Description.

Most species of "Lonicera" are hardy twining climbers, with a minority of shrubby habit. Some species (including "Lonicera hildebrandiana" from the Himalayan foothills and "L. etrusca" from the Mediterranean) are tender and can only be grown outside in subtropical zones. The leaves are opposite, simple oval, 1–10 cm long; most are deciduous but some are evergreen. Many of the species have sweetly scented, bilaterally symmetrical flowers that produce a sweet, edible nectar, and most flowers are borne in clusters of two (leading to the common name of "twinberry" for certain North American species). Both shrubby and vining sorts have strongly fibrous stems which have been used for binding and textiles. The fruit is a red, blue or black spherical or elongated berry containing several seeds; in most species the berries are mildly poisonous, but in a few (notably "Lonicera caerulea") they are edible and grown for home use and commerce. Most honeysuckle berries are attractive to wildlife, which has led to species such as "L. japonica" and "L. maackii" spreading invasively outside of their home ranges. Many species of "Lonicera" are eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species—see a list of Lepidoptera that feed on honeysuckles.

Invasive species.

The spread of "L. japonica" in North America began in the United States in 1806, when it was widely cultivated by the 1860s. It was first discovered in Canada in Ontario forests in 1976, and became invasive by 2007. "L. japonica" was introduced in Australia between 1820-40.  Several species of honeysuckle have become invasive when introduced outside their native range, particularly in North America, Europe, South America, Australia, and Africa. Invasive species include "L. japonica", "L. maackii", "L. morrowii", "L. tatarica", and the hybrid between the last two, "L." × "bella".

Cultivation.

Honeysuckles are valued as garden plants, for their ability to cover unsightly walls and outbuildings, their profuse tubular flowers in early summer, and the intense fragrance of many varieties. The hardy climbing types need their roots in shade, and their flowering tops in sunlight or very light shade. Varieties need to be chosen with care, as they can become substantial. Cultivars of the dense, small-leaved "L. nitida" are used as low, narrow hedges.  The following hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:  Other cultivars are dealt with under their species names.  The honeysuckle species "Lonicera japonica" is grown as a commercial crop for traditional Chinese medicine use.

Phytochemicals and sensory effects.

Honeysuckle is renowned for its colorful, fragrant flowers and variously colored fruit, indicating the presence of complex phytochemicals underlying these properties. Component analyses of berries from 27 different cultivars and 3 genotypes of edible honeysuckle ("Lonicera caerulea" var. "kamtschatica") showed the presence of iridoids, anthocyanins, flavonols, flavanonols, flavones, flavan-3-ols, and phenolic acids. While sugars determine the level of sweetness in the berries, organic acids and polyphenols are responsible for the sour taste and tartness. Some 51 of the same compounds in berries are found in flowers, although the proportions of these compounds varied among cultivars studied.

Interaction with other species.

Many insects in the order Lepidoptera visit honeysuckles as a food source. An example of this is the moth "Deilephila elpenor". This nocturnal species of moth is primarily attracted to honeysuckles, and they visit the flowers at night to feed on their nectar.

Selected species.

Some 180 species of "Lonicera" are documented.

Honeysuckles ("Lonicera", ; syn. "Caprifolium" Mill.) are arching shrubs or twining vines in the family Caprifoliaceae, native to northern latitudes in North America and Eurasia. Approximately 180 species of honeysuckle have been identified in North America and Eurasia. Widely known species include "Lonicera periclymenum" (common honeysuckle or woodbine), "Lonicera japonica" (Japanese honeysuckle, white honeysuckle, or Chinese honeysuckle) and "Lonicera sempervirens" (coral honeysuckle, trumpet honeysuckle, or woodbine honeysuckle). "L. japonica" is an aggressive, highly invasive species considered as a significant pest on the continents of North America, Europe, South America, Australia, and Africa.

Die Heckenkirschen und Geißblätter ("Lonicera") sind eine Pflanzengattung in der Familie der Geißblattgewächse (Caprifoliaceae). Die etwa 180 Arten sind auf der Nordhalbkugel weitverbreitet.


Plot.

An old artisan in a Middle Eastern town finds himself the brunt of abuse from the townspeople, due to his hunch-back. The children, who call him wicked, chase him and corner him in his shop. He locks them in and tells them they can only leave once they have listened to his story. It turns out the old man used to be called Little Muck in his youth. As a boy, Muck is kind and benevolent, despite being discriminated against by everyone.  When his caring father dies, his greedy relatives ransack his house and threaten Muck. Muck escapes and sets out in search of a merchant who can supposedly sell happiness. He wanders across the desert, only to find the house of a wicked woman who traps him. Before escaping he takes her magical boots and staff. These boots allow Muck to run faster than anyone else in the land.  He immediately seeks out the Sultan, and with the help of his boots, he becomes the Sultan's chief runner, delivering messages. His staff also has the power to find buried treasure. His employment with the Sultan leads to the youth encountering some ethical problems. Eventually, he is framed for thievery and thrown out. Despite these circumstances, Muck returns and helps his virtuous friend, Hassan, win the heart of the lovely Princess Amarza.  Once Muck has finished his retrospective, the children display a newfound respect for him, and they help him with his work.

Themes.

There are several morals to be found in the film. The film's main antagonists are agents of greed and occasionally senseless violence, such as the Sultan when he declares war on a neighbouring state for no other reason than the planet's orbit. The sultan exclaims: "You have the audacity to tell me that the sun comes up earlier in the neighboring country of sultan Wasil Husain than in mine?" The Sultan also lives a life of excessive luxury, and is largely apathetic to the misfortunes of others. He once claims "I counted the slaves in the bath today. There were only 31! I'm not going to have to dry myself, am I?"  Muck's relatives are also excessively greedy and disrespectful to Muck's father. The moment the old man dies, these relatives show up and threaten an obviously traumatized Muck.  Conversely, Muck remains generous and kind throughout the movie. He feels sympathy for the runner he puts out of work, he frees a slave girl, and he even defies the Sultan's orders by disregarding the declaration of war he was supposed to deliver.  Despite these exploits, he is still a social pariah, up until he shares his story with everyone else. These instances of social commentary are fairly subtle throughout, and the film remains light-hearted and whimsical.

Reception.

From the movie's release in 1953 to the fall of the GDR in East Germany, "Kleinen Muck" remained the number one selling film of the Ministry of Foreign Trade. It attracted 12,998,153 viewers in the country alone.  Director Wolfgang Staudte was originally slotted to work on the film "Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder", but due to disagreements, he never started work on the project and took up "Kleinen Muck" as an interim project.

Filmic techniques and diegesis.

The film's fictional world is whimsical and fanciful. The colours of the sets are bright throughout the film, with the exception of a brief dungeon scene. Most of the camera-work is done at close range, and there are very few panoramas in the film. The background sets are often intentionally exaggerated. Ideal middle-eastern towns border with sand dunes and lush palaces in an escapist representation of the Orient.  The costumes and make-up are equally exaggerated, probably due to the film not taking itself too seriously. The cast is for the most part German, and these German actors are tasked with portraying Arabs. The make-up is fairly obvious, while the hair-styles and clothes donned by the film's antagonists are meant to be sources of light ridicule. Special effects are also used, specifically with regards to the story's magical elements. Muck's incredible speed is shown as he runs in fast-forward. His staff hovers, and donkeys' ears grow out of heads.  Despite the film's production in a totalitarian state, the film does not contain any obvious propaganda or political messages. The dialogue and events of the diegesis remain apolitical throughout.

Die Geschichte vom Kleinen Muck (English: The Story of Little Muck) is a 1953 feature film directed by Wolfgang Staudte, adapted from the 19th century fairy tale, "Little Muck", written by Wilhelm Hauff. It was most successful film in East Germany.

Die Geschichte vom kleinen Muck (Verweistitel: "Der kleine Muck") ist ein DEFA-Märchenfilm. Er entstand 1953 in der DDR unter der Regie von Wolfgang Staudte und gilt als die erfolgreichste Produktion der DEFA-Filmgeschichte. Die Handlung beruht auf dem Märchen "Die Geschichte von dem kleinen Muck" von Wilhelm Hauff und erzählt von einem kleinen Jungen, der mit Zauberpantoffeln und einem magischen Stock auf der Suche nach dem Kaufmann ist, der das Glück zu verkaufen hat.


Early life.

Zoeppritz was born on 22 October 1881 in Mergelstetten, a small village several miles south of Heidenheim an der Brenz. He studied natural science and geology at the universities of Munich and Freiburg, finishing his education with a doctoral dissertation on the geology of part of the Swiss Alps in 1905, at the University of Freiburg. Following the completion of his doctorate, in the summer of 1906 in Karlsruhe, Zoeppritz passed the "Oberlehrerexamen", a teaching certificate that allowed him to lecture at a University.

Work in geophysics.

Zoeppritz became interested in the application of physics in geology, but the field of geophysics was still in its infancy. The only place in Germany where Zoeppritz could specifically study geophysics was at the University of Göttingen, as an assistant in the influential Emil Wiechert's research group.  Using Wiechert's theoretical work and data from earthquakes including the 1905 Kangra earthquake, 1905 Calabria earthquake and the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Zoeppritz's most important early contribution was the construction of travel-time curves - and their associated velocity-depth functions - for P-waves, S-waves and surface waves, recognising for the first time that body waves are reflected and converted at discontinuities. These curves were later used by other members of the research group, Ludwig Carl Geiger and Beno Gutenberg, as well as the British astronomer and seismologist Herbert Hall Turner at the International Seismological Summary. The related ill-posed inverse problem of inferring a discrete velocity distribution, representing the layers of the crust and mantle, was solved by fellow Göttingen mathematician Gustav Herglotz.  Zoeppritz used Wiechert's work and went on to derive a full set of transmission and reflection coefficients for a plane wave approaching a discontinuity. Zoeppritz was not the first to mathematically describe this phenomenon as the British seismologist Cargill Gilston Knott used a different approach to derive Knott's equations in 1899, but this was still unknown in Germany by the 1920s. The equations that Zoeppritz described are now named after him (Zoeppritz equations) and are used extensively in reflection seismology (particularly amplitude versus offset), for a number of applications including hydrocarbon exploration.

Death and legacy.

In the summer of 1908, at the age of 26, Zoeppritz died after succumbing to an infectious illness of several months. He accomplished all of his work at Göttingen in just two years, but much of it was left unpublished at the time of his death. Much of the unpublished work was revised and published by Wiechert, Gutenberg and Geiger, with his most important work that described the reflection and transmission of seismic waves in elastic media - the Zoeppritz equations - not being published until 1919.  In 2002, the German Geophysical Society (DGG) began awarding the Zoeppritz Prize to outstanding young geophysicists.

Karl Bernhard Zoeppritz (22 October 1881 – 20 July 1908) was a German geophysicist who made important contributions to seismology, in particular the formulation of the Zoeppritz equations.

Karl Bernhard Zoeppritz (* 22. Oktober 1881 in Mergelstetten; † 20. Juli 1908 in Göttingen) war ein deutscher Geowissenschaftler und Seismologe.


Modern glitter.

The first production of modern plastic glitter is credited to the American machinist Henry Ruschmann, who found a way to cut sheets of plastic such as mylar into glitter in 1934. During World War II, glass glitter became unavailable so Ruschmann found a market for scrap plastics, which were ground into glitter. He founded Meadowbrook Inventions, Inc., in Bernardsville, New Jersey, and the company is still a producer of industrial glitter. Decades later he filed a patent for a mechanism for cross-cutting films as well as other related inventions.  Today over 20,000 varieties of glitter are manufactured in a vast number of different colors, sizes, and materials. Over of glitter were purchased between the years of 1989 and 2009 alone. Commercial glitter ranges in size from a side. First, flat multi-layered sheets are produced combining plastic, coloring, and reflective material such as aluminium, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, and bismuth oxychloride. These sheets are then cut into tiny particles of many shapes including squares, triangles, rectangles, and hexagons.

Ancient glitter.

Glittering surfaces have been found to be used since prehistoric times and the arts and in cosmetics. The modern English word "glitter" comes from the Middle English word "gliteren," possibly by way of the Old Norse word "glitra." However, as early as 30,000 years ago, mica flakes were used to give cave paintings a glittering appearance. Prehistoric humans are believed to have used cosmetics, made of powdered hematite, a sparkling mineral.  8,000 years ago people of the Americas were using powdered galena, a form of lead, to produce a bright greyish-white glittering paint used for objects of adornment. The collecting and surface mining of galena was prevalent in the Upper Mississippi Valley region by the Cahokia native peoples, for regional trade both raw and crafted into beads or other objects.  From 40,000 BC to 200 BC, ancient Egyptians, produced "glitter-like substances from crushed beetles" as well as finely ground green malachite crystal. Researchers believe Mayan temples were sometimes painted with red, green, and grey glitter paint made from mica dust, based on infrared scans of the remnants of paint still found on the structures in present-day Guatemala.

Uses.

Prior to fabrics made with modern glitter, sequins were sewn or woven on to fabric to give it a glittering appearance. Edible glitter made from gum arabic and other ingredients is even used by culinary artists.  Glitter is used in cosmetics to make the face and nails shiny or sparkly. Additionally, it is commonly used in arts and crafts to color, accessorise and texture items. The small, brightly colored particles often stick to clothing, skin, and furniture, and can be difficult to remove. It is also used on optically variable inks.  Glitter coatings or finishes are frequently used on fishing lures to draw attention by simulating the scales of prey fish.  Due to its unique characteristics, glitter has also proven to be useful forensic evidence. Because of the tens of thousands of different commercial glitters, identical glitter particles can be compelling evidence that a suspect has been at a crime scene. Forensic scientist Edwin Jones has one of the largest collections of glitter consisting of over 1,000 different samples used in comparison of samples taken from crime scenes. Glitter particles are easily transferred through the air or by touch, yet cling to bodies and clothing, often unnoticed by suspects.

Subculture.

Glitter can be seen as a tool of fashion used by various subcultures, as it allows for a visible statement to be worn and seen on the body. This is because it has been theorized to be a "flickering signifier", or something that destabilizes known notions of popular culture, identity, and society. Glitter is associated with "fringe cultures", which often use excessive glam and glamor such as glitter to evoke a deeper understanding between the relationships of commercialized popular culture and "high" culture, or "high-brow" art.  Used by glam rockers, such as David Bowie, Gary Glitter, and Iggy Pop glitter is also used as a tool to help blur gender lines. This helped to create the more extreme "Glitter Rock" – an even more heightened version of glam rock.  Glitter is also used by nail artists and make-up artists to make statements about femininity and beauty standards. The flashy, sparkling nature of glitter allows users to push standard ideas of beauty and what is and isn't considered "excessive" in terms of make-up. Glitter is usually associated with nightlife and not professionalism, but wearing it in different settings can push these boundaries.  Glitter is also used for glitter bombing, which is an act of protest in which activists throw glitter on people at public events. Glitter bombers have frequently been motivated by, though not limited to, their targets' opposition to same-sex marriage. Some legal officials argue glitter bombing is technically assault and battery. It is possible for glitter to enter the eyes or nose and cause damage to the cornea or other soft tissues potentially irritating them or leading to infection, depending on the size of the glitter. Whether a prosecutor would pursue the charges depends on a number of factors.

Environmental Impact.

Trisia Farrelly, an environmental anthropologist at Massey University, has called for a ban on glitter made of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) and aluminium, as it is a microplastic that can break down into hormonal disruptors in the environment. Furthermore, plastic glitter takes about one thousand years to biodegrade, according to Victoria Miller, a materials and engineering scientist at North Carolina State University. When dozens of British music festivals pledged to ban single-use plastics by 2021, the proposed ban included plastic glitter.  Biodegradable glitter made from eucalyptus tree extract is metaled with aluminium and can be coloured. It is "40% softer and more delicate on the skin than conventional glitter," and it decomposes in soil or water. Cellulose glitter is also available.  According to Dr. Chris Flower, Director-General of the Cosmetic Toiletry and Perfumery Association, "the total contribution to marine plastic litter from glittery cosmetic products is negligible when compared to the damaging effects of bags and bottles... [The] total effect of giving up traditional glitter might not be great in comparison with other harmful plastics, we should still do everything we can."

Glitter is an assortment of small, reflective particles that come in a variety of shapes and colors. Glitter particles reflect light at different angles, causing the surface to sparkle or shimmer. Glitter is similar to confetti, sparkles, or sequins, but somewhat smaller.

Glitter ist ein Gemisch aus sehr kleinen Papier-, Glas-, Plastik- oder Metallstreifen. Er wird unter anderem in Kunst, Handwerk und im Design benutzt und erzeugt eine Vielfalt von oft metallischen, fluoreszierenden oder irisierenden Farben. Glitter sollte nicht mit Konfetti, Flitter und Paillette verwechselt werden.


Etymology and taxonomy.

The killdeer was described in 1758 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his "Systema Naturae" as "Charadrius vociferus", its current scientific name. Linnaeus' description was based on a 1731 account of it by English naturalist Mark Catesby in his "The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands", where he called it the "chattering plover". The genus name "Charadrius" is Late Latin for a yellowish bird mentioned in the fourth-century Vulgate Bible. This word derives from the Ancient Greek "kharadrios", a bird found in ravines and river valleys ("kharadra", "ravine"). The specific name " vociferus " is Latin, coming from "vox", "cry", and " ferre", "to bear".  There are three subspecies:  The killdeer's common name comes from its frequently heard call.

Description.

The killdeer is a large plover, with adults ranging in length from, having a wingspan between about, and usually being between in weight. It has a short, thick, and dark bill, flesh-colored legs, and a red eye ring. Its are mostly brown with rufous fringes, its cap, back, and wings being the former color. It has a white forehead and a white stripe behind the eye, and its lores and the upper borders to the white forehead are black. The killdeer also has a white collar with a black upper border. The rest of the face is brown. The breast and belly are white, with the exception of two black breast bands. It is the only plover in North America with two breast bands. The rump is red, and the tail is mostly brown. The latter also has a black subterminal band, a white terminal band, and barred white feathers on the outer portion of the tail. In flight, a white wing stripe at the base of the flight feathers is visible.  The female's mask and breast bands tend to be browner than those of the male. The adult of the subspecies "Charadrius vociferus ternominatus" is smaller and paler and greyer than the nominate, and the subspecies "C. v. peruvianus" is smaller than the nominate and has more extensive rufous feather fringes. The juvenile is similar to the adult. The upperparts of the chicks are colored dusky and buff. Their underparts, forehead, neck, and chin are white, and they have a single band across their breast.  The killdeer is a vocal species, calling even at night. Its calls include nasal notes, like "deee", "tyeeee", and "kil-deee" (the basis of its common name). During display flights, it repeats a call of "kil-deer" or "kee-deeyu". When this plover is disturbed, it emits notes in a rapid sequence, such as "kee-di-di-di". Its is a long, fast trill.

Habitat and distribution.

The nominate subspecies of the killdeer breeds in the US (including southeastern Alaska), southern Canada, and Mexico, with less widespread grounds further south, to Panama. Some northern populations are migratory. This bird is resident in the southern half of its breeding range, found throughout the year in most of the contiguous United States. It also winters south to Central America, the West Indies, Colombia, Ecuador, and islands off Venezuela, leaving its breeding grounds after mid-July, with migration peaking from August to September. Migration to the breeding grounds starts in February and ends in mid-May. The subspecies "Charadrius vociferus ternominatus" is thought to be resident in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Virgin Islands. "C. v. peruvianus" is seen year-round in west Ecuador, Peru, and extreme northwestern Chile.  The killdeer uses beach habitats and coastal wetlands and fields during the non-breeding season. It forages almost exclusively in these fields, especially those with short vegetation and with cattle (which likely shorten the vegetation) and standing water. When breeding, the killdeer has a of about, although this is generally larger when nesting more than away from water. Although generally a low-land species, it is found up to the snowline in meadows and open lakeshores during its autumn migration.

Behavior.

Breeding.

The killdeer forms pairs on its breeding grounds right after arriving. Both sexes (although the male more often than the female) advertise in flight with loud "killdeer" calls. The male also advertises by calling from a high spot, scraping out a dummy nest, and with killdeer flights, where it flies with slow wingbeats across its territory. Ground chases occur when a killdeer has been approached multiple times by another killdeer; similarly, flight chases occur when an individual has been approached from the air. Both are forms of territorial defense.  The killdeer nests in open fields or other flat areas with short vegetation (usually below tall), such as agricultural fields and meadows. Nests are also sometimes located on rooftops. This plover frequently breeds close to where it bred the previous year. The male seems to usually renest in the same area regardless of whether or not it retains the same mate. This does not appear to be true of the female, which has been observed to not use the same territory if it does not have the same mate. The nest itself is merely a shallow depression or scrape in the ground, fringed by some stones and blades of grass. It is generally built with white nesting material instead of darker colors; the function of this is suspected to either help keep the nest cool or conceal it. In a study of piping plovers, the former function was supported, as nests were to cooler than the surrounding ground. The latter function also had some support, as the plovers generally chose pebbles closer in color to the eggs; nests that contrasted more with the ground suffered more predation. When nesting on rooftops, the killdeer may choose a flat roof, or build a nest of raised gravel, sometimes lined with white pebbles or pieces of seashells.  The eggs of the killdeer are typically laid from mid-March to early June in the southern portion of the range, and from mid-April to mid-July in the northern part. In both cases, the breeding season itself extends to about August. In Puerto Rico, and possibility in other Caribbean islands, breeding occurs year-round.  The killdeer lays a clutch of four to six eggs that are buff to beige in color, with brown markings and black speckles. The eggs are about in size, and laid at intervals of 24 to 48 hours. The energy expenditure of both sexes is at its highest during egg-laying; the female needs to produce eggs, and the male needs to defend its territory. Both of the sexes are closer to the nest site than usual during egg-laying and incubation, although the male is generally closer than the female during all stages of breeding. This latter fact is likely due to the male's increased investment in nest-site defense. Up to five replacement clutches can be laid, and there are occasionally two broods. Second broods are usually laid in nesting territory of the first brood. The eggs are incubated for 22 to 28 days by both the male and the female, with the former typically incubating at night. The time dedicated to incubation is related to temperature, with one study recording that killdeer incubated eggs 99% of the time when the temperature was about, 76% of the time around, and 87% of the time at about. When it is hot (above at least ), incubation cools the eggs, generally through shading by one of the parents. About 53% of eggs are lost, mainly to predators. The young are precocial, starting to walk within the first days of their life. After they hatch, both parents lead them out of the nest, generally to a feeding territory with dense vegetation under which the chicks can hide when a predator is near. The chicks are raised, at least in single-brood pairs, by both parents, likely because of the high failure rate of nests and the need for both parents to be present to successfully raise the young. In these broods, the young are usually attended by one parent at a time (generally the female) until about two weeks of age, after which both parents are occasionally seen together with the chicks. Otherwise, the non-attentive adult is at least about away from the chicks. Periods of attentiveness for each parent generally last from about one to one and a half hours. When the chicks are young, this is mainly spent standing; as the chicks get older, less time is dedicated to standing. When the young are below two weeks of age, the attending adult spends little time feeding; foraging time increases as the chicks grow. The non-attentive adult defends the young most of the time when they are less than a week old, but this task steadily shifts onto the attentive adult, until about three weeks of age, when the attending parent does almost all of the defense. One parent at a time broods the chicks, and does so frequently until they are two days old. The young are brooded during rain until about 15 days after hatching and during night for about 18 days after hatching. The only time when they are not in the presence of a parent is when the parents are mating or responding to a predator or aggressive conspecific.  When a pair has two broods, the second is usually attended by just the male (who is able to hatch the eggs on his own, unlike the female). In this case, the male does not spend most of the time standing; the amount of time it does stand, though, stays constant as the chicks age. Like attentive adults in two parent broods, the sole parent increases the time spent foraging as the young age.  The young fledge about 31 days after hatching, and generally move to moister areas in valleys and on the banks of rivers. They may be cared for by their parents for up to 10 days after they fledge, and exceptionally for 81 days after hatching. About 52% to 63% of nests fail to produce any fledged young. Breeding starts after one year of age. The killdeer has a maximum lifespan of at least 10 years and 11 months.

Feeding.

The killdeer feeds primarily on insects (especially beetles and flies), in addition to millipedes, worms, snails, spiders, and some seeds. It opportunistically takes tree frogs and dead minnows. It forages almost exclusively in fields (no matter the tide), especially those with short vegetation and with cattle (which likely shorten the vegetation) and standing water. Standing water alone does not have a significant effect on field choice unless combined with cattle. Viable disseminules can be recovered from killdeer feces, indicating that this bird is important in transporting aquatic organisms.  The killdeer uses visual cues to forage. An example of this is "foot-trembling", where it stands on one foot, shaking the other in shallow water for about five seconds, pecking at any prey stirred up. When feeding in fields, it sometimes follows plows to take earthworms disturbed to the surface. The female forages significantly more than the male during most stages of breeding. The former feeds the most before and during egg-laying, the least when incubation starts (as there is little time to feed), with a return to high levels after. During the non-breeding season, the killdeer forages during the night, depending on the lunar cycle. When the moon is full, it feeds more at night and roosts more during the day. Foraging at night has benefits for this bird, including increased insect abundance and reduced predation.

Predators and parasites.

The killdeer is parasitized by acanthocephalans, cestodes, nematodes, and trematodes. It is preyed upon by herring gulls, common crows, raccoons, and striped skunks. The mentioned birds and other avian predators are the majority of predators in some areas during the breeding season. Predation is not limited to eggs and chicks: mustelids, for example, can kill incubating adults.

Responses to predators.

The parents use various methods to distract predators during the breeding season. One method is the "broken-wing display", also known as "injury feigning". Before displaying, it usually runs from its nest, making alarm calls and other disturbances. When the bird has the attention of the predator, the former turns its tail towards the latter, displaying the threatening orange color of the rump. It then crouches, droops its wings, and lowers its tail. With an increasing intensity, the wings are held higher, the tail is fanned out, and the tail becomes more depressed. Another behavior that has received attention is the "ungulate display", where the adult raises its wings, exposes its rump, lowers its head, and charges at the intruder. This can be fatal to the displaying bird.  The intensity of the responses to predators varies throughout the breeding season. During egg-laying, the most common response to predators is to quietly leave the nest. As incubation starts and progresses, the intensity of predator responses increases, peaking after hatching. This is probably because it is worth more to protect the young then, as they are more likely to fledge. After hatching, reactions decrease in intensity, until a normal response is calling. This is because the young become more independent as they age.

Status.

The killdeer is considered a least-concern species by the IUCN. This is due to its large range of about and population, estimated by the IUCN to be about one million birds, or about two million, according to the Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Even though the population is declining, it is not decreasing fast enough to be considered a vulnerable species. It is protected in the US by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, and in Canada by the Migratory Birds Convention Act.

The killdeer ("Charadrius vociferus") is a large plover found in the Americas. It was described and given its current scientific name in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his "Systema Naturae". There are three subspecies. The killdeer's common name comes from its often-heard call. Its are mostly brown with rufous fringes, the head has patches of white and black, and there are two black breast bands. The belly and the rest of the breast are white. The nominate (or originally described) subspecies breeds from southeastern Alaska and southern Canada to Mexico. It is seen year-round in the southern half of its breeding range; the subspecies "C. v. ternominatus" is probably resident in the West Indies and "C. v. peruvianus" inhabits Peru and areas of the surrounding countries throughout the year. North American breeders winter from their resident range south to Central America, the West Indies, and the northernmost portions of South America.

Der Keilschwanz-Regenpfeifer ("Charadrius vociferus") ist eine amerikanische Vogelart aus der Familie der Regenpfeifer (Charadriidae). In Europa ist der Keilschwanz-Regenpfeifer ein seltener Irrgast. Er wird gelegentlich durch Herbst- und Winterstürme an die ostatlantischen Küsten verdriftet.


History and architecture.

Since it opened in 1992 – originally shaped like a container – Kunsthalle Wien, as an urban institution, presents national and international contemporary art. In this respect, it is both a location for established art and negotiation site for current societal issues as well as future developments.  In the beginning, Kunsthalle Wien was a makeshift structure. Conceptualized as a temporary edifice in the shape of a container by Adolf Krischanitz. The initially rather controversial yellow container structure eventually changed the local art and exhibition scene.  In May 2001, Kunsthalle Wien moved into its new headquarters, designed by the architect duo Ortner & Ortner, at the Museumsquartier. For this headquarters the Winterreithalle (winter riding arena) of the Hofstallungen (Imperial Mews) was extended by a functional annex which combines the historic building with contemporary architecture. Two halls with different interior profiles provide space for exhibitions of contemporary art. The entrance area was remodeled and the building extensively renovated in 2013, rendering the original spatial concept visible again. In 2001, the yellow container at Karlsplatz was replaced by a glass pavilion.

Art education and dramaturgy.

Kunsthalle Wien offers a range of programs to acquaint various target groups with the subjects and queries of contemporary art and stimulate audiences to explore the potential of fine arts. In cooperation with cultural institutions, schools, teachers, artists, and curators, the Kunsthalle Wien art education department has been developing a variety of projects and activities – among them special seminars, workshops and the "Denkfabrik" (Think Tank). The Kunsthalle Wien dramaturgy department is a novelty in a contemporary art institution. It connects the various levels of Kunsthalle Wien, with its diverse exhibition formats and audiences, on a curatorial and educational level and thus helps to shape Kunsthalle Wien’s long-term concepts.

Corporate design.

The corporate design of Kunsthalle Wien has been developed by the Belgian graphic designer and artist Boy Vereecken. Vereecken's approach links two different design elements associated with the city: the grid of the Wiener Werkstätte and the eagle from the federal capital's coat of arms. The logo of Kunsthalle Wien combines a graphically contentual derivation with an ironically playful execution to take account of an institution that always questions itself, experiments, and changes. 2014 Kunsthalle Wien won the German Design Award in the category "Communication Tool" with its new visual appearance, centring on an eagle that is constantly presented in different ways.

Exhibitions.

Kunsthalle Wien organizes several thematic group exhibitions, solo shows, festivals, conferences, and displays art in the public space each year at both venues. Among them:

Kunsthalle Wien is the exhibition hall for contemporary art in Vienna. At its two locations in the MuseumsQuartier and at Karlsplatz, it shows themed group exhibitions, and solo presentations of established and upcoming artists to provide insight into the Austrian and international art scene.

Die Kunsthalle Wien ist das Ausstellungshaus der Stadt Wien für internationale zeitgenössische Kunst und Diskurs mit den Standorten MuseumsQuartier und Karlsplatz. Sie stellt unterschiedliche Formen internationaler Gegenwartskunst aus und entwickelt dafür neue Formate des Ausstellens und Kommunizierens. Die Kunsthalle Wien verfügt über keine eigene Sammlung, sondern widmet sich stattdessen mit ihren wechselnden Einzel-, und Themenausstellungen der Präsentation von Kunst und der Reflexion von Kunst und Kultur.


Components.

Universities.

All four campuses are comprehensive, separately accredited, land-grant/research-intensive institutions offering undergraduate, graduate, and professional degree programs.

Health care.

The University of Missouri Health Care system operates several facilities in central Missouri, including University Hospital (the only Level I trauma center in central Missouri) and Ellis Fischel Cancer Center (the only hospital in Missouri specializing in cancer treatment). It is also closely affiliated with MU's School of Medicine, University of Missouri School of Health Professions, and Sinclair School of Nursing.  It employs 4,515 employees.

Extension.

Using science-based knowledge, University of Missouri Extension engages people to understand change, solve problems and make informed decisions.  MU Extension makes university education and information accessible for:  University of Missouri Extension is a partnership of the University of Missouri-Columbia, Lincoln University, the people of Missouri through county extension councils, and the National Institute for Food and Agriculture of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.  MU Extension offers distance learning, Mizzou Online, continuing education, evening classes. Programs in agriculture, natural resources, lawn and garden, home and consumer life, nutrition and health, families and relationships, community and leadership, business and careers, and emergency management are available through offices throughout the state.

Research and technology parks.

As part of its economic development mission to support high-tech growth in Missouri, the UM System owns and operates 10 research parks throughout the state.

Press.

The University of Missouri Press was established in 1958 and today publishes over 70 titles per year, including several series such as the "Missouri Biography Series". It also distributes books for the Missouri Historical Society Press.

Students organization.

The Associated Students of the University of Missouri is a student run organization that represents the students of all four UM system campuses in Jefferson City and Washington, D.C. It was created in 1975 by the Missouri Students Association. ASUM has an internship program that lobbies the Missouri General Assembly on a regular basis pertaining to student issues including equalizing the Access Missouri tuition grant, increasing funding for the Bright Flight Scholarship, and giving the student representative to the UM Board of Curators a vote.

Administration.

Organization.

The UM System is governed by a board of curators, consisting of nine members appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Missouri Senate. Curators serve six-year terms, staggered by three positions expiring every two years. Not more than one curator can be appointed from the same congressional district, and no more than five curators can belong to the same political party. In addition, there is a non-voting student representative to the board, likewise appointed and confirmed, who serves a two-year term. The post is rotated among the four universities. Presently, the post is held by Avery Welker from the S&T campus.  The board of curators selects the president of the system, who reports to the board along with the general counsel. Each campus is led by a chancellor who reports to the president, as does an executive vice president, four vice presidents, and a chief of staff. The president chairs the University of Missouri Health System advisory board.

Presidents.

There have been ten presidents of UM System since its inception in 1963. Prior to the formation of the system, the position of president was more akin to what is now chancellor of the Columbia campus. However, the UM System counts presidents who served before the system was created, therefore the numbering starts at 14. See University of Missouri#Presidents and chancellors for a list of presidents from 1841–1963 and chancellors from 1963–present. This list does not include all interim presidents.

History.

The University of Missouri was founded in 1839 in Columbia. It was the first public institution of higher learning west of the Mississippi River. It became a land-grant university after passage of the Morrill Act of 1862. In 1870, the University established the "Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy" in Rolla.  The UM System was created in 1963 when the University of Kansas City, which had been a private institution, was acquired and renamed "University of Missouri-Kansas City". That same year, a new university named University of Missouri-"St. Louis" was created. In 1964, the "School of Mines" ‡ was renamed "the University of Missouri-Rolla", and the original university in Columbia was renamed "University of Missouri-Columbia". Effective January 1, 2008, "UM–Rolla" became the "Missouri University of Science and Technology".

Naming.

Since its founding in 1839 until the formation of the system in 1963, the institution in Columbia was known simply as the University of Missouri. When the University of Missouri System was established, the existing institutions—the University of Missouri in Columbia and its offshoot, the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy in Rolla were renamed the University of Missouri–Columbia and the University of Missouri–Rolla. The formerly private institution acquired by the system, the University of Kansas City, was renamed the University of Missouri–Kansas City. The newly created institution in St. Louis was suitably named the University of Missouri–St. Louis, thus creating a uniformly named system of institutions.  The original generic name, the University of Missouri, was not officially assigned to any of the schools or the system. However, it has been commonly used both formally and informally to mean the original Columbia campus or the system. It has also been used to mean any of the other three campuses, though this is most often done in a casual manner at the campus in question, or by persons unfamiliar with the system. All four campuses have felt their regional designations potentially cause them to be mistaken as second-tier regional institutions. Considerable controversy over use of the generic name has been caused by the Columbia campus claiming de facto ownership, further marginalizing the other three campuses.  The Rolla campus was first to enact a break from regional designation. On 6 April 2007, the Board of Curators approved a proposal to rename the school the Missouri University of Science and Technology, effective 1 January 2008. In addition to ridding itself of a regional designation, it also emphasizes the school's technological research mission. This quickly catalyzed a long-dormant "name restoration" campaign at the Columbia campus to drop its regional designation. This proposal met with considerable criticism, mainly from the Kansas City and St. Louis campuses, who saw this as unnecessary or unfair and an intentional detriment to their campuses. On 29 November 2007, the Board of Curators voted unanimously to allow the Columbia campus to use the generic University of Missouri name for essentially all public purposes, but not when dealing with "official business" such as budget documents, legal contracts, and other internal UM System documentation, or whenever clarification from the system or other campuses is needed. Use of the generic name is not compulsory and the Columbia designation may continue to be used in any context. The decision also stipulates that the UM System utilize the "System" designation in most instances. Proponents of the change say that it simply provides clarification and recognizes what has always been common usage, but the issue remains controversial.  Southwest Missouri State University sought and eventually was granted permission to drop its regional designation and become Missouri State University. This change was initially vehemently opposed by the UM System, as it saw this as a threat to its funding and its stature as the premier public institution of higher learning in Missouri. It also would create historic entanglements, as the University of Missouri had interchangeably used the Missouri State University name at times in its history. This resulted from MU being designated as both a land grant and a research institution, unlike states such as Iowa where separate institutions (University of Iowa and Iowa State University) were created.

Proposed merger.

In April 2003, Northwest Missouri State University in Maryville approached the UM System with the possibility of becoming the fifth school in the system. Name proposals for the university after the merger, such as the University of Missouri–Northwest, were to reflect the school's separate heritage. The Maryville institution would have become a doctoral degree-granting research university of equal stature with the existing UM System universities. However, the enabling legislation before the Missouri General Assembly never passed and the deal sunset. There have been no further attempts at a merger.

2015 racial controversies, protests, and resignations.

In 2015, Wolfe was the subject of criticism from a variety of groups over his failure to address a series of racist incidents at the University of Missouri, including students openly using racial slurs towards minority student leaders, and an October incident where feces was used to draw a swastika, drawing condemnation from black and Jewish student organizations. In November 2015, Missouri's Legion of Black Collegians announced that approximately thirty athletes would not participate in any team activities unless Wolfe resigned. On November 8, 2015, the Missouri Student Association joined in calling for Wolfe's resignation.  On November 9, 2015, Wolfe resigned at a special Board of Curators meeting that morning. In a statement, he said, "My motivation in making this decision comes from a love of Columbia where I grew up and the state of Missouri. I thought and prayed over this decision. It is the right thing to do.... The frustration and anger I see is real and I don't doubt it for a second.... I take full responsibility for the actions that have occurred. I have asked everybody to use my resignation to heal. Let's focus in changing what we can change today and in the future, not what we can't change in the past."

The University of Missouri System is a state university system providing centralized administration for four universities, a health care system, an extension program, and ten research and technology parks. Nearly 70,000 students are currently enrolled at its four campuses. The health care system operates several hospitals and clinics in central Missouri, while the extension program provides distance learning and other educational initiatives statewide.

Die University of Missouri ist ein System staatlicher Forschungsuniversitäten im US-Bundesstaat Missouri. Sie besteht aus vier Campus: Alle vier Campus haben die gleiche Bedeutung und die Diplome werden zentral durch die University of Missouri vergeben. Columbia ist der Hauptcampus für Vollzeit-Studien und Forschung, der Rolla-Campus wird hoch angesehen durch sein Ingenieur-Studiengänge und die Campus in Kansas City und St. Louis bestehen aus einem großen Teil aus Teilzeitstudenten. Alle Campus könnten den Doktorgrad vergeben.


Early life.

Kunene was born in Durban, in the modern province of KwaZulu-Natal. From very early he began writing poetry and short stories in Zulu, and by age eleven he was being published in local papers. He later undertook a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Natal in Zulu and history and later a Master of Arts in Zulu Poetry. His Master's thesis was titled "An Analytical Survey of Zulu Poetry, Both Traditional and Modern". There he criticized the changing nature of Zulu literature, and its emulation of the Western tradition. He won a Bantu Literary Competition in 1956 and left for London to study at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London in 1959.

Career.

He opposed the apartheid government as the head of the African United Front. Fleeing into exile from the country in 1959, he helped push for the anti-apartheid movement in Britain between 1959-1968. Kunene was closely affiliated with the African National Congress, quickly becoming their main representative in Europe and the United States in 1962. He would later become the director of finance for the ANC in 1972. He became a Professor of African literature at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1975 after lecturing in a number of universities as a cultural advisor for UNESCO. He remained at UCLA for nearly two decades, retiring in 1992.

Literary works.

Kunene wrote and published poetry from very early in his life. His works were written originally in Zulu and then translated into English. In 1966, his works were banned by the Apartheid government of South Africa. In 1970, Kunene published "Zulu Poems," an anthology of poems ranging from "moral reflection to political commentary." In "Emperor Shaka the Great", published in English in 1979, Kunene tells the story of the rise of the Zulu under Shaka. "World Literature Today" contributor Christopher Larson described it as "a monumental undertaking and achievement by any standards." This extremely nationalistic work charted the growth of the Zulu nation under Shaka, as he reforms the military and the nation and conquers many of the tribes around Zululand.  "Anthem of the Decades:A Zulu Epic" published in English in 1981 tells the Zulu legend of how death came to mankind. In 1982, Kunene published a second collection of poems titled "The Ancestors and the Sacred Mountain: Poems" containing 100 of his poems. This collection had a particular emphasis on socio-political topics.  "Unodumehlezi Kamenzi" was published in 2017 on the tenth anniversary of his death. This book is the isiZulu edition of "Emperor Shaka the Great" and embraces Kunene's original dream to have his poem published as intended in the original isiZulu form.

Late life.

Kunene returned to South Africa in 1992, where he taught at the University of Natal until his retirement. UNESCO made him Africa's poet laureate in 1993 and in 2005 he became South Africa's first poet laureate.

Death.

Kunene died on 11 August 2006 in Durban, after a lengthy bout of cancer. He was survived by his wife and four children.

Bibliography.

Poetic works:

Mazisi (Raymond) Kunene (12 May 1930 – 11 August 2006) was a South African poet best known for his poem "Emperor Shaka the Great". While in exile from South Africa's apartheid regime, Kunene was an active supporter and organizer of the anti-apartheid movement in Europe and Africa. He would later teach at UCLA and become Africa's and South Africa's poet laureate.

Mazisi Raymond Kunene (* 12. Mai 1930 in aMahlongwa, Natal; † 11. August 2006 in Durban) war ein südafrikanischer Dichter, Schriftsteller und Bürgerrechtler.


Collection.

With more than 6 million books (more than 150 kilometres of bookshelves), the Royal Library of Belgium is the biggest library in the country. It contains:  The library has 6 “special” divisions, namely the precious works, maps and plans, sheet music, manuscripts, coins, and medals. It also serves as a collection point of Dutch-language artworks. The initial basis of the collections were the library of Charles van Hulthem, acquired in 1837, and the library of the City of Brussels, acquired in 1842.

Important funds.

Made up of around 60 smaller collections concerning music, the music department is a significant resource for the study of music history in Belgium and abroad. The most representative pieces are part of collections of François-Joseph Fétis, Eugène Ysaÿe, Henri Vieuxtemps, Marc Danval, Yves Becko, Denijs Dille, Flor Peeters or also Edgar Tinel.

Music Division.

The Royal Library of Belgium's Music Division is considered one of Belgium's most important centers for the preservation and study of music-related documents. The Music Division maintains a rich and varied collection composed of hundreds of thousands of manuscript and printed scores, about 100,000 sound recordings, a large collection of correspondence, printed works, concert programmes, posters, photographs and other iconographic documents, not to mention varied objects such as medals, busts, casts, music instruments. Although most music-related documents in the Royal Library are held in the Music Division, certain additional works are held in the Manuscript, Rare Books and Prints and Engravings divisions of the Library.  The Music Division was founded in 1965, building upon the more than 5,000 printed and manuscript documents that made up the private collection of the important 19th century Belgian musicologist François-Joseph Fétis, acquired by the Royal Library in 1872. This Fétis Collection is an important source for the study of early music, and holds a number of important documents such as the autograph manuscript of Johann Sebastian Bach's BWV 995 – Suite in G minor. Among the oldest pieces of the Fétis Collection are several late 15th century manuscripts by theorist Johannes Tinctoris.  The Music Division maintains an active policy of acquisitions through donations and purchase of documents linked with Belgian musical figures such as André-Ernest-Modeste Grétry, Henri Vieuxtemps, César Franck, Eugène Ysaÿe and Guillaume Lekeu, not to mention other European figures such as Albert Roussel, Darius Milhaud, Franz Liszt, Béla Bartók and Edvard Grieg. More recently, the purchase of the Marc Danval and Eric Mathot collections enriched the Music Division's collections with tens of thousands recordings and scores of jazz, salon and other popular music from Belgium and abroad.  Through legal deposit, the Music Division also acquires a considerable number of musicological works and scores printed in Belgium. The Music Division assumes an active role within various international associations, notably IAML, RILM and RISM.  The non-profit organization "Archives Béla Bartók de Belgique" was created in 2002 and has its headquarters in the Music Division.

The Librarium of the Royal Library of Belgium.

The Librarium is a permanent exhibition dedicated to the history of books. The Librarium consists of 6 halls each shedding a different light on carriers of writing. In the first hall the book emergence is introduced. The whole room is dedicated to show the relation between word and image. The collection material is changed every three months. Moreover, the exhibition shows furnished rooms of Henry van de Velde, Michel de Ghelderode and Émile Verhaeren.

The Royal Library of Belgium (,, abbreviated KBR and sometimes nicknamed in French or in Dutch) is the national library of Belgium. The library has a history that goes back to the age of the Dukes of Burgundy. In the second half of the 20th century, a new building was constructed on the Mont des Arts in central Brussels, near the Central Station. The library owns several collections of historical importance, like the famous Fétis archives, and is the depository for all books ever published in Belgium or abroad by Belgian authors.

Die Königliche Bibliothek Belgiens (auch: "Königliche Bibliothek zu Brüssel";, abgekürzt: "KBR") ist die Nationalbibliothek des Königreichs Belgien. Sie befindet sich in Brüssel.


The Cosmas Chronicle.

Perhaps the earliest mention of the Duke (as "Crocco") is in the "Chronica Boëmorum", which was originally written in Latin. After Cosmas describes the manner of the first inhabitants of Bohemia, whom at first lived very simply, did not know alcohol, marriages, private property or weapons. After a time, however, they then began to flourish injustice and envy. And, according to Cosmas, the people had "neither the judge nor the prince". So, Krok rose amongst the people, who was described by Cosmas as "a man known for his age, absolutely perfect, rich and worldly in his judgements, and sophisticated. This wonderful man had no male heirs, but rather three daughters, whom nature had granted the treasures of wisdom".  However, this is the last Cosmas says of Krok, except to describe his daughters and their own exploits. Later chroniclers would expand upon this, for example, Václav Hájek of Libočan, who writes about the death of Forefather Cech. He writes that when Cech died he tried to pass the leading the Czech people to his brother Lech, who refused, and recommended Krok in his place.

History.

František Palacký argued that the figure of Krok was influenced by the ruler Sámo; however, other authors, eager to prove a supposed Celtic origin of the Czech people, have been quick to say that the name Krok may have arisen from the Celtic name Crocco. Other theorists suggest a connection with Prince Krak, the mythical founder of Kraków.

Duke Krok is a legendary figure in Czech history, being the first judge, or duke, of the Czech people. He was also the father of Princess Libuše and her sisters Kazi and Teta.

Krok (auch Croccus oder Krokus) ist eine Gestalt der böhmischen Mythologie. Die Erzählungen schildern ihn als einen weisen und reichen Mann, der als Richter im ganzen Land geachtet war. Er ist nach dem Urvater Čech der zweite Herrscher, den die Überlieferung kennt. Krok ist Vater von drei Töchtern:


History.

Following the independence of Somalia in 1960, Gaalkacyo was made the center of Galkayo District and the capital of Mudug region.

Geography.

Location.

Galkayo is situated in north-central Somalia, in the heart of the Mudug region. Nearby settlements include to the east Godad (7.1 nm), to the northeast Bali Busle (16.2 nm), to the north Halobooqad (4.4 nm), to the northwest Beyra (12.8 nm), to the west Xera Jaale-bayra (23.8 nm), to the southwest Saaxo (30 nm), to the south Laascadale (10.2 nm), and to the southeast Arfuda (13.0 nm). The largest cities in the country most proximate to Galkayo are Hobyo (217 km), Garowe (219 km) and Qardho (358 km). Shimbiris, the highest peak in Somalia, is located some 432 km to the north in the Cal Madow mountain range.

Climate.

Galkayo has a hot arid climate (Köppen "BWh").

Administration.

Galkayo is situated in the north-central part of Somalia, and is one of the most developed towns in the region. The city is divided into four main districts called Garsoor, Hormar, Israac is part of Puntland., and Wadajir districts respectively.  Although relatively stable compared to southern Somalia, sporadic targeted assassination attempts by Al-Shabaab militants against Puntland public officials led in 2010–2011 to a police crackdown and comprehensive administrative reform. The Puntland and Galmudug administrations subsequently signed an accord in Garowe in February 2011, officially agreeing to cooperate on security, economic and social matters so as to strengthen inter-regional relations.

Services.

A lively trading city, Galkayo is a center for local business. Hotels, guest houses, restaurants, supermarkets and newly erected office blocks earmarked for the government and NGOs line the streets, juxtaposed by the tall minarets of masjids. The city also offers numerous social services such as hospitals, petrol stops and police stations, with the former Somali Army barracks kept in good condition and renovated.  Moreover, Galkayo is a hub of calligraphic art, serving as a training ground of sorts for local visual artists. Elaborate murals and phrases in Arabic and English adorn the walls of the city's many office and shop buildings.

Demographics.

It has an estimated population of 245,000 inhabitants as of 2015. Somalia Clan tensions in the area have historically been high. Puntland areas of the city such as Israac, Hormar and Garsoor neighborhoods of Galkayo is primarily inhabited by Somalis from the Umar Mahmoud sub clans Majeerteen (Darood), Carab Salah (Meheri), mohamed ali and muse Ali sub clans Leelkase (Darood) clans. The Leelkase, and Majeerteen are mainly the dominant clans in many parts of Galkayo. Three of the four quarters in the city, Israac, Horumar and Garsoor, controlled by Puntland, accounts for majority of the population in Galkacyo.  Neighborhood of Wadajir in southern area of the city is mainly inhabited by the Sa'ad Habar Gidir, a Hawiye clan. The Saleban Abdalle sub-clan of the Dir are well represented.

Education.

Galkayo has a number of academic institutions. According to the Puntland Ministry of Education, there are 40 primary schools in the Galkayo District. Among these are the Axmed Guray school in Israac, named after Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmed Gurey); Al-Qudus in Horumar; and Barkhadle in Garsoor, built in honour of the 13th century scholar and saint Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn (Aw Barkhadle). Puntland secondary schools in the area include Haji Ali Bihi, Cumar Samatar Secondary School (CSSS), Yasin Nor Hassan and Galkayo High. In addition, several new schools were opened in 2012.  Institutions of higher learning with a presence in the city include the Puntland State University (PSU), Puntland University of Science and Technology (PUST), Galkayo University (GU), and Mudug University (MU). East Africa University (EAU) also has a Galkayo branch, one of its seven campuses in Puntland. Additionally, the public Galkayo Vocational Training Centre (GVTC) and the privately owned Mudug Vocational Training Center (MVTC) provide technical training.

Sports.

Galkayo is home to Abdullahi Issa Stadium, a sporting facility which is named in memory of Abdullahi Issa, the first Prime Minister of Somalia. The stadium hosts to many local football clubs including FC YAMAYS, RPS FC, Dowladda Hoose FC, Homboboro FC, Telecom FC and Galcom FC. In addition, the city has various courts set aside for basketball. It soccer fields and volleyball.

Transportation.

Air transportation in Galacyo is served by the Abdullahi Yusuf Airport, operated by Puntland and Oshaco International Airport operated by Galmudug. In September 2013, the Somali federal government signed an official cooperation agreement with its Chinese counterpart in Mogadishu as part of a five-year national recovery plan. The pact will see the Chinese authorities reconstruct several major infrastructural landmarks in the Somali capital and elsewhere, as well as the road linking Galkayo with Burao.

Media.

Various media organizations are based in Galkayo. These include Radio Daljir, Radio Galmudug and Radio Codka-Mudug. Radio Gaalkacyo, formerly known as Radio Free Somalia, also broadcasts from the city.

Accommodation.

Several establishments in Galkayo offer accommodation. Among these hotels and guest houses are the Kamaal Hotel, the Classic Hotel and Restaurant, and the Saylan Hotel. The Taar City Hotel is especially noted for its domesticated ostriches.

Neighborhoods.

Galkayo consists of the following neighborhoods: Israac, Horumar, Garsoor and Wadajir.

Galkayo (,, also known in Italian as Gallacaio or formerly Rocca Littorio) is the capital of the north-central Mudug region of Somalia. The city of Galkayo is divided into two administrative areas separated by a distinct boundary, with 3 of the 4 districts governed by the Puntland State and one southern district governed by Galmudug state. It is the third largest city in the whole of Somalia.

Gaalkacyo (auch Galcaio oder Galkayo geschrieben; italienisch ) ist eine Stadt mit etwa 62.000 Einwohnern in Zentral-Somalia. Sie liegt im Landesinneren und ist Hauptstadt der Region Mudug.


Biography.

Born in Saxony, Mummert volunteered for the army of Imperial Germany in 1914, upon the outbreak of the First World War. He was commissioned a reserve "leutnant" (lieutenant) two years later and was awarded the Iron Cross, 2nd Class, a Prussian decoration. He left the army after the end of the war but in 1936 he joined the "Heer" (Army) branch of the Wehrmacht. Initially posted to the 11th Infantry Regiment as a "leutnant", Mummert transferred to 10th Cavalry Regiment in 1938 with the rank of "Rittmeister" (captain of cavalry). In 1939, he was appointed commander of AA.256, an "Aufklärungsabteilung" (reconnaissance unit) attached to an infantry division.

World War II.

Mummert participated in the Wehrmacht's early campaigns of World War II and by mid-1940, he had been awarded the Iron Cross as well as a Clasp to the Iron Cross, both awards instituted by Nazi Germany. In January 1942, having been promoted to major, he was awarded the German Cross in Gold. Later that year he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.  Mummert later led the 14th Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion of the reformed 14th Panzer Division, the original having been destroyed in the Battle of Stalingrad. His leadership style often saw him on the frontlines with his infantry and engaged in close combat, and he received several badges in recognition of this; the Panzer Badge and Close Combat Clasp, both in bronze, as well as the Tank Destruction Badge for Individual Combatants. He was given command of the 14th Panzer Division's 103rd Panzer Grenadier Regiment in January 1944. Promoted to "Oberstleutnant" (lieutenant colonel), he was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross. Nine months later, and now an "oberst" (colonel), he briefly led the 14th Panzer Division as its temporary commander. In October 1944, he was awarded the Swords to the Knight's Cross, the 107th recipient of this award.  In January 1945, Mummert took command of the newly formed Panzer Division "Müncheberg" and was promoted to "generalmajor" (equivalent to the rank of brigadier general in the United States Army) on 1 February. His new unit, which was beginning to assemble in the area west of Berlin, was a division in name only and had relatively few armoured vehicles. It was activated in March 1945 and dispatched to the Eastern Front and defended Soviet attempts to cross the Oder River. It later fought in the Battle of Seelow Heights and had to gradually withdraw into Berlin and was engaged in fighting around the Zoobunker and the Tiergarten. Following the destruction of the last of his division's tanks near the Brandenburg Gate, Mummert was wounded on 1 May. Despite this he remained in command until his surrender to the Soviets on 4 May. After the war, he was held in a prisoner of war camp in Russia where he died in 1950.

Werner Mummert (31 March 1897 – 28 January 1950) was a general in the German Wehrmacht during World War II who commanded Panzer Division "Müncheberg". A veteran of World War I, he was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. Mummert surrendered to the Soviets in May 1945 and died in a prisoner of war camp five years later.

Werner Mummert (* 31. März 1897 in Lüttewitz; † 28. Januar 1950 im Lager Šuja, Sowjetunion) war ein deutscher Generalmajor der Wehrmacht im Zweiten Weltkrieg.


Life.

In his youth he was Oberstallmeister and Geheimer Rat in the council of Mary of Orange (1642–1688), sister-in-law of the Great Elector and wife of Pfalzgraf Ludwig Heinrich von Simmern (1640–1674). On her death he transferred to the service of Frederick III of Brandenburg, where he rose quickly through the ranks - in 1691 he became Schlosshauptmann of Berlin, in 1694 Hauptmann der Dompropstei Havelberg, in 1696 Oberstallmeister and Oberkammerherr.  On the fall of first minister Eberhard von Danckelmann in 1697 he became minister and finance minister and quickly eliminated his competitors Hans Albrecht von Barfus and Paul von Fuchs via targeted intrigue and filled important court posts with his henchmen. On 18 January 1701, at Frederick's coronation in Königsberg, it was Johann who was allowed to place the purple cloak on him, and in the same year he became prime minister. His course was marked by a proliferation in the offices he was awarded - along with those already mentioned, he also held the offices of marshal of the kingdom of Prussia, protector of the Royal Academy, chancellor of the Order of the Black Eagle, Oberstallmeister, Oberaufseher of the royal castles, Oberhauptmann of all the Schatullenämter, postmaster general. Moreover, he did not hold these offices one after the other, but instead all at once, in a kind of personal union, thus making him able to fill the court with systematic corruption and enrich himself shamelessly.  He was also assisted by his wife Catharina Rickert (1670, Lobith - 1734, The Hague). She was of middle-class origin, as the daughter of a tax collector for the Brandenburg court to the Duchy of Cleves in Emmerich am Rhein. She came to Berlin as wife to Kammersekretär Peter Biedekap and there fell in love with Johann. After their marriage, she became the king's official mistress. Johann's son Kasimir (1699) later became a general under Frederick William I of Prussia.  In 1704 the king successfully petitioned the Holy Roman Emperor to promote Johann to the rank of Reichsgraf of Wartenberg. Johann and his ministers, Oberhofmarschall Graf August von Wittgenstein (14 April 1663 – 1735) and Generalfeldmarschall Graf Alexander Hermann von Wartensleben (1650–1734) − the "three great W(oes)" of Prussia (Wartenberg, Wartensleben, Wittgenstein) – raised and wasted national taxation. For example, Johann made August Reichsgraf zu Sayn-Wittgenstein director of salt mines in 1705, and then used the opportunity to raise the salt tax and thus increase his receipts. He also introduced taxes on wigs, hats, stockings and carriages, as well as the precursor of a coffee tax (whoever wanted tea, coffee or cocoa had to acquire a license, costing two taler a year). Wartenberg was also a member of the "der Bessere" company.  As the population's troubles mounted, crown-prince Frederick William intervened and Johann's cabal fell. In 1711 Johann was released from government service and retired to his estates.

Johann Kasimir Kolbe, "Graf" von Wartenberg (6 February 1643, in Wetterau – 4 July 1712, in Frankfurt am Main) was the first ever Minister-President (effectively Prime Minister) of the kingdom of Prussia, and the head of the "Cabinet of Three Counts".

Johann Kasimir Kolb(e) von Wartenberg, seit 1695 Freiherr, ab 1699 Graf (* 6. Februar 1643 in Metz; † 4. Juli 1712 in Frankfurt am Main) war ein preußischer Premierminister und führender Kopf des Drei-Grafen-Kabinetts.


Overview.

Cheek dimples when present, show up when a person makes a facial expression, such as smiling, whereas a chin dimple is a small line on the chin that stays on the chin without making any specific facial expressions. Dimples may appear and disappear over an extended period; a baby born with dimples in their cheeks may lose them as they grow into a child due to their diminishing baby fat.

Anatomy.

Dimples are usually located on mobile tissue, and are possibly caused by variations in the structure of the facial muscle known as zygomaticus major. Specifically, the presence of a double or bifid zygomaticus major muscle may explain the formation of cheek dimples. This bifid variation of the muscle originates as a single structure from the zygomatic bone. As it travels anteriorly, it then divides with a superior bundle that inserts in the typical position above the corner of the mouth. An inferior bundle inserts below the corner of the mouth.  Cheek dimples can occur in any person, but some studies have suggested that dimples (both cheek and chin) are more common in females. They can be either permanent, or transient (aging makes dimples appear/disappear due to facial development and muscle growth): a Greek study spanning almost 20 years concluded that 34% of Greek adults had dimples whereas 13% of Greek youths (between 7 and 15 years old) had dimples as well, which might suggest that transient dimples are more common than permanent.  Professor John McDonald, citing limited research, concluded that dimples have been mislabeled as genetically inherited and as a dominant trait. It is believed that cheek dimple genes occur on the 16th chromosome, whereas cleft chin genes occur on the 5th. However, the University of Utah considers dimples an "irregular" dominant trait that is probably controlled mostly by one gene but is influenced by other genes.

Characteristics.

Having bilateral dimples (dimples in both cheeks) is the most common form of cheek dimples. In a 2018 study of 216 people aged 18–42 with both unilateral (one dimple) and bilateral, 120 (55.6%) had dimples in both of their cheeks. It was originally concluded that 60% of people with one dimple likely have it in their left cheek, but later research concluded that 53% were on the right, however, this may be due to differing cultures. Dimples are analogous and how they form in cheeks varies from person to person. Dimple depth and size can also vary; unilateral dimples are usually large, and a possible 12.8% of bilateral people have dimples positioned asymmetrically. They are not linked with a dimpled chin: a study from 2010 by the University of Ilorin examined 500 Yoruban Nigerians with both uni- and bilateral cheek dimples, discovering that only 36 (7.2%) had a cleft chin as well.  The shape of a person's face can affect the look and form as well: leptoprosopic (long and narrow) faces have long and narrow dimples, and euryprosopic (short and broad) faces have short, circular dimples. People with a mesoprosopic face are more likely to have dimples in their cheeks than any other face shape. Singaporean plastic surgeon Khoo Boo-Chai (1929–2012) determined that a cheek dimple occurs on the intersecting line between the corner of the mouth and the outer canthi of the eye, (nicknamed the "KBC point" in dimple surgery) but people with natural dimples do not always have their dimples on the KBC point. The other common type of facial dimple form near the mouth in three types: lower para-angle (underneath the mouth and lips), para-angle ("around the mouth angle"), and upper para-angle (above the mouth and lips).

Society and culture.

Cheek dimples are often associated with youth and beauty and are seen as an attractive quality in a person's face, accentuating smiles and making the smile look more cheerful and memorable. Throughout numerous cultures and history, there have been superstitions based on dimples: Chinese culture believes that cheek dimples are a good luck charm (particularly, children born with them are seen as pleasant, polite and enthusiastic), but can lead to complicated romantic relationships; and a proverb (often incorrectly credited to Pope Paul VI) argues "A dimple in your cheek/Many hearts you'll seek/A dimple in your chin/The devil within". According to "Candy Bites: The Science of Sweets", the dent in Junior Mints is based on this belief, arguing that a unilateral dimple is more attractive than bilateral. Richard Steele wrote that a dimpled laugh "is practised to give to the features, and is frequently made a bait to entangle a gazing lover; this was called by the ancients the Chian laugh." He added: "The prude hath a wonderful esteem for the Chian laugh or dimple [...] and is never seen upon the most extravagant jests to disorder her countenance with the ruffle of a smile [but] very rarely takes the freedom to sink her cheek into a dimple" implying that dimples are alluring due to demure women that have them.  "The Englishwoman's Magazine" from 1866 featured an article named "The Human Form Divine: Dimples and Wrinkles", which associated cheek dimples with youth. On transient dimples, it wrote: "But generally, dimples mark the departure of youth, and fade away at the approach of crow's feet"; "Did you ever see a pretty child's face without dimples in it? Dimples in the cheek—temping dimples—and a dimple in the chin that gave a roguish smartness to the face?" British boxer-turned-Hollywood actor Reginald Denny had his cheek dimples gushed about in a "Photoplay" article, which Professor Michael Williams inferred that "dimples might also provide a humanizing touch" in the handsome Denny who had "dimples in conjunction with the physique of a young Greek god[.]"  Women without dimples are said to envy the women that have them because dimples are "pitfalls for the men" that "[are] something purely natural and unattainable by art". This has led to artificial attempts to create them: the Ohio-based Dolly Dimpler company advertized in "Photoplay" about a device that created dimples in customers' cheeks; in 1936, Isabella Gilbert invented the Dimple Maker, a face-fitting brace which pushed dents into the cheeks to emulate dimples, but it is unknown whether the artificial dimples could last this way (the American Medical Association argued that frequent users could develop cancer); and in the 21st century, people undergo dimple surgery.

In fiction.

The sentiments appear in fiction: authors have described dimples in their characters for centuries to show beauty, especially in women, which has been seen as part of their sex appeal. This is possibly why cheek dimples have been identified with female characters: Anne from "Anne of Green Gables" envied other female characters' dimples, whereas "Wives and Daughters" featured a paragraph about Molly wondering whether she was beautiful as she looked in her mirror, which was followed by: "She would have been sure if, instead of inspecting herself with such solemnity, she had smiled her own sweet merry smile, and called out the gleam of her teeth, and the charm of her dimples." Scarlett O'Hara exploited her cheek dimples in "Gone with the Wind" when she was flirting to get her own way, to the point where Rhett is implied to be aware of what she is doing.  Shakespeare often acknowledged cheek dimples, usually on children, such as "the pretty dimples of [the baby boy's] chin and cheek" in "The Winter's Tale" or the "pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids" from "Antony and Cleopatra"; however, Adonis' in "Venus and Adonis" are mentioned from the point of view of the flirting Venus. There are theories that some of his famous female protagonists had them as well, such as Juliet Capulet, "Jessica and Maria [and] Rosalind."

A dimple (also known as a gelasin) is a small natural indentation in the flesh on a part of the human body, most notably in the cheek. Numerous cultures believe that cheek dimples are a good luck charm that entices people who think they are physically attractive, but they are also associated with heroism and innocence, which has been included in literature for many centuries.

Grübchen (Diminutiv zu "Grube") bezeichnet allgemein kleine, meist muldenförmige Einbuchtungen. Im biologisch-medizinischen Bereich beschreibt es angeborene oder erworbene Vertiefungen des Gewebes. Umgangssprachlich beschreibt Grübchen meistens die bei vielen Menschen vorhandenen, charakteristischen Einziehungen der Haut in Wange, Kinn, Stirn, Rücken oder Gesäß.


History and architecture.

The church was originally dedicated to Saint Vitus. It served as market church of the city and later also as church of the city council. Around 1020, a new building was erected of which only the crypt still exists, decorated with medieval frescos. The church was extended to form a basilica in the middle of the 12th century. Around 1220, it was consecrated to the Virgin Mary. From 1230 onwards, it was rebuilt in the early Gothic style as a hall church. A westwork with two towers was added. For many years, the northern tower contained the archive of the city council of Bremen, known as the "Tresekammer". In the 14th century, the choir was extended.

Interior.

The interior was damaged by fire in 1944, but much less than the other medieval churches of the city. When the new organ was installed in 1953, the acoustics were so poor that in 1958 the city assigned Dieter Oesterlen to manage the church's refurbishment. The residual medieval plastering and the remains of the frescos were removed, leaving plain brick walls. In 1966, the French artist Alfred Manessier was charged with redesigning the 19 windows that had been destroyed during the Second World War. Inspired by verses from the Bible, he embarked first on the design of the four main windows, employing brightly coloured stained glass representations with expressive linear patterns. Together they depict various manifestations of the "Word of God". At the end of the aisle to the north of the altar, the Christmas Window is inspired by "The Word became flesh" (John 1:14), while the Pentecost Window at the east end of the chancel is inspired by the Miracle of Tongues (Acts 2). The Sermon Window symbolises the preached word: "We are ambassadors for Christ" (2 Corinthians 5:20) while the Virgin Mary Window, a rose window at the opposite end of the church draws on the Christmas story: "Mary kept all these sayings, pondering them in her heart" (Luke 2:19). With the assistance of François Lorin from Chartres, Manessier completed his work in 1979.

Name.

Since 1220, the church has been named after Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ. This name (Church of Our Lady) has been used by more than 250 churches in the world and by more than 150 religious orders or convents in Germany.  In Bremen, the name is widely used:

Dimensions.

The "Liebfrauenkirche" has two steeples. Together with the weather vane which has a height of, the north steeple is, the third tallest steeple in the city (the tallest being the two cathedral steeples). It has a width of. The church clock is situated at a height of. The smaller south steeple has a height of and a width of. The roof reaches a height of. The total length of the church amounts to some and the total width,.

Sculptures.

The flour of the church comprises some medieval tombstones, but there are no medieval sculptures, if there had been any, they have been removed during the reformation. But there are two sculptures from the 19th century.

Moltke-monument at the north tower.

The equestrian sculpture on the wall of the southern steeple was placed there in 1909. It shows the Prussian field marshal Helmut Graf von Moltke and was donated by the banker Bernhard Loose from Bremen, who already died on 31 March 1902. It was designed by Heinrich Jennen from Berlin-Charlottenburg and sculpted by Hermann Hahn of Munich. Like the sculpture itself, the inscription above it expresses the militarism of the period: "He who armed and protected you consider this, when you approach him: Peace has to be supported by the sword if you remain silent, the evil deed will grow."

War memorial.

After World War I, the architect Otto Blendermann from Bremen and the sculptor Friedrich Lommel from Munich created a war memorial in honour of the dead soldiers of Bremen garrison. In 2011, it was converted into a memorial for all victims of all wars. Since then, panes of opalescent glass on the walls bear a biblical admonition to keep peace, and panes of opalescent glass hiding the sculpture bear the names of the soldiers.

Organ.

The organ was built in 1953 by Paul Ott (Göttingen). At the time, the steeple bay had been bricked up. As a result, the organ was situated on the west wall of the bay. In 1964, it was reinstalled in a new casing on the south aisle's west wall. The last readjustment took place in 1984 by the organ builder Karl Schuke, Berlin. At that time, the disposition was slightly changed.

Bells.

The church has only one bell in the south tower, cast in the 13th or 14th century. Apart from that, there is only a clock bell.

Further information.

Services are held in the Liebfrauenkirche on Sundays and religious holidays at 10:30 am. Founded 1945 by the cantor Harald Wolf, the boys' choir is recognized throughout the region.

The Church of Our Lady () is an Evangelical Protestant church situated northwest of the Market Square in Bremen, Germany. Like Bremen Cathedral, today's building dates from the 13th century. The brightly coloured stained-glass windows are the work of the French artist Alfred Manessier. In 1973, the church was listed under the monument protection act.

Die Kirche Unser Lieben Frauen steht nordwestlich des Marktplatzes in Bremen am Platz Unser Lieben Frauen Kirchhof. Sie ist nach dem Dom die älteste Kirche der Stadt und war die erste Pfarrkirche außerhalb des Dombezirks, damit dann auch Ratskirche. Seit 1973 steht sie unter Denkmalschutz.


History.

World War I.

The Germans' lack of respect for the international Hague Conventions on land warfare created in 1899 and 1907, which had included the protection of cultural property, led to international shock at the burning of Leuven University Library in Belgium and the bombardment of Reims Cathedral in France, both in 1914 (the Louvain library would be re-formed and rebuilt in the 1920s but destroyed again in the 1940 Battle of France).  To counter the protests, counterbalance the destruction, redeem itself in the eyes of international agencies and regain its image as the land of culture "par excellence", German propaganda created the principle of "Kunstschutz". The principle allowed Germany to experiment with new formulas for saving and developing cultural heritage and originated many, often fertile initiatives. Clemen, professor of art history at the University of Bonn and inspector of monuments in the Rhineland, was one of the principle's first instigators. A German soldier'saved' cultural objects in Saint-Quentin, Aisne, though these were only returned in 1998, and a painting similarly removed from Douai museum was returned only in 2000 after it was discovered at a sale in Switzerland. The museum at Metz has put on an exhibition on the activities of its former German curator, the archaeologist Johann Baptist Keune, in protecting the artistic heritage of the Moselle during the conflict.

Inter-war period.

After assuming power in 1933, Hitler and other nazis started anti-semitic policies designed to degrade and humiliate German Jews. Their aim was ultimately to exile or murder their victims, and steal their worldly possessions, including any artwork such as paintings, drawings and prints, as well as furniture, antiques, books, tapestries, carpets and so on. Adolf Hitler was an unsuccessful artist who was denied admission to the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. Nonetheless, he thought of himself as a connoisseur of the arts, and in "Mein Kampf" he ferociously attacked modern art as degenerate, including: Cubism; Futurism; and Dadaism; all of which he considered the product of a decadent twentieth century society. When in 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, he enforced his aesthetic ideal on the nation. The types of art that were favoured amongst the Nazi party were classical portraits and landscapes by Old Masters, particularly those of Germanic origin. Modern art that did not match this was dubbed degenerate art by the Third Reich, and all that was found in Germany's state museums was to be sold or destroyed. With the sums raised, the Fuhrer's objective was to establish the European Art Museum in Linz. Other Nazi dignitaries, like Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and Foreign Affairs minister von Ribbentrop, were also intent on taking advantage of German military conquests to increase their private art collections.  The art dealers Hildebrand Gurlitt, Karl Buchholz, Ferdinand Moeller and Bernhard Boehmer set up shop in Schloss Niederschonhausen, just outside Berlin, to sell the near-16,000 cache of paintings and sculptures which Hitler and Göring removed from the walls of German museums in 1937–38. They were first put on display in the Haus der Kunst in Munich on 19 July 1937, with the Nazi leaders inviting public mockery by two million visitors. Propagandist Joseph Goebbels in a radio broadcast called Germany's degenerate artists "garbage". Hitler opened the Haus der Kunst exhibition with a speech, at the end of which saliva fell out of his mouth in rage. In it he described German art as suffering "a great and fatal illness".

Burning of artwork.

Hildebrand Gurlitt and his colleagues did not have much success with their sales, mainly because art labelled "rubbish" had small appeal. So on 20 March 1939 they set fire to 1,004 paintings and sculptures and 3,825 watercolours, drawings and prints in the courtyard of the Berlin Fire Department, an act of infamy similar to their earlier well-known book burnings. The propaganda act raised the attention they hoped. The Basel Museum in Switzerland arrived with 50,000 Swiss francs to spend. Shocked art lovers came to buy. What is unknown after these sales is how many paintings were kept by Gurlitt, Buchholz, Moeller and Boehmer and sold by them to Switzerland and America – ships crossed the Atlantic from Lisbon – for personal gain.  While the Nazis were in power, they plundered cultural property from every territory they occupied. This was conducted in a systematic manner with organizations specifically created to determine which public and private collections were most valuable to the Nazi Regime. Some of the objects were earmarked for Hitler's never realized Führermuseum, some objects went to other high-ranking officials such as Hermann Göring, while other objects were traded to fund Nazi activities.

World War II.

In 1940, an organization known as the "Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg für die Besetzten Gebiete" (The Reichsleiter Rosenberg Institute for the Occupied Territories), or ERR, was formed, headed for Alfred Rosenberg by. The first operating unit, the western branch for France, Belgium and the Netherlands, called the "Dienststelle Westen" (Western Agency), was located in Paris. The chief of this Dienststelle was. Its original purpose was to collect Jewish and Freemasonic books and documents, either for destruction, or for removal to Germany for further "study". However, late in 1940, Hermann Göring, who in fact controlled the ERR, issued an order that effectively changed the mission of the ERR, mandating it to seize "Jewish" art collections and other objects. The war loot had to be collected in a central place in Paris, the Musée jeu de paume.  At the collection point, art historians and other personnel worked and inventoried the loot before sending it to Germany. Göring also commanded that the loot would first be divided between Hitler and himself. From late 1940 to late 1942, he went to Paris 20 times. In the Musée jeu de paume, art dealer Bruno Lohse staged 20 expositions of the newly looted art objects, especially for Göring, from which Göring selected at least 594 pieces for his own collection. Göring made Lohse his liaison-officer and installed him in the ERR in March 1941 as the deputy leader of this unit. Items which Hitler and Göring did not want were made available to other Nazi leaders. Under Rosenberg and Göring's leadership, the ERR seized 21,903 art objects from German-occupied countries.  Other Nazi looting organizations included the Dienststelle Mühlmann, operated by Kajetan Mühlmann, which Göring also controlled and operated primarily in the Netherlands, Belgium, and a Sonderkommando Kuensberg connected to the minister of foreign affairs Joachim von Ribbentrop, which operated first in France, then in Russia and North Africa.  Hitler later ordered that all confiscated works of art were to be made directly available to him. Art collections from prominent Jewish families, including the Rothschilds, the Rosenbergs and the Goudstikkers and the Schloss Family were targeted because of their significant value. By the end of the war, the Third Reich amassed hundreds of thousands of cultural objects.  In Western Europe, with the advancing German troops, were elements of the von Ribbentrop Battalion, named after Joachim von Ribbentrop. The men were responsible for entering private and institutional libraries in the occupied countries and removing any materials of interest to the Germans, especially items of scientific, technical or other informational value.

Kunstschutz activities.

Kunstschutz's altruistic image in World War I aided its reinstatement in World War II. On the initiative of Marshal Hermann Göring, a specialist military corps known as the "Kunstschutz" was reactivated following the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces of September 1943 to requisition Italian artworks and transport them to Germany, under the pretext of saving them from Allied bombing. In Florence 58 crates of marble and bronze statues (by Donatello and Michelangelo among others), 26 ancient Greek statues, 291 large paintings (including works by Titian, Botticelli and Raphael) and 25 crates of smaller paintings set out for Germany and Austria in convoys which many Italian intelligence officers secretly followed and reported back on to their government and thus to the Allies. One of those officers was the antifascist Rodolfo Siviero, who transmitted his reports to the Allies via his partisan contacts and continued to hunt down and return looted and illegally acquired Italian artworks from Germany after 1945. One of those he returned was the "Spiridon Leda" (1505–1515) from the Leonardo da Vinci school, acquired by Göring before the war. In Naples the national museums were looted, with paintings taken including the "Danaë" by Titian, "The Blind Leading the Blind" by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, the "Portrait of a young woman, known as Antea" by Parmigianino and the "Apollo Citharoedus" from Pompeii. Goebels had also edited a 1000-page inventory of French artworks in the occupied zone of France. Count Franz von Wolff-Metternich was responsible for the "Kunstschutz" in France from 1940 to 1942 and most works in French museums were taken Collections belonging to Jews such as the Rothschilds and the David-Weill family were evacuated using the funds of the French national museums and gathered together in the Musée du Jeu de Paume, where Göring took his pick before putting them all in special trains bound for Berlin. Rose Valland, one of the French curators, took secret notes on the contents of each train out. Ribbentrop, the German foreign minister, tried to get hold of "Diana Bathing" by François Boucher, whilst Hitler himself took part of Alfred Schloss's collection of 300 Dutch paintings for his personal museum at Linz.  German art looting also occurred in every state invaded and occupied by Germany, but especially Poland, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and elsewhere.

Kunstschutz ("art protection") is the German term for the principle of preserving cultural heritage and artworks during armed conflict, especially during the First World War and Second World War, with the stated aim of protecting the enemy's art and returning after the end of hostilities. It is associated with the image of the "art officer" (Kunstoffizier) or "art expert" (Kunstsachverständiger).

Als Kunstschutz wird im Kriegsfall der Schutz der Kulturgüter, der historischen und Baudenkmäler sowie der Kunstwerke bezeichnet, der laut der Haager Landkriegsordnung (Artikel 46 und 56) zu den Pflichten der Militärverwaltung in besetzten Ländern gehört. In diesen Schutz fallen die Sicherung der Denkmäler vor Zerstörung, Raub beziehungsweise Beschlagnahme sowie die Schaffung von Voraussetzungen für die Restaurierung von beschädigten Werken und die Aufrechterhaltung beziehungsweise Betreuung des Kunstlebens.