Plot.

John Beckwith and Jeremy Grey are Washington D.C. divorce mediators who crash weddings to meet and have sex with women. At the end of a season of successful crashes, Jeremy takes John to a wedding for the daughter of the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, William Cleary. Once inside, the pair set their sights on Cleary's other daughters, Gloria and Claire. Jeremy ends up having sex with Gloria on a nearby beach during the reception. Gloria is possessive and quickly becomes obsessed with Jeremy, and Jeremy urges John to escape the reception with him. Meanwhile, John attempts to court Claire, the maid of honor, but is interrupted by her hotheaded boyfriend, Sack Lodge, who is unfaithful and disrespectful behind her back. When Gloria invites Jeremy and John to an extended weekend party at their family compound, John overrules Jeremy to accept and get closer to Claire.  John and Jeremy become acquainted with the Clearys: the Secretary's wife sexually harasses John; Gloria's brother, Todd, tries to seduce Jeremy during the night; Gloria continues to lavish unwanted sexual attention on Jeremy; and Sack repeatedly injures Jeremy during a game of touch football. At dinner, John spikes Sack's wine with eye-drops to make him sick and get more time to connect with Claire.  John and Claire continue to bond the next day on a sailing trip. The suspicious Sack takes the men on a hunting trip and pranks them, resulting in Jeremy getting shot in the buttocks. While Jeremy recovers, John and Claire go on a bike ride to a secluded beach. Claire finally admits she is not sure how she feels about Sack and ends up kissing John passionately. Meanwhile, Gloria tends Jeremy's wounds and reveals to him she is not as inexperienced as she initially let on. Jeremy realizes that he himself has been played and that he may be in love with Gloria.  While John is confessing his attraction to Claire, they are interrupted by Jeremy being chased out of the house. Sack has investigated (and then exposes) John and Jeremy's identities to the family. Betrayed, Claire turns on John and the Secretary tells them to leave.  Over the following months, John attempts to reach Claire but she refuses to see him. He attempts to sneak into her and Sack's engagement party, but is caught and beaten by Sack. Confronting Jeremy about abandoning him, he learns that Jeremy has secretly continued his relationship with Gloria. Betrayed and brokenhearted, John spirals into depression, crashing weddings alone and becoming nihilistic. Meanwhile, as Claire and Sack plan their wedding, Claire's doubts grow. Jeremy proposes to Gloria and tries to ask John to be his best man, but John turns him away.  John visits Jeremy's former wedding crashing mentor, Chazz Reinhold, who convinces John to crash a funeral with him. At the funeral, John reconsiders his belief in love and marriage after seeing the grieving widow. He rushes to Jeremy's wedding and joins the wedding mid-ceremony to Jeremy's delight. But, Claire is upset by his appearance, prompting John to express regret for his past behavior and profess his love for her in front of the congregation. Sack interrupts, but Claire finally tells him that she cannot marry him. Sack tries to attack John, but Jeremy intervenes and knocks him out, and John and Claire kiss. After the wedding, the two couples drive away from the ceremony together and discuss crashing another wedding together.

Cast.

Arizona Senator and 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain and Democratic strategist and CNN contributor James Carville both make a brief cameo appearance, they are shown congratulating the secretary and his wife on their daughter's wedding. McCain was criticized for his appearance in the film, having previously called out Hollywood for marketing R-Rated films to teenagers.

Production.

Andrew Panay, co-producer of "Wedding Crashers", had the idea for the film based on his own experience as a wedding crasher in his youth. Panay then consulted the screenwriting team of Steve Faber and Bob Fisher to come up with a story based on this premise. The screenwriters had doubts it could be sustained into a feature-length film, so they decided to add female love interests born from a political family, inspired by their dream of marrying a girl from the Kennedy family when they were youngsters. It was also Panay's desire "to explore male friendship through this crazy idea of crashing weddings."  Director David Dobkin said they had discussed the possibility of releasing a version of the film that was not R-rated, but the idea was abandoned after a consultant provided a long list of the many R-Rated elements in the film, and Dobkin realized "The two funniest scenes in the movie would have had to go."  Dobkin insisted on three and a half weeks of rehearsals before filming began, based on his background working in theater.

Filming.

Principal photography began on March 22, 2004, in Washington, D.C. The movie had a 52-day shooting schedule.  The main Cleary wedding reception scene was filmed at the Inn at Perry Cabin in Saint Michaels, Maryland. Ellenborough Estate in Easton, MD is the setting of the Cleary family house, where most of the movie takes place.

Release.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 75% based on 187 reviews, with an average rating of 6.72/10. The website's critical consensus states, ""Wedding Crashers" is both raunchy and sweet, and features top-notch comic performances from Vince Vaughn and Owen Wilson." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 64 out of 100 based on reviews from 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A-.  Carina Chocano of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote a favorable review, and in particular praised Vaughan's performance: "Jeremy is the soul of the movie. There's something about Vaughn — the deadpan eyes; the sublimated, misdirected intelligence — that recalls Bill Murray in his "Caddyshack" years." Chocano was critical of Will Ferrell's "hyper-active bonehead routine" and called the interlude awful. She added that the film was "really just a love story about a couple of buddies who live happily ever after. And it couldn't have happened to a nicer, more charming couple". Manohla Dargis of the "New York Times" wrote, "It's crude, yes, but also funny; too bad these lost boys can't stay lost. Like clockwork, the film soon mutates from a guy-oriented sex comedy into a wish-fulfillment chick flick". Brian Lowry of "Variety" described the film as "fairly amusing, fitfully over the top and [...] occasionally a touch homophobic". He praised McAdams as she manages to "fill in narrative gaps and actually creates a real character", said Vaughan's dialog had most of the comedic highlights, and wrote that Walken was underused. Lowry concluded, "While neither a full-throated R-rated romp a la "There's Something About Mary" nor a fully realized romantic comedy, "Wedding Crashers" contains enough appealing elements of both to catch the bouquet in what's been a relatively humor-deprived summer.  Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two stars out of four; although he wrote that "there are individual moments that are very funny", he added that the director, David Dobkin, "has too much else on his mind". British Movie magazine "Empire" awarded it three out of five stars and were complimentary to Vaughn and Wilson, saying "Sharing an easy chemistry and free of the usual joker/straight-guy dynamic, Wilson and Vaughn quip, riff and banter to hilarious effect. And both get their fair share of money moments, the latter’s muggings are particularly hysterical in a raunchy dinner-party sequence. The laidback stars are funny and sweet, but they’re let down by a patchy script which squanders some potentially priceless set-ups." Kimberley Jones of "The Austin Chronicle" wrote that the film "will no doubt make buckets of money, but it’ll do so without half the wit, compassion, or inspired madness of Mary". Jones complained that the plot was "mostly cookie-cutter stuff", and was offended by the portrayal of minorities, writing "gays and blacks are represented, respectively, by a squirrelly psychotic and a Jamaican house servant". Jones concluded, "A stiff drink or maybe some pharmaceutical assistance might have made me overlook the film's sour tone, or the unremarkableness of its direction."  In a 2018 review, Scott Meslow of "GQ" reexamined the film, writing "the gender and sexual dynamics that have aged rather poorly, Wedding Crashers feels awfully uneven today." He noted a date-rape joke in the opening minutes, complained about the lack of developed female characters, objected to the sassy racist grandmother trope, called the predatory gay man trope "inexcusably unfunny", felt that the film trivializes rape, and called Will Ferrell's cameo lazy. Meslow conceded that "For all its faults, it does have an extremely strong pair of leads", but ultimately concluded that the film does not hold up.

Box office.

The film was released in North America on July 15, 2005, and became an immediate hit, grossing $33,900,720 in its first weekend, opening at #2 in the box office, behind "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory". Exit polling indicated that 60% of audiences were over 25 years old, and almost evenly split between men and women. Considering its budget of $40 million and competition with heavily advertised blockbusters during the summer season, and the R-Rating limiting their potential audience, the studio did not expect the movie's level of success. New Line head of distribution, David Tuckerman said "We would have been happy with $25 million this weekend." The film eventually grossed over $209,255,921 domestically, narrowly outgrossing "Charlie". It grossed $75,920,820 in other territories, totaling $285,176,741 worldwide.

Accolades.

On April 24, 2006, "Wedding Crashers" topped the nominations for the year's MTV Movie Awards with five including Best Movie. It won Best Movie, On-Screen Team (Vaughn and Wilson), and Breakthrough Performance (Isla Fisher). The financial success of the film has been credited along with "The 40-Year-Old Virgin" for reviving the popularity of adult-aimed R-rated comedies.  Bradley Cooper was mentioned in the August 2006 issue of "GQ" as one of "The Top Twelve Movie Dicks".

Home media.

The DVD was released in the United States on January 3, 2006, and a Blu-ray was released on December 30, 2008. It is available in an unrated version ("Uncorked Edition") and in an R-rated version (the Blu-ray has both versions on one disc). It features eight new minutes integrated into the film and DVD-ROM bonuses. Also included are two audio commentaries (one by the stars, one by the director), four deleted scenes, two featurettes, a "Rules of Wedding Crashing" text gallery, trailers, Budweiser "Wedding Crashers" commercials, a track listing for the official soundtrack on 20th Century Fox Records, a music video by The Sights, and a jump-to-a-song sample feature. The film earned an estimated $145 million from home media sales.

In other media.

The music video for the 2014 Maroon 5 song "Sugar" showed the band crashing real-life weddings, inspired by "Wedding Crashers"; it was directed by David Dobkin.

Television version.

The creators of the film made a reality TV version, called "The Real Wedding Crashers" and shown on NBC in April and May 2007. NBC only showed four episodes.

Discussed sequel.

In a 2014 post on the website Quora, "Wedding Crashers" director David Dobkin said that he, Vaughn and Wilson once came up with an idea for a sequel in which John and Jeremy find themselves competing with a superior wedding crasher, played by Daniel Craig; but that this idea never went beyond the discussion phase.  The 2013 film "The Internship", which also starred Vaughn and Wilson, was described by critic A.A. Dowd as an unofficial sequel to "Wedding Crashers".  In a November 2016 interview, Fisher stated that Vaughn had told her that there were ongoing talks about a sequel.

Wedding Crashers is a 2005 American romantic comedy film directed by David Dobkin, written by Steve Faber and Bob Fisher, and starring Owen Wilson, Vince Vaughn, Christopher Walken, Rachel McAdams, Isla Fisher, Bradley Cooper, and Jane Seymour. The film follows two divorce mediators (Wilson and Vaughn) who crash weddings in an attempt to meet and seduce bridesmaids.

Die Hochzeits-Crasher (Originaltitel "Wedding Crashers") ist eine Filmkomödie des Regisseurs David Dobkin aus dem Jahre 2005 mit Owen Wilson und Vince Vaughn.


History.

SpVgg Andernach.

"Spiel- und Sportverein Andernach" was established on 30 January 1910. Later that year "SuS" was joined by "Fußball-Club Preußen 1906 Andernach" – believed to be the city's first organized football club – and in 1911 by "Gymnasial Fußball Klub 1908 Andernach". The team captured its first city title in 1916. The club continued to grow through the 1920s, merging with "Sport Club Eintracht 1921 Andernach" in 1921 and with "FC Rhenania 1910 Andernach" on 13 September 1922 to become "Spiel- und Sportvereinigung 1867 Andernach".  In 1933 German football was reorganized under the Third Reich into 16 top flight regional divisions known as Gauligen. "SpVgg" finished atop the Bezirksliga Mittelrhein, Gruppe 5 in 1936 and then won a promotion playoff to advance to the Gauliga Mittelrhein, but spent only a single season there before being sent down after an 11th place finish. They had a successful Bezirksliga campaign in 1937–38, but failed in their attempt to return to Gauliga play when they finished second in the subsequent playoff round.  On 11 December 1938, "SpVgg" was joined by "Turnerbund 1867 Andernach" to become "SpVgg 1867 Andernach". They won their way back to first division play in 1939 and earned consecutive third place results in 1942 and 1943. However, they withdrew from play because they were unable to field a full side under wartime conditions.  Following the war occupying Allied authorities ordered the dissolution of most organizations in the country, including sports and football clubs. The former membership of "SpVgg" was reorganized as "Sportclub 1945 Andernach" on 14 September 1945 before resuming their pre-war identity on 26 July 1947. They became part of the Oberliga Südwest-Nord (I) in the 1947–48 season.  In March 1950 the club broke up into the pre-war sides "SpVgg 1910 Andernach" and "Turnerbund 1867 Andernach". "SpVgg" played one more season in the Oberliga before they were relegated to the 2nd Oberliga Südwest (II). They played second division football throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s with exception of a two-year turn back in the Oberliga in 1955–57. In 1961 they finished in 15th place and slipped into the Amateurliga Rheinland (III).  "SpVgg" fielded strong sides in the Amateurliga and captured titles there in 1971 and 1973. They were able to advance through the subsequent promotion round playoffs to the Regionalliga Südwest (II) only once, in 1971. Their 1971–72 Regionalliga campaign was a failure and after a 16th place finish they were returned to the Amateurliga where they most of the next three decades.  The footballers captured the Rheinland-Pokal (Rheinland Cup) in 1964 by beating "TuS Mayen" (3:2) and again in 1973 with a 2:0 victory over "VfB Wissen". In 1976 and 1977, "SpVgg" took part in the opening round of the DFB-Pokal (German Cup) tournament.

DJK Andernach.

Predecessor side "DJK" was established in 1920 as part of the Deutscher Jugend Kraft, a Catholic-sponsored sports association. In 1933, the Nazi regime banned clubs with religious affiliations, as well as left-leaning worker's clubs, as politically unpalatable. The club did not reappear until 1952. In 1971 they appended the name of their primary sponsor to name of the club to play as "DJK Boullo Andernach".

SG Andernach.

The new club, formed in 1999, played in the tier seven Bezirksliga Rheinland-Mitte after a championship in the Kreisliga A Rhein-Ahr in 2010–11, in which the club remained undefeated, until promoted to the Rheinlandliga in 2015.

Honours.

The club's honours:

SG Andernach is a German football club from the city of Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate. The club was formed in 1999 through the merger of the football departments of SpVgg Andernach, "BSV 1910 Andernach", and "DJK Boulla Andernach" based in the earlier association between these sides going back to 1992. "SpVgg" was the best known of these predecessor sides, having taken part in the first division play in the Gauliga Mittelrhein and Gauliga Moselland under the Third Reich and in the Fußball-Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saar after World War II.

Die Sportgemeinschaft Andernach 99 e.V. ist ein deutscher Fußballverein aus Andernach in Rheinland-Pfalz. Der Verein entstand am 15. April 1999 durch eine Fusion der Fußballvereine "BSV 1910 Andernach, Spvgg Andernach 1910" sowie der Fußballabteilung der "DJK Andernach." Die erste Frauenmannschaft stieg 2019 in die 2. Bundesliga auf. Die erste Männermannschaft stieg 2019 in die Rheinlandliga auf.


Liner Services.

OOCL offers around 78 weekly services around the world. Linking Asia, Europe, North America, the Mediterranean, the Indian sub-continent, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand.

Container Terminals.

OOCL affiliated companies own or operate dedicated container terminals in North America and Asia, namely: Long Beach Container Terminal in California and KAOCT in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

Information technology.

Beginning in 1993, the group adopted the Integrated Regional Information System (IRIS-2), specifically designed for the container shipping industry. IRIS-2 integrates the business processes of all OOCL offices, customers' shipments and financial information into one system. OOCL was a finalist for the Smithsonian Institution Award for Innovation in 1999 for its achievements with IRIS-2. The program is written in GemStone/S Smalltalk, making it one of the largest Smalltalk applications in the world.  On 24 April 2018, OOCL revealed that it had come to an agreement with Microsoft Research Asia (MSRA) to investigate the potential of Artificial Intelligence to improve network operations and efficiencies for the shipping industry.

Environmental Considerations.

OOCL was the first container shipping line to have achieved the Safety, Quality and Environmental (SQE) Management System certification (which consolidates the ISM-Code, ISO9001.2000 and ISO14001 requirements)  In 1992, five years in advance of the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty designed to protect the Earth's ozone layer, OOCL changed the design of its refrigerated container machinery in order to eliminate the use of CFCs.  OOCL maintained a 100 percent compliance with the Port of Long Beach Green Flag program in 2006 and 2007. OOCL donated its rebates, totaling US$140,000, back to community projects and charities in Long Beach. From 1 January 2006, OOCL stopped using pre-1989 trucks for all port moves between Southern Californian terminals and off-dock rail ramps, helping to reduce emissions as part of the Port's "Clean Truck Program" It also complies with the Qualship 21 program, which identifies quality operation of non-US-flagged vessels.  OOCL has a had a fuel saving program in place since 2001, to cut down on greenhouse gases. Initiatives to minimize fuel consumption include:  OOCL conducted a Shore Power Study (in 2003) and a Sea Water Scrubber Study (in 2005) in order to identify different ways to reduce emissions, both in port and at sea.

Community Responsibility.

The "Tung OOCL Scholarship" was set up in 1995 to support the continued education of young people. Currently, the Tung OOCL Scholarship comprises two programs: University Scholarship Program (China) and Employee's Children Scholarship Program. The University Scholarships have been established in six universities. They are Tsinghua University, Peking University, Fudan University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Zhejiang University and Nanjing University. Since the establishment of the scholarship more than 2,500 undergraduate and post-graduate students have been awarded scholarships with more than US$2.3 million in funding. Every year, a selection panel is set up in each university to shortlist potential candidates, based on academic results and performance, plus active participation in extracurricular activities. Based on the same selection criteria, the Employees' Children Scholarship is awarded annually to the children of employees in all OOCL offices.  OOCL also participates in many other types of community support. One of the major and on-going projects is Project HOPE (Health Opportunities for People Everywhere). OOCL is assisting with the transportation of the latest diagnostic medical equipment and supplies from the United States (donated by global corporations) to Shanghai Children's Hospital, China.  OOCL sponsors many musicals and shows visiting the Asia-Pacific region, including Cats, Phantom of the Opera, We Will Rock You, Swan Lake on Ice, Musical Moments and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang.

Security.

OOCL participates in The Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism program (C-TPAT), which is a voluntary government-business initiative to build cooperative relationships that strengthen and improve overall international supply chain and U.S. border security.  OOCL also complies with the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code). The ISPS Code states that, as threat increases, the only logical counteraction is to reduce vulnerability. Subsequently, ships will be subject to a system of survey, verification, certification, and control to ensure that their security measures are implemented. This system will be based on a considerably expanded control system as stipulated in the 1974 Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). The company also complies with the Container Security Initiative (CSI) and the US Customs 24-Hour Advance Cargo Manifest Declaration Rule.

OOCL Logistics.

OOCL Logistics Ltd. (OLL), the OOIL Group's international freight consolidation and logistics service unit, began in 1979. Services extend from basic freight consolidation services to the management and operation of more comprehensive programs involving multi-modal transportation, warehousing and distribution activities.

History.

OOCL was founded by C. Y. Tung in 1947 as the Orient Overseas Line. In 1969, OOL was the first Asian -based shipping line to transport containerized cargo across the Pacific. Consequently, the company was renamed Orient Overseas Container Line. In those days its Victory-class vessels could carry 300 TEU, a far cry from today's post-Panamax vessels. In April 2003, OOCL took delivery of the SX-Class "OOCL Shenzhen", then the largest containership ever built at 8,063 TEU. In 2006, it lost its title to the " Emma Mærsk". At its peak, OOCL had a fleet of over 150 freight ships, with a cargo capacity exceeding 10 million tons; it was one of the world's top seven shipping lines. At one stage it owned the "Seawise Giant", the largest ship ever built, having bought it from the shipyard when the previous owners refused delivery.  After C. Y. Tung's death in 1982, C. H. Tung, assumed the leadership of Orient Overseas (International) Limited (OOIL), OOCL's parent company for 14 years. In 1996, C. C. Tung took over at the helm on his brother C. H. Tung's election as Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.  In September 1970, Tung purchased the ocean liner to convert it into a floating university, to be known as "Seawise University", as part of the World Campus Afloat programme. On 9 January 1972, the ship caught fire during refurbishing and sank in Hong Kong's Victoria Harbour and the wreckage had to be scrapped three years later.  In 2003, OOCL lost one of its senior executives, Courtenay Allan, the company's Transatlantic Trade Director. Allen died after falling down a lift shaft on the "OOCL Montreal" in Le Havre.  In recent years, OOCL has taken over a number of well-known shipping lines. These include Furness Withy, Houlder Brothers, Manchester Liners, Shaw Savill, PSNC, Prince Line & the Alexander Shipping Company.  In 2015, OOCL ordered six of the largest container ships, holding up to 20,150 TEU each. The first of these, the OOCL Hong Kong, was christened on 12 May 2017. The ship became the world's first container ship to exceed 21,000 TEU mark and achieved a Guinness World Record.  In July 2017, the parent company, OOIL, received a US$6.3 billion take over bid from its Chinese rival, COSCO. The bid has been accepted subject to shareholder and regulatory approval.

Current Fleet.

The fleet consists of 59 vessels of 6 different classes. There are variations within each class.

Orient Overseas Container Line, commonly known as OOCL, is a Hong Kong container shipping and logistics service company. OOCL is a large integrated international container transportation, logistics and terminal company with offices in 70 countries. OOCL has 59 vessels of different classes, with capacity varying from to, including two ice-class vessels for extreme weather conditions.

Die Orient Overseas Container Line (OOCL) ist die Reederei der "Orient Overseas International Ltd." (OOIL) aus Hongkong, Volksrepublik China. Das börsennotierte Unternehmen (SEHK:0316) wurde 1947 in Shanghai von C.Y. Tung gegründet und gehört weltweit zu den größten Reedereien. OOCL bietet einen weltweiten Containertransport inklusive verschiedener Logistikdienstleistungen.


History.

The London, Tilbury and Southend Railway constructed a line from Barking to Pitsea through the Elm Park area in 1885, with stations at Dagenham and Hornchurch. The Whitechapel and Bow Railway opened in 1902 and allowed through services of the District Railway to operate to Upminster. The Metropolitan District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham. Delayed by World War I, electrified tracks were extended by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway to Upminster and through services resumed in 1932. The District Railway was incorporated into London Transport in 1933, and became known as the District line.  The station was opened in 1935. It opened with a passimeter for quick sale of tickets and in the off peak collection of tickets from one side and sale from the other. A ticket collectors position was provided with stable door, now a bin store. A ticket office was also provided to deal with parcels and also had the electrical fuses and switches. Now a shop, switch room, and computer room. The station had central heating supplied by a coal boiler under the booking hall, a coal chute from a street manhole was used to supply coal. The boiler was later converted to gas, all removed when the new ticket office was built opposite for the Underground ticket system.

Design.

The station is of similar design to Dagenham Heathway and Upney, but the station canopy is supported by one central pillar and the ramp to the ticket hall is much wider. The platforms are arranged on an island layout with station buildings typical of the 1930s. A long sloping walkway connects the platforms with the ticket hall which is on a road bridge over the line and above general street level.

Location.

The station is named after the mid-1930s planned community of Elm Park, in which it is situated. It is located on The Broadway in the London Borough of Havering. The immediate area is a busy, compact shopping district surrounded by extensive residential development to the north and south.

Services and connections.

The station is in London fare zone 6. The typical off-peak service from the station is twelve District line trains per hour to Upminster and twelve to Earl's Court, of which six continue to Ealing Broadway and six continue to Richmond. At peak periods the number of trains per hour increases to fifteen and some trains continue from Earl's Court to Wimbledon. Services towards central London operate from approximately 05:00 to 23:45 and services to Upminster operate from approximately 06:00 to 01:30. The journey time to Upminster is seven minutes; to Barking is approximately thirteen minutes, and to Tower Hill is approximately 38 minutes.  London Buses routes 165, 252, 365 and 372 serve the station, providing connections to Collier Row, Havering Park, Hornchurch, Lakeside Shopping Centre, Orchard Village, Rainham and Romford.

Elm Park is a London Underground station serving Elm Park in the London Borough of Havering, east London. It is on the District line between and. It is along the line from the eastern terminus at and to in central London where the line divides into numerous branches.

Elm Park ist eine oberirdische Station der London Underground im Stadtbezirk London Borough of Havering. Sie liegt in der Travelcard- Tarifzone 6 an der Andrews Avenue. Im Jahr 2014 nutzten 2,99 Millionen Fahrgäste diese von der District Line bediente Station.


Orbit and classification.

"Legia" is a Themistian asteroid that belongs to the Themis family (), a very large family of carbonaceous asteroids, named after 24 Themis. It is, however, a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population when applying the hierarchical clustering method to its proper orbital elements.  It orbits the Sun in the outer asteroid belt at a distance of 2.6–3.7 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,030 days; semi-major axis of 3.14 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.18 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.  The body's observation arc begins at Uccle in March 1933, five days after its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

"Legia" has been characterized as a primitive and reddish P-type asteroid by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE).

Rotation period.

In January 2005, a rotational lightcurve of "Legia" was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 8.693 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.13 magnitude ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's WISE telescope, "Legia" measures between 31.26 and 36.56 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.048 and 0.0719.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.0601 and a diameter of 31.20 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.2.

Naming.

This minor planet was named "Legia", the Latin name of the Belgian city of Liège (Luik). The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

1261 Legia, provisional designation, is a dark Themistian asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 32 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 23 March 1933, by astronomer Eugène Delporte at the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Uccle. The asteroid was named for the Belgian city of Liège (Luke).

(1261) Legia ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 23. März 1933 vom belgischen Astronomen Eugène Joseph Delporte in Ukkel entdeckt wurde.


Production.

The general procedure to produce polyclonal antibodies is as follows: An antigen/adjuvant conjugate is injected into an animal of choice to initiate an amplified immune response. After a series of injections over a specific length of time, the animal is expected to have created antibodies against the conjugate. Blood is then extracted from the animal and then purified to obtain the antibody of interest.  Inoculation is performed on a suitable mammal, such as a mouse, rabbit or goat. Larger mammals are often preferred as the amount of serum that can be collected is greater. An antigen is injected into the mammal. This induces the B-lymphocytes to produce IgG immunoglobulins specific for the antigen. This polyclonal IgG is purified from the mammal's serum.  By contrast, monoclonal antibodies are derived from a single cell line  Many methodologies exist for polyclonal antibody production in laboratory animals. Institutional guidelines governing animal use and procedures relating to these methodologies are generally oriented around humane considerations and appropriate conduct for adjuvant (agents which modify the effect of other agents while having few if any direct effects when given by themselves) use. This includes adjuvant selection, routes and sites of administration, injection volumes per site and number of sites per animal. Institutional policies generally include allowable volumes of blood per collection and safety precautions including appropriate restraint and sedation or anesthesia of animals for injury prevention to animals or personnel.  The primary goal of antibody production in laboratory animals is to obtain high titer, high affinity antisera for use in experimentation or diagnostic tests. Adjuvants are used to improve or enhance an immune response to antigens. Most adjuvants provide for an injection site, antigen depot which allows for a slow release of antigen into draining lymph nodes.  Many adjuvants also contain or act directly as: Such antigens by themselves are generally poor immunogens. Most complex protein antigens induce multiple B-cell clones during the immune response, thus, the response is polyclonal. Immune responses to non-protein antigens are generally poorly or enhanced by adjuvants and there is no system memory.  Antibodies are currently also being produced from isolation of human B-lymphocytes to produce specific recombinant monoclonal antibody mixtures. The biotechnology company, Symphogen, develops this type of antibodies for therapeutic applications. They are the first research company to reach phase two trials with the monoclonal antibody mixtures that mimic the diversity of the polyclonal antibody drugs. This production prevents viral and prion transmission and this is the simple process.

Animal selection.

Animals frequently used for polyclonal antibody production include chickens, goats, guinea pigs, hamsters, horses, mice, rats, and sheep. However, the rabbit is the most commonly used laboratory animal for this purpose. Animal selection should be based upon:  Goats or horses are generally used when large quantities of antisera are required. Many investigators favor chickens because of their phylogenetic distance from mammals. Chickens transfer high quantities of IgY (IgG) into the egg yolk and harvesting antibodies from eggs eliminates the need for the invasive bleeding procedure. One week's eggs can contain 10 times more antibodies than the volume of rabbit blood obtained from one weekly bleeding. However, there are some disadvantages when using certain chicken derived antibodies in immunoassays. Chicken IgY does not fix mammalian complement component C1 and it does not perform as a precipitating antibody using standard solutions.  Although mice are used most frequently for monoclonal antibody production, their small size usually prevents their use for sufficient quantities of polyclonal, serum antibodies. However, polyclonal antibodies in mice can be collected from ascites fluid using any one of a number of ascites producing methodologies.  When using rabbits, young adult animals (2.5–3.0 kg or 5.5-6.5 lbs) should be used for primary immunization because of the vigorous antibody response. Immune function peaks at puberty and primary responses to new antigens decline with age. Female rabbits are generally preferred because they are more docile and are reported to mount a more vigorous immune response than males. At least two animals per antigen should be used when using outbred animals. This principle reduces potential total failure resulting from non-responsiveness to antigens of individual animals.

Antigen preparation.

The size, extent of aggregation and relative nativity of protein antigens can all dramatically affect the quality and quantity of antibody produced. Small polypeptides (<10 ku) and non-protein antigens generally need to be conjugated or crosslinked to larger, immunogenic, carrier proteins to increase immunogenicity and provide T cell epitopes. Generally, the larger the immunogenic protein the better. Larger proteins, even in smaller amounts, usually result in better engagement of antigen presenting antigen processing cells for a satisfactory immune response. Injection of soluble, non-aggregated proteins has a higher probability of inducing tolerance rather than a satisfactory antibody response.  Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and bovine serum albumin are two widely used carrier proteins. Poly-L-lysine has also been used successfully as a backbone for peptides. Although the use of Poly-L-lysine reduces or eliminates production of antibodies to foreign proteins, it may result in failure of peptide-induced antibody production. Recently, liposomes have also been successfully used for delivery of small peptides and this technique is an alternative to delivery with oily emulsion adjuvants.

Antigen quantity.

Selection of antigen quantity for immunization varies with the properties of the antigen and the adjuvant selected. In general, microgram to milligram quantities of protein in adjuvant are necessary to elicit high titer antibodies. Antigen dosage is generally species, rather than body weight, associated. The so-called “window” of immunogenicity in each species is broad but too much or too little antigen can induce tolerance, suppression or immune deviation towards cellular immunity rather than a satisfactory humoral response. Optimal and usual protein antigen levels for immunizing specific species have been reported in the following ranges: Optimal “priming” doses are reported to be at the low end of each range.  The affinity of serum antibodies increases with time (months) after injection of antigen-adjuvant mixtures and as antigen in the system decreases. Widely used antigen dosages for “booster” or secondary immunizations are usually one half to equal the priming dosages. Antigens should be free of preparative byproducts and chemicals such as polyacrylamide gel, SDS, urea, endotoxin, particulate matter and extremes of pH.

Peptide antibodies.

When a peptide is being used to generate the antibody, it is extremely important to design the antigens properly. There are several resources that can aid in the design as well as companies that offer this service. Expasy has aggregated a set of public tools under its ProtScale page that require some degree of user knowledge to navigate. For a more simple peptide scoring tool there is a Antigen Profiler tool available that will enable you to score individual peptide sequences based upon a relation epitope mapping database of previous immunogens used to generate antibodies. Finally, as a general rule peptides should follow some basic criteria.  When examining peptides for synthesis and immunization, it is recommended that certain residues and sequences be avoided due to potential synthesis problems. This includes some of the more common characteristics:

Reactivity.

Investigators should also consider the status of nativity of protein antigens when used as immunogens and reaction with antibodies produced. Antibodies to native proteins react best with native proteins and antibodies to denatured proteins react best with denatured proteins. If elicited antibodies are to be used on membrane blots (proteins subjected to denaturing conditions) then antibodies should be made against denatured proteins. On the other hand, if antibodies are to be used to react with a native protein or block a protein active site, then antibodies should be made against the native protein. Adjuvants can often alter the nativity of the protein. Generally, absorbed protein antigens in a preformed oil-in-water emulsion adjuvant, retain greater native protein structure than those in water-in-oil emulsions.

Asepticity.

Antigens should always be prepared using techniques that ensure that they are free of microbial contamination. Most protein antigen preparations can be sterilized by passage through a 0.22μm filter. Septic abscesses often occur at inoculation sites of animals when contaminated preparations are used. This can result in failure of immunization against the targeted antigen.

Adjuvants.

There are many commercially available immunologic adjuvants. Selection of specific adjuvants or types varies depending upon whether they are to be used for research and antibody production or in vaccine development. Adjuvants for vaccine use only need to produce protective antibodies and good systemic memory while those for antiserum production need to rapidly induce high titer, high avidity antibodies. No single adjuvant is ideal for all purposes and all have advantages and disadvantages. Adjuvant use generally is accompanied by undesirable side effects of varying severity and duration. Research on new adjuvants focuses on substances which have minimal toxicity while retaining maximum immunostimulation. Investigators should always be aware of potential pain and distress associated with adjuvant use in laboratory animals.  The most frequently used adjuvants for antibody production are Freund's, Alum, the Ribi Adjuvant System and Titermax.

Freund’s adjuvants.

There are two basic types of Freund's adjuvants: Freund's Complete Adjuvant (FCA) and Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant (FIA). FCA is a water-in-oil emulsion that localizes antigen for release periods up to 6 months. It is formulated with mineral oil, the surfactant mannide monoleate and heat killed "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", "Mycobacterium butyricum" or their extracts (for aggregation of macrophages at the inoculation site). This potent adjuvant stimulates both cell mediated and humoral immunity with preferential induction of antibody against epitopes of denatured proteins. Although FCA has historically been the most widely used adjuvant, it is one of the more toxic agents due to non-metabolizable mineral oil and it induces granulomatous reactions. Its use is limited to laboratory animals and it should be used only with weak antigens. It should not be used more than once in a single animal since multiple FCA inoculations can cause severe systemic reactions and decreased immune responses. Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant has the same formulation as FCA but does not contain mycobacterium or its components. FIA usually is limited to booster doses of antigen since it normally much less effective than FCA for primary antibody induction. Freund's adjuvants are normally mixed with equal parts of antigen preparations to form stable emulsions.

Ribi Adjuvant System.

Ribi adjuvants are oil-in-water emulsions where antigens are mixed with small volumes of a metabolizable oil (squalene) which are then emulsified with saline containing the surfactant Polysorbate 80. This system also contains refined mycobacterial products (cord factor, cell wall skeleton) as immunostimulants and bacterial monophosphoryl lipid A. Three different species oriented formulations of the adjuvant system are available. These adjuvants interact with membranes of immune cells resulting in cytokine induction, which enhances antigen uptake, processing and presentation. This adjuvant system is much less toxic and less potent than FCA but generally induces satisfactory amounts of high avidity antibodies against protein antigens.

Titermax.

Titermax represents a newer generation of adjuvants that are less toxic and contain no biologically derived materials. It is based upon mixtures of surfactant acting, linear, blocks or chains of nonionic copolymers polyoxypropylene (POP) and polyoxyethylene (POE). These copolymers are less toxic than many other surfactant materials and have potent adjuvant properties which favor chemotaxis, complement activation and antibody production. Titermax adjuvant forms a microparticulate water-in-oil emulsion with a copolymer and metabolizable squalene oil. The copolymer is coated with emulsion stabilizing silica particles which allows for incorporation of large amounts of a wide variety of antigenic materials. The adjuvant active copolymer forms hydrophilic surfaces, which activate complement, immune cells and increased expression of class II major histocompatibility molecules on macrophages. Titermax presents antigen in a highly concentrated form to the immune system, which often results in antibody titers comparable to or higher than FCA.  Specol: Specol is a water in oil adjuvant made of purified mineral oil. It has been reported to induce immune response comparable to Freund's adjuvant in rabbit and other research animal while producing fewer histological lesions.

Pharmaceutical uses.

Digoxin Immune Fab is the antigen binding fragment of polyclonal antibodies raised to Digitalis derivative as a hapten bound to a protein and is used for the reversal of life-threatening digoxin or digitoxin toxicity.  Rho(D) immune globulin is made from pooled human plasma provided by Rh-negative donors with antibodies to the D antigen. It is used to provide passive immune binding of antigen, preventing a maternal active immune response which could potentially result in hemolytic disease of the newborn.  Rozrolimupab is the anti-RhD recombinant human polyclonal antibody composed of 25 unique IgG1 antibodies and is used for the treatment of immune thrombocytopenia purpura and prevention of isoimmunization in Rh-negative pregnant women.

Advantages.

The use of polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) over monoclonal antibodies has its advantages. The technical skills needed to produce polyclonal antibodies is not as demanding. They're inexpensive to make and can be generated fairly quickly, taking up to several months to produce. PAbs are heterogeneous, which allows them to bind to a wide range of antigen epitopes. Because PAbs are produced from a large number of B cell clones, they're more likely to successfully bind to a specific antigen. PAbs remain stable in different environments, such as a change in pH or salt concentration, which allows them to be more applicable in certain procedures. Additionally, depending on the amount needed, PAbs can be made in large quantities in relation to the size of the animal used.

Polyclonal antibodies (pAbs) are antibodies that are secreted by different B cell lineages within the body (whereas monoclonal antibodies come from a single cell lineage). They are a collection of immunoglobulin molecules that react against a specific antigen, each identifying a different epitope.

Polyklonale Antikörper sind Mischungen von verschiedenen Antikörpern, die aus dem Serum von immunisierten Tieren (meistens Ziege, Kaninchen, Maus oder Ratte) gewonnen werden. Durch Adsorption an ein Antigen in einer Affinitätschromatographie können alle Antikörper gegen die verschiedenen Epitope eines Antigens gemeinsam aufgereinigt werden, obwohl die Antikörper von verschiedenen B-Zellen produziert wurden.


Establishment and early years.

Forti was founded by Italian businessmen Guido Forti, a former driver, and Paolo Guerci, an engineer, in the late 1970s and was based in Alessandria in northern Italy. It was registered as a "Società a Responsabilità Limitata", or Limited liability company. It was initially run in lower motor racing categories such as Formula Ford and Formula Three, both at Italian and European levels. The team was well equipped and soon became a regular winner. Forti drivers Franco Forini, Enrico Bertaggia, Emanuele Naspetti and Gianni Morbidelli (who would all go on to drive in Formula One) won Italian Formula Three titles in 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1989 respectively. In addition, Bertaggia won the prestigious Macau F3 Grand Prix and the Monaco Grand Prix F3 support race in 1988, and Morbidelli won the FIA European Formula Three Cup in 1989. Teo Fabi and Oscar Larrauri also raced for the team in its early years, the former winning the Italian FFord 2000 championship in 1977, and the latter racing as far afield as South America, in the Argentine Formula Three Championship. Forti continued racing in Formula Three until the end of 1992, when it quit the formula in order to concentrate solely on International Formula 3000.

Formula 3000.

For 1987, Forti moved up to International Formula 3000 with less immediate success than experienced in Formula Three. The main reason for this was the chassis the team chose to compete with. Instead of using customer Lolas, Marches or Ralts, all of which were produced by established companies who had many years' experience of designing and building such cars, Forti stuck with their Italian Formula Three chassis supplier Gian Paolo Dallara, who had just designed his company's first F3000 machine. Forti was the first team to use this machine, which was dubbed the Dallara 3087 (a chassis which later would make a single appearance in Formula One for the BMS Scuderia Italia team, as that team's car was not ready for the first race of the 1988 season). This combination of an inexperienced team and an untested car did not score any points in its first F3000 year, nor did the team attend every race on the schedule. Forti used 1988 to gain valuable experience in F3000, and this helped the team to perform better in following seasons, as did a change to more competitive Lola and then Reynard chassis.  After a full season in 1988 and the team's first championship points, courtesy of Claudio Langes in 1989, it became apparent that Forti was improving as a competitive force. In 1990, Gianni Morbidelli scored Forti's first victory in an F3000 race, and although no Forti driver won a championship title in this category, the team established itself as a frequent front-runner, scoring nine wins and five pole positions in International F3000. From 1993 onwards, Forti concentrated solely on F3000, and ran drivers such as Naspetti, Fabrizio Giovanardi, Andrea Montermini and Hideki Noda. 1991 was Forti's most successful season in F3000, with Naspetti finishing third in the Drivers' Championship, ten points behind champion Christian Fittipaldi. Although the team's form dipped over subsequent years, by 1994 Forti was the most experienced team in the championship, employing Noda and Pedro Diniz as drivers.

Formula One.

Preparation.

As his team became more successful, Guido Forti started to think about a move upwards, into Formula One. However, there had been several discouragingly recent examples of teams, such as Coloni and Onyx, which had graduated from F3000 into Formula One and failed more or less immediately due to a lack of finance. Conversely, Eddie Jordan had shown that the move could be made successfully, with an impressive performance in with his Jordan team, which had finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship with a total of seven points-scoring finishes. Forti considered a solid financial base to be the most important factor for success. In 1991 he therefore started working on his Formula One project. At the end of, he signed a deal with wealthy Brazilian driver Pedro Diniz, whose personal fortune and sponsorship connections proved invaluable in increasing the team's budget. Diniz's father, Abílio dos Santos, was the owner of the large Brazilian distribution company Companhia Brasileira de Distribuição and the supermarket chain Pão de Açúcar. By offering companies preferential product-placement in the Brazilian market, the Diniz family was able to obtain personal sponsorship deals with brands such as Arisco, Duracell, Gillette, Kaiser, Marlboro, Parmalat and Sadia, in addition to backing from Unibanco, to fund Pedro's career. By, through Abílio dos Santos, Forti met Carlo Gancia, an Italo-Brazilian businessman. Gancia became a co-owner of the team, buying Guerci's shares, and started working on the team's Formula One project. He finally managed to ensure a respectable budget for Formula One by late, which was "effectively underwritten by the Diniz family". He also hired several experienced personnel, including designer Sergio Rinland and former Ferrari team manager Cesare Fiorio. Furthermore, retired driver René Arnoux was employed as a consultant and driver coach for Diniz. Guerci remained with Forti as one of its race engineers.  This securing of financial assistance and recruitment of staff meant that Forti's ability to participate in Formula One for was assured. Financed by the companies brought in by Abílio Diniz, the team was guaranteed financial stability in the short term, with a claimed first year budget of around $17 million. In addition, this was only the first year of a planned three-year contract with Diniz and his backers.

Forti FG01 car.

The hardest task for the team was designing and building its own car for the first time, instead of buying one from a general supplier such as Dallara or Lola, as was required by the Formula One Technical Regulations. Guido Forti's first attempt at an F1 chassis, the Forti FG01, resulted in an outdated, overweight and very slow machine, and has been described as nothing more than "a revised F3000 car" and, more harshly, "a fearful pile of junk".  The FG01 had many influences. Design consultant Rinland had previously worked on the Brabham BT60 chassis in and Fondmetal GR02 chassis in, the latter under the auspices of his own company, Astauto, before moving to the United States to work on a Champ Car project. In late 1994, Forti bought the remaining assets of the now defunct Fondmetal team, including the remaining GR02 chassis, and requested Rinland's assistance in developing the bespoke Forti chassis based on a planned Fondmetal chassis for the season. Rinland thus provided a great deal of input on the FG01 chassis, assisting experienced Italian engineers Giorgio Stirano and Giacomo Caliri in designing and building the car. The car's aerodynamics were completed by former Brabham, Fondmetal and Astauto employee Hans Fouche using wind tunnels in South Africa, and composite work was done by the Belco Avia company. However, it was rumoured that the FG01 was little more than a re-working of the GR02.  Thus the FG01 did not promise much in terms of performance. It was angular and bulky, with poor aerodynamic performance negatively affecting grip and handling; it had a plump nose, initially no airbox, and was overweight and under-powered, using a small Ford-Cosworth ED V8 customer engine largely financed by Ford do Brasil, which developed an estimated 100 bhp less than the most powerful engine in the field, the Renault V10 supplied to the Benetton and Williams teams. It was also the only car to have a manual gearbox in the 1995 F1 season. The car was liveried in a distinctive yellow-and-blue colour scheme accompanied by fluorescent green wheel-rims, illustrating the team's Brazilian influence in its first year. The precise hue of each colour was chosen as a tribute to Ayrton Senna, who had been killed at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix; the cars were liveried in identical shades to those used on the Brazilian's helmet design.

1995 season.

Forti's number one driver for the season was rookie Pedro Diniz who had raced for Forti in F3000, but without much success. However, he was guaranteed a seat as his family and sponsors were paying a significant amount of the team's budget. The second driver was later confirmed as his more experienced compatriot Roberto Moreno, who had last competed in F1 back in when he had a disastrous year driving for the infamous Andrea Moda team. However, his seat was initially only guaranteed on a race-by-race basis, as Portuguese driver Pedro Lamy, in addition to the team's former F3000 drivers Emanuele Naspetti and Andrea Montermini, were also considered. It was speculated that whoever joined the team would be contractually bound to be number two to Diniz and that his father had insisted on an all-Brazilian driver line-up. A Forti spokesman indeed confirmed that Moreno's nationality, in addition to his experience, was the main reason for his selection. The team later attempted to enter its former F3000 driver Hideki Noda for the 1995 Pacific Grand Prix, but he was refused an FIA Super Licence.  Unlike some of the existing teams, Forti was able to test its chassis extensively prior to the start of the season. However, Diniz proved to be around seven seconds per lap off the pace of the leading runners in group testing at the Estoril circuit in March, indicating that the team was likely to be mired at the back of the field. Diniz finished 10th in the season-opening Brazilian GP, but was seven laps down on winner Michael Schumacher. In Argentina, this situation became worse, as, although both drivers finished, they were both nine laps down on winner Damon Hill at the end of the race (with Diniz ahead) and neither were classified, as they had failed to complete 90% of the race distance. The drivers' similar fastest laps during the race were over ten seconds slower than Schumacher's fastest race lap, and almost five seconds slower than the next slowest runner's fastest lap (Domenico Schiattarella in the Simtek). Imola was similarly poor, as both drivers finished seven laps down (with Diniz again ahead) and again failed to reach the 90% threshold for classification. Forti was already the butt of paddock jokes, and were far slower than the other (and financially poorer) backmarkers: Pacific, Simtek, and Minardi. However, the budget enabled improvements to be made to the car. During the season, its weight was reduced by a significant 60 kilograms (approximately 10% of the F1 minimum weight limit of ), and a semi-automatic gearbox, an airbox and redesigns of the front wing, sidepods and monocoque were introduced. The personnel count also doubled during the course of the season. This resulted in a gradual improvement in pace throughout the year, and there were no more non-classified finishes.  In between the Brazilian and Argentine Grands Prix, Rinland returned to Europe full-time to take the official post of the team's Technical Director. His long-term task was to establish an English-based design office for the team, but his initial job was to improve the competitiveness of the FG01 through a series of technical upgrades. However, Rinland subsequently left the team after a few weeks, after falling out with the team's management over the car's lack of competitiveness.  Indeed, Forti's finishing record was good for rookies at 50% (excluding the non-classifications), helping Diniz to establish a reputation as a steady, dependable driver. Forti were then elevated when Simtek folded after the Monaco GP, and Pacific's lack of finance and development enabled Forti to start matching them from the half-way point of the season. At the German GP, both Fortis outqualified both the Pacifics for the first time, and this happened on two further occasions during 1995. Forti's improvement was also aided by Pacific taking on two slower pay drivers, Giovanni Lavaggi and Jean-Denis Délétraz, to ensure that the team finished the season. At the final race of the season, in Adelaide, Forti seemed to have established a firm base for the season, emphasised by Moreno qualifying within 107% of pole position for the first time - a crucial result, as this percentage of the pole time would be used to determine non-qualifiers in 1996 - and Diniz scoring the team's best result in F1, with a reliable run to seventh place, ahead of Gachot in the Pacific. This was only one position behind the points-scoring placings. Nevertheless, despite not scoring any points, Forti finished a "de facto" 11th in the Constructors' Championship, ahead of Pacific and Simtek by virtue of better finishes outside of the points.  Post-championship, Forti took part in the 1995 Bologna Motor Show, where three FG01s—driven by Montermini, Lavaggi and Vittorio Zoboli—raced against, and lost to three Minardis in the Formula One Indoor Trophy.  Despite the progress made by Forti during the course of the season, 1995 was still regarded as a failure. The team had spent more money than its immediate rivals in designing, building and developing a fundamentally inefficient car. Diniz and his sponsors were described as "throwing their money away", and the Brazilian's reputation as a serious F1 driver was damaged, as it took him several years to prove that he was not just in the sport because of his funding. In addition, Moreno's participation with Forti was lamented by many observers, who felt that the experienced driver did not deserve the ignominy of such an uncompetitive car. The only positives were the reasonable reliability record and the fact that the Diniz family were contracted to fund the team for the next two years.

1996 season.

With a solid base to build on and a healthy budget, looked promising for Forti. The team negotiated for the most powerful and expensive Cosworth V8 engines in late 1995 to replace the outdated and underpowered ED models, and its financial security was demonstrated by rumours during the 1995 season that the more competitive but less well-funded Minardi team was considering a merger with Forti as a means of maintaining its own presence in the sport. However, these aspirations were dealt a devastating blow when Pedro Diniz signed for the more competitive Ligier team, taking Martin Brundle's vacated seat as the latter moved to Jordan. Forti's sponsors brought in by the Diniz family, including Parmalat and Marlboro, all left; the budget was significantly dented. For a time it seemed that the team would not compete in 1996 at all, and its survival was constantly questioned. The new car was delayed, and the team was forced to use the uprated FG01B car for the start of the season with the only slightly more competitive Ford Zetec-R V8 engine (instead of the "JS" unit it had been negotiating for), and to rely on temporary sponsors. Nevertheless, Forti remained in the sport for the 1996 season. Moreno was not retained; the team signed Minardi and Pacific refugees Luca Badoer and Montermini to take the two empty seats (although Hideki Noda was also considered), both drivers bringing a small amount of personal backing. Frenchman Franck Lagorce was also signed as a test driver. Pacific had folded during the off-season, and it was clear that Forti would be some way behind the rest of the field in the slow FG01B. Badoer and Montermini failed to make the new 107% cut in qualifying for the Australian Grand Prix and thus did not start the race, but both then managed to qualify for the Grands Prix held in Brazil and Argentina, scoring a 10th- and an 11th-place finish between them in the races. Badoer, however, attracted attention in Argentina for a different reason. As Diniz attempted to lap him, the two collided and Badoer's car flipped over; the Italian escaping injury. Both cars then failed to qualify at the Nürburgring.  Forti produced a new chassis, the FG03, for the next race of the season in Imola. It had been designed by the same personnel as the previous year, with further work carried out by George Ryton after the latter moved to the team from Ferrari and took up the post of Technical Director mid-season. Both drivers judged it a significant improvement over the old car, with increased aerodynamic downforce and directional sensitivity, but there was only one FG03 available, and Montermini failed to qualify in the old car. Badoer, however, qualified last, but comfortably within the 107% cut-off, and only 0.7s behind Ricardo Rosset in the Footwork. Badoer finished 10th and last, but had suffered reliability problems in the new car and was two laps behind Pedro Lamy's Minardi. Both drivers qualified in Monaco, but Montermini crashed in the wet warm-up session and did not start the race, whilst Badoer struggled in the slippery conditions and took out Jacques Villeneuve as he was being lapped by the Williams. He was fined $5000 and received a two-race suspended ban.

Deal with Shannon Racing.

After the Monaco GP, there were rumours that Forti would not survive the season without some form of takeover. In the period before the next race, the Spanish GP, Belco Avia boss Arron Colombo announced that a deal had been reached between Guido Forti and an entity known as Shannon Racing for the latter to buy a 51% share of the team. The deal was concluded later in the month, on June 30. Shannon Racing and its parent company FinFirst were Irish-registered sections of a Milanese financial group, and had already established teams in various Formula Three championships and in International Formula 3000 in 1996. The group was keen to move into Formula One, and Forti provided an opportunity for this to happen. It was believed that Colombo had organised the deal, which was scheduled to continue throughout 1996 with an option for, because Belco Avia was owed money by Forti. As part of the management change, Cesare Fiorio left the team to join Ligier and was replaced by Daniele Coronna, whilst designer George Ryton joined from Ferrari.  For the Spanish GP, the cars therefore appeared in a new green-and-white livery, apparently confirming Shannon Racing's acquisition of 51% of Forti. This financial boost appeared to ensure the team's survival. With the off-track confusion, both drivers again failed to qualify. Nevertheless, at the Canadian and French Grands Prix, both Fortis made it to the grid, Badoer even outqualifying Rosset in Montréal. However, Forti had lost its good 1995 reliability record, as these starts only resulted in four retirements. By this time, Forti's financial problems, caused by a conflict of team ownership between Guido Forti and Shannon Racing, were becoming increasingly urgent in nature. Both cars retired with "engine problems" at the French GP, although it was widely rumoured that this was due to the team running out of engine mileage as it went into debt with engine suppliers Cosworth.

Bankruptcy and withdrawal.

Guido Forti alleged that Shannon Racing had not paid him any money within the stipulated six-day deadline after the deal was concluded and refuted the claim that it now owned 51% of his team. As the team ran out of money, it was doubtful whether it would turn up at the British GP. In the end, Forti took part, only for the cars to complete a mere handful of laps each in practice and thus failing to set a time quick enough to qualify. This was because it was becoming increasingly in debt to Cosworth and was running out of engine mileage for its cars, only having enough to make a token effort at participation. The team made it to the next race - the German GP - but both cars remained unassembled in the pit garages throughout the weekend after the engine supply was finally cut off.  Guido Forti, after discussing the matter with commercial rights-owner Bernie Ecclestone, had decided to withdraw the team from the German GP as negotiations over the team's ownership between himself and Shannon continued, despite the threat of the FIA (F1's governing body) imposing a fine on the outfit for missing the race. Following the failure of these negotiations, he then announced that Shannon's deal had fallen through and that he was back in charge of the team. He hoped to finalise some more sponsorship deals which would allow Forti to compete in the Hungarian GP. Shannon responded by claiming it still owned 51% of the team, and that it intended to solve Forti's financial problems itself, in addition to replacing Guido Forti as Team Principal. He duly took the company to court over the matter, an arduous process in the Italian legal system.  With the team in limbo whilst the ownership dispute was judged, Forti's situation was bleak. The team faced the prospect of further heavy FIA-imposed fines for missing races if the situation did not improve, or even exclusion from the championship for bringing the sport into disrepute, as had happened to the Andrea Moda team in. Forti withdrew his team from the sport; it did not make an appearance at the Hungarian GP, the Belgian GP, nor at any further point in the championship. Badoer and Montermini were left without drives, and the promising FG03 chassis would no longer race. By the time Shannon Racing won the court case in September, Forti had ceased to exist. Shannon Racing's teams in the lower motorsport categories also closed down. Coincidentally, Guido Forti had signed the 1997 Concorde Agreement shortly before his team's demise, which could have given his team a chance of surviving if it had made it into that year due to the extra television revenue that was duly granted to each of the teams under the terms of the agreement.

Legacy.

Forti's withdrawal marked not only the end of its participation in Formula One, but also terminated a team which had enjoyed success in International Formula 3000 and other minor categories. It is generally agreed that Forti may have succeeded if it had its 1995 budget and the FG03 car at the same time, and that Diniz's departure meant that it stood little chance of survival, but the team has become another example of a small, backmarking team unable to finance its aspirations; one of the final "privateer" teams to enter the sport in an era of increasing influence and participation from the large car manufacturers. Forti is often cited along with Pacific and Simtek as prime examples of this tendency. It was also argued that the increasing amount of money involved in financing an F1 team which was forcing many of the smaller teams to withdraw in the early to mid-1990s was a long-term threat to the future of the sport. Alternatively, some saw Forti and similar tail-enders as undeserving of a place in F1, and it has been suggested that the imposition of the 107% rule by the FIA in 1996 was a move to force them to raise their game or leave the sport altogether.  However, the Forti F1 cars have since been used for other purposes. Examples of the FG03 are currently being used as part of F1-themed track days in the United Kingdom at motor racing circuits such as Rockingham.

Forti Corse, commonly known as Forti, was an Italian motor racing team chiefly known for its brief and unsuccessful involvement in Formula One in the mid-1990s. It was established in the late 1970s and competed in lower formulae for two decades. The team's successes during this period included four Drivers' Championships in Italian Formula Three during the 1980s, and race wins in the International Formula 3000 championship, in which it competed from 1987 to 1994. From 1992, team co-founder Guido Forti developed a relationship with the wealthy Brazilian businessman Abílio dos Santos Diniz that gave Diniz's racing driver son, Pedro, a permanent seat in the team and the outfit a sufficiently high budget to consider entering Formula One.

Forti Corse war ein italienischer Motorsport-Rennstall, der zwischen 1970 und 1996 an Rennen der Formel Ford, Formel 3, Formel 3000 und Formel 1 teilnahm.


History.

Formation.

On 28 July 1920, Mohun Bagan was scheduled to play Jorabagan in the Coochbehar Cup. Jorabagan sent out their starting eleven but with the notable exclusion of defender Sailesh Bose, who was dropped from the squad for reasons not disclosed. The vice-president of Jorabagan, Suresh Chandra Chaudhuri, asked for Bose to be included in the line-up but it went in vain. Chaudhuri left the club due to this and along with Raja Manmatha Nath Chaudhuri, Ramesh Chandra Sen, and Aurobinda Ghosh, and formed East Bengal, as a Sports and Cultural association, in Jorabagan home of Suresh Chandra on 1 August 1920; 99 years ago. It was named East Bengal since the founders hailed from the eastern region of Bengal. Nagen Kali, M. Talukdar, B. Sen, N. Gossain, Goshto Paul "(On loan from Mohun Bagan)," P. Bardhan, S. Das, S. Tagore, J. Mukherjee, Ramesh Chandra Sen, S. Bose, C. Bose, A. Roy and A. Bannerjee were part of the first team.

1920 – 1930s.

The club then participated in their maiden tournament in the same month of their formation in the Hercules Cup which was a 6-a-side tournament. On 11 August 1920, the club played their first match against Metropolitan College, where East Bengal won 4-0.East Bengal won the tournament. After the tournament, the club became affiliated with the Indian Football Association (IFA). The club then entered league play in the IFA Second Division. The club finished in third place in the first season in the Second Division. East Bengal first-ever clashed against Mohun Bagan on 8 August 1921 in Cooch Behar Cup semi-final match which ended in a goalless draw. It was an unofficial derby at that time.  In 1924 the club won the Second Division to gain promotion to the IFA First Division after finishing in second place to Cameroons 'B'. Due to Cameroons 'A' being in the First Division already the 'B' team could not gain promotion and thus East Bengal was next in line for promotion. However, more controversy arose since IFA allowed only two Indian based clubs in the IFA First Division (back then the IFA was British organization), and previously deprived clubs like Kumarti and Town from entering First Division. During the governing body meeting of IFA, the nine British clubs approved of allowing East Bengal, but ironically two Indian clubs, Mohun Bagan and Aryan opposed it. Although, East Bengal's efforts led to abolition of the oppressive Indian club limit rule.

1940s – 1970s.

It took the club till 1942 to win their first IFA First Division title. Then in 1943, the club won their first IFA Shield. The club then achieved the double in 1945 by winning both the Calcutta Football League (CFL) and IFA Shield. In 1948, East Bengal became the first team to defeat any foreign club on home soil. They won 2–0 against the visiting Chinese Olympic XI. East Bengal won the first treble in 1949 season, by winning Calcutta League, IFA Shield, Rover's Cup. The club then went on to win the 1949 Rovers Cup and the Durand Cup in 1951. Within that time the club also won three straight IFA Shields (1949, 1950, 1951). The English F.A. 1951–52 annual almanac adjudged East Bengal as the best club in Asia. On being recommended by then President of India Late Rajendra Prasad, the club was invited by Romania Youth Festival Committee in 1953 They also partook in a tour to the Soviet Union the same year, where they were heavily defeated by Soviet side by a margin of 13–1. Again the club won Rovers Cup several times during this era (1962, 1967, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1975) as well as Durand Cup in (1952, 1956, 1960, 1967, 1970, 1972, 1978). The club stunned everyone by winning the 1970 IFA Shield against PAS Club of Iran by 1–0. Later the club won 1973 IFA Shield by winning against Pyongyang City SC of North Korea  East Bengal won the Calcutta Football League for six straight years from 1970 to 1975. In the '70s decade, East Bengal won against their arch-rivals, Mohun Bagan, multiple times including a record margin of 5–0 in history of Kolkata Derby, in 1975.

1980s – 1990s.

The club won Federation Cup in 1980 and again in 1985. They also became the first Indian club to play in the newly redone Asian Club Championship in 1985–86. The club then won their first treble in 1990 by winning the IFA Shield, Rovers Cup, and Durand Cup in one season. The club also won the Stafford Cup (1986), McDowell's Cup (1995, 1997). In 1993, East Bengal FC won its first-ever international title i.e. Wai Wai Cup in Nepal. The club also won Federation Cup, IFA Shield, Calcutta Football League, Durand Cup and Rovers Cup, several times during this period. In 1996 the club became the founding members of the first nationwide football league in India, the National Football League.  In 1984, Dipak Das came into the club and revamped it. He brought in professionalism and converted the football department into a private limited company. He also roped sponsorship from local brands and companies like Khadims. In 1998, Dipak Das collaborated with Vijay Mallya's United Breweries Group which then formed a new Private Limited Company, with 50-50 shareholding, called "United East Bengal Football Team Private Limited" and corporatised the football team, which was the first time in the country, and renamed itself as Kingfisher East Bengal FC.

2000s – 2010s.

The club then entered the 21st century in style winning the 2000–01 National Football League season. Then they became the first club to win back to back titles after winning the 2002–03 and 2003–04 versions of the league. The club then went on to win the Federation Cup again in 2007, 2009, 2010 and 2012. They also won the Indian Super Cup in 2006 and 2011. The club won the third international trophy in 2003 ASEAN Club Championship, in Jakarta, Indonesia, and East Bengal is still the only Indian football team to win any major trophy at a outside the country. The club was invited to the tournament by Leicester City, celebrating their 120th Anniversary. In 2004, Leicester City also had partnerships with the East Bengal. Then FIFA president, Joseph Blatter visited the club tent on 15th April, 2007. After a year, East Bengal became the first Indian football team to win against a West Asian team, Al Wihdat SC of Jordan in foreign soil.East Bengal also made the record number appearance of 8 times (between 2004 and 2015) in AFC Cup among any Indian football club. The club went in the semi-finals of 2013 AFC Cup where they lost against Kuwait SC of Kuwait. The club has the achievement of winning the Calcutta Football League title 8 consecutive times from 2010 to 2017 breaking their previous record of 6 times during 1970s. Following the exit of Kingfisher from the club, Quess Corp signed an agreement with the East Bengal Club and acquired 70% stakes of the club in July 2018, The football team was renamed as Quess East Bengal FC.  On 1 August 2019 the club entered its 100th establishment year. A centenary celebration logo was introduced. Torch rallies and events were organised and were attended by former players, coaches, presidents etc. The centenary kit was unveiled, which was inspired from the 1925-26 season kit. The club participated in Durand Cup, Calcutta Football League and I-League, and played the first match and won against Army Red in Durand Cup.

Crest.

In 1930, India was swept over by Gandhi's Satyagraha which had an effect on football. Indian clubs boycotted the ongoing Calcutta Football League midway through the season due to this. Amidst much confusion, Royal Regiment was declared winners in the first division. However, East Bengal was not allowed to be promoted to the First Division. Thousands of East Bengal fans and officials decided to hold a protest march at the East Bengal Ground. It was at this march that flaming torches were carried by the protesters. And the hand holding flame torch "(known as 'Mawshal' or 'মশাল' in Bangla)" being the club emblem, which has remained to this day.

Colours and kit.

The colours of East Bengal FC are red and yellow. So the home jersey consists of a red and yellow jersey with black shorts while the colour of away jersey actually varies on every year.  The reason for these colours is because after the club was formed the founders debated over the choice of colours for the club jersey. They chose a red and golden colour shirt hanging impressively at the "Whiteaway, Laidlaw & Co." departmental store at Chowringhee, Kolkata. These colours became permanently associated with the club.

Support.

East Bengal is supported by the migrant population from erstwhile Indian part of East Bengal, modern-day Bangladesh. East Bengal is one of the most supported football clubs in Asia. There are approximately to across the nation and the overseas.  East Bengal Ultras is the main ultras group of East Bengal, which was established in 2013. It is the pioneer of ultras culture in India and revolutionized the movement in Indian Football. It hosted the first pyro show in any football match in India.  East Bengal the Real Power is the first registered fan club in India, which was established on 15 November 2006. It is the largest fan club of East Bengal and one of the largest fan clubs in the country.

Rivalry.

Unlike East Bengal, the crosstown rival Mohun Bagan is mainly supported by the native populace of current state West Bengal. The Kolkata Derby as its name taken from the Old Firm Derby between Celtic F.C. and Rangers F.C. dates back to the 1920s. After Indian independence and partition of Bengal, the huge influx of immigrant population from the eastern part of Bengal led to a socio-economic crisis in the state. Leading to rivalries in jobs, business, schools and even on the football pitch, among the immigrants and native population. This rivalry became a fierce one and the Kolkata Derby grew in popularity and reached its peak during the 1960s and 1970s which still is very much popular today with almost 100 thousand spectators fill-up the Salt Lake Stadium for the derbies. The Kolkata Derby has a record of spectators, the most attended sporting event in India.

Stadiums.

The club has used several stadiums at Kolkata, Howrah and Barasat, including the Eden Gardens, which has been reserved for cricket since Salt Lake Stadium opened in 1984. The first ground used by the club was Kumartuli Park in north Kolkata.

Salt Lake Stadium.

The Salt Lake Stadium, also known as Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan (VYBK), is a multi-purpose stadium in Kolkata, built in 1984. The stadium is the second largest non-auto racing stadium in the world and the largest in India. It is currently used for mainly football matches. The stadium includes a unique running track, long jump track, electronic scoreboard, natural turf, floodlighting arrangement, air-conditioned VIP restroom and Conference Hall along with Medical Room & Doping Control Room. The Salt Lake Stadium hosts the home games of East Bengal in I-League and AFC Cup. The total capacity of the stadium is 85,000.

East Bengal Ground.

The East Bengal Ground is located in Kolkata, India and is the home ground of the club. The stadium lies on the Maidan (Kolkata) area on the northern side of Fort William and near the Eden Gardens. This stadium is currently used mostly for matches of Calcutta Football League, academy teams and women's team. The total capacity of the stadium is 23,500.

Other grounds.

Barasat Stadium is also used by the club for some of its regional matches, especially in cases where the Salt Lake Stadium or East Bengal Ground cannot be used for any reason.  Kanchenjunga Stadium, a multipurpose stadium based in Siliguri has also been used several times to host football matches for the club. It also hosted the 2012 Federation Cup.  In recent past, Kalyani Stadium, situated on the outskirts of Kolkata at Kalyani was used by East Bengal as their home turf during the 2019–20 I-League.  The team trains and practices in one of VYBK practice grounds.

Players.

Current Squad.

Honours.

Major trophies of East Bengal FC include the following:

International.

ASEAN Club Championship

National.

National Football League  Federation Cup  Indian Super Cup  Calcutta Football League  IFA Shield  Durand Cup  Rovers Cup  D.C.M Trophy

Regional.

Bordoloi Trophy  Sait Nagjee Football Tournament  All Airlines Gold Cup

Other departments.

Women's football.

The women's football team was formed in 2001, but it was disbanded in 2003. It won the Calcutta Women's Football League title in its inaugural season and came runner's up in 2002. In the centenary year, the women's team was relaunched.

Cricket.

The East Bengal Club Cricket team participates in various tournaments of varying age groups conducted by the Cricket Association of Bengal. Currently it participates in the CAB First Division League, CAB Senior Knockout, CAB Super League and JC Mukherjee Trophy. The team plays its home matches mostly at the Eden Gardens and Jadavpur University Campus Ground. They have won around 60 major state-level trophies so far. Kapil Dev, Sachin Tendulkar, Ajay Jadeja, Navjot Singh Sidhu and Sourav Ganguly have also played in the team.

Athletics.

East Bengal has an athletics team, which is affiliated West Bengal Athletic Association, and participates in various tournaments in West Bengal. The club also organises Annual Athletic meet at the club ground.

Hockey (defunct).

This department started after the Independence of India. The club is affiliated to Bengal Hockey Association and participated in BHA First Division hockey league and Beighton Cup. They have won 13 trophies. The team was disbanded in 2000.

East Bengal Football Club () is an Indian professional football club based in Kolkata, West Bengal. The club competes in the I-League, the top flight of Indian football.

Kingfisher East Bengal Football Club ist ein indischer Fußballverein aus der bengalischen Metropole Kolkata. Er wurde im August 1920 gegründet. Mit der Mannschaft Mohun Bagan AC besteht eine lokale Rivalität. Die Derbys beider Teams gelten als Höhepunkt jeder Saison. Der East Bengal Club ist seit Bestehen der National Football League Mitglied der höchsten indischen Spielklasse. Der Verein ist dreifacher nationaler Meister (2001, 2003 und 2004) und gewann achtmal den indischen Pokal.