Life and career.

1962-80: Early life and Anthym.

Hillel Slovak was born in Haifa, Israel, to Jewish parents who were survivors of the Holocaust. They settled in the Queens borough of New York City, then in 1967 relocated to Southern California. As a child, Slovak developed an interest in art, and often spent time painting with his mother, Esther. He attended Laurel Elementary School in West Hollywood and Bancroft Jr. High School in Hollywood, where he met future bandmates Jack Irons and Michael "Flea" Balzary. Slovak received his first guitar at age 13 as a bar mitzvah present, and regularly played the instrument into the late hours of the night. During this time, he was highly influenced by hard rock music such as Jimi Hendrix, Led Zeppelin, and Kiss.  As a freshman at Fairfax High School, Slovak formed a band with Irons on drums and two other high school friends, Alain Johannes and Todd Strassman. They called their band Chain Reaction, then changed the name to Anthem after their first gig. After one of the group's shows, Slovak met audience member Anthony Kiedis, and invited him to his house for a snack. Kiedis later described the experience in his autobiography "Scar Tissue": "Within a few minutes of hanging out with Hillel, I sensed that he was absolutely different from most of the people I'd spent time with... He understood a lot about music, he was a great visual artist, and he had a sense of self and a calm about him that were just riveting." Slovak, Kiedis and Flea became best friends and often used LSD, heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine recreationally.  The original bassist for Anthem, which renamed to Anthym, was deemed unsatisfactory, so Slovak began teaching Flea to play bass. Following several months of commitment to the instrument, Flea developed proficiency and a strong musical chemistry with Slovak. When Strassman saw Flea playing Anthym songs on his equipment he quit the band, with Flea quickly replacing him. Shortly afterwards Anthym entered a local Battle of the Bands contest and won second place. Anthym started to play at local nightclubs, despite the fact that the members were all underage. After graduating from high school, the band changed their name to What Is This?. Flea left Anthym around this time to accept an offer of playing bass in the prominent L.A. punk band Fear. What Is This? continued on and performed many shows along the California coast.

1980-82: Red Hot Chili Peppers formation.

Slovak, Kiedis, and Flea began to create their own music after finding inspiration in a punk-funk fusion band called Defunkt. The three formed a band with former Anthym-drummer Jack Irons called Tony Flow and the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem. The band had only one song, entitled "Out in L.A.", and was formed for the purpose of playing the song once. The song was based on a guitar riff that Slovak wrote while "jamming" with Irons, and was not meant to become a real song until Kiedis decided to rap over the music. Following the group's first show at The Rhythm Lounge, the owner of the bar asked them to return, but with two songs instead of one. After several more shows, and the addition of several songs to their repertoire, the band's name was changed to Red Hot Chili Peppers.  After the band started to gain popularity amongst the L.A. club scene, Kiedis began writing more lyrics. The lyrics would eventually become songs such as "Green Heaven" and "True Men Don't Kill Coyotes", and the band's concert repertoire quickly grew to nine songs as a result of months of playing local nightclubs and bars. Over the course of the next six months, the Red Hot Chili Peppers played many shows in L.A. clubs and became something of an underground hit. Slovak, Kiedis, and Flea moved into a small house in a high-crime area in Hollywood where they collaborated musically and continued their drug addictions. The threesome traveled to New York City to perform more shows and to "spread Chili Pepperdom". Shortly after the trip, Slovak moved out of the group's shared house to live with his girlfriend.

1983-88: What is This? stint, "Freaky Styley", and "The Uplift Mofo Party Plan".

The Red Hot Chili Peppers entered Bijou Studios to record a demo tape and subsequently secured a record deal with EMI. Flea left Fear to pursue the Red Hot Chili Peppers. At the same time, What is This? had also gotten a record deal. Since Slovak considered the Chili Peppers to merely be a side project and not a serious commitment, he left them to concentrate on What is This?. Flea ultimately respected the decision, but felt the band would suffer musically without him and Irons. He and Kiedis hired drummer Cliff Martinez and guitarist Jack Sherman to fill Irons' and Slovak's places, respectively. During the recording of the second What is This? album, Slovak became frustrated with the band and contacted Flea about rejoining the Red Hot Chili Peppers. This came at an opportune time, as the group was dissatisfied with Slovak's replacement, Jack Sherman. Kiedis felt that Sherman's guitar work "didn't have the same spirit" that Slovak contributed to the band's sound. When Flea asked Kiedis how he felt about Slovak rejoining the band, Kiedis responded by saying, "I'd give my firstborn son to get him back in the band." After the culmination of the promotional tour for their first album, Sherman was fired and Slovak rejoined the band.  Slovak returned to the Chili Peppers for their second album, "Freaky Styley", which was released on August 16, 1985. What is This? had finally disbanded, and Irons returned to the Chili Peppers in mid 1986 after Martinez was fired. Flea, Slovak and Kiedis especially were involved in heavy drug use and their relationships became strained. Flea recalled that "it began to seem ugly to me and not fun; our communication was not healthy". Kiedis became dependent on heroin, leaving the rest of the group to work on much of the album's material by themselves. The band lived in Detroit for a portion of the recording of the album, where Kiedis and Slovak indulged in heavy cocaine use. When Slovak was under the influence, he would often wear brightly colored clothing and dance in a "shuffling" fashion, which became the inspiration for the song "Skinny Sweaty Man" from the band's next album. After Kiedis completed a stint in rehab, he rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in Los Angeles to record their third album "The Uplift Mofo Party Plan". Slovak felt a deep connection to the album; he reflected in his diary "It was so fun. I'm so extremely proud of everybody's work—it is at times genius." Slovak was the subject of the songs "Skinny Sweaty Man", "Me and My Friends", & "No Chump Love Sucker". He was nicknamed "Slim Bob Billy", "Slim", or "Huckleberry", and throughout the albums Kiedis calls him by these nicknames before he starts a guitar solo. On "The Uplift Mofo Party Plan", Slovak experimented with different musical styles, playing the sitar on the song "Behind the Sun".

Health decline.

Heroin addiction.

Slovak and Kiedis became addicted to heroin early in their careers, and Slovak often attempted to conceal his addiction from his friends and family. The band was generally more worried about Kiedis' addiction, which was much more open and noticeable to the other members, while Slovak according to Kiedis was "much more subtle and much more cunning in his disguise." During the tour in support of "Freaky Styley", Slovak's health began to deteriorate. Slovak and Flea would wrestle regularly on tour, but Slovak became too weak to participate. Kiedis commented on the situation: "I could tell that Hillel had no inner core of strength; he had been robbed by his addiction of the life force that allows you to at least defend yourself. It was a sad moment." A roadie of the band who was concerned for Slovak's health contacted his brother, James, who had been unaware that Slovak had ever used heroin.  Deciding to give sobriety a chance, both Kiedis and Slovak stopped using drugs prior to their European tour in support of "The Uplift Mofo Party Plan", and decided to help each other "steer clear" of heroin. An entry from Slovak's diary on January 21, 1988 discusses his attempts to "begin a new drug-free phase of life". During the tour both experienced intense heroin withdrawal, with Slovak much more unstable than Kiedis. His withdrawal symptoms took a toll on his ability to play his instrument; at one point Slovak had a mental breakdown and was unable to play a show, leaving the rest of the band to play an entire set with no guitar. He recovered a few days later, but was briefly kicked out of the band and replaced by DeWayne McKnight for a few shows. After a few days with McKnight, the band decided to give Slovak another chance, and he rejoined for the European leg of the tour. Kiedis attempted to take Slovak to drug addiction counseling, but Slovak had difficulty admitting that his addiction was serious enough to require medical help.

Death.

Upon returning home, Slovak isolated himself from the rest of his bandmates, and struggled to resist the drug without the support of his friends, and Kiedis in particular. He stopped painting and writing in his diary during this time, and little is known about his life during the weeks following the tour, aside from a phone call to his brother on June 24, in which Slovak told him that he was having difficulty staying clean despite his desire to stop taking heroin. A few weeks after the band returned from the tour, the members attempted to contact Slovak, but were unable to for several days. Slovak was found dead by police in his Hollywood apartment on June 27, 1988. After his autopsy, authorities determined that he had died two days earlier on June 25 due to a heroin overdose. He is interred at Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Hollywood Hills, California.  Following Slovak's death Kiedis fled town and did not attend the funeral, considering the situation to be surreal. Although he found the death to be a shock, he was not initially "scared straight" and continued to use heroin. However, a few weeks later his friend convinced him both to check into rehab and visit Slovak's grave, which inspired him to get clean. Irons was unable to cope with Slovak's death and subsequently quit the band, saying that he did not want to be part of something that resulted in the death of his friend. Irons has suffered from severe depression since Slovak's death. Kiedis and Flea decided to continue making music, hoping to continue what Slovak "helped build". They hired DeWayne McKnight and D.H. Peligro as replacements shortly after.

Musical style and legacy.

Slovak was primarily influenced by hard rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix, Santana, and Led Zeppelin. His playing method was markedly based on improvisation, a style commonly used in funk music. He was also noted for his aggressive playing style; he would often play with such force that his fingers would "come apart." Kiedis observed that his playing evolved during his time away from the group in What is This?, with Slovak adopting a more fluid style featuring "sultry" elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques. On "Uplift", Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal. His guitar riffs would often serve as the basis of the group's songs, with the other members writing their parts to complement his guitar work. His melodic riff featured in the song "Behind the Sun" inspired the group to create "pretty" songs with an emphasis on melody. Kiedis describes the song as "pure Hillel inspiration". Slovak also used a talk box on songs such as "Green Heaven" and "Funky Crime", in which the sounds of his amplified guitar would be played through a tube into his mouth and then back into a microphone, creating psychedelic, voice-like effects. Slovak helped to incorporate new sounds in the group's work, including adding occasional drum machines. Despite the fact that the group billed itself as "The Organic Anti-Beat Box Band", Kiedis states that Slovak showed the group that drum machines could be used as artistic instruments.  Slovak's work was one of the major contributing factors to the Red Hot Chili Peppers' early sound. When Kiedis and Flea were searching for a new guitarist to replace Slovak, Kiedis likened the experience to "shopping for a new Mom and Dad" because of his influence over the band. Flea, who originally listened exclusively to jazz, added that Slovak introduced him to a new genre of music, saying that "it was Hillel who first got me into hard rockin. He was also a huge influence on a young John Frusciante, who would later replace him as guitarist in the band. Frusciante based a lot of his playing style on Slovak's work, and explained, "I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel's playing and I just took it sideways from there." Just like Slovak before him, Frusciante developed a heroin addiction. Unlike Slovak, Frusciante eventually managed to break and defeat the habit. The songs "Knock Me Down" (from "Mother's Milk"), "My Lovely Man" (from "Blood Sugar Sex Magik"), "This is the Place" (from "By the Way"), and "Feasting on the Flowers" (from "The Getaway") were written about or as tributes to Slovak. The band's 1987 cover version of Jimi Hendrix's song "Fire", recorded with Slovak and previously only released on the "Fight Like a Brave" single and "The Abbey Road EP", was included on 1989's "Mother's Milk" along with an image of one of Slovak's paintings inside the album's booklet. In 1999, a book titled "Behind the Sun: The Diary and Art of Hillel Slovak" was published. The book was authored by Slovak's brother, James Slovak, and features writings from his brother's diaries, paintings, photos and hand-written notes from Kiedis and Flea.  On December 7, 2011, the Red Hot Chili Peppers were announced as 2012 inductees to the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame. Slovak's brother James accepted the award on his behalf and gave a speech honoring his brother. In an interview with "Rolling Stone", Kiedis expressed his excitement with Slovak's induction, explaining "He's a beautiful person that picked up a guitar in the 1970s and didn't make it out of the 1980s, and he is getting honored for his beauty". Flea echoed those comments on the same day: "Hillel grew up loving rock and roll so much, he hasn't been here for some time, but I know how much it would mean to him. It's a powerful thing."

Hillel Slovak (; April 13, 1962 – June 25, 1988) was an Israeli-American musician best known as the founding guitarist of the Los Angeles rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers. Slovak recorded two albums with the band, "Freaky Styley" (1985) and "The Uplift Mofo Party Plan" (1987). His guitar work was primarily rooted in funk and hard rock, although he often experimented with other genres including reggae and speed metal. He is considered to have been a major influence on the Red Hot Chili Peppers' early sound.

Hillel Slovak (* 13. April 1962 in Haifa, Israel; † 25. Juni 1988 in Los Angeles) war ein US-amerikanischer Musiker. Bekanntheit erlangte er als Gitarrist bei den Red Hot Chili Peppers.


Types of articulations.

There are many types of articulation, each with a different effect on how the note is played. In music notation articulation marks include the slur, phrase mark, staccato, staccatissimo, accent, sforzando, rinforzando, and legato. A different symbol, placed above or below the note (depending on its position on the staff), represents each articulation.

Procedure.

Brass and woodwind instruments.

Woodwind and brass instruments generally produce articulations by tonguing, the use of the tongue to break the airflow into the instrument.  Certain palate cues can help student musicians master articulations. For example, the syllable "dah" demonstrates one placement of the tongue to articulate notes. In most cases, using the near tip of the tongue, is the best way of articulation. However, different articulation markings require different tongue placement. Smooth, connected passages may require an articulation more reminiscent of the syllable "la," while heavy, sharp notes may be attacked with an articulation similar to "tah."  Furthermore, the implementation of double-tonguing may be required when many articulations are required in rapid succession. Double-tonguing can be simulated by repeating the syllables "dig" and "guh" in rapid succession. Other syllables for double tonguing are "tuh" and "kuh," "tih" and "kuh," and any other combination of syllables that utilize the tip of the tongue behind the front teeth and then the back of the tongue against the back of the mouth. Double-tonguing is an articulation primarily used by brass players, but the use of double-tonguing by woodwind players is becoming more common.  A third, rare form of articulation for wind players is "doodle tonguing." The name of this articulation comes from the sound, doodle, one would make if she were to sound her voice while performing the articulation. Doodle-tonguing is achieved by moving the tip of the tongue up and down quickly to block the air stream momentarily on the way up, and again on the way down.

String Instruments.

Stringed instruments use different techniques such as bowing, picking, or a technique by plucking the strings with the hand. This technique is called pizzicato. String instruments use these methods to achieve different articulations, varying the speed, pressure, and angle of the bow or pick. Musicians use articulation to create a link between notes, such as legato. Legato is formed by letting the string vibrate without stopping or muting it so the note slurs with the consecutive ones. Staccato is another very common musical articulation found in music. This action is caused by the player plucking, bowing, or picking the note and immediately muting the note so it is shorter than normal. Think of these two as opposites. Duration is indeed the most striking feature of articu- lation but is not its only one. Articulation describes the forming of a tone in all its facets. This also includes loud- ness, timbre, intonation, and envelope characteristics. A note is accented by a sort of triangle without its base. A musician using a string instrument would accent a note by playing the string harder and with more attack creating a louder sound.

Compound articulations.

Occasionally, articulations can be combined to create stylistically or technically correct sounds. For example, when staccato marks are combined with a slur, the result is portato, also known as articulated legato. Tenuto markings under a slur are called (for bowed strings) hook bows. This name is also less commonly applied to staccato or martellato (martelé) markings.

Apagados.

"Apagados" (from the Spanish verb "apagar", "to mute") refers to notes that are played dampened or "muted," without sustain. The term is written above or below the notes with a dotted or dashed line drawn to the end of the group of notes that are to be played dampened. The technique is chiefly written for bowed or plucked instruments. Modernists refer to the 'apogado' (slightly different spelling) as "palm mute." On the guitar, the musician dampens the strings with the palm of the hand and plucks with the thumb. Strictly speaking, the term dampened is correct for this effect in music; since to mute means to silence. Illustration of the apagados may be found in the work of composer for Spanish guitar, Gerardo de Altona. See: https://web.archive.org/web/20110714065232/http://www.mednetconnection.com/18051/18020.html

Articulation is a fundamental musical parameter that determines how a single note or other discrete event is sounded. Articulations primarily structure an event's start and end, determining the length of its sound and the shape of its attack and decay. They can also modify an event's timbre, dynamics, and pitch. Musical articulation is analogous to the articulation of speech, and during the Baroque and Classical periods it was taught by comparison to oratory.

Unter Artikulation in der Musik wird erstens die Art verstanden, wie ein einzelner Ton stimmlich oder instrumental erzeugt oder "gebildet" wird; zweitens wie aufeinander folgende Töne miteinander "verbunden" werden: entweder nahtlos eng ("legato", gebunden) oder mit Klangpausen zwischen den Tönen ("non legato", nicht gebunden). Somit fasst Artikulation „verschiedene Möglichkeiten, Töne miteinander zu verbinden bzw. voneinander abzuheben“ zusammen. Bei der technischen Ausführung des Non-Legato geht es um die Frage, wie lange der jeweilige Ton erklingt und die zugehörige Pause dauert. Die zahlreichen Arten, Töne zu verbinden sind ein Gestaltungsmittel zur "Charakterisierung" der Melodiebewegung.


History.

His writings were found by chance in 1988 in the manuscript store of the Berlin State Library. The surviving part covers a range of 25 years between 1625 and 1649. The book was folded from 12 sheets of paper which he bought at the end of the war in 1648 to write a fair copy of his notes. The 192 pages tell of a 22,500 km long journey across Europe filled with battles in Italy, the German states, Spanish Netherlands and France. He took part in the Sack of Magdeburg (the devastation was so great that "magdeburgization" became an oft-used term signifying total destruction, rape and pillaging for decades) and the Battle of Nördlingen (1634). He details a life on the verge of death which includes his first wife and seven of his children.  The diary was anonymous. However the author had written down the dates and places of the birth of his daughters and where his wife came from. As for one proof the diary says that his daughter Magreta was born on 3. November 1645 in Pappenheim and by chance the church register of that town had survived the war. It has an entry for an Anna Marget on that day with a mother named Anna Maria (equivalent with his wife's name) denoting Peter Hagendorf as the father. Other sources support the notion, for example the first church register (1629–1635) of Engelrod (Lautertal) has the following christening entry: "„Eichelhain, Anno 1629, August 17., Elisabeth, Peter Hagendorffs, eines Soldaten von Zerbst Döchterlein...“" Near the given origin Zerbst exists even a locality named Hagendorf.  Based on Hagendorf's writing it is now known that many women and children followed in the baggage train, how the division of responsibilities was organized between men and wife in the army camp, how the treatment of wounds was organized, how sieges were announced and how the sack (looting) of an overpowered city took place. Hagendorf fought for the most part in Pappenheim's regiment. It lay there until being discovered by Jan Peters in 1988, an East German professor at the time.  Peter Hagendorf expresses mixed feelings towards the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. He had basically lost his job which required him to work now as a night guard, and to take up other unskilled work. Without giving a reason, he picks up his son from the probst, travelling with his family northeast through Öttingen. His last location is Günzburg when the diary stops - the last three pages are missing.

After 1649.

Professor, who had published a transcribed version of the book in 1993, had already indicated that the language points to a Rhinelandic origin (in today's western Germany). That may contradict the designation of Zerbst in the christening entry (in today's eastern Germany) however further research revealed that the Fläming Heath was dominated by settlers from the Rhine regions at the time. The Fläming region is in the north-east of the historic Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst - the region was later amalgamated into Prussia taking over its language from the Potsdam-Berlin area. Later research had focused on the question where the book author may have gained his knowledge in writing as well as Latin. Apart from the Francisceum Zerbst the region had schools in Bad Belzig and Wiesenburg. Faith schools for sacristans are known for Grubo and Görzke as their pastors were also recorded as school principals. While checking the church register, the death note for Peter Hagendorf was discovered. There is a valid interpretation that the mercenary was returning to his old homeland after the wars - according to the registers in Görzke he baptized his son Peter, on 9. November 1649 along with his family. Multiple notes in the Görzke registers state his wife's name as "Anna Maria Hagendorf" which is consistent with the name of his second wife in the mercenary's book.  Moreover, the civil registers showed that his children survived and four more sons were born from where two reached the adult age. All get married, so that along the heritage lines some offspring live in modern times. The registers show a number of people in the area with the family name Hagendorf however the village Hagendorf had no recordings of that name later than the 16th century. This may be a result of a plague epidemic between 1400 and 1610 where most of the inhabitants moved to Grubo. Grubo deserted around 1640 with the villagers moving to Görzke. That history along with godmother and godfather entries of an Anna and her father Martin Hagendorf, there is a theory that Peter had relatives in Görzke upon returning. It may also explain how he did become mayor already in 1650, holding also other principal positions until his death decades later.  While Nedlitz is part of the Anhalt principality, it happens that Görzke is part of Prussia's Brandenburg dominions. Both villages are roughly 20 km apart, Görzke being to the northeast. The local probst and book lover Gottlieb Ernst Schmid (1727–1814) had assembled a large library throughout his life time. It was donated to the Prussian state library in Berlin in 1803 with the diary being a part of it. It was found there in 1988 by Jan Peters who did recognize the importance for the science of history. The fame has grown over the years leading up to a TV documentary in 2011 where Peter Hagendorf was pictured in "Der Dreißigjährige Kriege (Teil 1) – Von Feldherren, Söldnern und Karrieristen".

Peter Hagendorf was a German mercenary soldier in the Thirty Years' War. He wrote a diary which gives a unique historic record of the life in the contemporary army from the viewpoint of a simple Landsknecht.

Peter Hagendorf war ein deutscher Söldner des Dreißigjährigen Krieges. Er hinterließ ein umfangreiches Tagebuch, dessen erhaltener Teil einen Zeitraum von 24 Jahren zwischen 1625 und 1649 umfasst und das als wichtiges Zeugnis des Söldnerlebens dieser Zeit gilt. Aktuelle Forschungen setzen ihn mit dem Görzker Richter und Bürgermeister Peter Hagendorf (* 1601/02, † 1679 in Görzke) gleich, der ab November 1649 im örtlichen Kirchenbuch mit dem Eintrag "Peter Hagendorf, ein Soldat" belegt ist.


Terminology.

This cut is typically called "capocollo" or "coppa" in much of Italy and Corsica. This name is a compound of the words "capo" ("head") and "collo" ("neck"). Regional terms include "capicollo" (Campania and Calabria) and "capicollu" (Corsica).  Outside of Italy and Corsica, terms include "bondiola" or "bondiola curada" in Argentina and capicola or capicolla in North America. The pronunciation "gabagool" has been used by Italian Americans in the New York City area and elsewhere in the Northeast, based on the pronunciation of "capicola" in working-class dialects of 19th- and early 20th-century Neapolitan. It was notably used in the television series "The Sopranos", and its use has become a well-known humorous stereotype.

Manufacture and use.

In its production, capocollo is first lightly seasoned often with red and sometimes white wine, garlic, and a variety of herbs and spices that differs depending on region. The meat is then salted (and was traditionally massaged) and stuffed into a natural casing, and hung for up to six months to cure. Sometimes the exterior is rubbed with hot paprika before being hung and cured. Capocollo is essentially the pork counterpart of the air-dried, cured beef "bresaola". It is widely available wherever significant Italian communities occur, due to commercially produced varieties. The slow-roasted Piedmontese version is called "coppa cotta".  Capocollo is esteemed for its delicate flavor and tender, fatty texture, and is often more expensive than most other "salumi". In many countries, it is often sold as a gourmet food item. It is usually sliced thin for use in antipasto or sandwiches such as muffulettas, Italian grinders and subs, and panini, as well as some traditional Italian pizza.

Varieties and official status.

Two particular varieties, "Coppa Piacentina" and "Capocollo di Calabria", have Protected Designation of Origin status under the Common Agricultural Policy of European Union law, which ensures that only products genuinely originating in those regions are allowed in commerce as such.  Five additional Italian regions produce capicollo, and are not covered under European law, but are designated as "Prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale" by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural, Food, and Forestry Policies:  Outside Italy, capocollo is traditionally produced also in the French island of Corsica under the names "coppa" or "capicollu". Coppa di Corsica/de Corse is also a PDO product. It was introduced to Argentina by Italian immigrants, under the names "" or "".

Capocollo (), coppa (), or capicola is a traditional Italian and Corsican pork cold cut ("salume") made from the dry-cured muscle running from the neck to the fourth or fifth rib of the pork shoulder or neck. It is a whole-muscle salume, dry cured, and typically sliced very thinly. It is similar to the more widely known cured ham or prosciutto, because they are both pork-derived cold-cuts used in similar dishes. It is not brined as ham typically is.

Coppa ist eine traditionelle italienische Spezialität aus dem Schweinenacken. Sie ist eng mit Capocollo calabrese verwandt, die aus dem gleichen Stück Fleisch hergestellt wird.


Early life.

Jermaine Dupri Mauldin was born on September 23, 1972, son of Tina (Mosley) and Michael Mauldin, a Columbia Records executive. Dupri's promising musical career began before he was even ten years old. His father, also an Atlanta talent manager, had coordinated a Diana Ross show in 1982; to the delight of concert-goers, Dupri managed to get on-stage and dance along with Ross. Dupri got his start as a dancer for the hip hop group Whodini when he was twelve. He made an appearance in their music video for the song "Freaks Come Out at Night". He began performing around the country, appearing with Herbie Hancock and Cameo before he opened the New York Fresh Festival, with Run-D.M.C., Whodini, and Grandmaster Flash.

Career.

1992–1996: Early career.

In 1990, he produced his first act, the female hip hop trio Silk Tymes Leather. He later formed the teen duo Kris Kross (Chris Kelly and Chris Smith) after meeting the boys at a local mall in 1991. The group's first album, "Totally Krossed Out", was released in 1992 and went multi-platinum due to their singles "Jump" and "Warm It Up", both written and produced by Dupri. He established his own record label called So So Def in 1993. Shortly after, he discovered female R&B group Xscape at a festival in Atlanta and signed them to the label. Their debut album, produced entirely by Dupri, "Hummin' Comin' at 'Cha", went platinum with the support of the singles "Understanding", "Love on My Mind", "Tonight" and "Just Kickin' It", with the later peaking at number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. During the same year, on Yo! MTV Raps he met Da Brat through Kris Kross, signed her to his label So So Def Recordings, and released her debut "Funkdafied" (1994) which went platinum. So So Def Recordings entered into a distribution partnership with Columbia Records in 1993. In 1995, he collaborated with Mariah Carey for the first time on the number one hit single "Always Be My Baby." He contributed to Lil' Kim's 1996 album, "Hard Core" on the track "Not Tonight".

1997–2003: Columbia, Arista Records.

In 1997, Dupri co-wrote and produced several tracks on Usher's second album, "My Way". The lead single, "You Make Me Wanna", reached number-one on the Rhythmic Top 40 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop chart. The follow up single "Nice & Slow" went to number-one on the Billboard 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop chart, and the last single, "My Way" peaked at number-two on Billboard 100. All three singles have been certified Platinum by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). A featured guest on the album, Monica, would also later become a protegé of Dupri, with her second album, "The Boy Is Mine", dropping in July of that year. Dupri produced the single of the album "The First Night", which peaked atop the U.S. "Billboard" charts, with the album receiving the triple platinum certification and universal acclaim.  In 1998, Jermaine Dupri was involved in the release of Destiny's Child's eponymous debut album. Dupri renewed the focus on his own music career, which proved successful with release of the singles "Sweetheart" featuring Mariah Carey (US#126), "The Party Continues" featuring Da Brat and Usher (U.S. #26), and "Money Ain't a Thang" featuring Jay-Z (U.S. #56), the lead singles from his debut studio album "Life in 1472." Also that year he met soon-to-be frequent collaborator and production partner Bryan-Michael Cox, as well as 11-year-old rapper, known then as Lil' Bow Wow and signed him to So So Def Recordings. The two would later part ways after only 2 albums, but continued to frequently collaborate on later projects. The deal with Columbia was terminated in 2002 and in 2003 Dupri switched to Arista Records. Dupri worked on Tamar Braxton's debut album, "Tamar" on the track "Get None" as well as with Weezer and Lil Wayne on the song "Can't Stop Partying." He also collaborated with DJ Chuckie to make a vocal version of the song "Let The Bass Kick". He soon released his sophomore studio album "Instructions" in October 2001.

2004–2009: Confessions and The Emancipation of Mimi.

In 2004 Dupri connected again with Usher contributing to "Confessions" co-writing and co-producing three consecutive singles Billboard Hot 100 number one songs "Burn", "Confessions Part II", and "My Boo". Confessions won Best Contemporary R&B Album and Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. Confessions has been certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2012, has sold 10 million copies in the US and over 20 million copies worldwide.  Dupri in early 2005 worked with Mariah Carey on her "The Emancipation Of Mimi" with the smash hit "We Belong Together". It stayed at number one for fourteen non-consecutive weeks, becoming the second longest running number one song in US chart history, behind Carey's 1996 collaboration with Boyz II Men on "One Sweet Day". We Belong Together" won Grammy's for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. The same year he worked on "Wanted" with Bow Wow, he co-produced and co-wrote "Let Me Hold You". Later in December, Dupri produced and co-wrote Nelly's single "Grillz", which struck atop the "Billboard" charts yet again.  In early 2006, Dupri signed both Dem Franchize Boyz and Daz Dillinger to his label So So Def after transferring it from Arista Records to Virgin Records. The latter's album, So So Gangsta, was released in September of that year, while the former's label debut was released the following year with the album "On Top of Our Game" which topped the US Top Rap Albums with the hit songs "I Think They Like Me" and "Lean wit It, Rock wit It." The group also featured alongside Dupri on Monica's snap single, "Everytime tha Beat Drop" (U.S. #48) off her fifth album, "The Makings of Me". In late 2006, Dupri executive produced the album "20 Y.O." by his then-partner, Janet Jackson, along with co-producing and co-writing half the tracklist and all of the singles. He returned for her ninth album, "Discipline" in 2008, producing the single "Rock With U".  In October 2007, he published his memoir, "Young, Rich and Dangerous: The Making of a Music Mogul" (Atria Books). In November 2007 co-produced and co-wrote with So So Def intern No I.D. this time on Jay-Z's tenth studio album "American Gangster". The two contributed to the songs "Success" and "Fallin".

2010–present: "The Rap Game".

On October 7, 2013, he replaced Randy Jackson as Carey's talent manager. He later parted ways with Carey in August 2014, though they still maintain a professional relationship, as he was a producer on nearly all of her albums since "Daydream" (1995).  In 2015, Dupri and Queen Latifah created a reality television series, "The Rap Game". The eight-episode series premiered on Lifetime on New Year's Day, 2016. It followed five emerging artists, ages 11–16, who were immersed in the Atlanta hip-hop scene in a quest to become a rap star. Dupri was joined by guests including Usher, Ludacris, Da Brat, T.I. and Silentó; they gave the competitors advice on what it takes to be in the industry. Most competitors have released solo work, receiving guidance and instrumentation from Dupri.  In 2018, he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.  In 2018, Jermaine Dupri his So So Def brand celebrated an exhibit at the Grammy Museum in Los Angeles, California called, "Jermaine Dupri & So So Def, 25 Years Of Elevating Culture".

Personal life.

From 2002 to 2009, Dupri was involved in a romantic relationship with singer Janet Jackson, which resulted in a brief musical connection.  Dupri is vegan and promoted the lifestyle through a PETA ad, encouraging fans to "Feel the beets. Lose the meats."

Awards and nominations.

Grammy Awards

Jermaine Dupri Mauldin (born September 23, 1972) is an American rapper, songwriter, record producer and record executive. He was born in Asheville, North Carolina and was raised in Atlanta. He has worked with and produced for Kris Kross, Mariah Carey, Usher, Jay-Z, Nelly, Monica, Migos, Da Brat, Xscape, Janet Jackson, TLC, Aretha Franklin, Ludacris, Alicia Keys, Jagged Edge and Bow Wow.

Jermaine Dupri, auch JD, (eigentlich "Jermaine Dupri Mauldin", * 23. September 1972 in Asheville, North Carolina) ist ein US-amerikanischer Musiker, Produzent, Rapper, Schauspieler und Chef seines eigenen Plattenlabels So So Def Records.


Biography.

Jacob (Jacques) Jordaens was born on 19 May 1593, the first of eleven children, to the wealthy linen merchant Jacob Jordaens Sr. and Barbara van Wolschaten in Antwerp. Little is known about Jordaens' early education. It can be assumed that he received the advantages of the education usually provided for children of his social class. This assumption is supported by his clear handwriting, his competence in French and in his knowledge of mythology. Jordaens familiarity with biblical subjects is evident in his many religious paintings, and his personal interest with the Bible was strengthened by his later conversion from Catholicism to Protestantism.  Like Rubens, he studied under Adam van Noort, who was his only teacher. During this time Jordaens lived in Van Noort's house in the Everdijstraat and became very close to the rest of the family. After eight years of training with Van Noort, he enrolled in the Guild of St. Luke as a ""waterschilder"", or watercolor artist. This medium was often used for preparing tapestry cartoons in the seventeenth century. although examples of his earliest watercolour works are no longer extant. In the same year as his entry into the guild, 1616, he married his teacher's eldest daughter, Anna Catharina van Noort, with whom he had three children. In 1618, Jordaens bought a house in Hoogstraat (the area in Antwerp that he grew up in). He would then later buy the adjoining house to expand his household and workspace in 1639, mimicking Rubens' house built two decades earlier. He lived and worked here until his death in 1678.  Jordaens never made the traditional trip to Italy to study classical and Renaissance art. Despite this, he made many efforts to study prints or works of Italian masters available in northern Europe. For example, Jordaens is known to have studied Titian, Veronese, Caravaggio, and Bassano, either through prints, copies or originals (such as Caravaggio's "Madonna of the Rosary"). His work, however, betrays local traditions, especially the genre traditions of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, in honestly depicting Flemish life with authenticity and showing common people in the act of celebratory expressions of life. His commissions frequently came from wealthy local Flemish patrons and clergy, although later in his career he worked for courts and governments across Europe. Besides a large output of monumental oil paintings he was a prolific tapestry designer, a career that reflects his early training as a "watercolour" painter.  Jordaens' importance can also be seen by his number of pupils; the Guild of St. Luke records fifteen official pupils from 1621 to 1667, but six others were recorded as pupils in court documents and not the Guild records, so it is probable that he had more students than officially recorded. Among them were his cousin and his son Jacob. Like Rubens and other artists at that time, Jordaens' studio relied on his assistants and pupils in the production of his paintings. Not many of these pupils went on to fame themselves, however a position in Jordaens' studio was highly desirable for young artists from across Europe.

Works.

"The Adoration of the Shepherds".

"The Adoration of the Shepherds" (1616, 1618) depicts the Virgin Mary preparing to suckle the Christ Child while He is adored by Flemish-looking shepherds. The scene is limited to five figures who, with the exception of Christ, are shown in half length emphasizing the intimacy of the scene.  Prior to 1616, Jordaens had been interested in the bright, clear palette of Mannerism. However, in this image, he experiments with using light, rather than color, as the primary means to mold figures in

"The Flight of Lot and his Family from Sodom".

Inspired by Ruebens, Jordaens painted his iconoclastic duplicate in oils on an canvas in 1620.

"The Satyr and the Peasant".

This particular scene, of which Jordaens painted many versions, illustrates a moralizing fable from "Aesop's Fables". The story begins with a man and a satyr. One cold day, as they talked, the man put his fingers to his mouth and blew on them. When the satyr asked the reason for this, the man said that he did it to warm his hands. Later on, when they sat down to eat, the man raised his dish of hot food towards his mouth and blew on it. When the satyr again inquired the reason, he said that he did it to cool the food. The satyr then informs the man, "I can no longer consider you as a friend, a fellow who with the same breath blows hot and cold." The moral of this story is the duality of human nature, although some believe that Jordaens chose this story not for his interest in its moral lesson, but for his interest in rendering a peasant scene.  The particular moment

Candaules, Nyssia, and Gyges.

This image illustrates Herodotus's version of the tale of Gyges. The moral of this story is the duty of a husband to protect his wife. When he violates that duty tragedy will result; in this case Candaules dies. Jordaens chose this story for his interest in its moral lesson.  The particular moment which Jordaens depicts in his painting is when Nyssia, having finished

"Self-portrait with Wife and Daughter Elizabeth".

Here we see Jordaens with his wife Catherine van Noort, his eldest child Elizabeth and a servant. The painting has been dated around 1621–22 because Elizabeth appears to be about 4 years old and she was born in 1617. Everyone in the painting is looking out at the viewer as if to invite them in to join the group. Jardin d'amour was an ancient tradition that Jordaens has represented in his family portrait. We see that he has also thrown a fair amount of symbolism into the painting to help

"St. Peter Finding the Tribute Money".

This work, most likely painted circa 1623 for the Amsterdam iron and weapons merchant Louis de Geer I, represents the story from Matthew 17: 24–27, in which Jesus tells Peter to catch a fish and inside he will find money to pay tribute in Capernaum. The composition is crowded, with the centre of action happening inside the boat. Peter and the other apostles are seen at the right side of the painting, peering down as Peter draws a fish from the water. These figures do not

"The Martyrdom of St. Apollonia".

The church of St. Augustine, located in Antwerp, had three altars. Each altar held one large painting by either Rubens, van Dyck, or Jordaens. All three paintings were created in 1628. Rubens' "Madonna and Child Adored by Saints" hung over the high or main altar in the centre. The altar on the left contained van Dyck's "St. Augustine in Ecstasy", and finally Jordaens' "The Martyrdom of St. Apollonia" hung over the altar

"The Infant Jupiter Fed by the Goat Amalthea".

At the foot of a gentle slope, "The Infant Jupiter Fed by the Goat Amalthea" (1630–35) is set in a landscape. The focus of the composition is on the nymph Andrastea, whose pale nakedness is contrasted by the darker hues of the other figures. She sits on ground with her legs folded partly underneath her and a cloth draped around

"The King Drinks".

Jordaens painted several versions of this subject, including one "c". 1640 work in the Royal Museum of Art, Brussels. Epiphany is celebrated in Flanders on 6 January. It is a celebration of food, wine and merriment that is shared with family. One person gets to be king for the evening, which as Jordaens thoughtfully depicts as the eldest person in the room. The rest of his subjects are assigned by him. Jordaens also made

"As the Old Sing, So the Young Pipe".

"As the Old Sang, So the Young Pipe" (c.1638–1640) is considered a companion to "The King Drinks" (Louvre, Paris). Both paintings are of a moralizing nature, have near identical measurements, and related styles. "As the Old Sang, So the Young Pipe" shows three generations of wealthy Antwerp burghers sitting around a table making music. Being a popular theme among Jordaens and his clients, several versions of this painting were created. In the version shown Jordaens' father-in-law Adam van Noort is depicted as the old man. In this popular painting genre, elderly and middle-aged figures are always portrayed singing and creating music, as children "pipe" along. The title is based on a popular proverb from the book "Spiegel van den Ouden ende Nieuwen Tijdt", an

"Prometheus".

Jordaens's 1640 painting "Prometheus"(depictsof the mythological tale of the titan Prometheus who had his liver pecked out by an eagle each day only to regenerate and begin the cycle anew the next day. Prometheus was punished for his audacity by Zeus for having given fire to man, not just in its physical form, but also in the fire of reason, which can be related to man's creativity in arts and sciences. Jordaens' depiction is very much likened to Rubens "Prometheus". Jordaens' positioning of the eagle, and backwards, heroically-nude bloodshot-eyed Prometheus, as well as the use of punishment and pain of

"Mercury and Argus".

"Mercury and Argus", painted circa 1620, depicts the a scene from the story of Mercury, Argus, and Io, found in "The Metamorphoses" written by Ovid (I, 583 ; IX, 687).  Jupiter (Zeus) falls in love with Io, a priestess of Hera, his wife, who quickly discovers the affair. Jupiter transforms himself into a bull and transforms Io into a beautiful, white

"Night Vision".

Jordaens' "Night Vision" depicts a dark and gloomy scene of a young man tormented in his sleep by an apparition of a female nude. On the left hand side of the composition, an elderly woman and a younger woman crack open the door, peering in, and illuminating the room with soft candlelight. They appear to be astonished at the sight of the apparition. Jordaens emphasizes the temporality of this scene by allowing certain elements to stand out sharply against the overall dark ground of the painting. For instance, the sleeping boy has just clumsily knocked over a copper pot and a candlestick which now lie in the foreground of the painting. Special attention is also paid to fabrics in this work. Jordaens creates the sensation of wind with both the flowing white cloth held by

"The Story of Cupid and Psyche".

Sometime during the years 1639–40, Jacob Jordaens received the commission to create a series of works for Charles I of England through Balthazar Gerbier, the King's agent in Brussels, and Cesare Alessandro Scaglia, a diplomat residing in Antwerp. The project entailed twenty-two paintings illustrating "The Story of Cupid and Psyche" (1640–41) – van Dyck's "Cupid and Psyche" may also be related to the project. While the works were to be displayed in the Queen's House at Greenwich upon completion, the patron and final location were unknown to the artist. As Jordaens submits his initial design to his intermediaries between himself and the English court, Gerbier continually attempts to convince the King that Rubens would be much more suited to a project requiring such substantial amounts of foreshortening. His efforts are in vain, however, as Rubens dies on 30 May 1640. With

"Diana and Actaeon".

Completed around 1640, this lavish and erotic version of the mythological tableau which is perhaps based on the better known 1556–59 version by Titian, depicts Actaeon bearing a phallic spear as a clear sexual threat to Diana and her court. It is in the collection of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister Dresden, but has become the artist's

"The Holy Family with Various Persons and Animals in a Boat".

The style of Jacob Jordaens' mid-century painting can be clearly seen in "The Holy Family with Various Persons and Animals in a Boat" (1652). Nearing the age of sixty, Jordaens' paintings became more the work of his assistants following the direction of Jordaens,

"The Triumph of Frederik Hendrik".

Jordaens' painting, "The Triumph of Frederik Hendrik", painted in 1651, portrays over fifty figures surrounding Stadholder Frederik Hendrik and his relatives. The piece was painted in honour of Stadholder Frederik Hendrik, Prince of Orange, and commissioned by his consort, Amalia van Solms. She was looking to commemorate the Stadholder after his death in 1647. The collection of work that was being assembled, as was common practice of the time, was meant to glorify the prince and his valiant deeds. Instead of describing events, using straight forward images and icons, the collection was painted in allegories used to enthrone the Stadholder as heroic and virtuous. It was displayed in Huis ten Bosch (House in the Woods), which began as a suburban retreat for Amalia van Solms (today a royal palace). The painting

"The Eye of the Master Makes the Horse Fat".

Jacob Jordaens had often used proverbs in his paintings, using the characters in the portrait to play out the meaning of the proverb (usually a warning of sorts). This technique made it easy to compare Jordaens with Pieter Bruegel, who often used proverbs. He saw it as a good way to expose the foolish and erring nature of man. Usually looking for a proverb with a positive, optimistic message, Jordaens would use his characters to explain the proverb's caution, explicitly or by implying the message. In "The Eye of the Master Makes the Horse Fat", a horse is centred in the midst of flourishing

Tapestry designs.

Jacob Jordaens' most significant body of work were the numerous designs he did for tapestries. As the most lucrative of the arts, tapestries were considered precious throughout the Renaissance and Baroque periods. These large wall hangings had begun to appear on the walls of wealthy European nobility in the fourteenth century. Following the success of the Brussels tapestries woven after the Raphael cartoons, 16th and 17th-century patrons employed artists as tapestry designs; Jacob Jordaens, Peter Paul Rubens and Pietro Cortona flattered patrons allegorically in a manner that would identify them with famous historical or mythological figures, as a form of aristocratic self-promotion. Jordaens found that he was particularly successful in the tapestry ventures. He was especially motivated in this field and his perfected techniques and style earned him numerous commissions for series of tapestries. He was seen as one of the leading tapestry designers of the era.  Jordaens' process of tapestry creation included a preliminary drawing or sketch

Drawings.

Maintaining trends in Flemish painting, Jordaens was a proponent of extending Rubens' and Van Dyck's "painterly" style of art to his exceptionally prolific body of preparatory drawings. Today, approximately 450 drawings are attributed to Jordaens, however, there is continuing scholarly debate in terms of accurate attribution of Flemish drawings to Jordaens or Rubens, due to their similar oeuvre. Jordaens and his contemporaries were proponents of the Flemish trend towards making, expanding, and modifying preparatory drafts for larger paintings or to add to their visual vocabulary the classical artistic ideals. As a painter-draftsman, Jordaens often employed gouache and washes to his preparatory drawings, and was known to be extremely economical in his use of paper, as he never hesitated to add strips, cut away unwanted sections, or paste over existing work in order to achieve his desired effect.

"Allegory of April".

The subject of this drawing (date unknown) has long been debated. The portrayal of a nude female figure atop a bull may quite possibly be an allusion to the story of the rape of Europa, with Europa as the female nude and Jupiter in the guise of the bull. The

Jacob (Jacques) Jordaens (19 May 1593 – 18 October 1678) was a Flemish painter, draughtsman and tapestry designer known for his history paintings, genre scenes and portraits. After Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck, he was the leading Flemish Baroque painter of his day. Unlike those contemporaries he never travelled abroad to study Italian painting, and his career is marked by an indifference to their intellectual and courtly aspirations. In fact, except for a few short trips to locations in the Low Countries, he remained in Antwerp his entire life. As well as being a successful painter, he was a prominent designer of tapestries.

Jacob Jordaens, auch Jacob Jordaens der Ältere (* 19. Mai 1593 in Antwerpen; † 18. Oktober 1678 ebenda) war ein flämischer Maler des Barock. Sein Lehrmeister war Adam van Noort.


Motivation.

A general paradigm in group theory is that a group "G" should be studied via its group representations. A slight generalization of those representations are the "G"-modules: a "G"-module is an abelian group "M" together with a group action of "G" on "M", with every element of "G" acting as an automorphism of "M". We will write "G" multiplicatively and "M" additively.  Given such a "G"-module "M", it is natural to consider the submodule of "G"-invariant elements:  Now, if "N" is a "G"-submodule of "M" (i.e., a subgroup of "M" mapped to itself by the action of "G"), it isn't in general true that the invariants in formula_7 are found as the quotient of the invariants in "M" by those in "N": being invariant'modulo "N"'is broader. The purpose of the first group cohomology formula_8 is to precisely measure this difference.  The group cohomology functors formula_9 in general measure the extent to which taking invariants doesn't respect exact sequences. This is expressed by a long exact sequence.

Definitions.

The collection of all "G"-modules is a category (the morphisms are group homomorphisms "f" with the property formula_10 for all "g" in "G" and "x" in "M"). Sending each module "M" to the group of invariants formula_11 yields a functor from the category of "G"-modules to the category Ab of abelian groups. This functor is left exact but not necessarily right exact. We may therefore form its right derived functors. Their values are abelian groups and they are denoted by formula_2, "the "n"-th cohomology group of "G" with coefficients in "M"". Furthermore, the group formula_13 may be identified with formula_11.

Cochain complexes.

The definition using derived functors is conceptually very clear, but for concrete applications, the following computations, which some authors also use as a definition, are often helpful. For formula_15, let formula_16 be the group of all functions from formula_1 to "M" (here formula_18 means formula_19). This is an abelian group; its elements are called the (inhomogeneous) "n"-cochains. The coboundary homomorphisms  One may check that formula_21 so this defines a cochain complex whose cohomology can be computed. It can be shown that the above-mentioned definition of group cohomology in terms of derived functors is isomorphic to the cohomology of this complex  Here the groups of "n"-cocycles, and "n"-coboundaries, respectively, are defined as

The functors Ext and formal definition of group cohomology.

Interpreting "G"-modules as modules over the group ring formula_25 one can note that  i.e., the subgroup of "G"-invariant elements in "M" is identified with the group of homomorphisms from formula_3, which is treated as the trivial "G"-module (every element of "G" acts as the identity) to "M".  Therefore, as Ext functors are the derived functors of Hom, there is a natural isomorphism  These Ext groups can also be computed via a projective resolution of formula_3, the advantage being that such a resolution only depends on "G" and not on "M". We recall the definition of Ext more explicitly for this context. Let "F" be a projective formula_30-resolution (e.g. a free formula_30-resolution) of the trivial formula_30-module formula_3:  e.g., one may always take the resolution of group rings, formula_35 with morphisms  Recall that for formula_30-modules "N" and "M", Hom("N", "M") is an abelian group consisting of formula_30-homomorphisms from "N" to "M". Since formula_39 is a contravariant functor and reverses the arrows, applying formula_39 to "F" termwise and dropping formula_41 produces a cochain complex formula_42:  The cohomology groups formula_44 of "G" with coefficients in the module "M" are defined as the cohomology of the above cochain complex:  This construction initially leads to a coboundary operator that acts on the "homogeneous" cochains. These are the elements of formula_46, that is, functions formula_47 that obey  The coboundary operator formula_49 is now naturally defined by, for example,  The relation to the coboundary operator "d" that was defined in the previous section, and which acts on the "inhomogeneous" cochains formula_51, is given by reparameterizing so that  and so on. Thus  as in the preceding section.

Group homology.

Dually to the construction of group cohomology there is the following definition of group homology: given a "G"-module "M", set "DM" to be the submodule generated by elements of the form "g"·"m" − "m", "g" ∈ "G", "m" ∈ "M". Assigning to "M" its so-called "coinvariants", the quotient  is a right exact functor. Its left derived functors are by definition the group homology  The covariant functor which assigns "M" to "M" is isomorphic to the functor which sends "M" to formula_56 where formula_3 is endowed with the trivial "G"-action. Hence one also gets an expression for group homology in terms of the Tor functors,  Note that the superscript/subscript convention for cohomology/homology agrees with the convention for group invariants/coinvariants, while which is denoted "co-" switches:  Specifically, the homology groups "H"("G", "M") can be computed as follows. Start with a projective resolution "F" of the trivial formula_30-module formula_60 as in the previous section. Apply the covariant functor formula_61 to "F" termwise to get a chain complex formula_62:  Then "H"("G", "M") are the homology groups of this chain complex, formula_64 for "n" ≥ 0.  Group homology and cohomology can be treated uniformly for some groups, especially finite groups, in terms of complete resolutions and the Tate cohomology groups.  The group homology formula_65 of abelian groups "G" with values in a principal ideal domain "k" is closely related to the exterior algebra formula_66.

Low-dimensional cohomology groups.

"H".

The first cohomology group is the quotient of the so-called "crossed homomorphisms", i.e. maps (of sets) "f" : "G" → "M" satisfying "f"("ab") = "f"("a") + "af"("b") for all "a", "b" in "G", modulo the so-called "principal crossed homomorphisms", i.e. maps "f" : "G" → "M" given by "f"("a") = "am"−"m" for some fixed "m" ∈ "M". This follows from the definition of cochains above.  If the action of "G" on "M" is trivial, then the above boils down to "H"("G","M") = Hom("G", "M"), the group of group homomorphisms "G" → "M".  Consider the case of formula_67 where formula_68 denotes the non-trivial formula_69-structure on the group of integers. Then crossed homomorphisms constitute all maps formula_70 satisfying formula_71 and formula_72 for some integer "a". Principal crossed homomorphisms satisfy additionally formula_73 hence

"H".

If "M" is a trivial "G"-module (i.e. the action of "G" on "M" is trivial), the second cohomology group "H"("G","M") is in one-to-one correspondence with the set of central extensions of "G" by "M" (up to a natural equivalence relation). More generally, if the action of "G" on "M" is nontrivial, "H"("G","M") classifies the isomorphism classes of all extensions formula_75 of "G" by "M," in which the action of "G" on "E" (by inner automorphisms), endows (the image of) "M" with isomorphic "G"-module structure.  In the example as above, formula_76 as the only extension of formula_69 by formula_3 with the given nontrivial action is the infinite dihedral group.  An example of a second group cohomology group is the Brauer group: it is the cohomology of the absolute Galois group of a field "k" which acts on the invertible elements in a separable closure:

Properties.

In the following, let "M" be a "G"-module.

Long exact sequence of cohomology.

In practice, one often computes the cohomology groups using the following fact: if  is a short exact sequence of "G"-modules, then a long exact sequence is induced:  The so-called connecting homomorphisms,  can be described in terms of inhomogeneous cochains as follows. If formula_83 is represented by an "n"-cocycle formula_84 then formula_85 is represented by formula_86 where formula_87 is an "n"-cochain formula_88 "lifting" formula_89 (i.e. formula_89 is the composition of formula_87 with the surjective map "M" → "N").

Functoriality.

Group cohomology depends contravariantly on the group "G", in the following sense: if "f" : "H" → "G" is a group homomorphism, then we have a naturally induced morphism "H"("G", "M") → "H"("H", "M") (where in the latter, "M" is treated as an "H"-module via "f"). This map is called the "restriction map". If the index of "H" in "G" is finite, there is also a map in the opposite direction, called "transfer map",  In degree 0, it is given by the map  Given a morphism of "G"-modules "M" → "N", one gets a morphism of cohomology groups in the "H"("G", "M") → "H"("G", "N").

Products.

Similarly to other cohomology theories in topology and geometry, such as singular cohomology or de Rham cohomology, group cohomology enjoys a product structure: there is a natural map called "cup product":  for any two "G"-modules "M" and "N". This yields a graded anti-commutative ring structure on formula_95 where "R" is a ring such as formula_3 or formula_97 For a finite group "G", the even part of this cohomology ring in characteristic "p", formula_98 carries a lot of information about the group the structure of "G", for example the Krull dimension of this ring equals the maximal rank of an abelian subgroup formula_99.  For example, let "G" be the group with two elements, under the discrete topology. The real projective space formula_100 is a classifying space for "G". Let formula_101 the field of two elements. Then  a polynomial "k"-algebra on a single generator, since this is the cellular cohomology ring of formula_5

Künneth formula.

If, "M" = "k" is a field, then "H*"("G"; "k") is a graded "k"-algebra and the cohomology of a product of groups is related to the ones of the individual groups by a Künneth formula:  For example, if "G" is an elementary abelian 2-group of rank "r", and formula_101 then the Künneth formula shows that the cohomology of "G" is a polynomial "k"-algebra generated by "r" classes in "H"("G"; "k").,

Homology vs. cohomology.

As for other cohomology theories, such as singular cohomology, group cohomology and homology are related to one another by means of a short exact sequence  where "A" is endowed with the trivial "G"-action and the term at the left is the first Ext group.

Amalgamated products.

Given a group "A" which is the subgroup of two groups "G" and "G", the homology of the amalgamated product formula_108 (with integer coefficients) lies in a long exact sequence  The homology of formula_110 can be computed using this:  This exact sequence can also be applied to show that the homology of the formula_112 and the special linear group formula_113 agree for an infinite field "k".

Change of group.

The Hochschild–Serre spectral sequence relates the cohomology of a normal subgroup "N" of "G" and the quotient "G/N" to the cohomology of the group "G" (for (pro-)finite groups "G"). From it, one gets the inflation-restriction exact sequence.

Cohomology of the classifying space.

Group cohomology is closely related to topological cohomology theories such as sheaf cohomology, by means of an isomorphism  The expression "BG" at the left is a classifying space for "G". It is an Eilenberg–MacLane space K("G", 1), i.e., a space whose fundamental group is "G" and whose higher homotopy groups vanish). Classifying spaces for formula_115 and formula_116 are the 1-sphere S, infinite real projective space formula_117 and lens spaces, respectively. In general, "BG" can be constructed as the quotient "EG"/"G", where "EG" is a contractible space on which "G" acts freely. However, "BG" does not usually have an easily amenable geometric description.  More generally, one can attach to any "G"-module "M" a local coefficient system on "BG" and the above isomorphism generalizes to an isomorphism

Cohomology of finite groups.

Higher cohomology groups are torsion.

The cohomology groups "H"("G", "M") of finite groups "G" are all torsion for all "n"≥1. Indeed, by Maschke's theorem the category of representations of a finite group is semi-simple over any field of characteristic zero (or more generally, any field whose characteristic does not divide the order of the group), hence, viewing group cohomology as a derived functor in this abelian category, one obtains that it is zero. The other argument is that over a field of characteristic zero, the group algebra of a finite group is a direct sum of matrix algebras (possibly over division algebras which are extensions of the original field), while a matrix algebra is Morita equivalent to its base field and hence has trivial cohomology.  If the order of "G" is invertible in a "G"-module "M" (for example, if "M" is a formula_119-vector space), the transfer map can be used to show that formula_120 for formula_121 A typical application of this fact is as follows: the long exact cohomology sequence of the short exact sequence (where all three groups have a trivial "G"-action)  yields an isomorphism

Tate cohomology.

Tate cohomology groups combine both homology and cohomology of a finite group "G":  where formula_125 is induced by the norm map:  Tate cohomology enjoys similar features, such as long exact sequences, product structures. An important application is in class field theory, see class formation.  Tate cohomology of finite cyclic groups, formula_127 is 2-periodic in the sense that there are isomorphisms  A necessary and sufficient criterion for a "d"-periodic cohomology is that the only abelian subgroups of "G" are cyclic. For example, any semi-direct product formula_129 has this property for coprime integers "n" and "m".

Applications.

Algebraic K-theory and homology of linear groups.

Algebraic K-theory is closely related to group cohomology: in Quillen's +-construction of K-theory, "K"-theory of a ring "R" is defined as the homotopy groups of a space formula_130 Here formula_131 is the infinite general linear group. The space formula_132 has the same homology as formula_133 "i.e.", the group homology of GL("R"). In some cases, "stability" results assert that the sequence of cohomology groups  becomes stationary for large enough "n", hence reducing the computation of the cohomology of the infinite general linear group to the one of some formula_135. Such results have been established when "R" is a field or for rings of integers in a number field.  The phenomenon that group homology of a series of groups formula_136 stabilizes is referred to as homological stability. In addition to the case formula_137 just mentioned, this applies to various other groups such as symmetric groups or mapping class groups.

Projective representations and group extensions.

In quantum mechanics we often have systems with a symmetry group formula_138 We expect an action of formula_139 on the Hilbert space formula_140 by unitary matrices formula_141 We might expect formula_142 but the rules of quantum mechanics only require  where formula_144 is a phase. This projective representation of formula_139 can also be thought of as a conventional representation of a group extension formula_146 of formula_139 by formula_148 as described by the exact sequence  Requiring associativity  leads to  which we recognise as the statement that formula_152 i.e. that formula_153 is a cocycle taking values in formula_154 We can ask whether we can eliminate the phases by redefining  which changes  This we recognise as shifting formula_153 by a coboundary formula_158 The distinct projective representations are therefore classified by formula_159 Note that if we allow the phases themselves to be acted on by the group (for example, time reversal would complex-conjugate the phase), then the first term in each of the coboundary operations will have a formula_160 acting on it as in the general definitions of coboundary in the previous sections. For example, formula_161

Extensions.

Cohomology of topological groups.

Given a topological group "G", i.e., a group equipped with a topology such that product and inverse are continuous maps, it is natural to consider continuous "G"-modules, i.e., requiring that the action  is a continuous map. For such modules, one can again consider the derived functor of formula_163. A special case occurring in algebra and number theory is when "G" is profinite, for example the absolute Galois group of a field. The resulting cohomology is called Galois cohomology.

Non-abelian group cohomology.

Using the "G"-invariants and the 1-cochains, one can construct the zeroth and first group cohomology for a group "G" with coefficients in a non-abelian group. Specifically, a "G"-group is a (not necessarily abelian) group "A" together with an action by "G".  The "zeroth cohomology of G with coefficients in A" is defined to be the subgroup  of elements of "A" fixed by "G".  The "first cohomology of G with coefficients in A" is defined as 1-cocycles modulo an equivalence relation instead of by 1-coboundaries. The condition for a map formula_165 to be a 1-cocycle is that formula_166 and formula_167 if there is an "a" in "A" such that formula_168. In general, formula_169 is not a group when "A" is non-abelian. It instead has the structure of a pointed set – exactly the same situation arises in the 0th homotopy group, formula_170 which for a general topological space is not a group but a pointed set. Note that a group is in particular a pointed set, with the identity element as distinguished point.  Using explicit calculations, one still obtains a "truncated" long exact sequence in cohomology. Specifically, let  be a short exact sequence of "G"-groups, then there is an exact sequence of pointed sets

History and relation to other fields.

The low-dimensional cohomology of a group was classically studied in other guises, well before the notion of group cohomology was formulated in 1943–45. The first theorem of the subject can be identified as Hilbert's Theorem 90 in 1897; this was recast into "Emmy Noether's equations" in Galois theory (an appearance of cocycles for formula_173). The idea of "factor sets" for the extension problem for groups (connected with formula_174) arose in the work of Otto Hölder (1893), in Issai Schur's 1904 study of projective representations, in Otto Schreier's 1926 treatment, and in Richard Brauer's 1928 study of simple algebras and the Brauer group. A fuller discussion of this history may be found in.  In 1941, while studying formula_175 (which plays a special role in groups), Heinz Hopf discovered what is now called Hopf's integral homology formula, which is identical to Schur's formula for the Schur multiplier of a finite, finitely presented group:  where formula_177 and "F" is a free group.  Hopf's result led to the independent discovery of group cohomology by several groups in 1943-45: Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the United States ; Hopf and Beno Eckmann in Switzerland; and Hans Freudenthal in the Netherlands. The situation was chaotic because communication between these countries was difficult during World War II.  From a topological point of view, the homology and cohomology of G was first defined as the homology and cohomology of a model for the topological classifying space "BG" as discussed above. In practice, this meant using topology to produce the chain complexes used in formal algebraic definitions. From a module-theoretic point of view this was integrated into the Cartan–Eilenberg theory of homological algebra in the early 1950s.  The application in algebraic number theory to class field theory provided theorems valid for general Galois extensions (not just abelian extensions). The cohomological part of class field theory was axiomatized as the theory of class formations. In turn, this led to the notion of Galois cohomology and étale cohomology (which builds on it). Some refinements in the theory post-1960 have been made, such as continuous cocycles and John Tate's redefinition, but the basic outlines remain the same. This is a large field, and now basic in the theories of algebraic groups.  The analogous theory for Lie algebras, called Lie algebra cohomology, was first developed in the late 1940s, by Claude Chevalley and Eilenberg, and Jean-Louis Koszul. It is formally similar, using the corresponding definition of "invariant" for the action of a Lie algebra. It is much applied in representation theory, and is closely connected with the BRST quantization of theoretical physics.  Group cohomology theory also has a direct application in condensed matter physics. Just like group theory being the mathematical foundation of spontaneous symmetry breaking phases, group cohomology theory is the mathematical foundation of a class of quantum states of matter—short-range entangled states with symmetry. Short-range entangled states with symmetry are also known as symmetry-protected topological states.

In mathematics (more specifically, in homological algebra), group cohomology is a set of mathematical tools used to study groups using cohomology theory, a technique from algebraic topology. Analogous to group representations, group cohomology looks at the group actions of a group "G" in an associated "G"-module "M" to elucidate the properties of the group. By treating the "G"-module as a kind of topological space with elements of formula_1 representing "n"-simplices, topological properties of the space may be computed, such as the set of cohomology groups formula_2. The cohomology groups in turn provide insight into the structure of the group "G" and "G"-module "M" themselves. Group cohomology plays a role in the investigation of fixed points of a group action in a module or space and the quotient module or space with respect to a group action. Group cohomology is used in the fields of abstract algebra, homological algebra, algebraic topology and algebraic number theory, as well as in applications to group theory proper. As in algebraic topology, there is a dual theory called "group homology". The techniques of group cohomology can also be extended to the case that instead of a "G"-module, "G" acts on a nonabelian "G"-group; in effect, a generalization of a module to non-Abelian coefficients.

Gruppenkohomologie ist ein technisches Werkzeug der Mathematik, das ursprünglich der Untersuchung von Gruppen diente, später aber auch insbesondere in der Topologie und Zahlentheorie Anwendungen fand. Die Gruppenkohomologie von Galoisgruppen wird auch als Galoiskohomologie bezeichnet und spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Zahlentheorie. In der Topologie spielt Gruppenkohomologie als Kohomologie von Eilenberg-MacLane-Räumen eine wichtige Rolle.


Name.

Joseph Stalin coined the name "СМЕРШ" ('SMERSH') as a portmanteau of the Russian-language phrase "Смерть шпионам" (SMERt' SHpionam, "Death to Spies"). Originally focused on combating German spies infiltrating the Russian military, the organization quickly expanded its mandate: to find and eliminate any subversive elements—hence Stalin's inclusive name for it.

History.

On 3 February 1941, the 4th Department (Special Section, OO) of GUGB NKVD security service responsible for the Soviet Armed Forces military counter-intelligence, consisting of 12 Sections and one Investigation Unit, was separated from GUGB NKVD. The official liquidation of OO GUGB within NKVD was announced on 12 February by a joint order No 00151/003 of NKVD and NKGB USSR. The rest of GUGB was abolished and staff was moved to newly created People's Commissariat for State Security (NKGB). Departments of former GUGB were renamed Directorates. For example, former Foreign Department (INO) became Foreign Directorate (INU); political police represented by Secret Political Department (SPO) became Secret Political Directorate (SPU), and so on. The former GUGB 4th Department (OO) was split into three sections. One section, which handled military counter-intelligence in NKVD troops (former 11th Section of GUGB 4th Department OO) became 3rd NKVD Department or OKR (Otdel KontrRazvedki), the chief of OKR NKVD was Aleksander Belyanov, Commissar State Security 3rd rank. On 25 February 1941, Viktor Abakumov became NKVD deputy Commissar in charge of supervising this and several other departments.  The second and most significant part went to the Defense Commissariat Soviet Armed Forces (the NKO) becoming its 3rd Directorate or (3 Upravlenie). The 3rd NKO Directorate took over most of the 4th GUGB Department Sections and was headed by division commissar Anatolii Mikheev, the former and last OO GUGB NKVD chief. The third part of former OO (the 10 Section) became the Navy Commissariat (the Red Fleet) 3rd Directorate. The head of navy KI was Andrei Petrov, a state security captain.

Operation Barbarossa.

After the 22 June 1941 German invasion of the USSR, Stalin on 17 July, as Chairman of State Defense Committee, signed special decree No187 / ss, by which military counterintelligence was returned to the NKVD as a Directorate of Special Departments or UOO, with Viktor Abakumov as chief. UOO on every level was given much more power and a freer hand in decision making than at any time since the creation of Cheka. Also on 19 July, by the order of NKVD No00940, the UOO was moved from Moscow to the city of Kuibyshev. Navy 3rd Directorate was still under Navy control, till 11 January 1942 when it was incorporated into Directorate of Special Departments.  On 2 July 1941, NKGB USSR was incorporated back into the NKVD structure. NKGB did not return as GUGB, but as separate units. The NKVD structure organisation from 31 July 1941. shows that there are independent Directorates as in the 1st: foreign intelligence, 2nd: domestic KI, and so on. There is no GUGB within NKVD after its official liquidation in the beginning of February 1941.  After the situation on the Russian fronts (known as Eastern front) became more stable, on 14 April 1943, the State Defense Committee (GKO), chaired by Stalin, ordered another split of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD USSR) into three organisations: By decision of the Politburo of the CPSU [then VKP(b)] nr. P 40/91People's Commissariat for State Security or (NKGB) was created for the second time. It was based on NKVD's Directorates. The most important of them were: 1st INU (foreign intelligence), 2nd KRU (domestic counterespionage, fighting anti-Soviet organizations, protection of state economy, house searches, and arrests) NKVD 2nd Department (government and party officials protection) was transferred as NKGB 6th Directorate, NKVD Transportation Directorate was absorbed as NKGB 3rd Directorate and NKVD 4th Directorate was moved to NKGB with the same number. For detailed organization see NKGB. "Regulations of the People's Commissariat of State Security" were approved by SNK in order No 621-191ss from 2 June 1943. After losing most of the operational units to the NKGB, the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) was still a very powerful government apparatus. It was responsible for public order in USSR by using heavily armed police in each corner of the country, running the largest slave labour camps under the Gulag Directorate, POWs camps and NKVD troops with loyal and well-equipped soldiers, that by the end of the war the numbers of NKVD troops were 11⁄2 million strong with their own air force, armored and cavalry units.  Resolution No. 414-138 ss ordered the NKVD's Directorate of Special Departments to be split into three separate military counterintelligence units, within the NKO, Navy Commissariat and NKVD, respectively, as has been done in early 1941. The same order that created GUKR SMERSH within the NKO created a parallel organisation within the Navy Commissariat, the NKVMF. This organization was known as the Navy "UKR SMERSH" and headed by Peter Gladkov and his two deputies Aleksei Lebedev and Sergei Dukhovich. In reality, Gladkov reported to Abakumov, by then deputy Commissar of the NKO, and Stalin's deputy. Formally Gladkov was subordinate to his superior People's Commissar Nikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov, head of Navy.  OKR SMERSH (Counterintelligence Department) of the NKVD USSR was subordinate to Lavrentiy Beria, People's Commissar of Internal Affairs. The NKVD OKR SMERSH was headed by Semion Yukhimovich and later V. Smirnov.

Duties.

The GKO officially created SMERSH to ensure the Soviet Union's security from internal political threats and foreign espionage, although it carried out a wide variety of other tasks between 1943 and 1946 as well. SMERSH's counterintelligence operations included seeking and destroying counter revolutionaries, finding and interrogating enemy agents, hunting Soviet agents who had not returned by the appointed date, and evaluating the usefulness of captured enemy documents. SMERSH also took an active role in the affairs of the Red Army by ensuring the good quality of Red Army facilities, improving discipline, eliminating poor leaders, and preventing desertion, self-inflicted wounds, panic, sabotage and poor discipline. Other SMERSH activities included: exposing collaborators in areas recently captured by the Red Army; exposing and punishing economic crimes such as black market activity; protecting secret material and headquarters from enemy agents and saboteurs; and determining the "patriotism" of those captured, encircled, and those who had returned from foreign countries. SMERSH operatives also controlled partisan operations behind German lines and evaluated the partisans' loyalty to the Soviet Union. SMERSH would then arrest and neutralise anti-Soviet partisans, saboteurs, spies, conspirators, mutineers, deserters, and people designated as traitors and criminal elements at the combat front. The strategic directorate focused on counter-espionage wet operations and counter-insurgency pacification operations that answered directly to Stalin. In March 1946, SMERSH Chief Directorate was resubordinated to the People's Commissariat of Military Forces (Наркомат Вооруженных Сил, NKVS). The NKVS was later reorganized into the Ministry of Military Forces (МVS) soon thereafter, and SMERSH was officially discontinued 4 May 1946.

Other activities.

SMERSH activities included "filtering" the soldiers and forced labourers recovered from captivity. SMERSH was actively involved in the capture of Soviet citizens who had been active in anti-communist armed groups fighting on the side of Nazi Germany such as the Russian Liberation Army, the Cossack Corps of Pyotr Krasnov, and the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists.  As the war concluded, SMERSH was given the assignment of finding Adolf Hitler and, if possible, capturing him alive or recovering his body. Red Army officers and SMERSH agents found Hitler's partially burned corpse near the Führerbunker after his suicide and conducted an investigation to confirm the events of his death and identify the remains that (along with those of Eva Braun) were reportedly secretly buried at SMERSH headquarters in Magdeburg until April 1970, when they were exhumed, completely cremated, and dumped.  SMERSH fought the Armia Krajowa and post-war organisations participating e.g. in the Augustów roundup.

Organization.

A separate attachment to GKO decision No. 3222-ss/ov detailed the organisation of SMERSH and its branches in the Army:  At the end of the Second World War, American forces examining captured German intelligence sources determined that SMERSH was composed of six directorates, six departments, and three other branches. Directorates conducted operations involving agents on the "frontline" of the intelligence war whereas departments received and interpreted the information coming in from agents and enemy intercepts. SMERSH also ran three other groups; the Komendatura, which guarded and managed SMERSH installations and prisoners; the Troika, which acted as a military court and could administer punishment without defense from the accused; and the Administrative Bureau and Secretariat, which acted as the personal staff of the SMERSH commander.  Below is the organization of SMERSH based on German Intelligence. The second Chart shows another way SMERSH may have been organized.

UKR SMERSH units at the front.

GUKR SMERSH directed the work of field directorates, assigned to the fronts. These field organs were referred to as UKR SMERSH (Upravlenie Kontrrazvedki) or Counterintelligence Directorates. The naming distinguished them from the GUKR (HQ) SMERSH headquarters. The difference between GUKR and UKR or OKR was in the status hierarchy in the Red Army Military CI (the same structures were applied in February 1941 to NKO, NKMF and NKVD military counterintelligence units). They were ranked according to their authority. In the case of SMERSH the system of organization was: Main (or Chief) Directorate or "GUKR SMERSH", Directorate of Counterintelligence or "UKR SMERSH", and Department of Counterintelligence or "OKR SMERSH".  GUKR in Moscow consisted of 11 operational and 3 non-operational departments, a total of 646 men. For comparison, GUKR SMERSH's predecessor, UOO NKVD Directorate of Special Departments within the NKVD () consisted of 225 men in 1942. Not all departments corresponded to their UOO NKVD predecessors. With the new focus on the Germans and other enemies, two departments, the 3rd and 4th, transferred from the NKVD/NKGB.  The 3rd Department had the task of capturing German spies in the rear and organizing "radio games" with their help, and the 4th Department headed counter-intelligence measures behind the front line. Five of the departments, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 6th. were involved directly in investigation.  The UKR SMERSH (Counterintelligence Directorate) of the front, directed the OKRs Counterintelligence Departments (Otdiel Kontrrazvedki) within the armies and units. There SMERSH officers were attached to each rifle corps. The OKR at the division level consisted of 21 men, including a head, his deputy, a ciphering officer, investigators, commandant, and a platoon of guards. The OKR of each army included 57 men, while the size of the front UKR depended on how many armies composed the front. If the front consisted of five armies, its UKR included 130 officers, if there were fewer armies, the UKR had 112 officers.  Military Districts had a different structure. For example, the Moscow Military District, the biggest one at the time, had between 109 and 193 officers; they went through special training for filtering POWs. SMERSH units at the fronts were supported by NKVD internal troops for guarding prisoners, for operational work UKR and OKR SMERSH units were supported by regular Red Army servicemen. SMERSH front directorates were provided with a battalion, SMERSH army departments with a company, and SMERSH departments at the regiment, division, or brigade level, a platoon.  Fronts Commanders and UKR commanding heads

Methods.

In its counter-espionage and counter-intelligence roles, SMERSH appears to have been extremely successful throughout World War II. SMERSH actions resulted in numerous captures, desertions, and defections of German intelligence officers and agents, some of whom SMERSH turned into double agents. Indeed, the Germans began to consider missions where their losses were less than ninety percent "satisfactory". According to German sources, the Soviets rendered approximately 39,500 German agents useless by the end of the war.  SMERSH utilized a number of different counterintelligence tactics: informants, security troops, radio games, and the passing of disinformation, ensuring both the reliability of the military and the civilian population. SMERSH set up a system of informants by sending a SMERSH officer to each battalion composed of between 1,000 and 1,500 men. Each SMERSH officer would enlist a number of "residents" who recruited their own "reserve resident" and between six and eight informants. Informants reported those sympathetic to the Germans, desertion, unpatriotic attitudes, and low morale and were authorized to take "immediate corrective action" if the need arose. SMERSH recruited between 1,540,000 and 3,400,000 informants, or about twelve percent of the entire Red Army. However, SMERSH coerced up to half of all of its informants to work for them.  In order to secure the Red Army's rear, SMERSH evacuated civilians and set up checkpoints so as to assert physical control. Next, agents sought and arrested "suspicious persons" who might be German agents. Finally, SMERSH interrogated those arrested.  Compared to its predecessor (Directorate of Special Departments – UOO), Smersh was mostly focused on enemies spies, although Red Army servicemen were still under suspicion. Abakumov kept Stalin updated on all high-ranking commanders, and on the behavior of a number of leading military officers.  THE SYSTEM OF ARRESTS, GKO decision No. 3222-ss/ov  To confuse German intelligence with disinformation, SMERSH utilized radio playbacks and played over 183 radio games over the course of the war. Operation "Opyt'" serves as a good example of the effectiveness of these radio games. Between May and June 1943, SMERSH used three German agents to spread disinformation about the Kursk counteroffensive by suggesting the Red Army had begun to dig in rather than prepare for an attack, thus contributing to the success of the Red Army's surprise attack. Before Operation Bagration, the largest Allied operation of the Second World War, SMERSH caught and "doubled" a number of German agents who tricked the German military into underestimating the number of Soviet troops by 1.2 million men.  SMERSH played a major role in creating and controlling partisan operations behind German lines. After capturing German-held territory and reuniting with the Red Army, SMERSH interviewed partisans in order to determine the partisans' loyalty to the regime.

SMERSH () was an umbrella organization for three independent counter-intelligence agencies in the Red Army formed in late 1942 or even earlier, but officially announced only on 14 April 1943. The name SMERSH was coined by Joseph Stalin. The main reason for its creation was to subvert the attempts by German forces to infiltrate the Red Army on the Eastern Front.

SMERSch (von "SMERt Schpionam", wiss. transliteriert: SMERŠ; ist ein Akronym aus „Smert' Špionam!“ für „Tod den Spionen“) war ein militärischer Nachrichtendienst der Sowjetunion zur Zeit des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Er diente vornehmlich der Spionageabwehr, um „Verräter, Deserteure, Spione und kriminelle Elemente“ dingfest zu machen, richtete sich aber nicht etwa nur gegen Agenten der deutschen Abwehr. So wurden grundsätzlich auch kriegsgefangene sowjetische Soldaten, die in ihr Heimatland fliehen konnten, als Verräter und Deserteure angesehen und entsprechend geprüft und öfter verfolgt. Ferner waren Vertreter der Spionageabwehr SMERŠ Teil der Überprüfungs- und Filtrationskommissionen, die nach dem Ende der Kampfhandlungen des Zweiten Weltkriegs die in die Sowjetunion zurückkehrenden Kriegsgefangene und Ostarbeiter überprüfen sollten.


Cards.

Lansquenet is played with an Italian pack of 40 cards.

Game play.

The dealer or banker stakes a certain sum, and this must be met by the nearest to the dealer first, and so on. When the stake is met, the dealer turns up one card and lays it to his right, for the table or the players, and another card in front of himself for the bank. He then keeps on turning up cards (while keeping the first two cards visible), until a card turns up with a value matching either of the first two cards. For instance, if the five of diamonds has been laid down for the bank, then any other five, regardless of suit, constitutes a win for the banker. If the table's card is matched first, he loses, and the next player on the left becomes banker and proceeds in the same way.  When the dealer's card turns up, he may take the stake and pass the bank; or he may allow the stake to remain, whereupon it becomes doubled if met. He can continue thus as long as the cards turn up in his favour – having the option at any moment of giving up the bank and retiring for that time. If he does that, the player to whom he passes the bank has the option of continuing it at the same amount at which it was left. The pool may be made up by contributions of all the players in certain proportions. The terms used respecting the standing of the stake are "I'll see" ("à moi le tout") and "Je tiens". When "jumelle" (twins), or the turning up of similar cards on both sides, occurs, then the dealer takes half the stake.  Robert-Houdin explained a mechanism by which a card sharp could cheat at lansquenet, by palming and then placing atop the deck a packet of cards in prepared order.

Cultural references.

Lansquenet is played by Porthos in the Alexandre Dumas novel "The Three Musketeers".  Lansquenet is played by D'Artagnan in the Alexandre Dumas novel "Twenty Years After".  Lucien Debray imagines Baroness Danglers might occupy herself with lansquenet in the Alexandre Dumas novel "The Count of Monte Cristo".  Lansquenet is played by various characters in the Pierre Choderlos de Laclos novel "Les Liaisons dangereuses".  A game in "Le financier et le savetier" (1856) by Offenbach enables the cobbler to win the hand of the financier's daughter.  Mentioned briefly in the novel "A Rebours" by Joris-Karl Huysmans.  Mentioned briefly in the novel "The General in his Labyrinth" by Gabriel García Márquez.  Lansquenet is played by two soldiers on a stone bench under an enclosed poplar as mentioned in Kinbote's note to line 130 in "Pale Fire" by Vladimir Nabokov.  Lansquenet is played by Fatima and her family in Charles Perrault's Bluebeard.  "Lansquenet-sous-Tannes" is a fictional village in Joanne Harris' novel "Chocolat"  Mentioned briefly in the novel "After the Funeral" by Agatha Christie as a disliked absentee husband.  Lansquenet is mentioned in "The Prague Cemetery" by Umberto Eco.  The game is mentioned in several of Georgette Heyer's historical novels. For example, in Chapter Thirteen of "The Masqueraders".  Lansquenet is played in the novel "The Luck of Barry Lyndon" by William Makepeace Thackeray.

Lansquenet is a card game, named after the French spelling of the German word Landsknecht ('servant of the land or country'), which refers to 15th- and 16th-century German mercenary foot soldiers; The lansquenet drum is a type of field drum used by these soldiers.

Landsknecht oder fr. korrumpiert Lansquenet ist ein Karten-Glücksspiel, das zur Zeit des Dreißigjährigen Krieges (1618–48) entstand. Der Name leitet sich von den Landsknechten ab, unter denen das Glücksspiel sehr verbreitet war. "Landsknecht" ist wohl als Vorläufer des Pharo anzusehen.