Background.

On 25 May 1813, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, capturing the fort. The British fell back to a position at Burlington Heights (Ontario) near the western end of Lake Ontario, briefly abandoning the entire Niagara Peninsula to the Americans. The Americans attempted to pursue the British, but their advance was checked at the Battle of Stoney Creek by a British counter-attack. At the same time, the American flotilla of warships which had been supporting their army on the Niagara Peninsula was hastily withdrawn to face a threat to their own base, and a British flotilla threatened the Americans' line of communications. The Americans fell back to Fort George. The British followed up and established an outpost at DeCou's house in the present-day city of Thorold, Ontario, from which Natives and militia harassed American outposts.  The American commander at Fort George, Brigadier General John Parker Boyd, decided to clear the threat posed by enemy raiders and to restore his men's morale by making a surprise attack on the outpost at DeCou's.

American plan.

The American force assigned to the attack was led by the recently promoted Colonel Charles Boerstler of the 14th U.S. Infantry and consisted of Boerstler's own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry, with detachments of the 6th, 13th and 23rd U.S. Regiments of Infantry, a company of artillery with one 12-pounder and one 6-pounder field guns, and twenty U.S. Dragoons. An irregular corps of forty mounted volunteers from the New York Militia under Cyrenius Chapin led the way. The force was accompanied by two large supply wagons. At dusk on 23 June, Boerstler's force moved in secret from Fort George to the village of Queenston, where they quartered themselves in the houses and other buildings.  Several American officers had earlier billeted themselves in the house of Militia Captain James Secord, who had been severely wounded the previous year at the Battle of Queenston Heights. His wife, Laura Secord, overheard the American officers discussing their scheme. Very early on 22 June, she set out to warn the British at DeCou's house, walking about through the woods until she came upon a Native encampment on the Twelve Mile Creek. The warriors took her to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon, who commanded the British outpost. The information she conveyed to FitzGibbon confirmed what Natives had reported since they first observed the American column near St. David's.

Battle.

The main contingent of Natives were 300 Kahnawake, also referred to as "Caughnawaga" in contemporary accounts. (The Kahnawake were Mohawks who had earlier been converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries.) They were nominally commanded by Captain Dominique Ducharme of the Indian Department, with Lieutenants Isaac LeClair and J.B. de Lorimier. There were also 100 Mohawks under Captain William Johnson Kerr. They set up ambushes in a thickly wooded area east of Beaver Dams. FitzGibbon with 46 men of the 49th Regiment of Foot was in reserve.  Early on 24 June, the Americans set out for DeCou's stone house. At St. David's they proceeded along a trail at the base of the escarpment until they reached another trail leading up the "mountain". Reaching the top, they became aware of Natives closing in on their flanks and rear. Boerstler did not change his plans. When the Natives opened fire, Boerstler was wounded and placed in one of the wagons. According to American accounts, they caused the Mohawks to flee and fought their way out of the woods into open fields where they could use their artillery, and the Natives were not at such an advantage. This account is not supported by other witnesses.  At this point, FitzGibbon intervened. Addressing Boerstler under a flag of truce, he claimed that the Americans were outnumbered and surrounded, and that if they did not surrender he would be unable to restrain the natives from slaughtering the entire American force. The wounded Boerstler capitulated to Major de Haren of the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry, who had just arrived on the field with another detachment of British regulars (mainly from the 104th Regiment) from Twelve Mile Creek.  The American force surrendered in a field just south of the Thorold Tunnel, east of the present day Welland Canal. The prisoners were escorted first to DeCou's, then to the British base at Ball's Falls..

Casualties.

The natives admitted to a total of five chiefs and warriors killed, and 20 wounded, although Ducharme stated that 15 were killed and 25 wounded.  The American casualty report stated 25 killed and 50 wounded; all of the wounded being among the prisoners, who numbered 23 officers and 489 enlisted men. It was later claimed that many of the wounded Americans were killed by Mohawks.

Results.

The loss of Boerstler's detachment demoralized the Americans at Fort George. From then until they abandoned the fort on 10 December, they rarely dared send any patrols more than a mile from the fort. To reinforce their fear of the Native people, there was another minor disaster on 8 July when a party from the 8th (King's) Regiment and Merritt's Troop of Provincial Dragoons, accompanied by Ottawas under Captain Matthew Elliott and other Indigenous warriors under Mohawk chief John Norton, went to retrieve a chest of medicines which had been hastily buried at Ball's Farm near Two Mile Creek when the British had evacuated Fort George in May. An American party from the 13th U.S. Infantry under Lieutenant Joseph Eldridge attempted to pursue the British detachment but was ambushed, losing 28 men, several of whom were scalped despite the efforts of officers of the Indian Department to prevent it.  Most of the American regular soldiers and Boyd himself were transferred from Fort George to Sackett's Harbor in September, leaving the fort in the hands of New York Militia.

Legends and folk tales.

Referring to the respective parts played by the various Native Americans and the British, local legend (perhaps started by Mohawk leader John Norton, who was present) had it that, "The Caughnawaga got the victory, the Mohawks got the plunder and FitzGibbon got the credit".  In 1818, FitzGibbon made a report to Captain Kerr which read in part: With respect to the affair with Captain "(sic)" Boerstler, not a shot was fired on our side by any but the Indians. They beat the American detachment into a state of terror, and the only share I claim is taking advantage of a favorable moment to offer them protection from the tomahawk and scalping knife. The Indian Department did the rest.  Captain Ducharme claimed that he himself did not demand the Americans' surrender because as a French Canadian by birth who had spent most of his life among the Indians, he spoke no English.

Laura Secord.

Much later, in 1827, FitzGibbon wrote: I do hereby Certify that on the 22d. day of June 1813, Mrs. Secord, Wife of James Secord, Esqr. then of St. David's, came to me at the Beaver Dam after Sun Set, having come from her house at St. David's by a circuitous route a distance of twelve miles, and informed me that her Husband had learnt from an American officer the preceding night that a Detachment from the American Army then in Fort George would be sent out on the following morning (the 23d.) for the purpose of Surprising and capturing a Detachment of the 49th Regt. then at Beaver Dam under my Command. In Consequence of this information, I placed the Indians under Norton together with my own Detachment in a Situation to intercept the American Detachment and we occupied it during the night of the 22d. – but the Enemy did not come until the morning of the 24th when his Detachment was captured. Colonel Boerstler, their commander, in a conversation with me confirmed fully the information communicated to me by Mrs. Secord and accounted for the attempt not having been made on the 23rd. as at first intended.  By this account, Laura Secord learned of the American plans and made her exit from St. David's (near Queenston) on 22 June, before the American main body had set out from Fort George.

National Historic Site of Canada.

Beaver Dams represents one of the earliest attempts to create a national historical park. In 1914, a convention of Ontario historical and patriotic groups resolved to ask the Department of the Interior "to develop a 40-acre site near Thorold as a national battlefield park commemorating the Battle of Beaver Dams."  Although Beaver Dams was not made a national park, the Historic Sites and Monuments Board was created in 1919 to develop a heritage policy at the federal level for historic sites. In 1921, soon after the Board's formation, the Board recommended the designation of the Battle of Beaver Dams site as a National Historic Site of Canada, one of its earliest selections.  In June 2013, the "Laura Secord Legacy Trail" was dedicated, recreating the route of her journey from her homestead in Queenston to DeCew House in Thorold where she delivered her message to Lt. Fitzgibbon on 22 June 1813. The trail is divided into five distinct stages and encompasses ancient forested Indian trails and modern city sidewalks. The trail is linked to the Trans-Canada Trail and spans a total length of 32 kilometers.  A monument commemorating the battle was dedicated in 1923 and situated on the original site of the event (near the southeast corner of the intersection of Davis Road and Old Thorold Stone Road, approximately southeast of present-day Thorold), where it was located for several decades. In 1976, this monument (as well as one marking the site where in 1876 during construction of the 3rd Welland Canal the remains of 16 U.S. soldiers from the battle were uncovered) was subsequently relocated several kilometres to the west when the Battle of Beaverdams [sic] Park was opened and there was talk of constructing a 5th Welland Canal near the battlefield. The original site of the battlefield was unmarked from 1976 until 2013, the Battle of Beaverdams Committee discussed marking the site with a "historic boulder" for the bicentennial and this was in fact carried out on 23 June 2013

The Battle of Beaver Dams took place on 24 June 1813, during the War of 1812. An American column marched from Fort George and attempted to surprise a British outpost at Beaver Dams, billeting themselves overnight in the village of Queenston, Ontario. Laura Secord, a resident of Queenston, had earlier learned of the American plans, and had struck out on a long and difficult trek to warn the British at Decou's stone house near present-day Brock University. When the Americans resumed their march, they were ambushed by Native warriors and eventually surrendered to a small British detachment led by Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. About 500 Americans, including their wounded commander, were taken prisoner.

Die Schlacht bei Beaver Dams vom 24. Juni 1813 zwischen britisch-indianischen und amerikanischen Truppen fand während des Britisch-Amerikanischen Kriegs in Kanada in der Nähe des Ontariosees statt und endete mit einem britischen Sieg.


Description.

According to the FCI breed standard Black and Tan Coonhound males should be in height with females slightly smaller at although it does not specify a weight range. The United Kennel Club does however include guideline weights of males with females ranging from. The height proportions quoted by the UKC differ from the FCI and allow males to be and females. The coat is short, dense and glossy.  The eyes are hazel to brown, the ears are long, wide, and thin, are set low and far back on the dog's head, and hang well down the neck. The black and tan markings are similar to the Doberman's and the Rottweiler's. The Black and Tan Coonhound's bark is loud and baying; it has been described as a deep howl. The breed standard includes muscular legs that are long in proportion to body length. The tail is set slightly below the natural line of the back. If the dog is alert or excited it carries its tail at a right angle.

Temperament.

The Black and Tan Coonhound makes a suitable pet: it is mellow, amiable, calm, and unobtrusive indoors; outdoors, its strong hunting instinct takes over and it can be difficult to turn it from tracking after it starts trailing. As befitting a dog with its heritage, it is strong, independent, and stubborn. The Black and Tan Coonhound is gentle and tolerant with children, but it may be too independent to satisfy a playful child. It is reserved with strangers and in their presence may bay and howl. The Black and Tan Coonhound can run for miles although it is usually content with a moderate jog or long walk, with an occasional excursion into the field. It can wander if it catches a scent, so a safe area is mandatory.

Use.

The courage of the Coonhound also makes it proficient on the hunt for deer, bear, wolf, cougar and other big game although many US states have restricted the hunting of antlered animals with dogs. However, the primary purpose of the Black and Tan Coonhound is as a raccoon hunting dog. The general impression is that of power, agility and alertness, as well as the ability to cover ground swiftly with powerful rhythmic strides. Each hound has its own distinctive voice which is often recognizable to its owners from a great distance.

General care.

Its coat needs only occasional brushing. Most Coonhounds drool to some extent, and the face may need regular wiping. The ears should also be checked regularly to ensure against ear infections.

Health.

Black and Tan Coonhounds are generally healthy, although there is some risk of hip dysplasia, ear cancer and other ear infections, and eye problems. Litter size is generally eight puppies. Expected longevity is 10–12 years.

History.

The Black and Tan Coonhound is descended from the Talbot Hound, found in medieval England after the eleventh century. Its ancestry is then traced through the Bloodhound and the Foxhound to the Black and Tan Virginia Foxhound.  In 1945, the Black and Tan Coonhound became the first of the six varieties of Coonhound to be recognized by the American Kennel Club, in the Hound Group. The other varieties, which were not recognized until the 2010s, are the Redbone Coonhound, Plott Hound, Bluetick Coonhound, the English Coonhound, and the Treeing Walker Coonhound.

External links.

www.abtcc.com/ American Black and Tan Coonhound Club (AKC Parent club)

The Black and Tan Coonhound is a breed of hunting dog. Developed in the United States from crosses between the Bloodhound and the Black and Tan Virginia Foxhound, this scent hound runs its game entirely by scent and is used primarily for raccoon hunting.

Der Black and Tan Coonhound ist eine von der FCI (Nr. 300, Gr. 6, Sek. 1.1) anerkannte Hunderasse aus den Vereinigten Staaten, die zu den Coonhounds gerechnet wird.


Reactions.

Adenine is converted to adenosine or inosine monophosphate (IMP), either of which, in turn, is converted into inosine (I), which pairs with adenine (A), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).  Purine nucleoside phosphorylase intraconverts inosine and hypoxanthine.  Inosine is also an intermediate in a chain of purine nucleotides reactions required for muscle movements.

Clinical significance.

In the 1970s, inosine was used by athletes in Eastern countries in an attempt to improve performance. Subsequent studies in humans suggest that inosine supplementation has no effect on athletic performance. Animal studies have suggested that inosine has neuroprotective properties. It has been proposed for spinal cord injury and for administration after stroke, because observation suggests that inosine induces axonal rewiring.  After ingestion, inosine is metabolized into uric acid, which has been suggested to be a natural antioxidant and peroxynitrite scavenger with potential benefits to patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Peroxynitrite has been correlated with axon degeneration In 2003, a study was initiated at the University of Pennsylvania MS Center to determine whether raising the levels of uric acid by the administration of inosine would slow the progression of MS. The study was completed in 2006 but the results were not reported to NIH. A subsequent publication hinted at potential benefits but the sample size (16 patients) was too small for a definitive conclusion. In addition, the side effect of the treatment was the development of kidney stones in four of 16 patients. Thus, additional studies are necessary to prove the treatment's efficacy.  With phase II trials for Parkinson's disease completed, inosine will continue to phase III trials. Earlier trials suggested that patients with the highest serum urate levels had slower progression of Parkinson's symptoms. The trial uses inosine to raise urate levels in those with levels lower than the population mean (6 mg/dL).  Alseres Pharmaceuticals (named Boston Life Sciences when patent was granted) patented the use of inosine to treat stroke and was investigating the drug in the MS setting.  In the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System, it is classified as an antiviral.<ref name="urlATC/DDD Index"></ref>

Binding.

Inosine is a natural ligand for the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABA A receptor.

Biotechnology.

When designing primers for polymerase chain reaction, inosine is useful in that it can pair with any natural base. This allows for design of primers that span a single-nucleotide polymorphism, without the polymorphism disrupting the primer's annealing efficiency.  However, inosine pairs preferentially with cytosine (C) and its introduction to RNA, e.g. by the action of ADARs, thereby destabilizes double-stranded RNA by changing AU base-pairs to IU mismatches.

Fitness.

Despite lack of clinical evidence that it improves muscle development, inosine remains an ingredient in some fitness supplements.

Feeding Stimulant.

Inosine has also been found to be an important feed stimulant by itself or in combination with certain amino acids in some species of farmed fish. For example, inosine and inosine-5-monophosphate have been reported as specific feeding stimulants for turbot fry, ("Scophthalmus maximus") and Japanese amberjack, ("Seriola quinqueradiata"). The main problem of using inosine and/or inosine-5-monophosphate as feeding attractants is their high cost. However, their use may be economically justified within larval feeds for marine fish larvae during the early weaning period, since the total quantity of feed consumed is relatively small.

Inosine is a nucleoside that is formed when hypoxanthine is attached to a ribose ring (also known as a ribofuranose) via a β-N-glycosidic bond.

Inosin ist ein seltenes Nukleosid der RNA. Es besteht aus der β--Ribofuranose (Zucker) und dem Hypoxanthin, einer Base, die ein Purin als Grundgerüst hat, welches als Zwischenprodukt des Purinstoffwechsels entsteht.


Plot.

Three hundred years ago, the god of thunder, Taishakuten, rebelled against the Heavenly Emperor, killing both him and the guardian god Ashura-ō. With the help of Ashura-ō's wife Shashi, he usurped the throne and began his cruel reign as the new Emperor. However, a prophecy was made by the stargazer Kuyō, first to Ashura-ō and then to Yasha-ō:  Six stars will fall to this plane. The dark stars that will defy the Heavens. And you shall undertake a journey. One that begins when you find the child of a vanished race. I cannot discern the child's alignment. I only know that it is he alone who can turn the wheels of Tenkai's destiny. For it is by Heavenly Mandate that through this child, the Six Stars shall begin to gather. And then someone shall appear from the shadows. Even my powers cannot clearly make out his figure, but he knows the future and can manipulate both evil and heavenly stars. A roaring flame shall raze the wicked. Six stars will overpower all others. And inevitably, they will be the schism that splits the Heavens.  Following this prophecy, the Guardian Warrior of the northland, Yasha-ō, awakens the genderless child of Ashura-ō, Ashura, who has slept the last three hundred years under a magical seal. Believing the prophecy to mean that the "Six Stars" together can overthrow Taishakuten, he and Ashura set out to find the "Six Stars". Over time, five of the Six Stars gather as Yasha-ō and Ashura, the first two stars, are joined by Sōma, Ryu-ō and Karura-ō, the other three. A mysterious character who appears and disappears quite regularly, Kujaku, gives them helpful advice, but his nature and intentions are unclear.  The gentle and childlike Ashura (who is usually referred to as "he" out of convenience, though some translations use a female pronoun) soon reveals a deadly alter-ego, a youth who delights in death and destruction, but this side remains for the longest time more or less suppressed, also by Ashura's affection for Yasha-ō.  Seeking to bring Taishakuten's reign to an end, the Six Stars finally enter Zenmi-jō, Taishakuten's palace. They are met there by the three remaining "Four Generals" ("Shitennō") (one was killed by Yasha-ō earlier), warriors who swore to protect Taishakuten. The Six Stars are shocked to discover that the sixth Star, Kendappa-ō, their friend and ally, is among them as Jikokuten, the previously unknown general. By the meeting of all the Six Stars, Ashura's dark nature is brought to the surface. He kills his mother, the traitorous Shashi, takes the seal on her forehead and merges it with his sword Shura-tō, to awaken the true Ashura; the god of flame, blood and war, whose aim is to destroy heaven, earth, and hell.  The true Ashura proceeds to complete his awakening by killing the remaining Six Stars (some of them were killed earlier). He kills the stars one by one, absorbing their power, until only Yasha-ō is left. Surprisingly, Taishakuten stands against him. It turns out that his cruel reign was really a plot by him and the deceased Ashura-ō to prevent the gathering of the Six Stars and the true Ashura's awakening. However, it is not Taishakuten who stops Ashura, but Ashura himself. As he is about to give Yasha-ō the finishing blow, Ashura in the last moment stabs himself instead. He is then enveloped in a cocoon and enters into a deep sleep. Ashura is awakened hundreds of years later when Kujaku sacrifices his own life, on Yasha-ō's promise that he will not let Ashura become the God of Destruction again.

Characters.

Other characters.

An incarnation of Kujaku appears in the sequel series of as a ferryman for the "space between" the two halves of the world of Nirai Kanai'. This name is told to be an alias though, for entertainment purposes.

Media.

Manga.

Written and illustrated by Clamp, the "RG Veda" chapters were serialized in "Wings" from 1990 to 1996. Shinshokan collected the chapters in ten tankōbon volumes. The first was published on February 10, 1990; the final was released on May 15, 1996.  "RG Veda" is licensed for an English-language release in North America by Tokyopop. It released the first volume on April 12, 2005 and the final volume on September 11, 2007.

The "RG Veda" manga has been translated and released in many different languages. Tokyopop has released English versions in the United States. However, they have since lost the rights, and Dark Horse Comics recently acquired the series, with plans to publish it in omnibus form in 2016.

RG Veda (jap. 聖伝 RG VEDA; "Seiden RG Veda") ist eine zehnbändige Manga-Reihe der Künstlergruppe Clamp. Von 1989 bis 1996 erschien "RG Veda" in Japan im "Wings Magazine" des Verlages Shinshokan. Den Namen der Reihe entnahm Clamp dem ältesten bekannten Buch indischer Herkunft, dem "Rigveda". "RG Veda" wurde auch als zweiteilige Original Video Animation umgesetzt und ist in die Genres Shōjo, Action und Fantasy einzuordnen.


Description.

The variations of the timing and duration of biological activity in living organisms occur for many essential biological processes. These occur (a) in animals (eating, sleeping, mating, hibernating, migration, cellular regeneration, etc.), (b) in plants (leaf movements, photosynthetic reactions, etc.), and in microbial organisms such as fungi and protozoa. They have even been found in bacteria, especially among the cyanobacteria (aka blue-green algae, see bacterial circadian rhythms). The best studied rhythm in chronobiology is the circadian rhythm, a roughly 24-hour cycle shown by physiological processes in all these organisms. The term "circadian" comes from the Latin "circa", meaning "around" and "dies", "day", meaning "approximately a day." It is regulated by circadian clocks.  The circadian rhythm can further be broken down into routine cycles during the 24-hour day:  While circadian rhythms are defined as regulated by endogenous processes, other biological cycles may be regulated by exogenous signals. In some cases, multi-trophic systems may exhibit rhythms driven by the circadian clock of one of the members (which may also be influenced or reset by external factors). The endogenous plant cycles may regulate the activity of the bacterium by controlling availability of plant-produced photosynthate.  Many other important cycles are also studied, including:  Within each cycle, the time period during which the process is more active is called the "acrophase". When the process is less active, the cycle is in its "bathyphase" or "trough" phase. The particular moment of highest activity is the "peak" or "maximum"; the lowest point is the "nadir". How high (or low) the process gets is measured by the "amplitude".

History.

A circadian cycle was first observed in the 18th century in the movement of plant leaves by the French scientist Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan. In 1751 Swedish botanist and naturalist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) designed a flower clock using certain species of flowering plants. By arranging the selected species in a circular pattern, he designed a clock that indicated the time of day by the flowers that were open at each given hour. For example, among members of the daisy family, he used the hawk's beard plant which opened its flowers at 6:30 am and the hawkbit which did not open its flowers until 7 am.  The 1960 symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory laid the groundwork for the field of chronobiology.  It was also in 1960 that Patricia DeCoursey invented the phase response curve, one of the major tools used in the field since.  Franz Halberg of the University of Minnesota, who coined the word "circadian", is widely considered the "father of American chronobiology." However, it was Colin Pittendrigh and not Halberg who was elected to lead the "Society for Research in Biological Rhythms" in the 1970s. Halberg wanted more emphasis on the human and medical issues while Pittendrigh had his background more in evolution and ecology. With Pittendrigh as leader, the Society members did basic research on all types of organisms, plants as well as animals. More recently it has been difficult to get funding for such research on any other organisms than mice, rats, humans and fruit flies.

Recent developments.

More recently, light therapy and melatonin administration have been explored by Alfred J. Lewy (OHSU), Josephine Arendt (University of Surrey, UK) and other researchers as a means to reset animal and human circadian rhythms. Additionally, the presence of low-level light at night accelerates circadian re-entrainment of hamsters of all ages by 50%; this is thought to be related to simulation of moonlight.  Humans can have a propensity to be morning people or evening people; these behavioral preferences are called chronotypes for which there are various assessment questionnaires and biological marker correlations.  In the second half of 20th century, substantial contributions and formalizations have been made by Europeans such as Jürgen Aschoff and Colin Pittendrigh, who pursued different but complementary views on the phenomenon of entrainment of the circadian system by light (parametric, continuous, tonic, gradual vs. nonparametric, discrete, phasic, instantaneous, respectively).  There is also a food-entrainable biological clock, which is not confined to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. The location of this clock has been disputed. Working with mice, however, Fuller "et al." concluded that the food-entrainable clock seems to be located in the dorsomedial hypothalamus. During restricted feeding, it takes over control of such functions as activity timing, increasing the chances of the animal successfully locating food resources.  In 2018 a study published in PLoS ONE showed how 73 psychometric indicators measured on Twitter Content follow a diurnal pattern.

Other fields.

Chronobiology is an interdisciplinary field of investigation. It interacts with medical and other research fields such as sleep medicine, endocrinology, geriatrics, sports medicine, space medicine and photoperiodism.  In spite of the similarity of the name to genuine biological rhythms, the theory and practice of biorhythms is a classic example of pseudoscience. It attempts to describe a set of cyclic variations in human behavior based on a person's birth date. It is not a part of chronobiology.

Chronobiology is a field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. These cycles are known as biological rhythms. Chronobiology comes from the ancient Greek χρόνος ("chrónos", meaning "time"), and biology, which pertains to the study, or science, of life. The related terms "chronomics" and "chronome" have been used in some cases to describe either the molecular mechanisms involved in chronobiological phenomena or the more quantitative aspects of chronobiology, particularly where comparison of cycles between organisms is required.

Die Chronobiologie ( ‚Zeit‘) untersucht als Wissenschaftszweig der Biologie die zeitliche Organisation von physiologischen Prozessen und wiederholten Verhaltensmustern bei Organismen. Die hierbei nachgewiesenen Regelmäßigkeiten wiederkehrender Erscheinungen werden als biologische Rhythmen bezeichnet (nicht zu verwechseln mit esoterischen Biorhythmuslehren). Sie treten mit verschiedener Periodendauer auf und können als regelmäßige Anpassungen innerer Zustände an äußere Umstände verstanden werden.


Background.

After the American defeat at the Battle of Queenston Heights, command of the U.S. Army of the Centre on the Niagara Frontier passed from Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer of the New York Militia to his second-in-command, Brigadier General Alexander Smyth of the Regular U.S. Army. Smyth had deeply resented being subordinated to a militia officer and this was the opportunity for which he had been waiting. He immediately planned to invade Canada with 3,000 troops. Assembling his forces at Buffalo, he directed a two-pronged attack in advance of his main invasion. Captain William King, with 220 men, was to cross the Niagara and spike the batteries at the Red House, beside Fort Erie, in order to enable Smyth's main invasion force to land without facing artillery fire. At the same time, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler, with 200 men, was to land in Canada between Fort Erie and Chippawa and destroy the bridge over Frenchman's Creek in order to hinder the bringing-up of British reinforcements to oppose Smyth's landing.  The British commander-in-chief in North America, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, had forbidden any offensive action on the Niagara Frontier. This left the local British forces with no alternative but to wait for the Americans to make the first move and try to counter any attempt at invasion. The regular troops were distributed among the defensive outposts and supplemented with militia and Native American forces.  In a floridly worded proclamation, published on 10 November and addressed "To The Men of New York", Smyth wrote that, "in a few days the troops under my command will plant the American standard in Canada" and he urged New Yorkers not to "stand with your arms folded and look on in this interesting struggle" but to "advance...to our aid. I will wait for you a few days." Smyth's statement of intent appears to have attracted no attention from his opponents across the border.

Opposing forces.

Captain William King of the 13th U.S. Regiment of Infantry was detailed to attack the Red House with 150 troops and 70 U.S. Navy sailors under Lieutenant Samuel Angus. King's soldiers came from Captain Willoughby Morgan's company of the 12th U.S. Regiment of Infantry and Captains John Sproull and John E. Wool's companies of the 13th Regiment.  Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler was directed against Frenchman's Creek with 200 men of his own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry. Colonel William H. Winder, commander of the 14th Regiment, was in reserve, with 350 of his own regiment.  The British local commander, Lieutenant Colonel Cecil Bisshopp, was stationed at Chippawa, with a company of the 1st Battalion, 41st Regiment of Foot, two infantry companies of the 5th Lincoln Militia and a small detachment of Lincoln Militia Artillery. More of the 5th Lincoln Militia under Major Richard Hatt were posted nearby. In the area that would face attack on December 26, Bisshopp had several different detachments under his overall command. At Fort Erie were 80 of the 49th Regiment of Foot under Major Ormsby and 50 of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment under Captain Whelan. At Black Rock Ferry were two companies of Norfolk Militia under Captain John Bostwick. At the Red House, two-and-half miles from Fort Erie on the Chippawa Road, were 38 of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant Thomas Lamont, some men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery under Lieutenant King, and some militia artillerymen. Lamont's battery mounted two guns: an 18-pounder and a 24-pounder; while King's battery mounted a 6-pounder and a 3-pounder. Further along the Chippawa Road, about four-and-a-half miles from Fort Erie, lay the post at Frenchman's Creek, garrisoned by 38 more men of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant J. Bartley. Not far away were 70 of the light infantry company of the 41st Regiment under Lieutenant Angus McIntyre.

Battle.

King's Attack.

Only part of Captain King's force, including 35 of Lieutenant Angus's 70 sailors, succeeded in making a landing at the Red House. Under fire from the defenders, the invaders charged Lieutenant Lamont's detachment of the 49th Regiment. The sailors, armed with pikes and swords, closed in for hand-to-hand fighting. Lamont's troops drove back the attackers three times but King made a fourth assault which hit the British left flank and overwhelmed them; capturing Lamont and killing, taking or dispersing all of his men. The victorious Americans set fire to the post, spiked the guns and set off back to the landing-point, where they expected their boats to have re-landed in order to evacuate them. However, in the moonless darkness, King's force became dispersed and split into two parties: one led by King and the other by Lieutenant Angus. Angus returned to the landing-point and found only four of the party's ten boats there. Unaware that the six missing boats had not in fact landed, Angus assumed that King had already departed, and he re-crossed the river in the remaining boats. When King's party reached the landing-point, they found themselves stranded. A search downriver found two unattended British boats, in which King sent half of his men, and the prisoners that he had captured, over the Niagara while he waited with his 30 remaining men for more boats to come from Buffalo and pick him up.

Boerstler's Attack.

Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler made for Frenchman's Creek but four of his eleven boats, "misled by the darkness of the night or the inexperienced rowers being unable to force them across the current, fell below, near the bridge and were forced to return". Nevertheless, Boerstler's seven remaining boats forced a landing, opposed by Lieutenant Bartley and his 37 men of the 49th Regiment. Boerstler led the attack, shooting with his pistol a British soldier who was about to bayonet him. Bartley's outnumbered force retired, pursued to the Frenchman's Creek Bridge by the Americans, who took two prisoners. Boerstler's men were then attacked by Captain Bostwick's two companies of Norfolk Militia, who had advanced from Black Rock Ferry. After an exchange of fire in which Bostwick's force lost 3 killed, 15 wounded and 6 captured, the Canadians retreated. Boerstler now encountered another problem: many of the axes provided for the destruction of the Frenchman's Creek bridge were in the four boats that had turned back and those that were in the seven remaining boats had been left behind when the Americans fought their way ashore. Boerstler dispatched eight men under Lieutenant John Waring to "break up the bridge by any means which they could find". Waring had torn up about a third of the planking on the bridge when it was learned from a prisoner that "the whole force from Fort Erie was coming down upon them". Boerstler quickly re-embarked his command and rowed back to Buffalo, leaving behind Waring and his party at the bridge.

British response.

In response to the attack, Major Ormsby advanced from Fort Erie to Frenchman's Creek with his 80 men of the 49th Regiment, where he was joined by Lieutenant McIntyre's 70 light infantrymen, Major Hatt's Lincoln Militia and some British-allied Native Americans under Major Givins. Finding that Boerstler's invaders had already gone, and being unable to determine any other enemy presence in the pitch dark, Ormsby's 300 men remained in position until daybreak, when Lieutenant Colonel Bisshopp arrived from Fort Erie. Bisshopp led the force to the Red House, where they found Captain King and his men still waiting to be evacuated. Outnumbered by ten-to-one, King surrendered.

Winder's reinforcement.

When the news arrived in Buffalo that King had spiked the Red House batteries, General Smyth was overjoyed. "Huzza!" he exclaimed, "Canada is ours! Canada is ours! Canada is ours! This will be a glorious day for the United States!" and he dispatched Colonel Winder with his 350 men across the river to evacuate King and the rest of his force. Winder collected Lieutenant Waring and his party and then landed. However, he had only disembarked part of his force when Bisshopp's 300 men appeared. Winder ordered his men back to their boats and cast off for Buffalo but his command came under a severe fire as they rowed away, costing him 28 casualties.  In spiking the guns at the Red House battery, the Americans had accomplished the more important of their two objectives: an invading force could now land between Chippawa and Fort Erie without facing artillery fire. However, subsequent events would render their service useless.

Casualties.

The British official casualty return gave 15 killed, 46 wounded and 30 missing. As was often done in casualty returns with officers (but not with enlisted men), Lieutenant King of Royal Artillery and Lieutenant Lamont of the 49th were included in the "wounded" category although they were also taken prisoner. The Americans took 34 prisoners, including Lamont and King, which would indicate that two of the enlisted men who were thought to have been killed were in fact captured. This gives a revised British loss (with Lamont and King counted among the prisoners rather than the wounded) of 13 killed, 44 wounded and 34 captured.  Eaton's Compilation states that Captain King's command had 8 killed and 9 wounded; that Colonel Winder's detachment had 6 killed and 22 wounded but that the losses of Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler's detachment were unknown, being "nowhere stated" in the records. The New York Gazette of December 15, 1812, reported that, of Lieutenant Angus's 35 sailors who assaulted the Red House, 28 were killed or wounded, 2 were captured and only 5 escaped unscathed. Captain King (who was slightly wounded in the foot) and 38 other prisoners were taken by the British, The British reported that King and Angus's detachment left 12 killed behind them at the Red House (4 of whom were presumably from Angus's naval detachment) and that 18 American dead were recovered altogether. Since only 30 prisoners had surrendered along with King and since Winder's detachment did not come under fire until they had re-embarked and cast off for Buffalo, it would appear that 6 of the dead left on the battlefield and 8 of the prisoners belonged to Boerstler's command. The known American casualties (which include the killed and captured but not the wounded in Boerstler's detachment) therefore appear to have been 24 killed, 55 wounded and 39 captured.

Aftermath.

With the Red House batteries out of action, Smyth immediately pressed on with his invasion plans. However, attempts to embark his 3,000 men ended in chaos; with only 1,200 men managing to board because of a shortage of boats and the artillery taking up an unexpected amount of space on board. Amid torrential rain and freezing cold, a council of war headed by Smyth decided to postpone the invasion pending more thorough preparations that would enable the embarkation of whole force.  On November 30, Smyth tried again, ordering his men to embark two hours before dawn in order to avoid enemy fire. This time, the embarkation was so slow that, two hours after daylight, only 1,500 men were on board. Rather than attempt an amphibious landing in broad daylight, Smyth once again postponed the invasion. By this time, morale in Smyth's command had plummeted: "all discipline had dissolved; the camp was a bedlam". This, and widespread illness among the troops, persuaded a second council of war called by Smyth to suspend all offensive operations until the army was reinforced.  The Army of the Centre went into winter quarters without attempting any further offensive operations and General Smyth requested leave to visit his family in Virginia. Three months later, without Smyth either resigning his commission or facing a court-martial, his name was dropped from the U.S. Army rolls by President James Madison.  Unaware of the American intentions, the British and Canadians thought that King, Boerstler and Winder had been intended as the first wave of Smyth's invasion rather than as a preparatory raid. The Canadian press praised the "gallant achievement" of the defenders in apparently repulsing the Americans and singled out Bisshopp for particular congratulation. In his dispatch to Prevost, Major General Sir Roger Hale Sheaffe, the British commander in Upper Canada, wrote that "Lieut.-Colonel Bisshopp deserves high commendation for the spirit and activity he displayed, and great credit is due the officers and men who acted under his orders." Bisshopp was killed the following summer while leading the Raid on Black Rock.  Seven active infantry battalions of the Regular Army (1-2 Inf, 2-2 Inf, 1-4 Inf, 2-4 Inf, 3-4 Inf, 1-5 Inf and 2-5 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of several American infantry regiments (the old 13th, 20th and 23rd Infantry Regiments) that were at the Battle of Frenchman's Creek.

The Battle of Frenchman's Creek took place during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States in the early hours of November 28, 1812, in the Crown Colony of Upper Canada, near the Niagara River. The operation was conceived as a raid to prepare the ground for a larger American invasion. The Americans succeeded in crossing the Niagara and landing at both of their points of attack. They achieved one of their two objectives before withdrawing but the invasion was subsequently called off, rendering useless what had been accomplished. The engagement was named, "the Battle of Frenchman's Creek" by the Canadians, after the location of some of the severest fighting. To contemporary Americans, it was known as, "the Affair opposite Black Rock".

Die Schlacht am Frenchman’s Creek vom 28. November 1812 zwischen Briten und Amerikanern fand während des Britisch-Amerikanischen Kriegs am Niagara River an der Grenze zwischen Kanada und den USA statt und endete mit einem britischen Sieg.


History.

Early years.

Pakistan International Airlines can trace its origins to the days when Pakistan had not yet come into existence following the end of the British Raj and the Partition of British India. In 1945, the country's founder Muhammed Ali Jinnah realized the need for a flag carrier for the prospective country and requested financial help from wealthy businessmen Mirza

Post-independence.

On 14 August 1947, Pakistan gained independence and Orient Airways started relief operations for the new country. The airline was entrusted with the task of servicing air routes between East and West Pakistan. By 1949, Orient acquired 3 Convair CV-240s to service the Karachi-Delhi-Calcutta-Dhaka route, and became the first Asian airline to operate Convair aircraft.

1950s.

Orient's traffic continuously declined until 1953 as Britain's BOAC had been granted rights to carry passengers between the two wings of Pakistan, while two other local competitors also began serving Orient routes. As a result of losses, the Pakistani government began subsidizing Orient's operations through a 1952 contract for the purchase of 3 Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellations registered to the government's newly established subsidiary, Pakistan International Airlines (PIA), at the cost of 25 million rupees. PIA had been established as a department of Pakistan's Civil Aviation Authority, and was tasked with operation and maintenance of the new Lockheed aircraft.  Pakistan's government established the Pakistan International Airlines Corporation through the merger Orient Airways with Pakistan International Airlines on 1 October 1953 by an interim joint operating agreement in which the government assumed financial control of the airline, while Orient's operations and ground assets could be complemented

Corporate management.

Structure.

Pakistan International Airlines Corporation Limited (PIACL) is majority-owned by the Government of Pakistan (86%) while the remainder (14%) by private shareholders. The airline is under the administration of Aviation Division and is managed by President & chief executive officer as well as the board of

Privatization.

In the late 1990s, the Government of Pakistan considered selling the airline to the private sector due to the persistent losses suffered by the airline. The government announced its privatisation plans but they were never implemented. Several steps towards outsourcing of non-core business have been initiated. Catering units (starting with Karachi Flight Kitchen), ground handling (starting with ramp services) and engineering, are to be gradually carved out of the airline and operated as independent companies. During 1997, Pakistan called in a team from International Finance (IFC), the consulting arm of the World Bank, to advise

Financial performance.

In 2011, PIA began to be unprofitable, requiring government subsidies. A combination of increased competition from Middle Eastern airlines, rising fuel prices, corporate mismanagement, and over-staffing contributed to PIAs sharp decrease in revenues. By the end of 2016, the airline was saddled with $3 billion in debt. At the end of 2018, the airline was burdened with $3.3 billion in debt, up from $2.97 the year before, and thus requiring government bail outs for continued operation. In April 2019, PIA claimed that its revenues almost matched operating costs. An audit in September 2019 revealed that PIA had operated 46 empty flights between 2016 and 2017, without any passengers causing a loss of $1.1 million to the airline. Additionally, 36 Hajj flights were also running without any passengers. By the end of 2019, PIA reported a 41% increase in year-on-year revenue due to discontinuation of unprofitable routes, reintroduction of idle aircraft, and a sharp increase in the airline cargo space utilization.  The airline faces many challenges to its profitability. PIA is

Destinations.

As of November 2019, PIA serves 19 domestic and 24 international destinations in 16 countries across Asia, the Middle East, Europe and North America. Jeddah, Medina and Dubai are major focus cities for the airline, with flights from Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Multan, Sialkot and Faisalabad.  PIA with its Interline agreements and codeshare partner airlines, offers a wider choice of travel in 102 international destinations in 40 countries across the world with different flight connections.

Codeshare agreements.

PIA has Codeshare

Interline agreements.

PIA have Interline

Cargo SPA agreements.

PIA have Cargo Special

Fleet.

Current fleet.

, the Pakistan International

Livery.

In December 2003, PIA introduced a new image that was applied to its first Boeing 777-200ER and on two newly leased Airbus A310s, one of which was in service. The livery was white at the front and beige at the rear separated by a dark green stripe. The tail was painted white with a new typeface PIA acronym written in dark green. The Pakistan title was added to the front fuselage in all raised letters and the engine cowlings were painted in beige. The PIA logo written in calligraphic Urdu was added just behind the cockpit. However, due to criticism, the design was modified before the first Boeing 777 was delivered. The tail logo was replaced by a flowing Pakistan flag on a beige background. The "Pakistan" titles were removed and the PIA acronym was enlarged and moved onto the fuselage. The English and Urdu PIA titles remained the same. The leased A310s and most of the PIA fleet also adopted this livery at a later date. In early 2006, the airline launched four new tail designs for its fleet. The tails represented the four provinces of Pakistan: Sindh, Punjab, Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa and Balochistan. The tails promoted the cultures of the four provinces of Pakistan by applying motifs to the tails and adding a city name to the rear of the fuselage corresponding to the province. The "Frontier" tail represented the "Phulkari" (flowering) pattern, which reflected a tradition of embroidery generally done on shawls, shirts, and linen. The "Punjab" tail was loosely related to the tile decoration of the Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore. The "Balochistan" tail showed the creativity seen in the local kilims, carpets, and rugs woven with wool, goat or camel hair and mixed yarn. The pattern was mostly bold geometric motifs in primary colours dominated by red. The "Sindh" tail was influenced by the Hala tile work with electric blue and white floral patterns. In 2009, management stopped the application of provincial tails, deeming them too costly.  PIA launched its new livery in early April 2010. An Airbus A310, Boeing 777-200 and Boeing 747-300 were the first aircraft to wear the new look. The livery was unveiled at the PIA headquarters on a Boeing 777 model. The livery consisted of a green and gold strip running around the bottom of the fuselage and continuing right up until the tail cone. The forward/upper portion was white and at

Services.

Cabin.

PIA operates a three-class configuration on its domestic routes: Business, Executive Economy and Economy. On international flights, a two-class configuration (Executive Economy and Economy class) has been introduced since January 2019. PIA has retained Business class-only on domestic flights operated by Boeing 777s. PIA Business

Catering.

PIA Catering is the main supplier of meals for the airline at Islamabad and Karachi. It can produce 15,000 passenger meals each day. In 2006, the management of the flight kitchens was given to Singapore Air Terminal Services (SATS).

PIA Premier service.

PIA Premier was launched as a luxury air service on 14 August 2016. An Airbus A330 aircraft was initially wet-leased from SriLankan

In-flight Magazine.

The PIA in-flight magazine, "Humsafar" (Urdu for "travel companion"), is provided

In-flight Entertainment.

Pakistan International Airlines was the first international airline to introduce entertainment system showing a regularly scheduled film on board

In-flight Internet.

In January 2017, the airline began trials on an on-board internet system to deliver in-flight entertainment on some domestic flights. The system allows passengers to access a selection of in-flight

Frequent Flyer Program.

PIA Awards Plus+ is the frequent flyer program. The program allows passengers to get free tickets, excess baggage vouchers, cabin upgrades, and a variety

Precision Engineering Complex (PEC).

The Precision Engineering

Ground handling.

PIA provides ground handling

Cargo operations.

PIA operates a cargo delivery system within Pakistan. PIA Cargo transports goods across Pakistan as well as to international destinations. These include meat and vegetables, textiles, paper products, laboratory equipment and postal mail.  During the early 1970s, PIA operated a service called "Air Express" that delivered documents and parcels within Pakistan. In 1974, PIA launched a dedicated cargo division within its organisation using two Boeing 707-320C. This division was known as "Pakistan International Cargo". The airline operated several cargo flights to the Middle East such as Dubai and Europe especially London. The operations ended in the late 1990s when

Corporate sponsorship.

The airline has sponsored events, both within Pakistan and in its overseas markets.  In the 1990s, the airline launched the three green stripe livery to represent its support for sports. The airline supports the Pakistan International Airlines first-class cricket team that plays in the Quaid-i-Azam Trophy and Patron's Trophy. PIA sponsors the PIA football club, and the A1 Team Pakistan in the A1 Grand Prix open-wheel auto racing series when it was initially launched. The airline also promotes the Shandur Polo Gala, that takes place every year in the Chitral and Gilgit regions of northern Pakistan during the summer period. PIA also has its own Sports Division since 1958 promoting sports within Pakistan such as cricket, hockey, football, squash, polo, tennis, bridge, chess, table tennis, cycling, and bodybuilding. PIA has its own Boy Scouts Association (PIA-BSA) working in partnership with Pakistan Boy Scouts Association. After a devastating earthquake in 2005, PIA-BSA worked in partnership with other

Charter and special services.

Charter services.

PIA operates private charter flights using ATR 42s to Bhit, Kadanwari and Sehwan Sharif in Sindh as well as to other parts of the country for oil

Hajj and Umrah operations.

PIA operates a two-month (pre- and post-) Hajj operation each year to and from Saudi Arabia. PIA transported over 100,000 intending pilgrims

State officials transportation.

PIA has been continuously serving government officials of Pakistan and has always transported the President and Prime Minister on overseas visits. During the late 1990s, a PIA Boeing 737-300 was used for official visits by the Bhutto and Sharif governments. The aircraft wore official government colours but was later repainted in the airline official colours at the end of the decade. When the government

PIA Township.

PIA Township () also known as PIA Colony is Pakistan International Airlines flat complex which is a major residential gated community located in

Accidents and incidents.

Pakistan International Airlines experienced its first recorded hull loss in 1956: a Douglas DC-3 flew into a mountain on 25 February that year while on a cargo flight from Gilgit to Islamabad in poor weather, killing the three crew members on board. Since then the airline has lost more than thirty aircraft in crashes and other events, including another twenty fatal crashes. There have also been at least eight hijacking incidents involving the airline's aircraft between 1971 and 2017.

Pakistan International Airlines (; abbreviated PIA, ) is the national flag carrier of Pakistan under the administrative control of the Secretary to the Government of Pakistan for Aviation. Its central hub is Karachi's Jinnah International Airport, while Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore, and Islamabad International Airport serve as secondary hubs.

Pakistan International Airlines (, kurz "PIA") ist die staatliche Fluggesellschaft Pakistans mit Sitz in Karatschi und Basis auf dem Karachi/Jinnah International Airport.


Early life.

Edward Hincks was born in Cork on 19 August 1792. He was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Dix Hincks, a distinguished Protestant minister, orientalist and naturalist. Edward was an elder brother of Sir Francis Hincks, a prominent Canadian politician who was also sometime Governor of Barbados, and William Hincks, the first Professor of Natural History at Queen's College, Cork and afterwards University College, Toronto.  Edward Hincks was educated at home by his father and at Midleton College before entering Trinity College Dublin. He was elected a Scholar of the College in 1810, and in 1812 won the Gold Medal and Bishop Law's Prize for Mathematics. Standing against Thomas Romney Robinson, he won through and was elected a Fellow of the College in 1813 and four years later took his M.A. In 1819, following the death of Thomas Meredith, he was presented to the Rectory of Ardtrea in County Tyrone. Though Ardtrea was a valuable and highly prized Rectory, it was also isolated for a young bachelor and he resigned the position in 1826, taking up the Rectory in nearby Killyleagh, County Down - an office he was to hold for the remainder of his life.  The undemanding nature of his clerical duties left him with more than enough time to pursue his interest in ancient languages. His first love was for the hieroglyphic writing of ancient Egypt. By 1823 the Frenchman Jean-Francois Champollion had succeeded in deciphering this enigmatic script, but Hincks made a number of discoveries of his own which established him as an authority of ancient philology.

Writing.

In the 1830s he turned his attention to Old Persian cuneiform, a form of writing that the Achaemenid emperors had used for monumental inscriptions in their own language. Working independently of the leading Orientalist of the day Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Hincks deduced the essentially syllabic nature of this script and correctly deduced the values of the Persian vowels.  In 1835 he supervised the unrolling of the mummified body of Takabuti at the Belfast Natural History Society. Hincks deciphered the Egyptian hieroglyphs, which revealed that she was mistress of a great house.

Achievements.

Hincks' greatest achievement was the decipherment of the ancient language and writing of Babylon and Assyria: Akkadian cuneiform. But his attention might never have been drawn to the relatively new topic of Assyriology had it not been for a lucky find during 1842.  During that year the archaeologist Paul Émile Botta uncovered the remains of the ancient city of Niniveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire. Among the treasures unearthed by Botta and his successors, including Austen Henry Layard,with whom Hincks exchanged many letters, was the famous library of Assurbanipal, a royal archive containing tens of thousands of baked clay tablets. These tablets were inscribed in a strange illegible form of writing known as cuneiform. Three men were to play a decisive role in the decipherment of this script: Hincks, Rawlinson and a young German-born scholar called Jules Oppert.  Hincks deduced correctly that cuneiform writing had been invented by one of the earliest civilisations of Mesopotamia (a people later identified by Oppert as the Sumerians), who then bequeathed it to later states such as Babylon, Assyria and Elam. In 1848 he was awarded the Cunningham Medal of the Royal Irish Academy for his achievements.  By 1850 Hincks had come to a number of important conclusions regarding the nature of Assyro-Babylonian cuneiform. He believed that the script was essentially syllabic, comprising open syllables (e.g. "ab" or "ki") as well as more complex closed syllables (e.g. "mur"). He also discovered that cuneiform characters were "polyphonic," by which he meant that a single sign could have several different readings depending on the context in which it occurred.  By now Hincks had recognised a large number of determinatives and had correctly established their readings. But not everyone was convinced by the claims being made by the Irishman and his distinguished colleagues. Some philologists even suggested that they were simply inventing multiple readings of the signs to suit their own translations.  In 1857 the versatile English Orientalist William Henry Fox Talbot suggested that an undeciphered cuneiform text be given to several different Assyriologists to translate. If, working independently of one another, they came up with reasonably similar translations; it would surely dispel the doubts surrounding their claims.  As it happened, Talbot and the "holy trinity of cuneiform" – Hincks, Rawlinson and Oppert –, were in London in 1857. Edwin Norris, secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, gave each of them a copy of a recently discovered inscription from the reign of the Assyrian emperor Tiglath-Pileser I. A jury of experts was empanelled to examine the resulting translations and assess their accuracy.  In all essential points the translations produced by the four scholars were found to be in close agreement with one another. There were of course some slight discrepancies. The inexperienced Talbot had made a number of mistakes, and Oppert's translation contained a few doubtful passages due to his unfamiliarity with the English language. But Hincks' and Rawlinson's versions were virtually identical. The jury declared itself satisfied, and the decipherment of cuneiform was adjudged a "fait accompli".  The Reverend Edward Hincks devoted the remaining years of his life to the study of cuneiform and made further significant contributions to its decipherment. He died at his rectory in Killyleagh on 3 December 1866 at the age of 74. He was survived by a wife and four daughters.

Edward Hincks (19 August 1792 – 3 December 1866) was an Irish clergyman, best remembered as an Assyriologist and one of the decipherers of Mesopotamian cuneiform. He was one of the three men known as the "holy trinity of cuneiform", with Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson and Jules Oppert.

Edward Hincks (* 19. August 1792 in Cork, Irland; † 3. Dezember 1866 in Killyleagh) war ein irischer Ägyptologe, Assyriologe und einer der frühesten Entzifferer der Keilschrift.


Career.

1996–1999: The early years.

Born in La Spezia, Liguria, Petacchi turned professional in 1996 with. In the early years he won small races – most notably a stage in Tour de Langkawi in 1998 and the mountains classification in the same race the year after. Petacchi rode his first Grand Tour at the Vuelta a Espana in 1997, where his best finish was 6th on stage 2. He rode his first Giro in 1998, where he recorded his best finish with an impressive fourth on stage 3 and several other top 10 finishes during the race. He later retired from the race on stage 18.

2000–2002: Fassa Bortolo.

In 2000, Petacchi signed for Fassa Bortolo. He got his breakthrough, when he won his first Grand Tour stage in Vuelta a Espana on stage 7 in a sprint where he beat Giovanni Lombardi in a bunch sprint. He was initially assigned as Fabio Baldato's lead-out man at that year's Vuelta. He won another stage later in stage 11. He ended the year with 9 victories.  2001 became a mediocre year for Petacchi in difference to 2000. He decided to go to the Tour for the first time in his career, where he recorded several top 10 finishes and fourth in the points classification.  Petacchi got a great start to his 2002 campaign, when he won a stage in Tour Méditerranéen and two stages in Paris-Nice, where he also wore the leader jersey for two days. He came very close on winning a stage several times during the Giro d'Italia, where he got two second places and one third place. On the last stage he lost to Mario Cipollini. He came to the Vuelta with ambitions to win some stages and the points classification, where he also won a stage, but ultimately became second in the points classification beaten by Erik Zabel. He ended the year by being a part of the winning Italian lead-out train for Cipollini in the Road World Championship in Zolder.

2003–2007: Domination in the sprints.

Petacchi started the season strongly by winning Trofeo Luis Puig and a stage in both Vuelta Ciclista a la Comunidad Valenciana and Paris-Nice. He continued his form going into the Giro. He won his first Giro stage on the first stage, beating the world champion Mario Cipollini in a head-to-head sprint. The stage win also gave Petacchi the maglia rosa. He wore the leader jersey in 5 days and was in all those days inside top 5 in every single stage and won two stages more in the process. He lost the jersey on the first mountain stage in stage 7. He later won three more stages in the race, bringing his Giro stage wins up to 6 stage wins, before leaving the race due to being outside the time limit on stage 18. He then rode Tour de France, where he won 4 stages – three stages in a row, before retiring on stage 7. He wore the green jersey, when he retired. After riding the Eneco Tour, he decided to ride the Vuelta. He won five stages and became the third rider ever, who have won a stage at each Grand Tour in a single year. He finished the season with 24 victories.  Petacchi started his 2004 season with three stage wins in Tirreno-Adriatico and a fourth-place finish in Milan-San Remo. Then he arrived to the Giro and won a record nine stages, the points classification and the Azzurri d'Italia classification. He attempted to recreate his 2003 season by participate in the Tour, however it became a disappointment and dropped out on stage 6 due to injuries. He bounced back in the Vuelta by winning four stages.  Petacchi started his 2005 season early by winning GP Costa Degli Etruschi and several stages of Vuelta an Andalucia. He then won three stages of Tirreno-Adriatico and finished 2nd in the general classification. He continued his great form by winning Milano-San Remo. He had the better of a mass sprint, beating Danilo Hondo, Thor Hushovd, Stuart O'Grady and Óscar Freire. He later won four stages of the Giro and five stages and the points classification of the Vuelta. In July 2005, Petacchi announced that, following the decision to disband, he would join for the 2006 season. In August, sprinter rival Erik Zabel also joined the team, which fused with to become.  His explosive speed won him stages in all three of the Grand Tours. He withdrew from the 2006 Giro d'Italia after crashing during the third stage. He had finished the stage with a broken kneecap. It was the first time that Petacchi did not win a stage in the Giro since 2002.  In 2007, he won five stages in the Giro d'Italia, bringing his tally of ProTour victories to 21 and making him the rider with most UCI ProTour victories. During that season, he registered a success of prestige in Paris-Tours. With support from his teammate Erik Zabel, Petacchi was the victor in the mass gallop, with Francesco Chicchi and Oscar Freire rounding up the podium.

Doping allegations.

After he returned an "Adverse Analytical Finding" (AAF), a higher level than officially allowed of the asthma medication salbutamol, which Petacchi had clearance to use, he was placed on non-active status and missed the 2007 Tour de France. Petacchi was absolved when the Italian Cycling Federation ruled that overuse of Salbutamol was human error.  On 6 May 2008, the World Anti-Doping Agency won its challenge against the Italian national governing body at the Court of Arbitration for Sport. Petacchi was banned from 1 November 2007 to 31 August 2008, and "all competitive results obtained during the 2007 Giro d'Italia shall be disqualified with all of the resulting consequences including forfeiture of any medals, points and prizes", including five Giro d'Italia stage wins. The court said Petacchi had not intended to cheat and that it was likely that he had inadvertently consumed too much medication, but he had not exercised "utmost caution." The case was considered controversial, as it kept Petacchi from starting the Tour de France as he had planned and for the court ruling that he should be suspended despite acknowledging that he had not cheated. Petacchi maintained that he had done no wrong.  As a result of this, on 16 May 2008, Petacchi was fired by. After his suspension he joined.

LPR Brakes and beyond.

After winning a few minor races in 2008, Petacchi started 2009 strongly by winning the Scheldeprijs Vlaanderen semi-classic race. He was selected to ride the Giro d'Italia and won the second and third stages, wearing the pink jersey on stage 3 and the cyclamen jersey on stages 2 through 5.  Petacchi signed with for the 2010 season. Petacchi won that year the first and fourth stages of the Tour de France – his first stage wins in the race since 2003. Before going on to complete the grand slam as he won the green sprinters jersey to complete the feat at all the grand tours. In so doing he was the 1st person to complete the feat since 1999 and the first Italian to win the points classification in the Tour de France since 1968.  He announced his retirement after the 2013 Paris–Roubaix, citing a lack of motivation to continue as a lead sprinter. However he subsequently expressed a desire to take up an offer from the Omega Pharma-Quick Step team to ride as a lead-out man for Mark Cavendish, which he said was made to him days after his retirement. The contract offer was blocked by the UCI as it forbids riders from transferring from one team to another mid-season. In July 2013 Patrick Lefevere announced that Petacchi would be joining Omega Pharma-Quick Step from the start of August on a 14-month contract. On 12 April 2014 he got his first victory for his new team at Grand Prix Pino Cerami and also his first victory since 2012. In January 2015 it emerged that Petacchi would ride for in 2015. However, after racing in that year's Giro at the age of 41 and being forced to withdraw from the race one day before its conclusion due to a virus, Petacchi announced his second retirement from the sport in June 2015.

Second doping suspension.

On 14 May 2019, Petacchi was named by the French newspaper "Le Monde" as an alleged client of doctor Mark Schmidt, who administered illegal blood transfusion for the purpose of performance enhancement to athletes in what has become known as "Operation Aderlass". Petacchi denied the accusations, but was nevertheless provisionally suspended by the UCI. He subsequently stepped down from his role as commentator for Italian state television RAI. On 24 August 2019, the UCI gave Petacchi a two-year ban from competition for his involvement with Schmidt.

Alessandro Petacchi (born 3 January 1974) is an Italian former professional road racing cyclist, who rode professionally between 1996 and 2015. A specialist sprinter, Petacchi has won 48 grand tour stages with wins of the points jersey in the Giro d'Italia in 2004, the Vuelta a España in 2005 and the Tour de France in 2010. He also won the classics Milan – San Remo in 2005 and Paris-Tours in 2007. His career spanned over 18 years during which he earned 183 victories.

Alessandro Petacchi (* 3. Januar 1974 in La Spezia) ist ein ehemaliger italienischer Radrennfahrer. Zu den wichtigsten Erfolgen des erfolgreichen Sprinters im Straßenradrennsport zählen der Gewinn des Grünen Trikots der Tour de France 2010, insgesamt 48 Etappensiege bei drei großen Rundfahrten, darunter sechs bei der Tour de France, 22 beim Giro d’Italia nebst fünf nachträglich aberkannten und 20 bei der Vuelta a España sowie der Sieg bei Mailand–San Remo 2005.


Exclusions.

"Excluded" from intermediate consumption in the UNSNA system are:

Inclusions.

"Included" in intermediate consumption in the UNSNA system are:

Valuation principles.

Conceptually, intermediate goods or services should be valued at purchaser's market prices (including transaction costs and tax), at the point in time when the good or service enters the process of production, not when they were acquired by the producer.  In practice, the two times will coincide for inputs of services, but often not for goods, because these can be bought and stored some time as inventories, before they are actually used in production.

Workers' consumption.

Some goods and services bought by enterprises do not enter directly into production of output itself, but are consumed by workers (e.g. work clothing, accommodation, meals, transport, washrooms, medical check-ups).  In such cases it is necessary to distinguish whether items are intermediate consumption or, alternatively, a remuneration "in kind" to employees (for example, fringe benefits such as company cars and meal tickets for private use).  In general, when items are used by employees in their own time and at their own discretion for their own use, they are regarded as remuneration in kind, not intermediate consumption. In that case, they are part of the aggregate compensation of employees, and included in gross value added. But if employees have to use them specifically to do their work, they are included in intermediate consumption, and excluded from value-added.

Statistical effects of ownership relations on the boundary between intermediate consumption and value-added.

The statistical boundary between intermediate consumption and value added is affected by ownership relations.  If, for example, an enterprise buys services from other enterprises, instead of producing them in-house, its own value added will be reduced, and its intermediate consumption will be increased.  But because in-house production itself has intermediate inputs, the value of the increase in intermediate consumption that results from in-house production is likely to be less than the value of equivalent services purchased from another enterprise.  Thus, the sizes of total value added and intermediate consumption are affected by the degree to which ancillary activities are either produced in-house by an enterprise, or bought from other enterprises within the domestic economy.  Likewise, rentals paid by a business on buildings or equipment under an operating lease are recorded in national accounts as intermediate consumption, and are excluded from its value-added.  Yet, if an enterprise owns its own buildings, machinery and equipment, most of the costs associated with their use are "not" recorded under intermediate consumption; depreciation charges are included in gross value added, and interest costs, both actual and implicit, are included in net operating surplus. Only the expenses of materials needed for physical maintenance and repairs to buildings and equipment appear under intermediate consumption.  Consequently, if businesses decide for economic reasons to rent more physical assets, or alternatively buy more physical assets, this can independently affect the size of GDP components and the size of intermediate consumption. If they buy, this boosts GDP; if they rent or lease, this lowers GDP.

Criticisms.

One criticism that is made of official national accounts in respect of intermediate consumption concerns the treatment of income from rents, especially "business" rents.  In UNSNA, a distinction is drawn between "property incomes" and the "rentals" receivable and payable under operating leases by producing enterprises.  Such rentals payable by lessees to lessors are treated as purchases of "services produced" by the leasing enterprises, and recorded either as intermediate consumption of renting enterprises, or as the final consumption of households or government.  Yet at the same time "owners" of funds, land or subsoil assets who exclusively rent out these assets are not considered to be "themselves" engaged in productive activity at all, and therefore excluded from the production account. The assets loaned, rented or leased are regarded as not being "produced" in this case, and no capital consumption is considered to be incurred in respect of their use. On the other side, having been included in intermediate consumption, the property incomes payable by enterprises that borrow funds or rent land or subsoil assets "do not enter into the calculation of their value added, or operating surpluses, at all".  Thus, even although rents must be paid out of the gross revenue of producing enterprises, they are to a large extent "excluded" from value-added and GDP. This may be consistent from the point of view of the definition of value-added used, but will provide a misleading view of economic activity and gross profit income, if in fact the proportion of property income in the national income increases.  At the same time, value-added includes the imputed rental value of owner-occupied housing. This is the average market rent owner-occupiers would receive "if" the housing they occupy is rented. But this addition to GDP is largely fictitious, because the huge majority of owner-occupiers do not rent out their dwellings. The imputation is based on a value theory according to which owner-occupiers receive a "service" provided by dwellings.  According to some estimates, about one in five dollars of profit income in the USA nowadays consists of "rentier income", but this is difficult to trace in the accounts (see Epstein & Jayadev 2005 and Michael Hudson 2005 for some discussion). In reality, insofar such estimates are themselves derived from gross product data, they will underestimate the true significance of property income from rents, because many those rents are excluded from gross product accounts.  In Marxian economics, net rents paid out of the current gross income of producing enterprises are not regarded as intermediate expenditure, but as part of the value product. Marx himself commented: "The line between repairs proper and replacement, between costs of maintenance and costs of renewal, is rather flexible. Hence, the eternal dispute, for instance in railroading, whether certain expenses are for repairs or for replacement, whether they must be defrayed from current expenditures or from the original stock. A transfer of expenses for repairs to capital account instead of revenue account is the familiar method by which railway boards of directors artificially inflate their dividends." (Das Kapital, Vol. 2, chapter 8, section 2).

Intermediate consumption (also called "intermediate expenditure") is an economic concept used in national accounts, such as the United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA), the US National Income and Product Accounts (NIPA) and the European System of Accounts (ESA).

Als Vorleistungen gelten in der Wirtschaftswissenschaft die im Produktionsprozess verbrauchten, verarbeiteten oder umgewandelten Güter und Dienstleistungen (vgl. Europäisches System Volkswirtschaftlicher Gesamtrechnungen – ESVG). Güter, die im Produktionsprozess die Funktionen der Vorleistung erfüllen, heißen Vorleistungsgüter.


Early life (1962–1982).

Cho began learning Go at the age of four and passed the test for becoming a professional in 1962. In 1963, Cho was invited to Japan. Originally intended to study under Minoru Kitani, Kensaku Segoe took Cho under his tutelage. Segoe was responsible for bringing Go Seigen to Japan and also teaching Utaro Hashimoto, founder of the Kansai Ki-in. Cho was considered a 2 dan professional in Korea, but was demoted to 4 kyu upon arriving in Japan.  Cho passed the Nihon Ki-in professional exam three years later and became the first player to hold professional certificates from two Go associations. It was at this time when Cho was introduced to Hideyuki Fujisawa. Fujisawa began mentoring Cho, and the two kept a friendly relationship between each other until Fujisawa's death in 2009. Cho participated in some Japanese tournaments, finishing runner-up to Takaho Kojima in the 3rd Shin-Ei tournament. In 1972, Cho returned to Korea to begin mandatory military service. Cho won his first title in 1973, defeating Kim In in the 14th Chaegowi. That same year, Cho lost his first title to rival Seo Bongsoo in the 6th Myungin. Since 1973, Cho and Seo have met 65 times in the finals of tournaments, with Cho winning 53 of them. Their most recent title match-up came in the 1st Daejoo Cup in 2010.  Cho continued winning several titles, including the Paewang in 1977, a title he defended sixteen straight times until 1992. In 1980, he held nine titles simultaneously: Guksu, Myungin, Wangwi, Kisung, Paewang, Kiwang, Daewang, Jaewang and the Baccus Cup. Cho repeated this twice, in 1982 and 1986, winning ten and eleven titles respectively. Despite winning several titles, Cho wasn't considered the best Korean player at the time. Instead, the media favored Cho Chikun, a Korean-born 9 dan professional in Japan. In 1980, Cho Chikun visited South Korea after winning the Meijin title and the two began a friendship match consisting of two games. The two game series was played on 31 December 1980 and 2 January 1981 with Hunhyun losing both games. From 1981 until Hunhyun's loss in the 8th Samsung Cup, Cho Hunhyun didn't lose a match to Cho Chikun.

First Korean 9 dan (1982–2004).

In 1982, Cho was promoted to 9 dan, becoming the first Korean 9 dan. Cho was the sole Korean player invited to the 1st Ing Cup, which featured nine players from the Nihon Ki-in and six players from China. Cho was matched up with Taiwanese-born Japanese professional O Meien in the first round. Cho won the match and went on to defeat Koichi Kobayashi in the quarter-finals. He then met another Taiwanese-born Japanese professional Rin Kaiho in the semi-final. Cho won the best-of-three match in two games and progressed to the final to face Nie Weiping in a best-of-five final. Cho won the first game, but Nie went on to win the next two. The match came down to a fifth and final deciding game, with Cho winning by resignation.  In 1984, Cho began teaching Lee Chang-ho. Two years later, Lee became a professional and began challenging Cho. By 1989, Lee defeated Cho for the first time in a title final by winning the 29th Chaegowi. In 1992, he lost the Paewang title to Lee after defending it for sixteen consecutive years. Their rivalry would continue until 2003, when Lee won the 34th Myungin. As of 16 June 2011, the score between the two in title finals is Lee 47–19 Cho.

Political career.

Cho decided to go to politics, joining the Saenuri Party on March 2016. He was elected on the party's proportional representation list in the 2016 election, taking seat number 14.  On 5 February 2020, Cho was appointed as the Secretary-General of the newly-formed Future Korea Party.

Titles and runners-up.

Ranks first in total number of titles in Korea and third in international titles.

Book.

2015, "The Power of Master's Thinking" 2018, "Go with the Flow", is a 2015 autobiography written by Korean, professional 9-dan Cho Hunhyun and translated by You Jungmin. The original Korean edition was published in 2015 and the English edition as was published in 2018. It features a collection of eight thematic stories and self-reflections about go and life. Since he became a professional Go player at the age of nine, he has won 1,935 matches and taken various championship titles as many as 160 times over 56 years, achieving unprecedented record in the world Go history. Now, he gives what he has learned through his life, the essence of how to train our heart and mind.

Cho Hunhyun (; born 10 March 1953) is a South Korean 9-dan professional Go player. Considered one of the greatest players of all-time, Cho reached professional level in Korea in 1962. Since then, Cho has amassed 150 professional titles, more than any player in the world. He thrice held all of the open tournaments in Korea in 1980, 1982 and 1986. Cho has also won 11 international titles, third most in the world behind Lee Chang-ho (21) and Lee Sedol (15). He reached 1,000 career wins in 1995.

Cho Hun-hyeon (* 10. März 1953 in Mokpo) ist ein südkoreanischer Go-Profi. Cho Hun-hyeon wurde mit neun Jahren der jüngste Go-Profi aller Zeiten. Mit elf Jahren reiste er nach Japan, wo damals bessere Bedingungen für das Go-Spiel herrschten. Unter seinem Lehrer Segoe Kensaku wurde er zu einem der hoffnungsvollsten Talente in Japan.


Description.

School principals are stewards of learning and managing supervisors of their schools. They provide vision and leadership to all stakeholders in the school and create a safe and peaceful environment to achieve the mission of learning and educating at the highest level. They guide the day to day school business and oversee all activities conducted by the school. They bear the responsibility of all decision making and are accountable for their efforts to elevate the school to the best level of learning achievements for the students, best teaching skills for the teachers and best work environment for support staff.

Role.

While some head teachers still do some teaching themselves, in most larger schools, most of their duties are managerial and pastoral. They are often used to discipline misbehaving students, help organize school sponsored activities and department heads report to them.  In Australia, the head teacher is sometimes in charge of one (in the case of a major subject) or multiple (often in smaller schools) specific departments, such as English, history, maths, science, writing, technology, etc., but maintains full teaching duties and status. They are considered part of the school executive, and often a head teacher position is a stepping-stone into administration.

Assistants.

In larger schools, the principal is assisted by one or more "vice-principals", "assistant principals", "associate principals", or "deputy principals". Their position is secondary to the principal with regard to school governance. Assistant principals generally perform specific duties such as handling student discipline, curriculum, student council or student activities whereas the principal has the ultimate responsibility for the school as a whole (including faculty and staff, physical plant, etc.).

Regional information.

Australia and New Zealand.

In many Australian and New Zealand schools, a headmaster/principal is the head administrator of a school who has been appointed to her/his position by the school board, superintendent, or other body. The principal, often in conjunction with the school board, makes the executive decisions that govern the school, as well as having the authority over the employment (and in some cases firing) of teachers. The principal is often the chief disciplinarian of the students.

United States.

In 1999, there were about 133,000 principals and assistant principals in the United States. In the early decades of public education, the full title was "principal teacher", which accounts for the present day title having an adjectival form, essentially being a shortened version of the original full title. Yet the terms "head(master/mistress)" and "head of school" are still used in older schools.  School principals in the United States are sometimes required to have school administrator licensing, and, often, a master's degree in educational administration.

Impact of school principals.

While there has been considerable anecdotal discussion about the importance of school principals, there has been very little systematic research into their impact on student outcomes. Recent analysis in the United States has examined how the gains in student achievement at a school change after the principal changes. This outcome-based approach to measuring effectiveness of principals is very similar to the value-added modeling that has been applied to the evaluation of teachers. Such research in the state of Texas found that principals have a very large impact on student achievement. Effective school principals have been shown to significantly improve the performance of all students at the school, at least in part through their impacts on selection and retention of good teachers. Ineffective principals have a similarly large negative effect on school performance, suggesting that issues of evaluation are as important for school administrators as they are for teachers. The impact of principals has also been measured in non-traditional ways. Some principals have focused their efforts on creating more inclusive schools for students with disabilities.

A head teacher, headmaster, headmistress, head, chancellor, principal or school director (sometimes another title is used) is the staff member of a school with the greatest responsibility for the management of the school.

Die dienstlichen Aufgaben der Schulleitung (Schulleiter bzw. Schulleiterin, teilweise auch "Direktor"/"Direktorin" bzw. "Rektor"/"Rektorin") sind in Deutschland in den verschiedenen Schularten durch die 16 verschiedenen Landesschulgesetze geregelt.


Types.

Section III of Article 1 of the ITU Radio Regulations sets out the definitions of some 40 radio services including such services as the fixed service, the mobile service, the land mobile service, the broadcasting service, the standard frequency and time signal service as well as the definition of radio astronomy which is defined as “a service involving the use of radio astronomy”. Note that the radio astronomy service is not a radiocommunication service but simply a service involving the use of radio astronomy.

Sub-sets of services and branches.

Some services are a sub-set of another service. For example, the land mobile service can be thought of as a branch of the mobile service which encompasses the land, maritime and aeronautical mobile services. For many terrestrial radiocommunication communication services, there is a parallel space radiocommunication service e.g., the broadcasting service and the broadcasting-satellite service.  Further sub-sets of some of these internationally defined services are often created at the national level. For example, within the land mobile service, a country may choose to define such services as paging, dispatch two-way radio service, cellular mobile telephone service, trunked mobile radio service, etc. Many of these definitions are based upon the nature of the service being provided rather than the international concept of a radiocommunication service. In other words, the term “service” can be used in these two different ways. No matter what definitions are adopted in a given country, with some specific exceptions which are allowed for in the ITU RRs, the use of the spectrum must fit in with the international definitions of radio services.

Radio communication service or radiocommunication service is according to Article 1.19 of the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU)RR, defined as “a service...involving the transmission, emission and/or reception of radio waves for specific telecommunication purposes”.

Ein Funkdienst () umfasst entsprechend der Definition der Vollzugsordnung für den Funkdienst (VO Funk) der Internationalen Fernmeldeunion (ITU) die Gesamtheit der Funkanwendungen oder Funknutzungen, deren Verwendungszweck ein wesentliches gemeinsames Merkmal besitzt. Er kann u. a. der Übermittlung, der Aussendung oder dem Empfang von Funkwellen für Zwecke des Fernmeldeverkehrs oder der Radioastronomie dienen. Funkdienste können rein zivil, militärisch oder für Behörden und Organisationen mit Sicherheitsaufgaben (BOS) genutzt werden.