Family and early life.

John Hunter was born in Leith, Scotland, the son of William Hunter, a captain in the merchant service, and Helen, "née" Drummond, daughter of J. Drummond and niece of George Drummond, several-time lord provost of Edinburgh. As a boy Hunter was sent to live with an uncle in the town of King's Lynn in Norfolk, where, and also at Edinburgh, he received the classical education of the time. Hunter was sent to the University of Edinburgh, but soon left it to join the navy as a captain's servant to Thomas Knackston on HMS "Grampus" in May 1754.

Naval career.

Seven Years' War.

In 1755 Hunter was enrolled as able seaman on HMS Centaur, became a midshipman and served on and then. While aboard "Neptune" he was present at the Raid on Rochefort in 1757, and afterwards served during cruises off Brest in 1758 and the capture of Quebec in 1759. Serving aboard "Neptune" at this time as her first lieutenant was John Jervis, who became an acquaintance of Hunter.  Hunter spent the rest of the Seven Years' War as midshipman on several of Admiral Philip Durell's flagships, serving aboard HMS "Royal Anne", and the 100-gun, the latter in the Bay of Biscay until the Treaty of Paris ended the war in 1763. Hunter passed examinations and qualified for promotion to lieutenant in February 1760. (He was not, however, appointed lieutenant until 1780.) Hunter remained active in the navy during the years of peace, going out to Newfoundland aboard the frigate and then serving as master's mate aboard HMS "Launceston" during her time in North America in 1767 with the fleet under Commodore Samuel Hood. Hood gave Hunter an acting-order as master in 1768, and after passing his exams with Trinity House in 1769, Hunter had the order confirmed. His first appointment was to the 28-gun for service in the West Indies. Hunter spent his time there making charts and plans of parts of the coast and of the Spanish fortifications at Havana, which he sent back to the Admiralty. "Carysfort" was nearly lost after running aground on Martyr Reef in the Gulf of Florida in 1771, while being sailed by a pilot, but Hunter's exertions allowed her to be saved with the loss of her masts and guns.

Service in the East Indies.

Hunter served as master of in the East Indies between 1772 and 1775, after which he became master of. The "Kent" was at this time commanded by Captain John Jervis, Hunter's companion from HMS "Neptune". Jervis took Hunter with him to his next command,. Also serving aboard "Foudroyant" at this time was Evan Nepean, then the ship's purser, but later a leading civil servant and First Secretary to the Admiralty. From "Foudroyant" Hunter was moved into in 1776, at the request of Admiral Lord Howe, who was then going out to North America as commander-in-chief of the fleet, with "Eagle" as his flagship.

American War of Independence.

When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Hunter served under Howe for the duration of his time in command, acting virtually as master of the fleet. He was active in the Chesapeake raid and the expeditions on the Delaware, as well as the defence of Sandy Hook. On Howe's recall, his reputation by now stale with the Sandwich administration, Hunter was not able to have his request to be made lieutenant honoured. Instead he joined the 74-gun as a volunteer in 1779, under her captain, Keith Stewart. He was appointed lieutenant of HMS "Union" by Sir Charles Hardy, but the Admiralty refused to confirm the appointment and Hunter returned to the "Berwick" as a volunteer in 1780, and went out the West Indies. There he received a commission from the commander in chief, Sir George Rodney. Hunter returned to England aboard the "Berwick" in 1781, and was present at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August that year. Howe appointed him third lieutenant of his flagship in 1782, and was advanced to first lieutenant by the time she took part in the relief of Gibraltar and the Battle of Cape Spartel. Following these engagements Hunter was appointed to his first command, that of the 14-gun sloop HMS "Marquis de Seignelay", on 12 November 1782.

First Fleet.

When the preparation of the First Fleet was in progress, Lord Howe, by then first lord of the admiralty, arranged for Hunter to be promoted to post captain on 15 December 1786, and appointed to command. The fleet was under the overall command of Commodore Arthur Phillip who was going out to find and be governor of the new colony of New South Wales. Hunter carried a dormant commission as successor to Phillip if he should have died or was absent.

Explorations around Australia and Tasmania.

The expedition arrived in Port Jackson in January 1788. Hunter led an expedition to explore the Parramatta River early in 1788. This expedition explored and made soundings as far as Iron Cove, Five Dock Bay and Hen and Chicken Bay on the Parramatta River. The Sir William Dixson Research Library at the State Library of New South Wales holds the original copy of the chart of the expedition, entitled "Chart of the coasts and harbours of Botany-Bay, Port-Jackson and Broken-Bay, as survey'd by Capt.n John Hunter of H.M.S. Sirius". The expedition was significant because it may have marked the first contact to take place between the British and the Indigenous owners of the land, the Wangal Clan, in 1788. William Bradley's log says that this contact took place while Hunter was having breakfast and is remembered in the name of the suburb, Breakfast Point.  Hunter was ordered to the Cape of Good Hope for supplies in October 1788. He sailed around Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope, and from there back to New South Wales in May 1789, thus circumnavigating the globe. The voyage was made more difficult by leaky state of the ship, which rendered continual pumping necessary. "Sirius" was then refitted and sent to Norfolk Island with a large party of convicts, but was caught in a violent storm while anchored there. She was driven onto a coral reef and wrecked. A number of the crew returned to Port Jackson aboard the brig, the remainder, including Hunter, waited for nearly at year on the island before being taken off. Hunter and some of his men returned to England aboard the chartered Dutch vessel "Waakzaamheid" after a long and arduous voyage. Finally arriving at Portsmouth in April 1792, Hunter was court-martialled for the loss of the "Sirius" but was honourably acquitted. Hunter then prepared for publication his interesting "An Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Norfolk Island, With the Discoveries That Have Been Made in New South Wales and the Southern Ocean Since the Publication of Phillip's Voyage", published at the beginning of 1793. An abridged edition appeared later in the same year. In the first edition of this work is found the earliest reference to the possibility of there being a strait between the mainland and Tasmania. On page 126 Hunter says: "There is reason thence to believe, that there is in that space either a very deep gulf, or a straight, which may separate Van Diemen's Land from New Holland."  The French Revolutionary Wars having broken out during Hunter's time in England, he went to sea again as a volunteer aboard the 100-gun, the flagship of his old patron Lord Howe. Hunter was present at the Glorious First of June on 1 June 1794, and remained in the ship until 1795. With Arthur Phillip's resignation from the governorship of New South Wales in July 1793, Hunter had applied for the position in October and was appointed governor in January 1794. Various delays occurred, and it was not until February 1795 that he was able to sail. Hunter arrived at Sydney on 7 September 1795 on HMS "Reliance" and took up the office of governor on 11 September 1795.

Governorship.

Hunter's difficulties began before he arrived back in Sydney. Phillip left the colony in 1793, at the end of his term as governor, and for the following two years the military were in complete control. During the lieutenant-governorship of Francis Grose, who unmercifully exploited the convicts, a great traffic in alcoholic spirits sprang up, on which there was an enormous profit for the officers concerned. They had obtained the control of the courts and the management of the lands, public stores, and convict labour. Hunter realised that these powers had to be restored to the civil administration, a difficult task. And in John Macarthur he had an opponent who would ruthlessly defend his commercial interests. Hunter found himself practically helpless. A stronger man might have sent the officers home under arrest, but had Hunter attempted to do so he likely would have precipitated the rebellion which took place in William Bligh's time. Anonymous letters were even sent to the home authorities charging Hunter with participation in the very abuses he was striving to prevent. In spite of Hunter's vehement defence of the charges made against him, he was recalled in a dispatch dated 5 November 1799 from the Duke of Portland, one of the three secretaries of state. Hunter acknowledged this dispatch on 20 April 1800, and left for England on 28 September 1800, handing over the government to Lieutenant-Governor Philip Gidley King. When Hunter arrived he endeavoured to vindicate his character with the authorities but was given no opportunity. Hunter was obliged to state his case in a long pamphlet printed in 1802, "Governor Hunter's Remarks on the Causes of the Colonial Expense of the Establishment of New South Wales. Hints for the Reduction of Such Expense and for Reforming the Prevailing Abuses", which has become a valuable document in early Australian history.  Hunter explored and opened up the country near Sydney, and also encouraged the explorations of Matthew Flinders and George Bass. A contemporary, midshipman Daniel Southwell described Hunter as "devoid of stiff pride, most accomplished in his profession, and, to sum up all, a worthy man." But the circumstances in which he was placed made it very difficult for him to be completely successful as a governor. As his successor Philip Gidley King said, his conduct was "guided by the most upright intentions", and he was "most shamefully deceived by those on whom he had every reason to depend for assistance, information, and advice." Of his sojourn in the colony Hunter said that he "could not have had less comfort, although he would certainly have had greater peace of mind, had he spent the time in a penitentiary". His service as Governor was ultimately recognised through the grant of an annual pension of £300, approved by then-Prime Minister Henry Addington in October 1802.  Hunter continued his interest in Australia long after he left it, and the suggested reforms in his pamphlet were of much value. When the platypus was first seen by Europeans in 1798, a pelt and sketch were sent back to the United Kingdom by John Hunter.

Later life and legacy.

In summer 1804 Hunter was given command of the 74-gun, serving with the fleet off Brest under Admiral William Cornwallis. While sailing out of Torbay on the evening of 24 November, a sudden fog came down. The ships of the fleet, unaware of each other's positions and their own location became disorganised. Hunter twice narrowly avoided colliding with other ships, but ran aground at 8pm on the cliff near Paignton, and soon afterwards bilged. A gale then struck the area, and with "Venerable" fast going to pieces, her crew were evacuated with little loss by HMS "Impetueux". Hunter again underwent a court-martial, and was again fully acquitted.  Hunter was promoted to rear-admiral on 2 October 1807, and then to vice-admiral on 31 July 1810 but never hoisted his flag at sea. Vice-Admiral John Hunter spent his final years in his home town of Leith, living at 6 Cassels Place. He died at his London home at Judd Street, New Road, Hackney, London on 13 March 1821. His tomb can be seen in the churchyard of St John-at-Hackney.  The Hunter River and Hunter Region north of Sydney are both named after him, as is the suburb of Hunters Hill in Sydney, and (partly) the John Hunter Hospital in Newcastle. In 1986 he was honoured on a postage stamp depicting his portrait issued by Australia Post.  He retired to his home town of Leith and lived at a then-new Georgian house at 5 Cassels Place, part of the still extant Georgian terrace at the foot of Leith Walk, and now renumbered as 43 Leith Walk.

Memorials.

A bust of Hunter was placed by the Australian government at the north end of The Shore in Leith in 1996.

Vice Admiral John Hunter (29 August 1737 – 13 March 1821) was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800.

John Hunter (* 29. August 1737 in Leith, Edinburgh; † 13. März 1821 in London) war ein schottischer Australienpionier und von 1795 bis 1800 Gouverneur von New South Wales.


Types.

A child "born with the caul" has a portion of a birth membrane remaining on the head. There are two types of caul membranes, and there are four ways such cauls can appear.  The most common caul type is a piece of the thin, translucent inner lining of the amnion which breaks away and forms tightly against the head during the birthing process. Such a caul typically clings to the head and face, but on rarer occasions drapes over the head and partly down the torso. In Germany, this would be called a "helmet" (') for boys; in the Netherlands it is also called a "helmet", both for boys and girls (') and in Italy a "fillet" (') or "shirt" ('). In Poland, it is called a "bonnet" (""), for both sexes.

Removal.

The caul is harmless and is immediately removed by the physician or midwife upon delivery of the child. If the membrane is of the amniotic tissue, it is removed by easily slipping it away from the child's skin. The removal of the thicker membrane is more complex. If done correctly, the attending practitioner will place a small incision in the membrane across the nostrils so that the child can breathe. The loops are then carefully un-looped from behind the ears. Then, the remainder of the caul can be either peeled back very carefully from the skin, or gently rubbed with a sheet of paper, which is then peeled away. If removed too quickly, the caul can leave wounds on the infant's flesh at the attachment points, which may leave permanent scars.

Epidemiology.

Birth with a caul is rare, occurring in fewer than 1 in 80,000 births. This statistic includes en-caul births, which occur more frequently than authentic caul births; therefore authentic caul births are rarer than the statistic indicates. Most "en-caul" births are premature.

History.

According to Aelius Lampridius, the boy-emperor Diadumenian (208–218) was so named because he was born with a diadem formed by a rolled caul.  In medieval times the appearance of a caul on a newborn baby was seen as a sign of good luck. It was considered an omen that the child was destined for greatness. Gathering the caul onto paper was considered an important tradition of childbirth: the midwife would rub a sheet of paper across the baby's head and face, pressing the material of the caul onto the paper. The caul would then be presented to the mother, to be kept as an heirloom. Some Early Modern European traditions linked caul birth to the ability to defend fertility and the harvest against the forces of evil, particularly witches and sorcerers.  Folklore developed suggesting that possession of a baby's caul would give its bearer good luck and protect that person from death by drowning. Cauls were therefore highly prized by sailors. Medieval women often sold these cauls to sailors for large sums of money; a caul was regarded as a valuable talisman.  In the Polish language, the idiom'('born in a bonnet'), and, in Italian,'('born with a shirt'), they both mean a person who is always very lucky.  The Russian phrase ("rodilsya v rubashke", literally, "born in a shirt") refers to caul birth and figuratively means "born lucky". It is often applied to someone who is oblivious to a pending disaster that is avoided only through luck as if the birth caul persists as supernatural armor, and in this sense commonly appears in titles or descriptions of Russian dashcam videos.  Not all cultural beliefs about cauls are positive. In Romanian folklore, babies born with a caul are said to become strigois upon death.

In literature.

Charles Dickens, "David Copperfield", published London 1850: I was born with a caul, which was advertised for sale, in the newspapers, at the low price of fifteen guineas. Whether sea-going people were short of money about that time, or were short of faith and preferred cork jackets, I don't know; all I know is, that there was but one solitary bidding, and that was from an attorney connected with the bill-broking business, who offered two pounds in cash, and the balance in sherry, but declined to be guaranteed from drowning on any higher bargain. Consequently the advertisement was withdrawn at a dead loss... and ten years afterwards, the caul was put up in a raffle down in our part of the country, to fifty members at half-a-crown a head, the winner to spend five shillings. I was present myself, and I remember to have felt quite uncomfortable and confused, at a part of myself being disposed of in that way. The caul was won, I recollect, by an old lady with a hand-basket... It is a fact which will be long remembered as remarkable down there, that she was never drowned, but died triumphantly in bed, at ninety-two.  In "The Legend of Thyl Ulenspiegel and Lamme Goedzak" by Charles De Coster (published 1867), Thyl was born with a caul.  In Betty Smith's novel "A Tree Grows in Brooklyn", Francie Nolan is born with a caul. The midwife who officiated the birth stole the caul and later sold it for $2 to a sailor from the Brooklyn Navy Yard. It was believed that whoever wore a caul could not drown.  A prophecy given to an infant born with the caul is the basis of the Grimm fairy tale "The Devil with the Three Golden Hairs".  In "The Shipping News", the Pulitzer Prize winning book by Annie Proulx, Quoyle's friend Partridge had been born with a caul and "was sure of his own good fortune".  In the film "Oscar and Lucinda", Oscar's father gives him the caul that was upon his head at birth. Oscar has a phobia of the ocean and of water in general, linked to the death of his mother when he was a child. He carries this caul with him until he dies by drowning.  In the play "", Mama Rose tells Louise (Gypsy Rose Lee): "You were born with a caul. That means you got powers to read palms and tell fortunes – and wonderful things are gonna happen to you."  Toni Morrison's "Song of Solomon" stages a scene where observers describe Milkman as "mysterious" and "deep", while asking if he was born with a caul.  Another myth associated with a caul is featured in the short story "The Scarlet Ibis". When the main character's brother, Doodle, is born in a caul, his aunt states that cauls are made of Jesus' nightgown and everyone must respect Doodle as he may become a saint someday.  In Stephen King's "The Shining", the 5-year-old son of the main character, Danny "Doc" Torrance, is born with a caul that made him appear as if he had "no face" at the time of his birth. Although his mother and father do not believe that Danny has "second sight", Danny does have precognitive abilities throughout the story. In the sequel "Doctor Sleep", the character Abra is also born with a caul and has paranormal abilities.  In the romance book "The Amityville Horror" by Jay Anson (1977), Francine, a medium that tried to help the Lutz family by making a "reading" in their house, stated that she was born with the "Venetian veil" (a caul). Later, George Lutz found out that this meant she was "very sensitive to the energies".  In Majgull Axelsson's "April Witch", both of the central characters Hubertsson and Desirée are "born to the caul".  In Guillermo del Toro's and Chuck Hogan's "The Fall", the second installment of "The Strain" trilogy, Dr. Ephraim Goodweather's son, Zack, is described as being "born in the caul".  In Ami McKay's "The Birth House", the main character, Dora Rare, is born with a caul over her eyes. Because the character is born in a sailing town, the caul is considered valuable, and the mother gives it to the midwife for safe keeping. When the caul is presented to Dora as an adult, she does not allow her husband to take it and he drowns that very night.  Dean Koontz talks about cauls in his novel "Whispers". Twins were born, both with a caul. "She was fascinated. You know, some people think that a child born with a caul has the gift of second sight." However, the mother believes it's the mark of a demon.  Tina McElroy Ansa's novel "Baby of the Family" features a lead character born with the caul. She struggles to deal with the ability to see spirits due to her family's inability to believe in the phenomenon and properly prepare her to deal with her gift.  In Orson Scott Card's novel "Seventh Son", the first part of the series "The Tales of Alvin Maker", Alvin Miller (the seventh son of a seventh son) is born with a caul, a sign of his extraordinarily strong magical gifts.  In Ole Edvart Rølvaag's "Giants in the Earth", Beret and Per Hansa's son, Peder Seier (or Peder Victorious), is born with the caul. Per Hansa was a fisherman in Norway before coming to the plains of South Dakota, and the symbolism of the caul is important to these particular immigrants. In an attempt to stay true to the original Norwegian text, the translation refers to the caul as "the helmet".  In Brian McGreevy's Hemlock Grove, Roman and Shelley Godfrey are both born with a caul, indicating their "supernatural" nature to their mother.  In Louise Penny's mystery novel "The Cruelest Month" (also spelled "The Cruellest Month"), Inspector Jean Guy Beauvoir was born with a caul.  In Guy Gavriel Kay's historical fantasy novel "Tigana", those born with the caul are marked as Night Walkers, people capable of entering a dream world to fight an unknown struggle for the land known as the Ember War. This may be based on a 16th-century Italian fertility cult, the Benandanti.  In Deborah Harkness' historical fiction novel "A Discovery of Witches", Diana Bishop is born with a caul. Her parents believe that is a sign that Diana's destiny is to "remain between worlds".  In Truman Capote's "Jug of Silver", Appleseed, a main character who correctly guesses the amount of change in a jar, is said to have been born with a caul on his head.  In the strange underground work (a mix of avant-garde black militancy and pornography) by Steven Cannon, "Groove, Bang and Jive Around" (1969, rptd. Therion, 1998), protagonist Annette "was born with a caul over her face" (p. 111). Though it remains open to interpretation in the story, there is a suggestion that this birth may have ties to her privileged status in a New Orleans voodoo lineage (she's a blood relation of Doctor John and Marie Laveau): "...you were born with a caul over your face. But lots of 'um is born that way, don't make 'um any better than the rest. But you been blessed. I saw to that myself... Blessed you are with the power to see behind the mask, the invisibles, into the future..." (215).  In Diana Gabaldon's historical romance novel "", it is remarked that Claire's daughter, Brianna, was born with a caul.

A caul or cowl (, literally, "helmeted head") is a piece of membrane that can cover a newborn's head and face. Birth with a caul is rare, occurring in fewer than 1 in 80,000 births. The caul is harmless and is immediately removed by the physician or midwife upon delivery of the child.

Von einer Glückshaube (lat.: "Caput galeatum") ist die Rede, wenn das Kind mit der Fruchtblase (Eihäute = Amnion und Chorion) über dem Kopf oder dem Gesicht geboren wird.


Life and career.

Nagel was born in Belgrade, Yugoslavia (now Serbia), to German Jewish refugees Carolyn (Baer) and Walter Nagel. Nagel arrived in the US in 1939, and was raised in, and around New York. He had no religious upbringing, but regards himself as a Jew.  Nagel received a BA in philosophy from Cornell University in 1958, where he was a member of the Telluride House and where he was introduced to the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein. He then attended the University of Oxford on a Fulbright Scholarship and received a BPhil in 1960; while there, he studied with J. L. Austin, and H. Paul Grice. He received his PhD in philosophy from Harvard University in 1963. At Harvard, Nagel studied under John Rawls, whom Nagel later called "the most important political philosopher of the twentieth century."  Nagel taught at the University of California, Berkeley (from 1963 to 1966) and at Princeton University (from 1966 to 1980), where he trained many well-known philosophers including Susan Wolf, Shelly Kagan, and Samuel Scheffler, the latter of whom is now his colleague at NYU.  Nagel is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy, and, in 2006, was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society. He has held a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation, the National Science Foundation, and the National Endowment for the Humanities. In 2008, he was awarded a Rolf Schock Prize for his work in philosophy, the Balzan prize, and the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters from the University of Oxford.

Philosophical work.

Overview.

Nagel began to publish philosophy at the age of twenty-two; his career now spans over fifty years of publication. Nagel thinks that each person, owing to his or her capacity to reason, instinctively seeks a unified world view. However, if this aspiration leads one to believe that there is only one way to understand our intellectual commitments, whether about the external world, knowledge, or what our practical and moral reasons ought to be, this leads one into error. For contingent, limited and finite creatures, no such unified world view is possible. That is because ways of understanding are not always better when they are more objective.  Like the British philosopher Bernard Williams, Nagel believes that the rise of modern science has permanently changed how people think of the world and our place in it. A modern scientific understanding is one way of thinking about the world and our place in it that is more objective than the common sense view it replaces. It is more objective because it is less dependent on our peculiarities as the kinds of thinkers that people are. Our modern scientific understanding involves the mathematicized understanding of the world represented by modern physics. Understanding this bleached out view of the world draws on our capacities as purely rational thinkers and fails to account for the specific nature of our perceptual sensibility. Nagel repeatedly returns to the distinction between "primary" and "secondary" qualities, that is, between primary qualities of objects like mass and shape, that are mathematically and structurally describable independent of our sensory apparatuses, and secondary qualities like taste and color, which depend on our sensory apparatuses.  Despite what may seem like skepticism about the objective claims of science, Nagel does not dispute that science describes the world that exists independently of us. His contention, rather, is that a given way of understanding a subject matter should not be regarded as better simply for being more objective. He argues that scientific understanding's attempt at an objective viewpoint--a "view from nowhere"--necessarily leaves out something essential when applied to the mind, which is inherently from a subjective point of view. As such, objective science is fundamentally unable to help people fully understand themselves. In "What Is it Like to Be a Bat?" and elsewhere, he writes that science cannot describe what it is like "to be" a thinker who conceives of the world from a particular subjective perspective.  Nagel argues that some phenomena are not best grasped from a more objective perspective. The standpoint of the thinker does not present itself to the thinker: he/she is that standpoint. One learns and uses mental concepts by being directly acquainted with one's own mind, whereas any attempt to think more objectively about mentality would abstract away from this fact. It would, of its nature, leave out what it is to be a thinker, and that, Nagel believes, would be a falsely objectifying view. Being a thinker is to have a subjective perspective on the world; if one abstracts away from this perspective one leaves out what he sought to explain.  Nagel thinks that philosophers – over-impressed by the paradigm of the kind of objective understanding represented by modern science – tend to produce theories of the mind that are falsely objectifying in precisely this kind of way. They are right to be impressed – modern science really is objective – but are wrong to take modern science to be the only paradigm of objectivity. The kind of understanding that science represents does not transfer to everything that people would like to understand.  As a philosophical rationalist, Nagel believes that a proper understanding of the place of mental properties in nature will involve a revolution in our understanding of both the physical and the mental, and that this is a reasonable prospect that people can anticipate in the near future. A plausible science of the mind will give an account of the stuff that underpins mental and physical properties in such a way that people will simply be able to see that it necessitates both of these aspects. Now, it seems to people that the mental and the physical are irreducibly distinct but that is not a metaphysical insight, or an acknowledgment of an irreducible explanatory gap, but simply where people are at their present stage of understanding.  Nagel's rationalism and tendency to present our human nature as a composite, structured around our capacity to reason, explains why he thinks that therapeutic or deflationary accounts of philosophy are simply complacent and that radical skepticism is, strictly speaking, irrefutable. The therapeutic or deflationary philosopher, influenced by the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, reconciles people to the dependence of our worldview on our "form of life". Nagel accuses Wittgenstein and American philosopher of mind and language Donald Davidson of philosophical idealism. In both cases they ask people to take up an interpretative perspective to making sense of other speakers in the context of a shared, objective world. This, for Nagel, elevates contingent conditions of our make-up into criteria for that which is real. The result 'cuts the world down to size' and makes what there is dependent on what there can be interpreted to be. Nagel claims this is no better than more orthodox forms of idealism in which reality is claimed to be made up of mental items or claimed to be constitutively dependent on a form supplied by the mind.

Philosophy of mind.

What is it like to be a something.

Nagel is probably most widely known within the field of philosophy of mind as an advocate of the idea that consciousness and subjective experience cannot, at least with the contemporary understanding of physicalism, be satisfactorily explained using the current concepts of physics. This position was primarily discussed by Nagel in one of his most famous articles: "What is it Like to Be a Bat?" (1974). The article's title question, though often attributed to Nagel, was originally asked by Timothy L.S. Sprigge. The article was originally published in 1974 in "The Philosophical Review", and has been reprinted several times, including in "The Mind's I" (edited by Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter), "Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology" (edited by Ned Block), Nagel's "Mortal Questions" (1979), "The Nature of Mind" (edited by David M. Rosenthal), and "" (edited by David J. Chalmers).  In "What is it Like to Be a Bat?", Nagel argues that consciousness has essential to it a "subjective character," a "what it is like" aspect. He states that "an organism has conscious mental states if and only if there is something that it is like to "be" that organism—something it is like "for" the organism." His critics have objected strongly to what they see as a misguided attempt to argue from a fact about how one represents the world (trivially, one can only do so from his own point of view) to a false claim about the world, that it somehow has first personal perspectives built into it. On that understanding, Nagel is a conventional dualist about the physical and the mental. This is, however, a misunderstanding: Nagel's point is that there is a constraint on what it is to possess the concept of a mental state, namely, that one be directly acquainted with it. Concepts of mental states are only made available to a thinker who can be acquainted with his/her own states; clearly, the possession and use of physical concepts has no corresponding constraint.  Part of the puzzlement here is because of the limitations of imagination: influenced by his Princeton colleague, Saul Kripke, Nagel believes that any type identity statement that identifies a physical state type with a mental state type would be, if true, necessarily true. But Kripke argues that one can easily imagine a situation where, for example, one's C-fibres are stimulated but one is not in pain and so refute any such psychophysical identity from the armchair. (A parallel argument does not hold for genuine theoretical identities.) This argument that there will always be an explanatory gap between an identification of a state in mental and physical terms is compounded, Nagel argues, by the fact that imagination operates in two distinct ways. When asked to imagine "sensorily", one imagines C-fibres being stimulated; if asked to imagine "sympathetically", one puts oneself in a conscious state resembling pain. These two ways of imagining the two terms of the identity statement are so different that there will always seem to be an explanatory gap, whether or not this is the case. (Some philosophers of mind have taken these arguments as helpful for physicalism on the grounds that it exposes a limitation that makes the existence of an explanatory gap seem compelling, while others have argued that this makes the case for physicalism even more impossible as it cannot be defended even in principle.)  Nagel is not a physicalist because he does not believe that an internal understanding of mental concepts shows them to have the kind of hidden essence that underpins a scientific identity in, say, chemistry. But his skepticism is about current physics: he envisages in his most recent work that people may be close to a scientific breakthrough in identifying an underlying essence that is neither physical (as people currently think of the physical), nor functional, nor mental, but such that it necessitates all three of these ways in which the mind "appears" to us. The difference between the kind of explanation he rejects and those that he accepts depends on his understanding of transparency: from his earliest paper to his most recent Nagel has always insisted that a prior context is required to make identity statements plausible, intelligible and transparent.

Natural selection and consciousness.

In his 2012 book "Mind and Cosmos", Nagel argues against a materialist view of the emergence of life and consciousness, writing that the standard neo-Darwinian view flies in the face of common sense. He writes that mind is a basic aspect of nature, and that any philosophy of nature that cannot account for it is fundamentally misguided. He argues that the principles that account for the emergence of life may be teleological, rather than materialist or mechanistic. Despite Nagel's being an atheist and not a proponent of intelligent design (ID), his book was "praised by creationists", according to the "New York Times". Nagel writes in "Mind and Cosmos" that he disagrees with both ID defenders and their opponents, who argue that the only naturalistic alternative to ID is the current reductionist neo-Darwinian model.  Nagel has argued that ID should not be rejected as non-scientific, for instance writing in 2008 that "ID is very different from creation science," and that the debate about ID "is clearly a scientific disagreement, not a disagreement between science and something else." In 2009, he recommended "Signature in the Cell" by the philosopher and ID proponent Stephen C. Meyer in "The Times Literary Supplement" as one of his "Best Books of the Year." Nagel does not accept Meyer's conclusions but he endorsed Meyer's approach, and argued in "Mind and Cosmos" that Meyer and other ID proponents, David Berlinski and Michael Behe, "do not deserve the scorn with which they are commonly met."  Steven Pinker and Daniel Dennett both dismissed the book.

Ethics.

Nagel's Rawlsian approach.

Nagel has been highly influential in the related fields of moral and political philosophy. Supervised by John Rawls, Nagel has been a long-standing proponent of a Kantian and rationalist approach to moral philosophy. His distinctive ideas were first presented in the short monograph "The Possibility of Altruism," published in 1970. That book seeks by reflection on the nature of practical reasoning to uncover the formal principles that underlie reason in practice and the related general beliefs about the self that are necessary for those principles to be truly applicable to us. Nagel defends motivated desire theory about the motivation of moral action. According to motivated desire theory, when a person is motivated to moral action it is indeed true that such actions are motivated – like all intentional actions – by a belief and a desire. But it is important to get the justificatory relations right: when a person accepts a moral judgment he or she is necessarily motivated to act. But it is the reason that does the justificatory work of justifying both the action and the desire. Nagel contrasts this view with a rival view which believes that a moral agent can only accept that he or she has a reason to act if the desire to carry out the action has an independent justification. An account based on presupposing sympathy would be of this kind.  The most striking claim of the book is that there is a very close parallel between prudential reasoning in one's own interests and moral reasons to act to further the interests of another person. When one reasons prudentially, for example about the future reasons that one will have, one allows the reason in the future to justify one's current action without reference to the strength of one's current desires. If a hurricane were to destroy someone's car next year at that point he will want his insurance company to pay him to replace it: that future reason gives him a reason, now, to take out insurance. The strength of the reason ought not to be hostage to the strength of one's current desires. The denial of this view of prudence, Nagel argues, means that one does not really believe that one is one and the same person through time. One is dissolving oneself into distinct person-stages.

Altruistic action.

This is the basis of his analogy between prudential actions and moral actions: in cases of altruistic action for another person's good that person's reasons quite literally become reasons for one if they are timeless and intrinsic reasons. Genuine reasons are reasons for anyone. Comparable to the views of the nineteenth century moral philosopher Henry Sidgwick, Nagel believes that one needs to conceive of one's good as an impersonal good and one's reasons as objective reasons. That means, practically, that a timeless and intrinsic value generates reasons for anyone. A person who denies the truth of this claim is committed, as in the case of a similar mistake about prudence, to a false view of him or herself. In this case the false view is that one's reasons are irreducibly his, in a way that does not allow them to be reasons for anyone: Nagel argues this commits such a person to the view that he or she cannot make the same judgments about her own reasons third-personally that she can make first-personally. Nagel calls this "dissociation" and considers it a practical analogue of solipsism (the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist). Once again, a false view of what is involved in reasoning properly is refuted by showing that it leads to a false view of the nature of people.

Subjective and objective reasons.

Nagel's later work on ethics ceases to place as much weight on the distinction between a person's personal or "subjective" reasons and his or her "objective" reasons. Earlier, in "The Possibility of Altruism," he took the stance that if one's reasons really are about intrinsic and timeless values then, "qua" subjective reason, one can only take them to be the guise of the reasons that there really are – the objective ones. In later discussions, Nagel treats his former view as an incomplete attempt to convey the fact that there are distinct classes of reasons and values, and speaks instead of "agent-relative" and "agent-neutral" reasons. In the case of agent-relative reasons (the successor to subjective reasons) specifying the content of the reason makes essential reference back to the agent for whom it is a reason. An example of this might be: "Anyone has a reason to honor his or her parents." By contrast, in the case of agent-neutral reasons (the successor to objective reasons) specifying the content of the reason does not make any essential reference back to the person for whom it is a reason. An example of this might be: "Anyone has a reason to promote the good of parenthood."

Objective reasons.

The different classes of reasons and values (i.e., agent-relative and agent-neutral) emphasized in Nagel's later work are situated within a Sidgwickian model in which one's moral commitments are thought of objectively, such that one's personal reasons and values are simply incomplete parts of an impersonal whole. The structure of Nagel's later ethical view is that all reasons must be brought into relation to this objective view of oneself. Those reasons and values that withstand detached critical scrutiny are objective, but more subjective reasons and values can nevertheless be objectively tolerated. However, the most striking part of the earlier argument and of Sidgwick's view is preserved: agent-neutral reasons are literally reasons for anyone, so all objectifiable reasons become individually possessed no matter whose they are. Thinking reflectively about ethics from this standpoint, one must take every other agent's standpoint on value as seriously as one's own, since one's own perspective is just a subjective take on an inter-subjective whole; one's personal set of reasons is thus swamped by the objective reasons of all others.

World agent views.

This is similar to "world agent" consequentialist views in which one takes up the standpoint of a collective subject whose reasons are those of everyone. But Nagel remains an individualist who believes in the separateness of persons so his task is to explain why this objective viewpoint does not swallow up the individual standpoint of each of us. He provides an extended rationale for the importance to people of their personal point of view. The result is a hybrid ethical theory of the kind defended by Nagel's Princeton PhD student Samuel Scheffler in "The Rejection of Consequentialism". The objective standpoint and its demands have to be balanced with the subjective personal point of view of each person and its demands. One can always be maximally objective but one does not have to be. One can legitimately "cap" the demands placed on him by the objective reasons of others. In addition, in his later work, Nagel finds a rationale for so-called deontic constraints in a way Scheffler could not. Following Warren Quinn and Frances Kamm, Nagel grounds them on the inviolability of persons.

Political philosophy.

The extent to which one can lead a good life as an individual while respecting the demands of others leads inevitably to political philosophy. In the Locke lectures published as the book "Equality and Partiality", Nagel exposes John Rawls's theory of justice to detailed scrutiny. Once again, Nagel places such weight on the objective point of view and its requirements that he finds Rawls's view of liberal equality not demanding enough. Rawls's aim to redress, not remove, the inequalities that arise from class and talent seems to Nagel to lead to a view that does not sufficiently respect the needs of others. He recommends a gradual move to much more demanding conceptions of equality, motivated by the special nature of political responsibility. Normally people draw a distinction between that which people do and that which people fail to bring about. But this thesis, true of individuals, does not apply to the state, which is a collective agent. A Rawlsian state permits intolerable inequalities and people need to develop a more ambitious view of equality to do justice to the demands of the objective recognition of the reasons of others. For Nagel, honoring the objective point of view demands nothing less.

Atheism.

In his work "Mind and Cosmos", Nagel notes that he is an atheist, writing, "I lack the "sensus divinitatis" that enablesindeed compelsso many people to see in the world the expression of divine purpose as naturally as they see in a smiling face the expression of human feeling." He also said in his book "The Last Word", "I want atheism to be true and am made uneasy by the fact that some of the most intelligent and well-informed people I know are religious believers. It isn't just that I don't believe in God and, naturally, hope that I'm right in my belief. It’s that I hope there is no God! I don’t want there to be a God; I don’t want the universe to be like that."

Experience itself as a good.

Nagel has said that ""There are elements which, if added to one's experience, make life better; there are other elements which if added to one's experience, make life worse. But what remains when these are set aside is not merely neutral: it is emphatically positive... The additional positive weight is supplied by experience itself, rather than by any of its consequences.""

Awards.

Nagel received the 1996 PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award for the Art of the Essay for "Other Minds" (1995). He has also been awarded the Balzan Prize in Moral Philosophy (2008), the Rolf Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (2008) and the Distinguished Achievement Award of the Mellon Foundation (2006).

Personal life.

Nagel married Doris Blum in 1954, divorcing in 1973. In 1979 he married Anne Hollander, who died in 2014.

Thomas Nagel (; born July 4, 1937) is an American philosopher. He is a University Professor of Philosophy and Law, Emeritus, at New York University, where he taught from 1980 to 2016. His main areas of philosophical interest are legal philosophy, political philosophy, and ethics.

Thomas Nagel (* 4. Juli 1937 in Belgrad) ist ein US-amerikanischer Philosoph. Er lehrt an der New York University School of Law und bearbeitet ein weites Themenspektrum. Er lehrt derzeit unter anderem an der University of California, Berkeley und an der Princeton University. Zu seinen Schülerinnen und Schülern gehören Susan Wolf, Samuel Scheffler und Shelly Kagan.


Life.

Provenance and early years.

Fritz Kühn was born into a Protestant family in the Mariendorf district of central Berlin, his father's only son. (1883 - 1944), his father, was a metal worker and blacksmith who in 1925 founded and then over the years built up the specialist metals manufacturing firm known, initially, as. Between 1924 and 1928 Fritz Kühn trained as a tool maker and metal worker. During this period he also began to take a serious interest in photography. In 1927, while still working through his apprenticeship, and two years after his parents had set up a business together in Berlin-Weissensee, Fritz Kühn met Karl Schmidt who became something of a mentor, encouraging him in his wish to go into business independently. Schmidt also shared and encouraged his enthusiasm for photography.  In 1937 Kühn passed his, qualifying as a and opened his own studio on a converted estate in Berlin-Bohnsdorf (at that time part of Berlin-Altglienicke in the south-east of the city). 1937 was also the year in which he married Gertrud Moldenhauer (1911-1957), a clerical worker who subsequently played an important role organising the publication of his books and managing other business related aspects of his career.  The first of his - ultimately - twelve specialist arts/metalwork books, "Geschmiedetes Eisen" was published by Wasmuth Verlag in 1938. War broke out in the late summer of 1939. Kühn avoided conscription on account of a longstanding heart defect., his son, was born a couple of weeks before the leader's in 1942.

Soviet occupation zone.

Fritz Kühn's Bohnsdorf studio was completely destroyed by British bombing on 23 December 1943. Photographs, drawings and plans were destroyed. War ended in May 1945: over time Kühn was able to reconstruct, and later to extend, his studio-workshop, helped by journeyman labourers who had helped him before the war who were slowly returning from the front line or the prison camps. Once his space was again usable, he focused on contributing to recreating some of Berlin's important buildings, providing new railings for the extensive rebuilding of Berlin's eighteenth century Arsenal building. He also provided new banister railings for the interior and exterior of the Opera House. The eastern half of Berlin had ended the war within the Soviet occupation zone. The slaughter of war had left Germany desperately short of skilled workers which, in the case of the Soviet zone, was exacerbated by massive emigration to the American, British and French zones. In his rebuilt and enlarged studio-workshop Kühn contributed to the search for a solution by employing and training significant numbers of apprentices.  In 1947 Fritz Kühn published a first book of photographs, "10 Jahre Kunstschmiede Fritz Kühn" ("loosely, "Ten Years of the Fritz Kühn metal-smith"") which confirms in pictures the extent of his commitment to working with iron as a basis for his art. He managed to devise an innovative surface treatment for forged iron which one expert commentator likened to "the tachism of Yves Klein or the abstract painting of Emil Schumacher".ref>Ingeborg Ruthe: Der unideologische Universalist in: Berliner Zeitung, 11 May 2010; p. 21; accessed 15 February 2014 (but no longer accessible online)</ref>

German Democratic Republic.

During the 1950s his artwork found recognition beyond the borders of East Germany. In October 1949 the Soviet occupation zone had been relaunched as the Soviet sponsored German Democratic Republic (East Germany). In 1954 he teamed up with the East German film organisation (DEFA) to produce a film about his work and featuring his studio, using the title "Lebendiges Eisen" (""Living Iron""). The film had its premiere at the Montevideo film festival. There is no record that he ever joined the party, but there can be little doubt that he was nevertheless in good standing with the East German political establishment. It was also in 1954 that Kühn was a recipient of the National Prize (3rd class) in recognition of his creative artistic contribution to the post-war architecture of Berlin and other cities.  1958 marked an international breakthrough when Kühn's work was included in the "West" German pavilion display at the Brussels World Fair, forging for it an "artistically forged mesh element, inspired by an x-ray of a human chest". Even after the sudden appearance of the Berlin Wall in 1961, Kühn was seen as a member of the artistic establishment, winning commissions from state authorities and respected for his inventive artistry in his unusual artistic niche, on both sides of the so-called iron curtain, despite the increasing semblance of permanence in the physical and political divisions between East and West Germany. The listing of his commissioned works in public space now extended to 220 projects. His iron-based artworks featured, not just in the German Democratic Republic but also in places such as Hannover, Dortmund, Saarbrücken and Düsseldorf. Further afield, he also contributed to the war memorial at Coventry and the vast Futa Pass Cemetery in the Apennines between Bologna and Florence. It was also in 1958 that back in Berlin he succeeded in obtaining the necessary agreements to buy his studio-workshop and the adjacent former paddock.  In 1964 Kühn was appointed to a professorship at the, headquartered in the north-eastern part of the city. His actual teaching activity took place closer to the city centre, in the academy's "Fine Arts Institute" (""Institut für angewandte Kunst""), at the Monbijou Park. That year he headed up plans to build a new Institute for Metals Design (""Institut für Metallgestaltung"") beside the studio-workshop in Berlin-Grünau. The project architect was. The institute was designed to operate both as a training facility for hands-on workers and to operate a structured programme of coursers for a newly "metal design department" at the which, naturally, was closely involved in the development. Over the next few years there were personal exhibitions in Berlin, Braunschweig, Chemnitz, Dortmund, Essen, Hannover and Zürich. Further afield, he took part on the Montreal World Fair, with a "walk-in sculpture" for the in the West German pavilion.  Despite the church-state tensions that were a feature of life in the German Democratic Republic, Fritz Kühn was a leading producer of church art. One of his Christian pieces was a three meter tall dome-cross for the rebuilding of St. Hedwig's Cathedral, along with a transparent parapet of bronze and crystal glass around the central floor opening of the interior.  Fritz Kühn died unexpectedly on 31 July 1967 as the result of an operation that went wrong. His widow Gertrud died less than half a year later, on 16 October 1967.

Celebration.

The bodies of Fritz and Gertrud Kühn are buried together in a "Berlin grave of honour" in the. The many mourners at Fritz Kühn's funeral included Klaus Gysi.  Having won many prizes and awards in his lifetime, Fritz Kühn received further tributes after his death. One of the most remarkable, given the enduring cold war spirit of the times, was a retrospective exhibition staged in his honour in 1969 at the Louvre Palace in Paris.  In 1983 the East German government declared Fritz Kühn's life's work a "national cultural asset" ("einem "Nationalen Kulturgut""). There were plans to construct a Fritz Kühn Museum. By 1988 the plans were agreed and funding was in place. Two years later the government fell. Following reunification the new government confirmed the designation of Kühn's work as a national cultural asset, but as far as the museum project was concerned, with Berlin city politics now dominated by parties from the west, everything changed.  When Fritz and Gertrud Kühn died their son was a university student, studying Architecture at Weimar. Achim and his wife Helgard now took over their father's workshop and continued the business. They were driven from the start by a determination to celebrate and conserve Fritz Kühn's legacy. There was also already a plan in place, which they refined over time, to create a Fritz Kühn museum. During the East German years Fritz Kühn was an officially eulogised celebrity, and there was no obvious sense of urgency in creating a museum celebrating his life and work. Since 1989 and reunification, official positions have become more ambivalent, and the museum project remains unrealised: as the family's enthusiasm for it has resonated more strongly, the project has been increasingly hampered by lack of funds and opposition from local government. There have been (imprecise and vaguely supported) suggestions appearing in the press that Fritz Kühn only received the necessary permissions to start work on his new studio-workshop back in 1958 because he was inappropriately "close to" party members and officials in the East German government.

Fritz Kühn (29 April 1910 - 31 July 1967) was an East German visual artist whose output included sculpture, metal-artwork and photography.

Fritz Kühn (* 29. April 1910 in Mariendorf; † 31. Juli 1967 in Ost-Berlin) war ein deutscher Kunstschmied, Fotograf, Bildhauer und Schriftsteller.


Early life.

Adlon was born in Munich. He grew up in Ammerland/Starnberger See. He studied art, theater history, and German literature at Munich's Ludwig-Maximilian University; took acting and singing classes; and was a member of the student theater group.

Career.

Percy's films are shown and compete regularly at international film festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, the Berlin International Film Festival, and others.  He started his professional career as an actor, became interested in radio work, was a narrator and editor of literature series and a presenter and voice-over actor in television for 10 years.  In 1970, he made his first short film for Bavarian television, followed by more than 150 documentary films about art and the human condition. His first one-hour portrait "Tomi Ungerer's Landleben" started a very successful co-operation with Benigna von Keyserlingk who became Adlon's television producer of documentaries and feature films.  Their first feature film "Céleste", drew international attention at Cannes in 1981. "Bagdad Cafe" (1987) started their co-operation with Dietrich v. Watzdorf (Bayerischer Rundfunk). The story of Jasmin Münchgstettner and the Café owner Brenda was an international hit. Marianne Sägebrecht whom Percy Adlon discovered in 1979 became a cult figure, and he developed songs with Tony, Oscar, and Grammy award nominated Bob Telson on such songs as "Calling You" a classic.  Percy and Eleonore Adlon have won numerous awards, including top honors in Rio de Janeiro for "Bagdad Cafe", and in Montreal for "Salmonberries", two Césars, the Ernst-Lubitsch-Award, a Norwegian Amanda Award, the Swedish and the Danish Academy awards, the Prix Humanum, Belgium, prizes in Venice, Chicago, Valladolid, Brussels, Tokyo as well as Bavarian and German Federal Film Awards, among others.  Percy Adlon is the recipient of the Officer's Cross of the Federal Republic of Germany, and a voting member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.  Currently he is working on his new film, "Thank You, Thank You". This is the first time that Percy is directing a film he did not write himself.

Personal life.

Percy is the great-grandson of Lorenz Adlon, the founder of the Hotel Adlon. Percy was the grandson of Louis Adlon, Sr., who had five children with his first wife Tilly. After almost 15 years of marriage, he met a hotel guest, the German-American Hedwig Leythen (1889–1967), called Hedda, at a New Year's Eve party in the Hotel Adlon, left his wife and children, and in 1922 he married her. It was one of the biggest scandals of Berlin in the 1920s. Tilly moved with her daughter Elisabeth, then two, to the south of Germany, while the other children Susanne Adlon-Meyerhöfer (mother of Percy), Lorenz, and twins Carl and Louis (junior) were sent to boarding school and later all four emigrated to America.  He grew up in the Bavarian countryside with his mother, Susanne Adlon-Meyerhöfer and attributes the strong, often unconventional, women's roles in his films to his being brought up in this manner. His son, Felix, an accomplished director in his own right, is the former husband of American actress Pamela Adlon and the father of her three daughters.  Percy and Eleonore Adlon live in Pacific Palisades, California.

Awards.

Adolf Grimme Awards, Germany 1979  Amanda Awards, Norway 1989  Bavarian Film Awards 1988  Bavarian TV Awards 1997  Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film (BIFFF) 1994  Cannes Film Festival 1989  Chicago International Film Festival 1984  César Awards, France 1989  Ernst Lubitsch Award 1988  Film Independent Spirit Awards 1989  French Syndicate of Cinema Critics 1989  Guild of German Art House Cinemas 1989  German Film (Deutscher Film) for "Céleste" (1980).  Manhattan Film Festival 2012  Medias Central European Film Festival 7+1 2011  Montréal World Film Festival 1991  Robert Festival 1989  Tokyo International Film Festival 1993  Valladolid International Film Festival 1985  Venice Film Festival 1982

Paul Rudolf Parsifal "Percy" Adlon (; born 1 June 1935) is a German director, screenwriter, and producer. He is best known for his film "Bagdad Café". He is associated with the New German Cinema movement.

Percy Adlon (* 1. Juni 1935 in München; eigentlich "Paul Rudolf Parsifal Adlon") ist ein deutscher Film- und Fernsehregisseur, Autor und Produzent.


Life.

The Anneke family (usually spelled "Annecke"; Fritz changed the spelling of his name while still in Germany) originates from a small village called Schadeleben close to Quedlinburg in what is today Saxony-Anhalt. Schadeleben is close to the Harz mountains, one of the oldest mining regions in Europe. Like the family of Martin Luther, whose birthplace, Eisleben, is only a few kilometers away from Schadeleben, many of Anneke's ancestors had worked in mining, which is why the family moved to Dortmund in the early 19th century, when industrial coal mining was beginning in the Ruhr district. Like his father, Anneke's brother Emil was a mining inspector, before he became involved in the 1848 revolution.  Anneke became a Prussian artillery officer, but was dishonorably dismissed in 1846 because of his democratic activities at his garrison in Münster, and also because he refused a duel. While still in Münster he met the divorced Mathilde Franziska von Tabuillot, who later became his wife. He was one of the leading figures of the Communist movement in Cologne, together with his friends Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Moses Hess (later the intellectual father of Zionism and the State of Israel). He spent most of 1848 in jail for his political activities. In 1849 he joined the revolutionary campaigns in the Palatinate and Baden, and was commander of the artillery there. Carl Schurz served as his adjunct officer. After the fall of Rastatt he fled to France, where he found refuge with his wife in the house of their mutual friend Moses Hess. Later on he worked as a correspondent for U.S. media in Europe, where he tried to join the Italian revolutionary movement under Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1862 he returned to the USA to assume command of the 34th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment as a colonel. In 1863 he became the victim of blackmail and was dishonorably dismissed. His regiment was dissolved on September 9, 1863. Afterwards he tried in vain to be readmitted to Army service, supported by his brother Emil Anneke, who was a leading Republican in Michigan and acting Michigan Auditor General. Many of Anneke's friends and comrades from the 1849 campaign in Germany had become Union generals, including his own junior adjunct officer Carl Schurz, August Willich, Ludwig Blenker, Franz Sigel, and Gustav Struve.  After various failed commercial enterprises and the split with his wife Mathilde (who became an eminent figure in the U.S. abolitionist and suffrage movements, and who lived together with the American feminist and writer Mary Booth from 1860 until Booth's death in 1865), Fritz moved to Chicago, where he died on Sunday night 8. December 1872, after an accident. The short-sighted Anneke had fallen into a construction pit. Lighting was very bad in Chicago in those days, and the city was, one year after the Great Chicago Fire, full of such pits.  A son of Fritz, Percy Shelley Anneke, was a local celebrity in Duluth, Minnesota, as co-founder and owner of the famous Fitger Brewing Company, which is now registered as a U.S. National Historic Place.

Sources.

See German article and article about Fritz' wife Mathilde Franziska Anneke.

Friedrich 'Fritz' Anneke (January 3, 1818, Dortmund, Prussia – December 8, 1872, Chicago, United States) was a German revolutionary, socialist and newspaper editor, owner, and reporter. He immigrated to the United States with his family in 1849 and became an officer in the Union Army, and later an entrepreneur and journalist. He was the husband of Mathilde Franziska Anneke, the older brother of Emil Anneke, the first Republican Michigan Auditor General, and the father of Percy Shelley Anneke, well known in Duluth, Minnesota, as co-founder and owner of the famous Fitger Brewing Company, now registered as a U.S. National Historic Place.

Carl Friedrich Theodor Annecke (* 3. Januar 1818 in Dortmund; † 8. Dezember 1872 in Chicago, Illinois) war ein deutscher Revolutionär, preußischer und US-amerikanischer Offizier. Anneke war Mitbegründer des Kölner Arbeitervereins und war dessen erster Sekretär. Anneke war als Oberbefehlshaber der Artillerie der Pfälzischen Volkswehr einer der militärischen Kommandeure der Reichsverfassungskampagne in der Pfalz und in Baden im Sommer 1849.


Creation.

When a large meteorite hits a planet, it can radically deform the rocks and regolith that it hits. The heat, pressure, and shock of the impact changes these materials into impactite. Only very massive impacts generate the heat and pressure needed to transform a rock, so impactites are created rarely.

Characteristics.

Impactite includes shock-metamorphosed target rocks, melts (suevites) and mixtures of the two, as well as sedimentary rocks with significant impact-derived components (shocked mineral grains, tektites, anomalous geochemical signatures, etc.). In June 2015, NASA reported that impact glass has been detected on the planet Mars. Such material may contain preserved signs of ancient life—if life existed. Impactites are generally classified into three groups: shocked rocks, impact melt, and impact breccias.

Shocked rock.

These have been transformed by the shock of the impact.

Impact melts.

When a meteor strikes a planet's surface, the energy release from the impact can melt rock and soil into a liquid. The liquid then cools and becomes an impact melt. If the liquid cools and hardens quickly into a solid, impact glass forms before the atoms have time to arrange into a crystal lattice. Impact glass can be dark brown, almost black, and partly transparent. Sometimes, the cooled liquid does form a crystal structure. In that case, it would still be considered an impact melt, but not in impact glass.

Impact breccias.

Oxford defines breccias as “a rock consisting of angular fragments cemented together.” An impact breccia is formed when a meteor shatters a rock and then cements it back together. Some breccias contain impact melts.

Examples of impactite.

Impactite has been found, for example, at the following impact craters:

Impactite is rock created or modified by one or more impacts of a meteorite. Impactites are considered metamorphic rock, because their source materials were modified by the heat and pressure of the impact. On Earth, impactites are made primarily of modified terrestrial material, sometimes with pieces of the original meteorite.

Impaktite sind Gesteine, die bei einem Meteoriten-Einschlag (Impakt) entstehen, indem die dabei auftretenden starken mechanischen Kräfte (hoher Druck) und hohe Temperaturen die am Ort des Einschlags vorhandenen irdischen Gesteine verändern. Diese vorhandenen Gesteine werden unter anderem zertrümmert, es entstehen durch Umbildung neue Minerale und Gestein kann teilweise aufgeschmolzen werden und als Impaktglas wieder erkalten. Für Impaktite charakteristische neue Minerale sind zum Beispiel die Siliziumdioxid-Varietäten Stishovit und Coesit, die nur unter hohem Druck entstehen können.


Arithmetic.

Like octonions, multiplication of sedenions is neither commutative nor associative. But in contrast to the octonions, the sedenions do not even have the property of being alternative. They do, however, have the property of power associativity, which can be stated as that, for any element x of formula_1, the power formula_2 is well defined. They are also flexible.  Every sedenion is a linear combination of the unit sedenions formula_3, formula_4, formula_5, formula_6,...,formula_7, which form a basis of the vector space of sedenions. Every sedenion can be represented in the form  Addition and subtraction are defined by the addition and subtraction of corresponding coefficients and multiplication is distributive over addition.  Like other algebras based on the Cayley–Dickson construction, the sedenions contain the algebra they were constructed from. So, they contain the octonions (generated by formula_3 to formula_10 in the table below), and therefore also the quaternions (generated by formula_3 to formula_6), complex numbers (generated by formula_3 and formula_4) and reals (generated by formula_3).  The sedenions have a multiplicative identity element formula_3 and multiplicative inverses but they are not a division algebra because they have zero divisors. This means that two non-zero sedenions can be multiplied to obtain zero: an example is (formula_6 + formula_18)(formula_19 − formula_7). All hypercomplex number systems after sedenions that are based on the Cayley–Dickson construction contain zero divisors.  A sedenion multiplication table is shown below:

Sedenion properties.

From the above table, we can see that:

Anti-associative.

The sedenions are not fully anti-associative. Choose any four generators, formula_24 and formula_25. The following 5-cycle shows that at least one of these relations must associate.  formula_26  In particular, in the table above, using formula_27 and formula_28 the last expression associates. formula_29

Quaternionic subalgebras.

The 35 triads that make up this specific sedenion multiplication table with the 7 triads of the octonions used in creating the sedenion through the Cayley–Dickson construction shown in bold:  The binary representations of the indices of these triples xor to 0.  The list of 84 sets of zero divisors {formula_30, formula_31, formula_32, formula_33}, where (formula_30 + formula_31)formula_36(formula_32 + formula_33)=0:

Applications.

showed that the space of pairs of norm-one sedenions that multiply to zero is homeomorphic to the compact form of the exceptional Lie group G. (Note that in his paper, a "zero divisor" means a "pair" of elements that multiply to zero.)

In abstract algebra, the sedenions form a 16-dimensional noncommutative and nonassociative algebra over the reals; they are obtained by applying the Cayley–Dickson construction to the octonions, and as such the octonions are a subalgebra of the sedenions. Unlike the octonions, the sedenions are not an alternative algebra. Applying the Cayley–Dickson construction to the sedenions yields a 32-dimensional algebra, sometimes called the "32-ions" or "Trigintaduonions". It is possible to apply the Cayley–Dickson construction to the sedenions infinitely many times.

Die Sedenionen (Symbol formula_1) sind 16-dimensionale hyperkomplexe Zahlen. Sie entstehen durch die Anwendung des Verdopplungsverfahrens aus den Oktonionen. Die Multiplikation der Sedenionen ist weder kommutativ noch alternativ (und damit auch nicht assoziativ). Sie ist nur noch potenz-assoziativ und flexibel. Weiterhin erfüllen die Sedenionen die Jordan-Identität und bilden daher eine nichtkommutative Jordan-Algebra. Sedenionen besitzen Nullteiler.


Childhood.

Joséphine-Charlotte was born in 1927 at the Royal Palace of Brussels. She was the oldest child and only daughter of the King Leopold III of the Belgians and his first wife, Astrid of Sweden.  Princess Joséphine-Charlotte was christened a month after her birth. Her godfather was her uncle, Prince Charles, Count of Flanders and her godmother was her future mother-in-law, Grand Duchess Charlotte of Luxembourg.  While expecting her daughter, Astrid had read a biography of her ancestress, the French empress Joséphine de Beauharnais. Josephine was also the name of one of the child's great-aunts, Princess Joséphine-Caroline of Belgium, the dearest sister of King Albert I. Astrid was a devoted mother to her "little Jo". The young Princess spent her childhood at the Stuyvenberg Palace just outside Brussels with her parents. She was the sister of Belgian monarchs Baudouin and Albert II.  Joséphine-Charlotte's popular mother was killed in an automobile accident in 1935 at age 29. Joséphine-Charlotte responded courageously to the situation, trying to take care of her younger brothers, Baudouin and Albert. The Belgian public extended their enormous sympathies onto the grieving family, with great concern given to the effects it had on Joséphine-Charlotte and her brothers. By all accounts, Leopold remained a devoted father to his children and kept close ties with his late wife's family. Many photographs exist from this time of children with their Swedish grandparents and Norwegian cousins.  Later, in 1941, her father remarried to Mary Lilian Baels (later became Princess of Réthy). This marriage produced three more children: Prince Alexandre, Princess Marie-Christine and Princess Marie-Esméralda. Joséphine-Charlotte had a close relationship with Lilian before her marriage to Jean of Luxembourg. Joséphine-Charlotte became the godmother to her younger half-brother, Alexandre.

Education.

Princess Joséphine-Charlotte first attended school at the Royal Palace, where a small class had been organized for her. At the end of 1940, she entered a boarding school and then continued her education with her own private teachers. On 7 June 1944, the day after the Allied Forces landed in Normandy, France, she and her father were sent to Germany and kept there under house arrest. The Royal Family, which included her brothers Baudouin and Albert and their stepmother, Mary Lilian Baels, Princess of Réthy, was freed on 7 May 1945 and settled in Prégny, Switzerland.  Princess Joséphine-Charlotte continued her studies at the Ecole Supérieure de Jeunes Filles in Geneva, Switzerland. Afterwards, she took Jean Piaget's lectures on child psychology at the University of Geneva. When she returned to Belgium the princess took up her official duties. At the same time, she also devoted herself to social problems and developed her interest in the arts.

Marriage.

Joséphine Charlotte was joined in marriage on 9 April 1953 in Luxembourg to Prince Jean, who at the time was The Hereditary Grand Duke and heir-apparent to the throne of Luxembourg. During their 52-year marriage, the royal couple had five children:  As a princess in the royal house of Belgium, Joséphine Charlotte brought a wealth of elegance, taste and refinement to her new homeland. She carried out many social, cultural and humanitarian duties. She focused on several initiatives that she would ardently support, particularly matters pertaining to children and families. She was also president of the Luxembourg Youth Section of the Red Cross. She also served as honorary president of the Luxembourg Philharmonic Orchestra, and president of the Luxembourg Red Cross.  Her favorite hobbies included gardening and horticulture. She also enjoyed hunting, fishing, skiing and other watersports.  The Grand Duchess, who suffered from lung cancer for a long time, died at her home, Fischbach Castle, at the age of 77.

Legacy.

Joséphine-Charlotte metro station in Brussels is named after her. One of her wedding gifts was a diamond tiara, given by the Société Générale. This is now part of the Luxembourg reigning family's jewel collection.

Princess Joséphine Charlotte of Belgium (Joséphine Charlotte Stéphanie Ingeborg Elisabeth Marie-José Marguerite Astrid; 11 October 1927 – 10 January 2005) was Grand Duchess consort of Luxembourg as the wife of Grand Duke Jean. She was a first cousin of Harald V of Norway. She was the first child of King Leopold III of Belgium, and sister of the late King Baudouin I and former King Albert II and aunt of King Philippe I.

Joséphine Charlotte von Belgien (eigentlich "Joséphine-Charlotte Stéphanie Ingeborg Elisabeth Marie-José Marguerite Astrid"; * 11. Oktober 1927 im Königlichen Palast in Brüssel; † 10. Januar 2005 auf Schloss Fischbach in Luxemburg) war eine Prinzessin von Belgien aus dem Haus Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha, durch Heirat Großherzogin von Luxemburg, Herzogin von Nassau, sowie die Mutter des Luxemburger Großherzogs Henri. Sie war die Schwester der beiden belgischen Monarchen Baudouin und Albert II.


Early life.

Morgenthau was born into a prominent Jewish family in New York City, the son of Josephine (Sykes) and Henry Morgenthau Sr., a real estate mogul and diplomat. His parents were born in Germany. He had three sisters. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy, later transferring to the Dwight School. He then studied architecture and agriculture at Cornell University. In 1913, he met and became friends with Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt. He operated a farm named Fishkill Farms near the Roosevelt estate in upstate New York, specializing, like FDR, in growing Christmas trees. He was concerned about distress among farmers, who comprised over a fourth of the population. In 1922, he took over the "American Agriculturalist" magazine, making it a voice for reclamation, conservation, and scientific farming. In 1929, Roosevelt, as Governor of New York, appointed him chair of the New York State Agricultural Advisory Committee and to the state Conservation Commission.

New Deal.

In 1933, Roosevelt became President and appointed Morgenthau governor of the Federal Farm Board. Morgenthau was nonetheless involved in monetary decisions. Roosevelt adopted the idea of raising the price of gold to inflate the currency and reverse the debilitating deflation of prices. The idea came from Professor George Warren of Cornell University. Morgenthau wrote in his diary:  In 1934, when William H. Woodin resigned because of poor health, Roosevelt appointed Morgenthau Secretary of the Treasury; even conservatives approved. Morgenthau was a strict monetarist. President Roosevelt, Morgenthau, and Federal Reserve Chairman Marriner Stoddard Eccles jointly kept interest rates low during the depression to finance massive public spending, and then later to support rearmament, support for Britain, and U.S. participation in WW II.  In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt asked Morgenthau to examine the taxes of William Randolph Hearst because FDR was "advised that Hearst was planning to use his newspapers to launch a major attack on the New Deal and its economic policies." Treasury Secretary Morgenthau explained that he examined the taxes of William Randolph Hearst and actress Marion Davies and "advised FDR to mount a preemptive attack on both her and Hearst."

Campaign against corruption.

Morgenthau used his position as Treasury chief to investigate organized crime and government corruption. Treasury Intelligence and other agencies (the notoriously fragmented United States federal law enforcement system had five in the Treasury Department alone) were uncoordinated in their efforts; efforts to create a super-agency were stalled by J. Edgar Hoover, who feared his FBI would be overshadowed. Nevertheless, Morgenthau created a coordinator for the Treasury agencies; although the coordinator could not control them, he could move them to some cooperation.  Former head of IRS' criminal investigators Elmer Lincoln Irey, who had directed major investigations including the successful prosecution of Al Capone, assumed the position in 1937. Investigations of official corruption caused the fall of political boss Thomas "Big Tom" Pendergast of Kansas City. A Mafia-related shootout and massive official corruption led to successful investigations against Pendergast and the local Mafia head Charles Carrollo. Other officials — as well as gangsters, in a few rare cases — were convicted because of Morgenthau's investigations.

Fiscal responsibility.

Morgenthau believed in balanced budgets, stable currency, reduction of the national debt, and the need for more private investment. The Wagner Act regarding labor unions met Morgenthau's requirement, because it strengthened the party's political base and involved no new spending. Morgenthau accepted Roosevelt's double budget as legitimate — that is, a balanced regular budget, and an "emergency" budget for agencies, like the Works Progress Administration (WPA), Public Works Administration (PWA) and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), that would be temporary until full recovery was at hand. He fought against the veterans' bonus until Congress finally overrode Roosevelt's veto and gave out $2.2 billion in 1936. In the 1937 "Depression within the Depression", Morgenthau was unable to persuade Roosevelt to desist from continued deficit spending. Roosevelt continued to push for more spending, and Morgenthau promoted a balanced budget. In 1937, however, Morgenthau successfully convinced Roosevelt to finally focus on balancing the budget through major spending cuts and tax increases; Keynesian economists have argued that this new attempt by Roosevelt to balance the budget created the Recession of 1937–1938. On November 10, 1937, Morgenthau gave a speech to the Academy of Political Science at New York's Hotel Astor, in which he noted that the Depression had required deficit spending, but that the government needed to cut spending to revive the economy. In his speech, he said:  His biggest success was the new Social Security program; he reversed the proposals to fund it from general revenue and insisted it be funded by new taxes on employees. Morgenthau insisted on excluding farm workers and domestic servants from Social Security because workers outside industry would not be paying their way. He questioned the value of the deficit spending that had not reduced unemployment and only added debt:  To reduce the deficit he argued for increased taxes, particularly on the wealthy.

Jewish refugees.

Once confronted by The Holocaust, the Allied Powers reacted slowly. In 1943, Morgenthau's Treasury Department approved the World Jewish Congress' plan to rescue Jews through the use of blocked accounts in Switzerland, but the State Department and the British Foreign Office procrastinated further. Morgenthau and his staff persisted in bypassing State and ultimately confronting Roosevelt in January 1944 with the Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews. He obtained the presidential creation of the United States War Refugee Board (WRB) in January 1944. The Board sponsored the Raoul Wallenberg mission to Budapest and allowed an increasing number of Jews to enter the U.S. in 1944 and 1945; as many as 200,000 Jews were saved in this way.  Hurwitz (1991) argues that in late 1943, the Treasury Department drafted a report calling for the creation of a special rescue agency for European Jewry. At the same time, several congressmen connected with the "Bergson Boys" introduced a resolution also calling for the creation of such an agency. On January 16, 1944, Morgenthau presented Roosevelt with the Treasury report, and the president agreed to create the War Refugee Board, the first major attempt of the United States to deal with the annihilation of European Jews.  Blum argues that by mid-1944, the War Refugee Board:  As for the top Germans, Morgenthau at one point in summer 1944 suggested to Roosevelt that the top 50 or 100 German "arch-criminals" should be shot upon capture. He changed his mind and by early 1945 proposed formal trials.

The Morgenthau Plan.

In 1944, Morgenthau proposed the Morgenthau Plan for postwar Germany, calling for Germany to lose its heavy industry, and the Ruhr "should not only be stripped of all presently existing industries, but so weakened and controlled that it can not in the foreseeable future become an industrial area". Germany would keep its rich farmlands in the east. However Stalin insisted on the Oder-Neisse border, which moved those farming areas out of Germany. Therefore, the original Morgenthau plan had to be dropped, Weinberg argues, because it was "too soft on the Germans, not too hard as some still imagine."  At the Second Quebec Conference on September 16, 1944, Roosevelt and Morgenthau persuaded the initially very reluctant British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to agree to the Morgenthau Plan, likely using a $6 billion Lend-Lease agreement to do so. Churchill chose however to narrow the scope of Morgenthau's proposal by drafting a new version of the memorandum, which ended up being the version signed by the two statesmen. The gist of the signed memorandum was "This programme for eliminating the war-making industries in the Ruhr and the Saar is looking forward to converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character."  The plan faced opposition in Roosevelt's cabinet, primarily from Henry L. Stimson, and when the plan was leaked to the press, there was public criticism of Roosevelt. The President's response to inquiries was to deny the press reports. As a consequence of the leak, Morgenthau was in bad favor with Roosevelt for a time.  German Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels used the leaked plan, with some success, to encourage the German people to persevere in their war efforts so that their country would not be turned into a "potato field." General George Marshall complained to Morgenthau that German resistance had strengthened. Hoping to get Morgenthau to relent on his plan for Germany, Roosevelt's son-in-law, Lt. Colonel John Boettiger, who worked in the United States Department of War, explained to Morgenthau how the American troops had had to fight for five weeks against fierce German resistance to capture Aachen and complained to him that the Morgenthau Plan was "worth thirty divisions to the Germans." In late 1944, Roosevelt's election opponent, Thomas E. Dewey, said it was worth "ten divisions". Morgenthau refused to relent.  On May 10, 1945, Truman signed the U.S. occupation directive JCS 1067. Morgenthau told his staff that it was a big day for the Treasury, and that he hoped that "someone doesn't recognize it as the Morgenthau Plan." The directive, which was in effect for over two years directed the U.S. forces of occupation to "... take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany".  In occupied Germany Morgenthau left a direct legacy through what in OMGUS commonly were called "Morgenthau boys". These were U.S. Treasury officials whom General Dwight D. Eisenhower had "loaned" in to the Army of occupation. These people ensured that JCS 1067 was interpreted as strictly as possible. They were most active in the first crucial months of the occupation, but continued their activities for almost two years following the resignations of Morgenthau in mid-1945, and some time later, of their leader, Colonel Bernard Bernstein, who was "the repository of the Morgenthau spirit in the army of occupation". They resigned when, in July 1947, JCS 1067 was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "An orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."  Morgenthau's legacy was also seen in the plans for preserving German disarmament by significantly reducing German economic might. (see also Allied plans for German industry after World War II)  In October 1945, Morgenthau published a book titled "Germany is Our Problem" in which he described and motivated the Morgenthau plan in great detail. Roosevelt had granted permission for the book the evening before his death, when dining with Morgenthau at Warm Springs. Morgenthau had asked Churchill for permission to also include the text of the then still secret "pastoralization" memorandum signed by Churchill and FDR at Quebec but permission was denied. In November 1945 General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, approved the distribution of 1000 free copies of the book to American military officials in occupied Germany. Historian Stephen E. Ambrose draws the conclusion that, despite Eisenhower's later claims that the act was not an endorsement of the Morgenthau plan, Eisenhower both approved of the plan and had previously given Morgenthau at least some of his ideas on how Germany should be treated.  Following his resignation, along with other prominent individuals such as the former first lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, Morgenthau remained for several years an active member of the group campaigning for a "harsh peace" for Germany. Ultimately though, the policy of re-integrating a fully industrialized and de-Nazified modern Germany into Europe was the policy adopted, as described in Frank Capra's influential 1945 short subject "Here is Germany".

Bretton Woods.

Morgenthau was first appointed by the U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as temporary President of the Bretton Woods Conference, which established the Bretton Woods system, the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank). During the inaugural plenary session on July 1, 1944, the Head of the Mexican Delegation, Eduardo Suarez, nominated him as Permanent President of the Conference. This motion was seconded by the Brazilian Head Delegate, Arthur de Souza Costa, and widely supported by several other delegations such as the Canadian and Soviet ones.

Later career and legacy.

In 1945, when Harry S. Truman became President, Morgenthau insisted on accompanying Truman to Potsdam by threatening to quit if he was not allowed to; Truman accepted his resignation immediately. He devoted the remainder of his life to working with Jewish philanthropies, and also became a financial advisor to Israel. Tal Shahar, an Israeli moshav (agricultural community) near Jerusalem, created in 1948, was named in his honor ("Morgenthau" (modern spelling "Morgentau") means "morning dew" in German, and so does "Tal Shahar" in Hebrew).  Morgenthau donated his diary of 840 volumes to the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. He died in Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1967. His son Robert M. Morgenthau was the District Attorney of New York County from 1975 to 2009.  The United States Coast Guard Hamilton-class cutter USCGC Morgenthau (WHEC-722) was named in his honor. The ship was sold to Vietnam Coast Guard as CSB-8020.

Personal life.

He was married to Elinor Lehman Fatman, granddaughter of Mayer Lehman, a co-founder of Lehman Brothers; they had three children — Joan Morgenthau Hirschhorn, married to Fred Hirschhorn Jr.; Henry Morgenthau III, and Robert M. Morgenthau. In 1913, Morgenthau purchased a farm in Hopewell Junction, New York, naming it Fishkill Farms. The farm still belongs to the Morgenthau family.

Henry Morgenthau Jr. (; May 11, 1891 – February 6, 1967) was the United States Secretary of the Treasury during most of the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He played a major role in designing and financing the New Deal. After 1937, while still in charge of the Treasury, he played the central role in financing United States participation in World War II. He also played an increasingly major role in shaping foreign policy, especially with respect to Lend-Lease, support for China, helping Jewish refugees, and proposing (in the "Morgenthau Plan") to prevent Germany from again being a military threat by wrecking its industry and mines.

Henry Morgenthau junior [] (* 11. Mai 1891 in New York City; † 6. Februar 1967 in Poughkeepsie, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Von 1934 bis 1945 bekleidete er das Amt des US-Finanzministers.