artificial caves of Casal do Pardo and the Castro of Chibanes. The town's name comes from its Roman founder, Cornelius Palma ("Palmella"). Palmela, once a fortress, was conquered by the Portuguese in the 12th century. A semi-rural town, it is located up a hill in the Arrábida area, right in the middle of Portugal's biggest urban area. Many people are moving in from big cities like Lisbon. Wild fires in the region are a threat to the environment.  The castle, Castelo de Palmela, offers a unique view over the whole region of the Setúbal Peninsula, Lisbon, and the Atlantic Coast. It was a strategic place in past centuries, and today it is still a main juncture of Portugal's road and rail networks.  Palmela is home to many multinational industrial plants like Volkswagen and Coca-Cola, and a significant number of foreign families live in the area. The local radio often broadcasts in Ukrainian.  Palmela's traditional products are the wine, which has achieved international awards in several festivals like Bordeaux's, and the "Queijo de Azeitão" (Azeitão's cheese). There are several festivals dedicated to these products, the most famous being the "Festa das Vindimas" (Vines' Festival) and the "Festival do Queijo, Pão e Vinho" (Festival of Cheese, Bread and Wine).  Palmela is the birthplace of the Portuguese explorer Hermenegildo Capelo. Some other famous individuals such as Hans Christian Andersen were briefly hosted there.

Economy.

The municipality is famous for its production of fruit and wine.  In the 1990s, the joint-venture Volkswagen-Ford AutoEuropa vehicle production plant opened, to produce the Mk1 MPV sold under three marques: Volkswagen Sharan, SEAT Alhambra and Ford Galaxy. After Ford left the joint venture, the plant has since continued to produce the Volkswagen and SEAT products, and added the Volkswagen Eos, Volkswagen Scirocco and Volkswagen T-ROC.

Palmela () is a town and a municipality in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 62,831, in an area of 465.12 km2.

Palmela ist eine Kreisstadt ("Vila") in Portugal. Der Landkreis ("Concelho") von Palmela gehört zum Distrikt Setúbal und hat Einwohner (Stand ).


Standard for the exchange of product model data

Overview.

The international standard's objective is to provide a mechanism that is capable of describing product data throughout the life cycle of a product, independent from any particular system. The nature of this description makes it suitable not only for neutral file exchange, but also as a basis for implementing and sharing product databases and archiving.  Typically STEP can be used to exchange data between CAD, computer-aided manufacturing, computer-aided engineering, product data management/enterprise data modeling and other CAx systems. STEP addresses product data from mechanical and electrical design, geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, analysis and manufacturing, as well as additional information specific to various industries such as automotive, aerospace, building construction, ship, oil and gas, process plants and others.  STEP is developed and maintained by the ISO technical committee TC 184, "Automation systems and integration", sub-committee SC 4, "Industrial data". Like other ISO and IEC standards STEP is copyright by ISO and is not freely available. However, the 10303 EXPRESS schemas are freely available, as are the recommended practices for implementers.  Other standards developed and maintained by ISO TC 184/SC 4 are:  STEP is closely related with PLIB (ISO 13584, IEC 61360).

History.

The basis for STEP was the Product Data Exchange Specification (PDES), which was initiated during the mid-1980's and was submitted to ISO in 1988. The Product Data Exchange Specification (PDES) was a data definition effort intended to improve interoperability between manufacturing companies, and thereby improve productivity.  The evolution of STEP can be divided into four release phases. The development of STEP started in 1984 as a successor of IGES, SET and VDA-FS. The initial plan was that "STEP shall be based on one single, complete, implementation-independent Product Information Model, which shall be the Master Record of the integrated topical and application information models". But because of the complexity, the standard had to be broken up into smaller parts that can be developed, balloted and approved separately. In 1994/95 ISO published the initial release of STEP as international standards (IS) with the parts 1, 11, 21, 31, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 101, AP 201 and AP 203. Today AP 203 Configuration controlled 3D design is still one of the most important parts of STEP and supported by many CAD systems for import and export.  In the second phase the capabilities of STEP were widely extended, primarily for the design of products in the aerospace, automotive, electrical, electronic, and other industries. This phase ended in the year 2002 with the second major release, including the STEP parts AP 202, AP 209, AP 210, AP 212, AP 214, AP 224, AP 225, AP 227, AP 232. Basic harmonization between the APs especially in the geometric areas was achieved by introducing the Application Interpreted Constructs (AIC, 500 series).  A major problem with the monolithic APs of the first and second releases is that they are too big, have too much overlap with each other, and are not sufficiently harmonized. These deficits led to the development of the STEP modular architecture (400 and 1000 series). This activity was primarily driven by new APs covering additional life-cycle phases such as early requirement analysis (AP 233) and maintenance and repair (AP 239), and also new industrial areas (AP 221, AP 236). New editions of the previous monolithic APs on a modular basis have been developed (AP 203, AP 209, AP 210). The publication of these new editions coincided with the release in 2010 of the new ISO product SMRL, the STEP Module and Resource Library, that contains all STEP resource parts and application modules on a single CD. The SMRL will be revised frequently and is available at a much lower cost than purchasing all the parts separately.  In December 2014, ISO published the first edition of a new major Application Protocol, AP 242 "Managed model based 3d engineering", that combined and replaced the following previous APs in an upward compatible way:  AP 242 was created by merging the following two Application protocols:  In addition AP 242 edition 1 contains extensions and significant updates for:  Two APs had been modified to be directly based on AP 242, and thus became supersets of it:  The development of a second edition of AP 242 has started which is extending the scope for electrical harness.

Structure.

STEP is divided into many parts, grouped into  In total STEP consists of several hundred parts and every year new parts are added or new revisions of older parts are released. This makes STEP the biggest standard within ISO. Each part has its own scope and introduction.  The APs are the top parts. They cover a particular application and industry domain and hence are most relevant for users of STEP. Every AP defines one or several Conformance Classes, suitable for a particular kind of product or data exchange scenario. To provide a better understanding of the scope, information requirements and usage scenarios an informative application activity model (AAM) is added to every AP, using IDEF0.  STEP is primarily defining data models using the EXPRESS modeling language. Application data according to a given data model can be exchanged either by a STEP-File, STEP-XML or via shared database access using SDAI.  Every AP defines a top data models to be used for data exchange, called the "Application Interpreted Model" (AIM) or in the case of a modular AP called "Module Interpreted Models" (MIM). These interpreted models are constructed by choosing generic objects defined in lower level data models (4x, 5x, 1xx, 5xx) and adding specializations needed for the particular application domain of the AP. The common generic data models are the basis for interoperability between APs for different kinds of industries and life cycle stages.  In APs with several "Conformance Classes" the top data model is divided into subsets, one for each Conformance Class. The requirements of a conformant STEP application are: Originally every APs was required to have a companion Abstract test suite (ATS) (e.g. ATS 303 for AP 203), providing Test Purposes, Verdict Criteria and Abstract Test Cases together with example STEP-Files. But because the development of an ATS was very expensive and inefficient this requirement was dropped and replaced by the requirements to have an informal validation report and recommended practices how to use it. Today the recommended practices are a primary source for those going to implement STEP.  The "Application Reference Models" (ARM) is the mediator between the AAM and the AIM/MIM. Originally its purpose was only to document high level application objects and the basic relations between them. IDEF1X diagrams documented the AP of early APs in an informal way. The ARM objects, their attributes and relations are mapped to the AIM so that it is possible to implement an AP. As APs got more and more complex formal methods were needed to document the ARM and so EXPRESS which was originally only developed for the AIM was also used for the ARM. Over time these ARM models got very detailed till to the point that some implementations preferred to use the ARM instead of the formally required AIM/MIM. Today a few APs have ARM based exchange formats standardized outside of ISO TC184/SC4:  There is a bigger overlap between APs because they often need to refer to the same kind of products, product structures, geometry and more. And because APs are developed by different groups of people it was always an issue to ensure interoperability between APs on a higher level. The "Application Interpreted Constructs" (AIC) solved this problem for common specializations of generic concepts, primarily in the geometric area. To address the problem of harmonizing the ARM models and their mapping to the AIM the "STEP modules" were introduced. They contain a piece of the ARM, the mapping and a piece of the AIM, called MIM. Modules are built on each other, resulting in an (almost) directed graph with the AP and conformance class modules at the very top. The modular APs are:  The modular editions of AP 209 and 210 are explicit extensions of AP 242.

Coverage of STEP Application Protocols (AP).

The STEP APs can be roughly grouped into the three main areas design, manufacturing and life cycle support.  Design APs:  Manufacturing APs:  Life cycle support APs:  The AP 221 model is very similar to the ISO 15926-2 model, whereas AP 221 follows the STEP architecture and ISO 15926-2 has a different architecture. They both use ISO-15926-4 as their common reference data library or dictionary of standard instances. A further development of both standards resulted in Gellish English as general product modeling language that is application domain independent and that is proposed as a work item (NWI) for a new standard.  The original intent of STEP was to publish one integrated data-model for all life cycle aspects. But due to the complexity, different groups of developers and different speed in the development processes, the splitting into several APs was needed. But this splitting made it difficult to ensure that APs are interoperable in overlapping areas. Main areas of harmonization are:  For complex areas it is clear that more than one APs are needed to cover all major aspects:  STEP programs

ISO 10303 is an ISO standard for the computer-interpretable representation and exchange of product manufacturing information. Its official title is: "Automation systems and integration — Product data representation and exchange". It is known informally as "STEP", which stands for "Standard for the Exchange of Product model data". ISO 10303 can represent 3D objects in Computer-aided design (CAD) and related information.

STEP ("STandard for the Exchange of Product model data") ist ein Standard zur Beschreibung von Produktdaten. Er umfasst neben den physischen auch funktionale Aspekte eines Produktes. STEP ist formal in der ISO-Norm 10303 definiert. Aufgrund der Standardisierung ist er für den Datenaustausch zwischen verschiedenen Systemen geeignet. Innerhalb von STEP können Produktdateninformationen des gesamten Lebenszyklus abgebildet werden.