List of municipalities in British Columbia

Municipal status types.

Cities.

A city is a classification of municipalities used in British Columbia. British Columbia's Lieutenant Governor in Council may incorporate a community as a city by letters patent, under the recommendation of the Minister of Communities, Sport and Cultural Development, if its population is greater than 5,000 and the outcome of a vote involving affected residents was that greater than 50% voted in favour of the proposed incorporation.  British Columbia has 51 cities, had a cumulative population of 3,225,473 in the 2016 Census. British Columbia's largest and smallest cities are Vancouver and Greenwood with populations of 631,486 and 665 respectively. The fastest-growing city in British Columbia is Langford, which grew 20.9% between 2011 and 2016, while the fastest-shrinking is Greenwood, which shrunk by 6.1%. The largest city by land area is Abbotsford, which spans, while the smallest is Duncan, at. The first community to incorporate as a city was New Westminster on July 16, 1860, while the most recent community to incorporate as a city was West Kelowna on June 26, 2015.

District municipalities.

A district municipality is a classification of municipalities used in British Columbia. British Columbia's Lieutenant Governor in Council may incorporate a community as a district municipality by letters patent, under the recommendation of the Minister of Communities, Sport and Cultural Development, if the area is greater than and has a population density of fewer than 5 people per hectare, and the outcome of a vote involving affected residents was that greater than 50% voted in favour of the proposed incorporation.  British Columbia has 50 district municipalities that had a cumulative population of 770,183in the 2016 Census. British Columbia's largest and smallest district municipalities are Langley and Wells with populations of 117,285 and 217 respectively. The fastest-growing district municipality in British Columbia is Invermere, which grew 14.8% between 2011 and 2016, while the fastest-shrinking is Tumbler Ridge, which shrunk by 26.7%.  Of British Columbia's current 50 district municipalities, the first to incorporate as a district municipality was North Cowichan on June 18, 1873, while the most recent community to incorporate as a district municipality was the Northern Rockies Regional Municipality (NRRM) on February 6, 2009. Although portrayed as a regional municipality in its official name, the NRRM is actually classified as a district municipality.

Indian government districts.

The lone "Indian government district" was granted by the federal Sechelt Indian Band Self-Government Act and provincial Sechelt Indian Government District Enabling Act to the Sechelt Indian Government District which governs the Sechelt Indian Band lands consisting of 33 former Indian reserves.

Island municipalities.

If the community wishing to incorporate is located within a trust area under the Island Trust Act, it must incorporate as an island municipality. A single "island municipality" designation has been granted to Bowen Island.

Mountain resort municipalities.

A "mountain resort municipality" designation is granted by the Minister of Community, Sport and Cultural Development through the Local Government Act if there exists alpine ski lift operations, year-round recreational facilities, and commercial overnight accommodations. There are two mountain resort municipalities in British Columbia: Sun Peaks and Jumbo Glacier.

Resort municipalities.

A single "resort municipality" designation has been granted to Whistler by the Resort Municipality of Whistler Act.

Towns.

A town is a classification of municipalities used in British Columbia. British Columbia's Lieutenant Governor in Council may incorporate a community as a town by letters patent, under the recommendation of the Minister of Communities, Sport and Cultural Development, if its population is greater than 2,500 but not greater than 5,000 and the outcome of a vote involving affected residents was that greater than 50% voted in favour of the proposed incorporation.  British Columbia has 14 towns that had a cumulative population of 91,022 in the 2016 Census. British Columbia's largest and smallest towns are Comox and Port McNeill with populations of 14,028 and 2,337 respectively. View Royal and Port McNeill are the fastest-growing and fastest-shrinking towns in the province, growing by 10.9% and shrinking by 6.7% respectively between 2011 and 2016. Of British Columbia's current 14 towns, the first to incorporate as a town was Ladysmith on June 3, 1904, while the most recent community to incorporate as a town was View Royal on December 5, 1988.

Villages.

A village is a classification of municipalities used in British Columbia. British Columbia's Lieutenant Governor in Council may incorporate a community as a village by letters patent, under the recommendation of the Minister of Communities, Sport and Cultural Development, if its population is not greater than 2,500 and the outcome of a vote involving affected residents was that greater than 50% voted in favour of the proposed incorporation.  British Columbia has 42 villages that had a cumulative population of 44,473 in the 2016 Census. British Columbia's largest and smallest villages are Cumberland and Zeballos with populations of 3,753 and 107 respectively. Keremeos and Port Clements are the fastest-growing and fastest-shrinking villages in the province, growing by 12.9% and shrinking by 25.4% respectively between 2011 and 2016. Of British Columbia's current 42 villages, the first to incorporate as a village was Kaslo on August 14, 1893, while the most recent community to incorporate as a village was Queen Charlotte on December 5, 2005.

Former municipalities.

Communities in British Columbia that once held their own municipal status include Aennofield, Alberni, Brocklehurst, Chapman Camp, Chilliwhack, Columbia, Cranberry Lake, Dewdney, Dufferin, Fort Nelson, Fraser Mills, Glenmore, Guisachan, Kinnaird, Marysville, Matsqui, Mission City, Natal, Nicomen Island, North Kamloops, Phoenix, Point Grey, Sandon, South Fort George, South Vancouver, Sumas, Tadanac, Valleyview and Westview. The majority of these former municipalities ceased to exist as a result of amalgamation with or annexation by another municipality. Others, such as Phoenix and Sandon, were dissolved from their municipal status as a result of population decline, while Dewdney dissolved due to financial reasons.

British Columbia is the third-most populous province in Canada with 4,648,055 residents as of 2016 and is the second-largest in land area at. British Columbia's 162 municipalities cover only of the province's land mass yet are home to of its population. A municipality is a local government incorporated by the province allowing a community to govern itself and to provide and regulate local services. These services typically include, but are not limited to, the provision of drinking water, sewers, roads, fire protection, street lights, garbage/recycling collection, land use planning, building inspection, and parks.

Diese Liste führt die Gemeinden in der kanadischen Provinz British Columbia auf. Es gibt derzeit 162 Gemeinden, in denen 89 % der Bevölkerung lebt. Eine Gemeinde wird von der Provinzregierung eingerichtet, um einer Gemeinschaft die Selbstverwaltung zu ermöglichen und gewisse Dienstleistungen auszuführen. Diese umfassen in der Regel (aber nicht nur) die Trinkwasserversorgung, Abwasser, Straßenunterhalt, Feuerwehr, Straßenbeleuchtung, Abfallwirtschaft, Zonenplanung, Gebäudeuntersuchung und Parkanlagen.


Early life.

Uderzo was born in Fismes in the Marne department of France on 25 April 1927 as the fourth child of Italian immigrants Silvio Uderzo (1888–1985) and his wife Iria Uderzo (born Crestini, 1897–?). His parents had met in 1915 in La Spezia, where Silvio Uderzo was recovering after he had been wounded in his service for the Royal Italian Army during World War I. Uderzo's mother, Iria Crestini, was working in the arsenals of La Spezia, along with many young Italian women at the time. Silvio was dismissed from military service after the conclusion of the conflict, on 19 June 1919. The two became a couple and married shortly before the birth of their first child, Bruno (1920–2004). After Bruno, they had Rina in 1922. They moved from Italy to France with their then two children, first settling in Chauny in the Aisne departement. Because of Silvio's occupation as a carpenter, they had to change location regularly. In Chauny, a son named Albert was born in 1925 but died of pneumonia at the age of 8 months. The Uderzos decided to name their next son in honor of the deceased brother, registered as Alberto Aleandro Uderzo. The fact that his name, intended to just be "Albert" like that of his deceased brother, was registered as the Italian "Alberto" is because the responsible government official misunderstood Silvio Uderzo's heavy Italian accent. The name "Aleandro" is in honor of Uderzo's paternal grandfather.  Uderzo was born on the morning of 25 April 1927 around 07:00. At this point, he was an Italian citizen rather than a French one. Uderzo was born with six fingers on each hand. The additional fingers were surgically removed early in childhood as a precaution, as the infant Uderzo would sometimes violently pull on them when enraged or annoyed.  In the year 1929, the Uderzos moved to Clichy-sous-Bois in the eastern suburbs of Paris, the capital city of France. Here, Uderzo experienced elements of racism against Italian immigrants during his childhood, even though he gained French citizenship in the year 1934. Clichy-sous-Bois, at the time a very politically left-leaning political district, held deep popular sentiments against Mussolini's dictatorship and its involvement in the Spanish Civil War. Uderzo at one particular point became the target of the anger of a victim of Italian-German bombardment in the Spanish Civil War, and said a man spat in his face. However, apart from the occasional ethnic resentment against Italians, Uderzo views his childhood and education in Clichy-sous-Bois fondly in retrospect. His mother gave birth to two more children: Jeanne was born in 1932 and Marcel in 1933.  Uderzo came in touch with the arts for the first time during kindergarten, where he was noted as talented for his age. Most of his siblings also shared certain artistic talents, and their mother used sheets of paper and pencils to give the children, especially her oldest son Bruno, something to do. Bruno became an inspiration for Albert and in turn, soon noted the younger brother's talent. At this point, Albert did not yet aim to become a professional artist later in life and instead dreamt about a career as a clown and, after dropping that aspiration, aimed to follow Bruno into the craft of aircraft engineering. At the same time, he came in contact with the American comic and animated cartoon cultures, particularly with the early works of Walt Disney like Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck. The family moved to the Rue de Montreuil in the 11th arrondissement of Paris in October 1938, changing both schools and the social vicinity. Although Albert, blond and now with a Parisian accent, was no longer easily recognized as of Italian heritage, he nonetheless had problems in school. His only successful area in his educational pursuits was sketching and the arts. It would take him until around the age of 11 or 12 to go from sketching to painting in colors, however, which was when his parents discovered that Uderzo was color blind. From then on, Uderzo would use labels on his colors, but as he mostly stuck with black-and-white sketching, it would not make a huge impact on his artistic career either way.  In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland and France declared war on Germany in response. Albert's father Silvio, by then 51, was too old to be conscripted into the French army, whereas Albert himself was too young at 12. Bruno, however, was of military age and was called to action. He survived his military service without injury, and the Battle of France lasted between 10 May and 25 June 1940, ending in a decisive German victory and resulting in a German occupation of France. Albert soon finished his basic education at the age of 13 and decided to follow Bruno into aircraft engineering.

Working with Goscinny.

Throughout some more creations and travelling for the next few years, he eventually met René Goscinny in 1951. The two men quickly became good friends, and decided to work together in 1952 at the newly opened Paris office of the Belgian company, World Press. Their first creations were the characters Oumpah-pah, Jehan Pistolet and Luc Junior. In 1958 they adapted "Oumpah-pah" for serial publication in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine "Tintin", where it ran until 1962. In 1959 Goscinny and Uderzo became editor and artistic director (respectively) of "Pilote" magazine, a new venture aimed at older children. The magazine's first issue introduced Astérix to the French world, and it was an instant hit. During this period Uderzo also collaborated with Jean-Michel Charlier on the realistic series "Michel Tanguy", later named "Les Aventures de Tanguy et Laverdure".  Astérix was serialised in "Pilote", and in 1961 the first story "Astérix le gaulois (Asterix the Gaul)" was published as an individual album. After Goscinny's death in 1977, Uderzo continued to write and illustrate the books on his own, published by his own publishing house "Albert René", though at a significantly slower pace (averaging one edition every three to five years compared to two editions a year when working with Goscinny).

Family.

Uderzo married Ada Milani in 1953 and had one daughter Sylvie Uderzo (b. 1956).  After Uderzo fired Sylvie and her husband in 2007 as managers of his estate and agreed to sell his share of Editions Albert René to Hachette Livre, Sylvie accused him in a column in "Le Monde", that with this sale to a corporation it was "as if the gates of the Gaulish village had been thrown open to the Roman Empire". Uderzo had previously stated in interviews that Asterix would end with his death; however, the terms of the sale to Hachette allowed the company to continue producing Asterix titles indefinitely with or without Uderzo's participation. Uderzo in 2013 sued his daughter and son-in-law for "psychological violence". Sylvie responded with a lawsuit claiming persons unnamed had abused her father's "frailty". Her case was thrown out of court in 2014 and the two reached an amicable settlement.  Upon Uderzo's retirement in 2011, Asterix was taken over by Jean-Yves Ferri (script) and Didier Conrad (art).  Sylvie owned 40% of Editions Albert René before selling her parts to Hachette. The publishing group now owns 100%, after the remaining 60%, previously owned by Uderzo and by Goscinny's daughter, were also sold to Hachette Livre.  Uderzo's brother, Marcel, is also a cartoonist. Marcel Uderzo worked with his brother Albert for the drawing and coloring of about twelve Asterix albums.

Death.

On 24 March 2020, Uderzo died in his sleep at his home in Neuilly-sur-Seine, after suffering a heart attack. His son-in-law Bernard de Choisy said the heart attack was not linked to COVID-19, and that Uderzo had felt very tired for several weeks prior to his death.

Awards.

According to the UNESCO's Index Translationum, Uderzo is the 10th most often translated French language author (Goscinny being 4th) and the third most often translated French language comics author behind René Goscinny and Hergé.

Alberto Aleandro Uderzo (; ; 25 April 1927 – 24 March 2020) was a French comic book artist and scriptwriter. He is best known as the co-creator and illustrator of the "Astérix" series in collaboration with René Goscinny. He also drew other comics such as "Oumpah-pah", again with Goscinny. Uderzo retired in September 2011.

Albert Uderzo [] (* 25. April 1927 als "Alberto Aleandro Uderzo" in Fismes; † 24. März 2020 in Neuilly-sur-Seine) war ein französischer Zeichner. Er wurde als Illustrator und Mitautor der erstmals 1959 erschienenen Comicserie "Asterix" bekannt.


Early life.

Little is known about John IX before he became pope. Born in Tivoli to a man named Rampoaldo, he was ordained as a Benedictine priest by Pope Formosus. With the support of the powerful duke of Spoleto he was elected pope in early 898 following the sudden death of Pope Theodore II.

Pontificate.

With a view to diminish the violence of faction in Rome, John held several synods in Rome and elsewhere in 898. They not only confirmed the judgment of Pope Theodore II in granting Christian burial to Pope Formosus, but also at a council held at Ravenna decreed that the records of the synod held by Pope Stephen VI which had condemned him should be burned. Re-ordinations were forbidden, and those of the clergy who had been degraded by Stephen were restored to the ranks from which he had deposed them. The custom of plundering the palaces of bishops or popes on their death was ordered to be put down both by the spiritual and temporal authorities.  To keep their independence, which was threatened by the Germans, the Moravians appealed to John to let them have a hierarchy of their own. Ignoring the complaints of the German hierarchy, John sanctioned the consecration of a metropolitan bishop and three more bishops for the Moravians.  Finding that it was advisable to cement the ties between the empire and the papacy, John IX gave unhesitating support to Lambert of Spoleto in preference to Arnulf of Carinthia during the Synod of Rome, and also induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecration of the Popes should take place only in the presence of the imperial legates. The sudden death of Lambert shattered the hopes which this alliance seemed to promise.  John IX died in the year 900 and was succeeded by Pope Benedict IV (900–903).

Pope John IX (; died January 900) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from January 898 to his death.

Johannes IX. (* in Tivoli; † 900) war Papst von 898 bis 900. Er war Benediktiner und wurde auf Betreiben Kaiser Lamberts von Spoleto von der Partei der Formosianer zum Papst gewählt. Der gleichzeitig von den Antiformosianern zum Gegenpapst ernannte Sergius III. wurde mit Waffengewalt vertrieben. Die durch seine Vorgänger erlassene Rehabilitierung des 896 verstorbenen Papstes Formosus wurde von Johannes bekräftigt.


Etymology.

The term “due diligence” means "required carefulness" or "reasonable care" in general usage, and has been used in this sense since at least the mid-fifteenth century. It became a specialized legal term and later a common business term due to the United States’ Securities Act of 1933, where the process is called "reasonable investigation" (section 11b3). This Act included a defense at Section 11, referred to later in legal usage as the “due diligence” defense, which could be used by broker-dealers when accused of inadequate disclosure to investors of material information with respect to the purchase of securities. In legal and business use, the term was soon used for the process itself instead of how it was to be performed, so that the original expressions such as "exercise due diligence in investigating" and "investigation carried out with due diligence" were soon shortened to "due diligence investigation" and finally "due diligence".  As long as broker-dealers exercised “due diligence” (required carefulness) in their investigation into the company whose equity they were selling, and as long as they disclosed to the investor what they found, they would not be found liable for non-disclosure of information that was not discovered in the process of that investigation.  The broker-dealer community quickly institutionalized, as a standard practice, the conducting of due diligence investigations of any stock offerings in which they involved themselves. Originally the term was limited to public offerings of equity investments, but over time it has become associated with investigations of private mergers and acquisitions as well.

Examples.

Business transactions and corporate finance.

Due diligence takes different forms depending on its purpose:  The due diligence process (framework) can be divided into nine distinct areas:  It is essential that the concepts of valuations (shareholder value analysis) be considered in a due diligence process. This is in order to reduce the number of failed mergers and acquisitions.  In this regard, two new audit areas have been incorporated into the Due Diligence framework:  The relevant areas of concern may include the financial, legal, labor, tax, IT, environment and market/commercial situation of the company. Other areas include intellectual property, real and personal property, insurance and liability coverage, debt instrument review, employee benefits (including the Affordable Care Act) and labor matters, immigration, and international transactions. Areas of focus in due diligence continue to develop with cybersecurity emerging as an area of concern for business acquirers. Due diligence findings impact a number of aspects of the transaction including the purchase price, the representations and warranties negotiated in the transaction agreement, and the indemnification provided by the sellers.  Due Diligence has emerged as a separate profession for accounting and auditing experts.

Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.

With the number and size of penalties increasing, the United States' Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) has caused many U.S. institutions to look into how they evaluate all of their relationships overseas. The lack of a due diligence of a company's agents, vendors, and suppliers, as well as merger and acquisition partners in foreign countries could lead to doing business with an organization linked to a foreign official or state owned enterprises and their executives. This link could be perceived as leading to the bribing of the foreign officials and as a result lead to noncompliance with the FCPA. Due diligence in regard to FCPA compliance is required in two aspects:  In the M&A context, buyers can use the due diligence phase to integrate a target into their internal FCPA controls, focusing initial efforts on necessary revisions to the target's business activities with a high-risk of corruption.  While financial institutions are among the most aggressive in defining FCPA best practices, manufacturing, retailing and energy industries are highly active in managing FCPA compliance programs.

Human rights.

Passed on May 25, 2011, the OECD member countries agreed to revise their guidelines promoting tougher standards of corporate behavior, including human rights. As part of this new definition, they utilized a new aspect of due diligence that requires a corporation to investigate third party partners for potential abuse of human rights.  In the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises document, it is stated that all members will “Seek ways to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their business operations, products or services by a business relationship, even if they do not contribute to those impacts”.  The term was originally put forth by UN Special Representative for Human Rights and Business John Ruggie, who uses it as an umbrella to cover the steps and processes by which a company understands, monitors and mitigates its human rights impacts. Human Rights Impact Assessment is a component of this.  The UN formalized guidelines for Human Rights Due Diligence on June 16 with the endorsement of Ruggie's Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights.

Civil litigation.

Due diligence in civil procedure is the idea that reasonable investigation is necessary before certain kinds of relief are requested.  For example, duly diligent efforts to locate and/or serve a party with civil process is frequently a requirement for a party seeking to use means other than personal service to obtain jurisdiction over a party. Similarly, in areas of the law such as bankruptcy, an attorney representing someone filing a bankruptcy petition must engage in due diligence to determine that the representations made in the bankruptcy petition are factually accurate. Due diligence is also generally prerequisite to a request for relief in states where civil litigants are permitted to conduct pre-litigation discovery of facts necessary to determine whether or not a party has a factual basis for a cause of action.  In civil actions seeking a foreclosure or seizure of property, a party requesting this relief is frequently required to engage in due diligence to determine who may claim an interest in the property by reviewing public records concerning the property and sometimes by a physical inspection of the property that would reveal a possible interest in the property of a tenant or other person.  Due diligence is also a concept found in the civil litigation concept of a statute of limitations. Frequently, a statute of limitations begins to run against a plaintiff when that plaintiff knew or should have known had that plaintiff investigated the matter with due diligence that the plaintiff had a claim against a defendant. In this context, the term “due diligence” determines the scope of a party's constructive knowledge, upon receiving notice of facts sufficient to constitute “inquiry notice” that alerts a would-be plaintiff that further investigation might reveal a cause of action.

Criminal law.

In criminal law, due diligence is the only available defense to a crime that is one of strict liability (i.e., a crime that only requires an actus reus and no mens rea). Once the criminal offence is proven, the defendant must prove on balance that they did everything possible to prevent the act from happening. It is not enough that they took the normal standard of care in their industry – they must show that they took every reasonable precaution.  Due diligence is also used in criminal law to describe the scope of the duty of a prosecutor, to take efforts to turn over potentially exculpatory evidence, to (accused) criminal defendants.  In criminal law, “due diligence” also identifies the standard a prosecuting entity must satisfy in pursuing an action against a defendant, especially with regard to the provision of the Federal and State Constitutional and statutory right to a speedy trial or to have a warrant or detainer served in an action. In cases where a defendant is in any type of custodial situation where their freedom is constrained, it is solely the prosecuting entities duty to ensure the provision of such rights and present the citizen before the court with jurisdiction. This also applies where the respective judicial system and/or prosecuting entity has current address or contact information on the named party and said party has made no attempt to evade notice of the prosecution of the action.

Due diligence defence.

In the United Kingdom, "proper use of a due diligence system" may be used as a defence against a charge of breach of regulations e.g. under the Timber and Timber Products (Placing on the Market) Regulations 2013 and the Environmental Protection (Microbeads) (England) Regulations 2017, businesses may be able to defend a charge of non-compliance with regulations if they can show that they have undertaken supplier due diligence to a necessary standard.

Due diligence is the investigation or exercise of care that a reasonable business or person is expected to take before entering into an agreement or contract with another party or an act with a certain standard of care.

Eine Due-Diligence-Prüfung, entsprechend dem englischen Rechts- und Geschäftsjargon oft verkürzt zu Due Diligence (DD), bezeichnet eine "sorgfältige Prüfung", die – im Regelfall durch den Käufer veranlasst – beim Kauf von Unternehmensbeteiligungen oder Immobilien sowie bei einem Börsengang erfolgt. Due-Diligence-Prüfungen (sinngemäß übersetzt als „im Verkehr gebotene Sorgfalt“) analysieren Stärken und Schwächen des Objekts sowie die entsprechenden Risiken und spielen daher eine wichtige Rolle bei der Wertfindung des Objektes.


Wavelength and hue detection in humans.

Isaac Newton discovered that white light, after being split into its component colors when passed through a dispersive prism, could be recombined to make white light by passing them through a different prism.  The characteristic colors are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.  In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, role in color vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for color vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect.  The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and yellow.

Physiology of color perception.

Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in trichromatic color vision.  Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein, which is covalently linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely 11-cis-dehydroretinal.  The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and which is finalized in the visual cortex and associative areas of the brain.  For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, microspectrophotometry has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often described as such. The RGB color model, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color, but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.  The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision; in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.

Theories.

Two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. The trichromatic theory, or Young–Helmholtz theory, proposed in the 19th century by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, as mentioned above, states that the retina's three types of cones are preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1872. It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are generally accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the adjacent diagram. Green←→Magenta and Blue←→Yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. Although these two theories are both currently widely accepted theories, past and more recent work has led to criticism of the opponent process theory, stemming from a number of what are presented as discrepancies in the standard opponent process theory. For example, the phenomenon of an after-image of complementary color can be induced by fatiguing the cells responsible for color perception, by staring at a vibrant color for a length of time, and then looking at a white surface. This phenomenon of complementary colors demonstrates cyan, rather than green, to be the complement of red and magenta, rather than red, to be the complement of green, as well as demonstrating, as a consequence, that the reddish-green color proposed to be impossible by opponent process theory is, in fact, the colour yellow. Although this phenomenon is more readily explained by the trichromatic theory, explanations for the discrepancy may include alterations to the opponent process theory, such as redefining the opponent colours as red vs. cyan, to reflect this effect. Despite such criticisms, both theories remain in use.

Cone cells in the human eye.

A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.  The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome; defective encoding of these leads to the two most common forms of color blindness. The OPN1LW gene, which codes for the opsin present in the L cones, is highly polymorphic (a recent study by Verrelli and Tishkoff found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men). A very small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome. X chromosome inactivation means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of tetrachromatic color vision. Variations in OPN1MW, which codes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on spectral sensitivity.

Color in the human brain.

Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both Helmholtz's trichromatic theory, and Hering's opponent process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of retinal ganglion cells and beyond. In Hering's theory opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.  Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma the visual tracts are referred to as the optic tracts, which enter the thalamus to synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).  The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receive axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.  After synapsing at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary visual cortex (V1) located at the back of the brain within the occipital lobe. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated.  In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long wavelength light if the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw; their existence in primates was suggested by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel and subsequently proven by Bevil Conway. As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called blobs, and are thought to come in two flavors, red–green and blue–yellow. Red–green cells compare the relative amounts of red–green in one part of a scene with the amount of red–green in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of color constancy explained by Edwin H. Land in his retinex theory. From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO. Area V4 was initially suggested by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color, but this is now thought to be incorrect. In particular, the presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color. Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called globs. This is the first part of the brain in which color is processed in terms of the full range of hues found in color space.  Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior temporal lobe. "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the ventral stream or the "what pathway", distinguished from the dorsal stream ("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among many other features.

Subjectivity of color perception.

Nothing categorically distinguishes the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from invisible portions of the broader spectrum. In this sense, color is not a property of electromagnetic radiation, but a feature of visual perception by an observer. Furthermore, there is an arbitrary mapping between wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher John Locke recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "inverted spectrum" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. Synesthesia (or ideasthesia) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.  The Himba people have been found to categorize colors differently from most Euro-Americans and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people. The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades ("zuzu" in Himba), very light ("vapa"), vivid blue and green ("buru") and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.  Perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy.

In other animal species.

Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "visible spectrum". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range. Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans. It is a myth that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light; their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.  The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals in general have color vision of a limited type, and usually have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.  In most Catarrhini (Old World monkeys and apes—primates closely related to humans) there are three types of color receptors (known as cone cells), resulting in trichromatic color vision. These primates, like humans, are known as trichromats. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are dichromats, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.  Many invertebrates have color vision. Honeybees and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet. "Osmia rufa", for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers. In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of hymenopteran insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and sawflies) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's." Papilio" butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in stomatopods (such as the mantis shrimp) with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.  Vertebrate animals such as tropical fish and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals. In bird vision, tetrachromacy is achieved through up to four cone types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone photopigment (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored oil droplet in its inner segment. Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. It has been suggested that it is likely that pigeons are pentachromats.  Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal geckos have the capability of seeing color in dim light.  In the evolution of mammals, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by gene duplication. Eutherian mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (dichromatic) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellow—but cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes. The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.  However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans. New World monkeys may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the owl monkeys are cone monochromats, and both sexes of howler monkeys are trichromats. Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive opsin protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.  Several marsupials such as the fat-tailed dunnart ("Sminthopsis crassicaudata") have been shown to have trichromatic color vision.  Marine mammals, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats.

Evolution.

Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In herbivorous primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In hummingbirds, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand, nocturnal mammals have less-developed color vision, since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that ultraviolet light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the animal kingdom, especially insects. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common electronic transitions in matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.  The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to diurnal (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants. Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods—the only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.  Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some cataract surgery patients. Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas. These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.  Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.

Mathematics of color perception.

A "physical color" is a combination of pure spectral colors (in the visible range). In principle there exist infinitely many distinct spectral colors, and so the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional vector space (a Hilbert space). This space is typically notated "H". More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the topological cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the centroid of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.  An element "C" of "H" is a function from the range of visible wavelengths—considered as an interval of real numbers ["W","W"]—to the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength "w" in ["W","W"] its intensity "C"("w").  A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. We call this space R.  Since each wavelength "w" stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions "s"("w"), "m"("w"), "l"("w") corresponding to the response of the "S", "M", and "L" cone cells, respectively.  Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color "C" in "H" stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to "w"), over the interval ["W","W"], of "C"("w")·"s"("w"), of "C"("w")·"m"("w"), and of "C"("w")·"l"("w"). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color "C" (which is an element in "H") a particular perceived color (which is a single point in R). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space "H" can all result in the same single perceived color in R, so a perceived color is not unique to one physical color.  Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space "H" to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space R.  Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in R. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same chromaticity while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color.  In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them "S", "M", and "L". To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities ("I", "I", "I") for the "S", "M", and "L" lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their ("I", "I", "I") matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of "S", "M", "L" would have to be added with some intensity to the "physical test color", and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.  By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities ("I", "I", "I") as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of "S", "M", "L" had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the "S", "M", "L" lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross section, corresponding to constant "X"+"Y"+"Z" of the CIE 1931 color space, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram.  This system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color. So, in general there is no such thing as "the" combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version of tan; instead there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength, while the boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure red at the ends of the visible spectral colors.  The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the "spectral locus"), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated purples, mixtures of red and violet.

Chromatic adaptation.

In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a "chromatic adaptation transform" (CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (color balance), while keeping other colors also looking realistic. For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between ICC profiles with different white points. Adobe Photoshop, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.  In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to color constancy; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources.

Color vision is an ability of animals to perceive differences between light composed of different wavelengths (i.e., different spectral power distributions) independently of light intensity. Color perception is a part of the larger visual system and is mediated by a complex process between neurons that begins with differential stimulation of different types of photoreceptors by light entering the eye. Those photoreceptors then emit outputs that are then propagated through many layers of neurons and then ultimately to the brain. Color vision is found in many animals and is mediated by similar underlying mechanisms with common types of biological molecules and a complex history of evolution in different animal taxa. In primates, color vision may have evolved under selective pressure for a variety of visual tasks including the foraging for nutritious young leaves, ripe fruit, and flowers, as well as detecting predator camouflage and emotional states in other primates.

Die Farbwahrnehmung ist als Teilbereich des Sehens die Fähigkeit, Unterschiede in der spektralen Zusammensetzung des Lichts wahrzunehmen. Sie beruht darauf, dass das Auge über verschiedene Rezeptortypen verfügt, die jeweils für bestimmte Bereiche des Lichtspektrums empfindlich sind. Die Erregungsmuster dieser Rezeptorzellen bilden die Grundlage für die komplexe Weiterverarbeitung in Netzhaut und Gehirn, die schließlich zur Farbempfindung führt.


Early life.

Baldassarre Cossa was born on the island of Procida in the Kingdom of Naples to the family of Giovanni Cossa, lord of Procida. Initially he followed a military career, taking part in the Angevin-Neapolitan war. His two brothers were sentenced to death for piracy by Ladislaus of Naples.  He studied law at the University of Bologna and obtained doctorates in both civil and canon law. Probably at the prompting of his family, in 1392 he entered the service of Pope Boniface IX, first working in Bologna and then in Rome. (The Western Schism had begun in 1378, and there were two competing popes at the time, one in Avignon supported by France and Spain, and one in Rome, supported by most of Italy, Germany and England.) In 1386 he is listed as canon of the cathedral of Bologna. In 1396, he became archdeacon in Bologna. He became Cardinal deacon of Saint Eustachius in 1402 and Papal legate in Romagna in 1403. Johann Peter Kirsch describes Cossa as "utterly worldly-minded, ambitious, crafty, unscrupulous, and immoral, a good soldier but no churchman". At this time Cossa also had some links with local robber bands, which were often used to intimidate his rivals and attack carriages. These connections added to his influence and power in the region.

Role in the Western Schism.

Council of Pisa.

Cardinal Cossa was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, withdrew their allegiance from Pope Gregory XII, stating that he had broken his solemn oath not to create new cardinals without consulting them in advance. In company with those cardinals who had been following Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, they convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became a leading figure. The aim of the council was to end the schism; to this end they deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected a new pope Alexander V in 1409. Gregory and Benedict ignored this decision, however, so that there were now three simultaneous claimants to the papacy.

Election to the papacy.

Alexander V died soon after, and on 25 May 1410 Cossa was consecrated a bishop, taking the name John XXIII. He had become an ordained priest only one day earlier. John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France, England, Bohemia, Portugal, parts of the Holy Roman Empire, and numerous Northern Italian city states, including Florence and Venice and the Patriarchate of Aquileia; however, the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII was regarded as pope by the Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Sicily and Scotland and Gregory XII was still favored by Ladislaus of Naples, Carlo I Malatesta, the princes of Bavaria, Louis III, Elector Palatine, and parts of Germany and Poland. John XXIII made the Medici Bank the bank of the papacy, contributing considerably to the family's wealth and prestige.  The main enemy of John was Ladislaus of Naples, who protected Gregory XII in Rome. Following his election as pope, John spent a year in Bologna and then joined forces with Louis II of Anjou to march against Ladislaus. An initial victory proved short-lived and Ladislaus retook Rome in May 1413, forcing John to flee to Florence. In Florence he met Sigismund, King of the Romans. Sigismund wanted to end the schism and urged John to call a general council. John did so with hesitation, at first trying to have the council held in Italy (rather than in a German Imperial City, as Sigismund wanted). The Council of Constance was convened on 30 October 1413. During the third session, rival Pope Gregory XII authorized the council as well. The council resolved that all three popes should abdicate and a new pope be elected.

Flight from the Council of Constance.

In March, John escaped from Constance disguised as a postman. According to the Klingenberger Chronicle, written by a noble client of Frederick IV, Duke of Austria, John XXIII travelled down the Rhine to Schaffhausen in a boat, while Frederick accompanied him with a small band of men on horseback. There was a huge outcry in Constance when it was discovered that John had fled, and Sigismund was furious about this setback to his plans for ending the Schism. The King of the Romans issued orders to all the powers on the Upper Rhine and in Swabia stating that he had declared Frederick to be an outlaw and that his lands and possessions were forfeit. In due course this led to a great deal of political upheaval and many Austrian losses in the region, notably in Aargau to the Swiss Confederation.  In the meantime, Pope John XXIII and Frederick fled further downriver along the Rhine to the town of Freiburg im Breisgau, which recognised the duke of Austria as its lord. There Sigismund's lieutenant Ludwig III, Elector Palatine caught up with them. He convinced Frederick that he stood to lose too much by harbouring the fugitive pope, and the Austrian duke agreed to give himself and John up and return to Constance.

Deposition.

During his absence John was deposed by the council, and upon his return he was tried for heresy, simony, schism and immorality, and found guilty on all counts. Gibbon wrote, "The more scandalous charges were suppressed; the vicar of Christ was accused only of piracy, rape, sodomy, murder and incest." John was given over to Ludwig III, Elector Palatine, who imprisoned him for several months in Heidelberg and Mannheim. The last remaining claimant in Avignon, Benedict XIII, refused to resign and was excommunicated. Martin V was elected as new pope in 1417.

Death and burial.

Cossa was again imprisoned in Germany. He was freed in 1418 after a heavy ransom was paid by the Medici. He went to Florence, where he submitted to Martin V, who made him Cardinal Bishop of Frascati. Cossa died only a few months later.  The Medici oversaw the construction of his magnificent tomb by Donatello and Michelozzo in the Battistero di San Giovanni in Florence. Pope Martin V protested in vain against the inscription on the sarcophagus: "John the former pope".  J.P. Kirsch remarks that "Undeniably secular and ambitious, his moral life was not above reproach, and his unscrupulous methods in no wise accorded with the requirements of his high office... the heinous crimes of which his opponents in the council accused him were certainly gravely exaggerated." One historian concluded that John was "a great man in temporal things, but a complete failure and worthless in spiritual things".

Fictional depictions.

John is portrayed by Steven Waddington in the 2016 television series "". John is also a main character in "A Trembling Upon Rome" by Richard Condon.  The 1932 thriller 'Safe Custody' by Dornford Yates, references John. Listing the members of an objectionable family, a character in the story says:  "Then we come to his nephew—a promising lad of fifteen. He lies, steals, smells, assaults the servants and abuses any animal which he is satisfied will not retaliate. If Gibbon may be believed, Pope John the Twenty-third as a stripling must have resembled him".  Russian writer Dmitry Balashov wrote a novel "Baltazar Cossa" (Бальтазар Косса).

Numbering issues.

He should not be confused with Pope John XXIII of the twentieth century. When Angelo Roncalli was elected pope in 1958, there was some confusion as to whether he would be "John XXIII" or "John XXIV"; he then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. There was no John XX; this is why Gibbon refers to the antipope John as John XXII.

Further reading.

In 1983 political satirist/novelist Richard Condon ("The Manchurian Candidate") wrote "A Trembling Upon Rome", a novel of historical fiction about the life of Baldassare Cossa.

Baldassarre Cossa (c. 1370 – 22 December 1419) was Pisan antipope John XXIII (1410–1415) during the Western Schism. The Catholic Church regards him as an antipope, as he opposed Pope Gregory XII whom the Catholic Church now recognizes as the rightful successor of Saint Peter.

Johannes XXIII. (* um 1370 in Neapel; † 22. Dezember 1419 in Florenz), eigentlich "Baldassare Cossa", amtierte von 1410 bis 1415 als Gegenpapst.


Forces.

The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers (or, for a large performance, the conductor), and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments that play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol, or bassoon. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as operas, and organ and cello for sacred music. A double bass may be added, particularly when accompanying a lower-pitched solo voice (e.g., a bass singer).  Typically performers match the instrument families used in the full ensemble: including bassoon when the work includes oboes or other winds, but restricting it to cello and/or double bass if only strings are involved. Harps, lutes, and other handheld instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. Sometimes instruments are specified by the composer: in "L'Orfeo" (1607) Monteverdi calls for an exceptionally varied instrumentation, with multiple harpsichords and lutes with a bass violin in the pastoral scenes followed by lamenting to the accompaniment of "organo di legno" and "chitarrone", while Charon stands watch to the sound of a regal.  The keyboard (or other chord-playing instrument) player "realizes" (adds in an improvised fashion) a continuo part by playing, in addition to the notated bass line, notes above it to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or improvised in performance. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are also expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices (notably the lead melody and any accidentals that might be present in it) as a guide. Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the other instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment. Modern editions of such music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player, in place of improvisation. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.

Notation.

A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass line notated with notes on a musical staff plus added numbers and accidentals (or in some cases (back)slashes added to a number) beneath the staff to indicate what intervals above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played.  The phrase "tasto solo" indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period. The reason "tasto solo" had to be specified was because it was an accepted convention that if no figures were present in a section of otherwise figured bass line, the chord-playing performer would either assume that it was a root-position triad, or deduce from the harmonic motion that another figure was implied. For example, if a continuo part in the key of C begins with a C bass note in the first measure, which descends to a B in the second measure, even if there were no figures, the chord-playing instrumentalist would deduce that this was most likely a first inversion dominant chord (spelled B–D–G, from bottom note of the chord to the top).  Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10, 11, and 15.

Numbers.

Contemporary figured bass abbreviations for triads and seventh chords are shown in the table to the right.  The numbers indicate the number of scale steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example:  Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord can be realized as:  In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be understood, these are usually left out. For example:  has the same meaning as  and can be realized as  although the performer may choose which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way, such as by playing them as arpeggios rather than as block chords, or by adding improvised ornaments, depending on the tempo and texture of the music.  Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or indicates, for example. From the figured bass-writer's perspective, this bass note is obviously a third inversion seventh chord, so the sixth interval is viewed as an interval that the player should automatically infer. In many cases entire figures can be left out, usually where the chord is obvious from the progression or the melody.  Sometimes the chord changes but the bass note itself is held. In these cases the figures for the new chord are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur.  When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures, for as long as the chord is to be held, to indicate this:  Note that when the bass moves the chord intervals have effectively changed, in this case from to, but no additional numbers are written.

Accidentals.

When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the note a third above the lowest note; most commonly, this is the third of the chord. Otherwise, if a number is shown, the accidental affects the said interval. For example, this, showing the widespread default meaning of an accidental without number as applying to the third above the bass:  Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.  Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised (augmented) by a semitone (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp). A different way to indicate this is to draw a backslash through the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing:  More rarely, a "forward" slash through a number indicates that a pitch is to be lowered (diminished) by a semitone:  When sharps or flats are used with key signatures, they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign.

History.

Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, mostly (but not limited to) sacred choral works, of the classical period (up to around 1800). An example is C. P. E. Bach's Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo. Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist: masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, and Franz Schubert, for example, have a basso continuo part that was for an organist.

Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the Baroque era (1600–1750), provided the harmonic structure of the music by supplying a bassline and a chord progression. The phrase is often shortened to continuo, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the "continuo group".

Der Generalbass oder Basso continuo ( für „fortlaufender, ununterbrochener Bass“; kurz: Continuo) bildet das Fundament und harmonische Gerüst in der Musik von etwa 1600 bis etwa 1800, besonders in der Barockmusik. Wegen der großen Bedeutung des Generalbasses in dieser Zeit wird diese Epoche nach Hugo Riemann auch Generalbasszeitalter genannt.


Etymology.

The word Eckankar is a transliteration of the phrase Ik Onkar, which is used in Sikhism. According to the Eckankar glossary, the term "Eckankar" means "Co-Worker with God". ECK is another word for the Holy Spirit, also known as the Audible Life Current, Life Force, or Light and Sound of God.  Eckankar's headquarters were originally in Las Vegas, Nevada. Under the leadership of Darwin Gross, the organization was moved to Menlo Park, California in 1975. In 1986, Harold Klemp moved the base of operations to Minneapolis, Minnesota.  The leader of Eckankar is known as 'the Living ECK Master'. Some leaders, Twitchell and Klemp, for example, also hold the title "Mahanta" which refers to the inner aspect of the teacher. The leader functions as both an inner and outer guide for each member's individual spiritual progress. Twitchell (spiritual name: Peddar Zaskq) was the movement's spiritual leader until his death in late 1971. Gross (spiritual name: Dap Ren) succeeded him until October 22, 1981, when Klemp (spiritual name: Wah Z, pronounced Wah Zee) became the spiritual leader.  Harold Klemp attended a Lutheran preministerial high school and college. He later pursued private study into different paths such as the Rosicrucians and Edgar Cayce. The extent of the influence of these teachings on Klemp is difficult to determine.[Ref: Miller]  Some scholars believe that Eckankar draws in part from the Sikh and Hindu religions, and the Sant Mat movement. Others find significant differences between Sant Mat teachings and Eckankar.

Beliefs.

One of the basic tenets is that Soul (the true self) may be experienced separate from the physical body and in full consciousness travel freely in other planes of reality. Eckankar emphasizes personal spiritual experiences as the most natural way back to God. These are attained via Soul Travel shifting the awareness from the body to the inner planes of existence.  Certain mantras or chants are used to facilitate spiritual growth. One important spiritual exercise of Eckankar is the singing or chanting of "Hu", and is viewed in Eckankar as a "love song to God". It is pronounced like the English word "hue" (or "hyoo") in a long, drawn-out breath and is sung for about half an hour. ECKists sing it alone or in groups. ECKists believe that singing Hu draws one closer in state of consciousness to the Divine Being and that it can expand awareness, help one experience divine love, heal broken hearts, offer solace in times of grief, and bring peace and calm. ECKists believe this practice allows the student to step back from the overwhelming input of the physical senses and emotions and regain Soul's spiritually higher viewpoint.  Dreams are regarded as important teaching tools, and members often keep dream journals to facilitate study. According to followers of Eckankar, dream travel often serves as the gateway to Soul Travel or the shifting of one's consciousness to ever-higher states of being.  Eckankar teaches that "spiritual liberation" in one's lifetime is available to all and that it is possible to achieve Self-Realization (the realization of oneself as Soul) and God-Realization (the realization of oneself as a spark of God) in one's lifetime. The membership card for Eckankar states: "The aim and purpose of Eckankar has always been to take Soul by Its own path back to Its divine source."  The final spiritual goal of all ECKists is to become conscious "Co-workers" with God.  The "Shariyat-Ki-Sugmad", which means "Way of the Eternal", is the holy scripture of Eckankar. It comprises two books that tell of spiritual meaning and purpose as written by the Mahanta. There are also a series of Satsang writings, that are available with yearly membership in Eckankar. There are Satsang classes available to study discourses with others, as well as individually.  Some of the key beliefs taught in the "Shariyat-Ki-Sugmad" include Soul Travel, karma, reincarnation, love, Light and Sound, and many other spiritual topics. ECKists believe Sugmad is the endless source from which all forms were created, and that the ECK, the Sound Current, flows out of Sugmad and into lower dimensions.  Primary to the teaching is the belief that one may experience the perspective of soul beyond the limits of the body. Also, the concepts of karma and reincarnation help to explain situations in life as the playing out of past causes.  The beliefs that individuals are responsible for their own destiny and that their decisions determine their future are important concepts to Eckankar. Eckankar students meet in open public services and classes to discuss personal experiences, topics, books and discourses.

Worship.

Eckankar emphasizes personal spiritual experiences as the most natural way back to God. These are attained via the Spiritual Exercises of ECK. Eckankar offers a Spiritual Exercise of the Week on its website.  An ECK Light and Sound service generally includes a HU Song and contemplation, a talk or panel discussion from members of the Eckankar Clergy, and often includes creative arts and group discussion. Eckankar hosts a Worldwide Seminar in October and a Springtime Seminar every year. Eckankar also hosts annual seminars in countries around the world. ECK seminars include speakers, creative arts, workshops, discussion groups and other activities.

Current status.

The Eckankar "EK" symbol appears on the list of "Available Emblems of Belief for Placement on Government Headstones and Markers" by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Sources estimate that there were around 50,000 followers in the 1990s.

Iran.

In February 2018, Iranian agencies reported the execution of Karim Zargar, an Eckankar member, for "corruption on earth" and forced rape. Zargar was a lawyer, actor, and former IRIB broadcast executive who was hanged at Rajai Shahr Prison. Marjan Davari, Mr. Zargar's former spouse, was also imprisoned and sentenced to death for being a member of Eckankar. Ms. Davari's family has stated in the media and online that she is merely a researcher and a translator and is not a follower of Eckankar.

Ceremonies and rites.

There are few personal requirements to be an ECKist; however, certain spiritual practices are recommended. Chief among these is daily practice of the "Spiritual Exercises of ECK" for 15–20 minutes. The most basic ECK spiritual exercise is singing the word "Hu". A wide variety of spiritual exercises are offered, and members are encouraged to create their own. There are no dietary requirements, taboos, or enforced ascetic practices. Eckankar does not require potential members to leave their current faith to join.  There are a number of ceremonies an ECKist can experience as part of the teaching, including a Consecration ceremony for initiating the young and infants, a Rite of Passage into adulthood (around age 13), a Wedding ceremony, and a Memorial service.  September 17 is celebrated as Founder's Day in honor of the modern-day founder of Eckankar, Paul Twitchell. October 22 is celebrated as the spiritual new year.

ECK Masters.

ECKists believe contact with Divine Spirit, which they call the "ECK", can be made via the spiritual exercises of ECK and the guidance of the living ECK Master. It is held that the ECK Masters are here to serve all life irrespective of religious belief. The main Eckankar website includes a list of Masters.

Criticism.

In "Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America", David C. Lane writes:

Eckankar is a religion founded by Paul Twitchell in 1965. It is a non-profit religious group with members in over one hundred countries. The spiritual home is the Temple of Eck in Chanhassen, Minnesota. Eckankar is not affiliated with any other religious group.

Eckankar ist eine weltweite neue religiöse Bewegung, deren Ursprünge unter anderem in der Sant-Mat-Bewegung liegen. Selbst versteht sie sich als Urreligion, die auf den Prinzipien des Karma und der Reinkarnation basiert und das Wissen sowie die Erfahrung aller großen Weltreligionen in ihrem Kern vereint. Eckankar wurde 1965 in den USA von Paul Twitchell als „Wissenschaft der Seelenreise“ veröffentlicht. Der derzeitige spirituelle Führer ist Harold Klemp.


Biography.

Adolf Hennecke was the son of a miner, raised by his uncle after the death of his parents. Between 1919 and 1922 he worked as an apprentice salesman. From 1925, finding himself jobless during Germany's Weimar-era hyperinflation, Hennecke started work as a miner and moved in 1926 to Oelsnitz, Erzgebirge to work in the Saxon coal mines. In 1931, Hennecke joined the Revolutionäre Gewerkschafts-Opposition and, after the Second World War, the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1948, given his anti-nazi credentials, he was elected to the Trade Union Management Board and was a member of the Competition Commission of the mining company, as well as the Board of Directors of the coal industry Union of People's Enterprises, or VVB.

Awards and Rewards.

Adolf Hennecke, 43, was chosen to initiate a Stakhanovite activist effort in the Soviet occupation zone in imitation of the Soviet movement named after the Soviet miner Alexey Stakhanov. The Lugau-Oelsnitzer coalfield was underperforming, producing less coal in 1948 than in 1938 and 8.8% less than the previous year. The local labor management and party representatives sought to demonstrate that far higher production levels were possible. Hennecke obtained this assignment after the young miner refused to set such a performance record when extracting a layer of coal, fearing the reaction of his colleagues. At first, Hennecke too refused the task (because he was afraid of the reaction of his colleagues to such a norm-breaking effort) but finally he declared himself ready to try for a record performance. On 13 October 1948, the first anniversary of the 1947 implementation of the Soviet Military Administration's Order 234 reorganizing the economy on Soviet principles, Hennecke entered the Karl Liebknecht shaft of the Lugau-Oelsnitzer mine with two fellow SED members and a union representative and extracted in the course of a 13-hour shift more than of coal (instead of the normal ) from a layer that Hennecke has prepared the day before. This volume represented 387% of the usual performance standard. As a reward, he received of fat, three boxes of cigarettes, a bottle of brandy, 50 marks, and a bouquet of flowers.

Hennecke Movement.

Adolf Hennecke was held up as an example for workers in the GDR and his record became the trigger for the Hennecke activist movement in which the workers pledged to exceed production standards. The anniversary of Hennecke's mining performance was celebrated annually on 13 October by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. The first conference of the Hennecke movement took place on 4 and 5 February 1949 in East Berlin in the Staatsoper Berlin opera house. Among the topics of the conference were questions about wage increases and the expansion of the activist movement into a mass movement.

Later Career.

A year later, in 1949, Adolf Hennecke received the first prize of the National Prize of the German Democratic Republic, with a cash reward of 100,000 marks. In 1950, Hennecke was placed in charge of studies at the Freiberg Mining School, and in October 1950 Hennecke was elected to the Volkskammer.  Later Hennecke became a department head in the State Planning Commission of the GDR and was a member of the central committee of the SED until his death. In 1965 and 1970, he was awarded the GDR's Patriotic Order of Merit and in 1964 the Karl Marx Order. Hennecke is buried at the Socialist Memorial at the Friedrichsfelde Central Cemetery in the Lichtenberg district of Berlin.

Adolf Hennecke, (born 25 March 1905, Meggen, Westphalia, died 22 February 1975 in East Berlin) was an official of the German FDGB ("Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund") and of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. He gave his name to the Hennecke movement, the German Democratic Republic's Stakhanovite activist movement.

Adolf Hennecke (* 25. März 1905 in Meggen, Westfalen; † 22. Februar 1975 in Ost-Berlin) war ein deutscher FDGB- und SED-Funktionär. Er wurde als Bergmann Namensgeber der Hennecke-Aktivistenbewegung in der DDR.