History.

Ibn Hisham's "Sirat Rasul Allah" (better known in English as "the Life of Muhammad"), describes the exploits of Yūsuf Dhū Nuwās. Ibn Hisham explains that Yūsuf was a convert Jew who grew out his sidelocks ("nuwas"), and who became known as "he of sidelocks." The historicity of Dhū Nuwās is affirmed by Philostorgius and by Procopius (in the latter's "Persian War"). Procopius writes that in 525, the armies of the Christian Kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia invaded Yemen at the request of the Byzantine Emperor, Justin I, to take control of the Jewish kingdom in Ḥimyar, then under the leadership of Yūsuf Dhū Nuwās, who rose to power in 522, probably after he assassinated Dhu Shanatir. Ibn Hisham explains the same sequence of events under the name of "Yūsuf Dhū Nuwās." Indeed, with this invasion, the Ḥimyarites were smitten, and as such the supremacy of the Jewish religion in the Kingdom of Ḥimyar, as well as in all of Yemen, came to an abrupt end.  Imrū al-Qays, the famous Yemeni poet from the same period, in his poem entitled "taqūl lī bint al-kinda lammā ‘azafat", laments the death of two great men of Yemen, one of them being Dhū Nuwās, whom he regards as the last of the Himyarite kings:  One Syriac source appears to suggest that the mother of Dhū Nuwās may have been herself a Jew hailing from the Mesopotamian city of Nisibis. If so, this would place her origins within the Sassanid imperial sphere, and would illuminate possible political reasons for his later actions against the Christians of Arabia, who were natural allies of the Byzantine Empire. Many modern historians, though Christopher Haas is an exception, have argued that her son's conversion was a matter of tactical opportunism, since Judaism would have provided him with an ideological counterweight to the religion of his adversary, the Kingdom of Aksum, and also allowed him to curry favour with the Sassanid shahanshah.

Rule.

According to Ibn Ishaq, the king of Himyar named Dhu Nuwas had burned the Christians in Najran, and an invading army from Aksum (Habashah) occupied Yemen. Dhu Nuwas decided to kill himself by drowning himself in the sea. Arab tradition states that Dhū Nuwās committed suicide by riding his horse into the Red Sea. The Himyarite kingdom is said to have been ruled prior to Dhu-Nuwas by the Du Yazan dynasty of Jewish converts, as early as the late fourth century.  According to a number of medieval historians, who depend on the account of John of Ephesus, Dhū Nuwās announced that he would persecute the Christians living in his kingdom because Christian states persecuted his fellow co-religionists in their realms; a letter survives written by Simon, the bishop of Beth Arsham in 524 CE, recounting Dimnon (who is probably "Dhū Nuwās"') persecution in Najran in Arabia.  Based on other contemporary sources, after seizing the throne of the Ḥimyarites in ca. 518 or 523 Dhū Nuwās attacked the Aksumite (mainly Christian Ethiopians at Najrān, capturing them and burning their churches. After accepting the city's capitulation, he massacred those inhabitants who would not renounce Christianity.  According to the Arab historians, Dhū Nuwās then proceeded to write a letter to the Lakhmid king Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man of al-Ḥīrah and King Kavadh I of Persia, informing them of his deed and encouraging them to do likewise to the Christians under their dominion. Al-Mundhir received this letter in January 519, as he was receiving an embassy from Constantinople seeking to forge a peace between the Roman Empire and al-Ḥīrha. He revealed the contents of the letter to the Roman ambassadors who were horrified by its contents. Word of the slaughter quickly spread throughout the Roman and Persian realms, and refugees from Najran even reached the court of the Roman emperor Justin I himself, begging him to avenge the martyred Christians.

Sources and names.

The name Yūsuf ’As’ar Yath’ar (believed to be Joseph Dhū-Nuwas) appears in an old South Arabian inscription. Related inscriptions from the same period were also deciphered by Jamme and Ryckmans, showing that in the ensuing wars with his non-Jewish subjects, the combined war booty (excluding deaths) from campaigns waged against the Abyssinians in Ẓafār, the fighters in ’Ašʻarān, Rakbān, Farasān, Muḥwān (Mocha), and the fighters and military units in Najran, amounted to 12,500 war trophies, 11,000 captives and 290,000 camels and bovines and sheep.  According to ‘Irfan Shahid's "Martyrs of Najran – New Documents", Dhu-Nuwas sent an army of some 120,000 soldiers to lay siege to the city of Najran, which siege lasted for six months, and the city taken and burnt on the 15th day of the seventh month (i.e. the lunar month Tishri). The city had revolted against the king and they refused to deliver it up unto the king. About three-hundred of the city’s inhabitants surrendered to the king’s forces, under the assurances of an oath that no harm would come to them, and these were later bound, while those remaining in the city were burnt alive within their church. The death toll in this account is said to have reached about two-thousand. However, in the Sabaean inscriptions describing these events, it is reported that by the month Dhu-Madra'an (between July and September) there were “1000 killed, 1500 prisoners [taken] and 10,000 head of cattle.”  Jacques Ryckmans, who deciphered the Sabaean inscriptions, writes in his "La Persécution des Chrétiens Himyarites", that Sarah'il Yaqbul-Yaz'an was both the tribal chief and the lieutenant of Yûsuf ’As’ar (the king) at the time of the military campaign, and that he was sent out by the king to take the city of Najran, while the king watched for a possible Abyssinian/Ethiopian incursion along the coastal plains of Yemen near Mokhā (al-Moḫâ) and the strait known as Bāb al-Mandab. It is to be noted that the Ethiopian church in Ẓafâr, which had been built by the Himyarite King some years earlier following the proselytizing mission of Theophilos the Indian and another church built by him in Aden (see: "Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius", Epitome of Book III, chapter 4), had been seen by Constantius II during the embassage to the land of the Ḥimyarites (i.e. Yemen) in "circa" 340 CE. This church was set on fire and razed to the ground, and its Abyssinian inhabitants killed. Later, foreigners (presumably Christians) living in Haḏramawt were also put to death before the king’s army advanced to Najran in the far north and took it.  King Yusuf Asar Yathar, described in an inscription as "king of all nations," had led the major tribes of Yemen (Hamedan, Madh'hij, Kindah, Murad) and successfully defeated the Abyssinian forces in Ẓafâr, Mokhā and Najran.  Dhi Yazan leader, Samu Yafa' (سميفع أشوع), become the successor of Yusuf in 527 and the Abyssinian forces led by Abraha had invaded Yemen again in 531.  Najran inscription (518 CE):  The first line :
 Sabaean: ليبركن الن ذ لهو سمين وارضين ملكن يوسف اسار يثار ملك كل اشعبن وليبركن اقولن
 Arabic : ليبارك الله الذي له (ملك) السماوات والأرض الملك يوسف أسار يثأر ملك كل الشعوب وليبارك الأقيال Third line:
 Sabaean:خصرو مراهمو ملكن يوسف اسار يثار كدهر قلسن وهرج احبشن بظفر وعلي حرب اشعرن وركبن وفرسن
 Arabic : الذين ناصروا سيدهم الملك يوسف أسأر يثأر عندما أحرق الكنيسة وقتل الأحباش في ظفار وعلى حرب الأشاعرة وركبان وفرسان Fifth line:
 Sabaean:وكذه فلح لهفان ملكن بهيت سباتن خمس ماتو عثني عشر االفم مهرجتم واحد عشر االفم سبيم وتسعي
 Arabic : وقد أفلح الملك في هذه المعركة في قتل 12500 اثناعشر الف وخمسمائة قتيل و11090 أحد عشر ألف وتسعين اسير Sixth line:
 Sabaean:وثتي ماتن االفن ابلم وبقرم وضانم وتسطرو ذن مسندن قيل شرحال ذي يزن اقرن بعلي نجرن
 Arabic : وغنم مئتي الف رأس من الابل والبقر والضان وقد كتب هذه المسند القيل شرحال ذي يزن عندما رابط في نجران  Seventh line:
 Sabaean:بشعب ذ همدن هجرن وعربن ونقرم بن ازانن واعرب كدت ومردم ومذحجم واقولن اخوتهو بعم ملكن قرنم
 Arabic : مع شعب همدان والعرب والمقاتلين اليزنيين وأعراب كندة ومراد ومذحج واخوته الأقيال الذين رابطوا مع الملك  Eighth and ninth line:
 Sabaean:ببحرن بن حبشت ويصنعنن سسلت مدبن وككل ذذكرو بذل مسندن مهرجتم وغنمم ومقرنتم فكسباتم
 Arabic : على البحر من جهة الحبشة واقاموا سلسلة من التحصينات في باب المندب وجميع الذين ذكروا بهذا المسند قاتلوا وغنموا ورابطوا في هذه المهمة Sabaean:اوده ذ قفلو ابتهمو بثلثت عشر اورخم وليبركن رحمنن بنيهمو شرحبال يكمل وهعن اسار بني لحيعت
 Arabic : وعادوا في تاريخ ثلاثة عشر وليبارك الرحمن ابناء شرحبال يكمل وهعن واسار بني لحيعت

Dhū Nuwās, (), Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar (Musnad: <unk> <unk> <unk>, "Yws1f ʾs1ʾr Yṯʾr"), Yosef Nu'as (), or Yūsuf Ibn Sharhabeel () Syriac "Masruq"; Greek "Dounaas" (Δουναας), was a Jewish king of Himyar between 517 and 525-27 CE, who came to renown on account of his military exploits against people of other religions, notably Christians, living in his kingdom.

Yusuf Asʾar Yathʾar (altsüdarabisch "Y(w)sf ʾsʾr Yṯʾr" DMG Yūsuf ʾAsʾar Yaṯʾar, in der arabischen Überlieferung ) war der letzte bedeutende König des Reiches Himyar in Südarabien und war jüdischer Herrscher dieses Reiches. Er regierte etwa von 521/522 bis 529/530.


History.

Muriaux is first mentioned in 1301 as "Murival". The municipality was formerly known by its German name "Spiegelberg", however, that name is no longer used.

Geography.

Muriaux has an area of. Of this area, or 60.5% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 36.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 3.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and or 0.2% is unproductive land.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.5% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.6%. Out of the forested land, 31.4% of the total land area is heavily forested and 4.7% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 5.7% is used for growing crops and 33.9% is pastures and 20.8% is used for alpine pastures.  The widely scattered settlements of municipality are located in the Franches-Montagnes district. It consists of the village of Muriaux west of the Saignelégier-Le Noirmont road, the hamlets of Les Emibois, Les Chenevières, Le Roselet, the exclave of Le Cerneux-Veusil between the municipalities of Saint-Imier and Les Breuleux and the former municipality of Le Peuchapatte.  The municipalities of Le Bémont, Les Bois, Les Breuleux, La Chaux-des-Breuleux, Les Enfers, Les Genevez, Lajoux, Montfaucon, Muriaux, Le Noirmont, Saignelégier, Saint-Brais and Soubey are considering a merger on at a date in the future into the new municipality of Franches-Montagnes.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Or, a Roundel Argent bordered Gules, in base triple steep Mountain Peaks Vert."

Demographics.

Muriaux has a population () of., 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 1.2%. Migration accounted for 0.4%, while births and deaths accounted for 2%.  Most of the population () speaks French (392 or 91.2%) as their first language, German is the second most common (32 or 7.4%) and Italian is the third (2 or 0.5%). There is 1 person who speaks Romansh. , the population was 51.3% male and 48.7% female. The population was made up of 244 Swiss men (49.3% of the population) and 10 (2.0%) non-Swiss men. There were 228 Swiss women (46.1%) and 13 (2.6%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 156 or about 36.3% were born in Muriaux and lived there in 2000. There were 123 or 28.6% who were born in the same canton, while 92 or 21.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 44 or 10.2% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 26.1% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 60.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.5%. , there were 185 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 209 married individuals, 18 widows or widowers and 18 individuals who are divorced. , there were 179 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.6 persons per household. There were 39 households that consist of only one person and 18 households with five or more people., a total of 151 apartments (77.4% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 37 apartments (19.0%) were seasonally occupied and 7 apartments (3.6%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.9%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Sights.

The entire village of Muriaux is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites

Motor Museum.

The small motor museum closed in 2008 although the collection on which it was based remains in place.

Politics.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the FDP which received 26.5% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS (20.23%), the CSP (19.66%) and the SVP (18.23%). In the federal election, a total of 182 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.7%.

Economy.

The economy is based on dairy farming and cattle breeding. There are few other sources of employment in the village. , Muriaux had an unemployment rate of 2.1%., there were 96 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 36 businesses involved in this sector. 5 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 4 businesses in this sector. 49 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 12 businesses in this sector. There were 241 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.9% of the workforce. , there were 67 workers who commuted into the municipality and 130 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 1.9 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. About 16.4% of the workforce coming into Muriaux are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 3.4% used public transportation to get to work, and 57.8% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 278 or 64.7% were Roman Catholic, while 82 or 19.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 24 individuals (or about 5.58% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 1 individual who belonged to another church. 36 (or about 8.37% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 21 individuals (or about 4.88% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Muriaux about 138 or (32.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 47 or (10.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 47 who completed tertiary schooling, 61.7% were Swiss men, 21.3% were Swiss women, 10.6% were non-Swiss men.  The Canton of Jura school system provides two year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school followed by some form of Tertiary school or they may enter an apprenticeship.  During the 2009-10 school year, there were no students attending school in Muriaux. , there were 9 students in Muriaux who came from another municipality, while 54 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Muriaux is a municipality in the district of Franches-Montagnes in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. On 1 January 2009, the formerly independent municipality of Le Peuchapatte merged into the municipality of Muriaux.

Muriaux ist eine politische Gemeinde im Distrikt Franches-Montagnes des Kantons Jura in der Schweiz. Der frühere deutsche Name "Spiegelberg" wird heute nicht mehr verwendet.


History.

Work on the line began in 1911 and although ultimately only part of the original plan was completed, this was delayed until 1934. Thus Deutsche Reichsbahn opened the first section from the Witten Hauptbahnhof via Witten-Höhe to Wengern Ost on 4 October 1926 with connections to the Ruhr Valley Railway from Hattingen to Hagen. It was then used exclusively for freight for about ten years, relieving the Elberfeld–Dortmund railway.  The economic decline during and after the war was the reason for the drawn-out construction of the main part of the line, with most works carried out before 1914. The necessary work to complete the line was implemented in the early 1930s as a job creation measure. The cost of building the line eventually amounted to 50 million Reichsmarks.  In the period from 1934 to 1939, a total of 23 passenger trains, including five express trains, operated on the line daily. In addition, there was a considerable amount of freight.  During the Second World War, the Silschede Tunnel and the Klosterholz Tunnel were used under the code names of "Buchfink" and "Goldammer" as underground factories under the "U-Verlagerung" Program for the production of weapons, using forced labour.  The operation of the railway was resumed after 1945, but traffic decreased steadily in the postwar period. As a result of this decrease, passenger services were closed on the middle section from Witten-Höhe via Wengern West and Albringhausen to Gevelsberg West on 30 November 1979. All traffic on this section ended on 14 January 1980 and the line was formally closed on 1 January 1983.

Route.

The line included some elaborate viaducts and railway tunnels, which included the Ruhr viaduct near Witten. More viaducts could be found in Wengern over the Elbsche and in Gevelsberg. There were two 900 m-long tunnels located at Silschede and north of Schwelm.  The line was well constructed from a technical perspective with:  It was planned to what were considered European standards. Nevertheless, only part of the planned route was built.

Current situation.

The northern part of the route is now again used only for freight, while the southern portion through the 945 m long Linderhausen Tunnel from Gevelsberg to Schwelm is used by S-Bahn line S 8 of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr (Rhine-Ruhr Transport Association) to link the Düsseldorf-Derendorf–Dortmund Süd railway and the Elberfeld–Dortmund railway.

Planning.

It is planned to build a cycle path on the disused part of the line. The route runs through a scenic area with two viaducts and two tunnels, including the 845 m-long Silschede Tunnel, which would be extraordinary long for a tunnel on a cycle path. Because of these structures, however, the financing of the project is not yet clear, since, for example the lighting of the tunnel would cause substantial costs.  Part of the route has already been upgraded for a section of the “From Ruhr to Ruhr” cycleway ("Von-Ruhr-zur-Ruhr-Radweg").

Henriette Davidis.

During the construction of the line, the house in which Henriette Davidis worked for a long time had to be demolished. The plate of the stove on which many of her recipes were developed was installed in the wall of a small bridge. The bridge can be found on Henriette-Davidis-Weg in Wengern.

The Witten–Schwelm railway (also called the "Elbschetalbahn", Elbsche Valley Railway) is a now disused except for short sections at each end located in the Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis, a district in the southeastern Ruhr area in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.

Die Bahnstrecke Witten–Schwelm (auch Elbschetalbahn genannt) ist eine heute zum größten Teil stillgelegte und nur noch an den Endteilstrecken in Betrieb befindliche Eisenbahnstrecke im Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis im südöstlichen Ruhrgebiet.


Description.

The northern bat is a medium-sized animal with short and rounded ears. The species range from 8 to 16 g in weight depending on the season. It is 54 to 64 mm in body length and 240 to 280 mm in wing span, which is a moderate size for a bat. The nose, ears, and the tail and wing are black or blackish brown. Most of body is coated with dark brown or black with some gold touched at the tip of the hairs in the head and back region. The coat on the ventral side is yellowish brown. Like other dental structure of "Eptesicus" genus, there is no presence of peculiarities, but it is large compared to the size of skull.

Distribution and habitat.

It is widespread throughout Eurasia, and is the most common bat in northern part of the continent. It is found from northern Scandinavia (beyond the Arctic Circle) to northern Italy, and eastern England to northern Japan. The bat mostly favours forest uplands about 200–2000 m above sea level.

Behavior.

It was thought that northern bat is a sedentary species, but research shows colonies have moved as far as 450 km. It does not migrate seasonally but over a period of years.  Breeding season is in late autumn, and the females stores the male sperm over the winter. The hibernation begins in early winter (November and December), and until March or April. Only then do the females get pregnant, pregnancy lasting for 50–60 days. In summer, males dwell alone, but females form a colony of 10-80 adults. A colony is formed in early summer and disbanded in August, when young bats are able to fly. Winter colonies are often found in houses, natural or artificial underground habitats.

Hunting.

Northern bats are nocturnal and fast flying, adapted to hunting airborne insects using echolocation. For example, northern bats commonly hunt ghost moths while the moths are hovering above ground to attract a mate. The species hunts in open spaces with speed of 5–6 m/s. The sound pulse consists of 10-13 ms in normal foraging habitats, sometimes up to 18 ms of steeply frequency-modulated (FM) component (about 40–30 kHz). The bats send out the pulse about every 200 ms, and the steep FM are used to locate obstacles or targets, allowing them to fly indoors. In high latitude areas, female northern bats fly during daytime because of the short nights, but their foraging peaks after dusk and sometime before dawn. Females select small feeding territories where their food source is abundant, and sometimes can be used by the same individual over a period of years.

Genetics.

Serotine bats ("Eptesicus serotinus") are cryptic species of northern bats. They are distinguishable by appearance but research shows that there is little genetic difference between the two species (only difference of intraspecific variation).

The northern bat ("Eptesicus nilssonii") is the most abundant species of bat in northern Eurasia. It is found from England to Hokkaidō and down to northern India. It is closely related to the serotine bat ("Eptesicus serotinus").

Die Nordfledermaus ("Eptesicus nilssonii") gehört innerhalb der Fledermäuse zur Familie der Glattnasen (Vespertilionidae). Das Fell ist durch eine dunkel- bis schwarzbraune Grundfarbe mit ocker- bis lederfarbenen oder goldenen Haarspitzen vom Scheitel bis zur Schwanzbasis gekennzeichnet. Die mittelgroße Art ist über weite Teile Europas und Asiens verbreitet, wobei sie vor allem in den nördlicheren Regionen vorkommt. In Skandinavien gehört sie zu den häufigsten Fledermausarten. Sie ist weltweit die Fledermaus mit dem am weitesten nach Norden reichenden Verbreitungsgebiet sowie zugleich die einzige Fledermaus mit nachgewiesener Fortpflanzung nördlich des Polarkreises.


Life.

Al-Musta'in was the son of al-Mutawakkil I by a Turkish concubine named Bay Khatun. He succeeded his father as caliph on 22 January 1406. At that point in time, the role of the caliphs had been reduced to legitimizing the rule of the Burji Mamluk sultans through the issuance of certificates of investiture. Al-Musta'in accompanied Sultan Faraj on his campaign in the Levant against the rebel "amirs" (governors) of Aleppo and Tripoli. Faraj's defeat at Lajjun on 25 April 1412 resulted in anarchy. Al-Musta'in was captured by the rebels, who competed against each other for the sultanate. Unable to choose a candidate from among themselves, the quarreling Mamluks followed the advice of Faraj's infant son Fath Allah, who had suggested appointing al-Musta'in as sultan.  After formally removing Faraj from office, al-Musta'in reluctantly accepted the sultanate on 7 May 1412. He agreed to take on the post only after having obtained assurance from the Mamluks that he would retain his position as caliph in the event of his deposition from the sultanate. Faraj surrendered and was sentenced to death. His execution took place on 28 May. The Mamluk realms were divided, with Nawruz al-Hafizi receiving the Syrian provinces and al-Musta'in returning to Egypt accompanied by Shaykh al-Mahmudi and Baktamur Djillik. Al-Musta'in took up his residence at the Cairo Citadel on 12 July. He involved himself in the appointment and removal of ministers, and coins were struck in his name. This signalled his intention to rule as sultan and not to content himself with a figurehead role. Worried by such a prospect, Shaykh started to gradually isolate al-Musta'in, nearly turning him into a state prisoner. Baktamur Djillik's death on 15 September accelerated Shaykh's usurpation of power, which became complete when he had himself recognized as sultan on 6 November 1412, whereupon he assumed the title of al-Mu'ayyad. After long hesitation, al-Musta'in formally abdicated the sultanate, and was held in the Citadel. Having filled his role as interim sultan, he expected to remain as caliph, as had been initially agreed upon. However, he was deposed from the caliphate by Shaykh on 9 March 1414, and replaced by his brother al-Mu'tadid II.  Shaykh's dethronement of al-Musta'in was declared unlawful by the "ulama". Acting upon this, Nawruz al-Hafizi decided to wage battle against Shaykh. The latter transferred al-Musta'in to Alexandria along with Faraj's three sons on 29 January 1417. According to 15th-century historian al-Suyuti, al-Musta'in remained in the Mediterranean city until the reign of Sultan Sayf ad-Din Tatar, when he was released and allowed to return to Cairo. However, he preferred to stay in Alexandria, where he received considerable sums of money from the merchants. He died there of plague in 1430 at less than 40 years of age. In retrospect, al-Musta'in's short reign as sultan is viewed as a failed attempt at producing an Abbasid revival. In 1455, his brother al-Qa'im equally tried and failed to hold power as sultan. Nevertheless, al-Musta'in's position as caliph was recognized far beyond Egypt's borders, with distant rulers such as Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah of Bengal sending him large sums of money.

Al-Musta'in Billah () ( 1390 – February or March 1430) was the tenth "shadow" caliph of Cairo, reigning under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans from 1406 to 1414. He was the only Cairo-based caliph to hold political power as Sultan of Egypt, albeit for only six months in 1412. All the other Cairene caliphs who preceded or succeeded him were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power.

Al-Mustain bi-'llah Abu l-Fadl al-Abbasi (; * 1393; † um 1414) war Kalif der Abbasiden und Sultan unter den Mamluken in Ägypten (1412).


History.

The company was created in February 2000 by Tim Train, David Inscore, Jason Coleman and Brian Reynolds. Although Brian Reynolds was a founding member of Firaxis Games, he and the others left Firaxis to found a new company based on their desire to apply the complexity and concepts of the turn-based strategy genre to the real-time strategy genre.  In February 2007, Big Huge Games announced that Ken Rolston, the lead designer behind "" and "", had come out of retirement to join the company as lead designer on an untitled role playing game (RPG). Later that May it was announced that THQ would publish the title in 2009. This marked the first title from Big Huge Games that was not distributed by Microsoft.

Acquisition by THQ.

On January 15, 2008, THQ acquired the developer.  On July 30, 2008, Grant Kirkhope joined the Big Huge Games team as an audio director. He had previously worked for Rare, composing for the "Banjo-Kazooie" and "Perfect Dark" games (among others).  On March 18, 2009, THQ announced that due to declining economic conditions, it would close Big Huge Games unless an outside buyer could be found in the next 60 days.

Acquisition by 38 Studios.

On May 27, 2009, 38 Studios announced that they were acquiring Big Huge Games and retaining 70 employees out of approximately 120 who were at THQ.  From mid-2009 to January 2012, Big Huge Games developed a single player role playing game titled "", which was released in early February 2012 and published by Electronic Arts (EA) and 38 Studios for Xbox 360, PS3 and PC. The game is set in a fantasy world created with input from R A Salvatore and Todd McFarlane.  It was reported on May 24, 2012 that the studio and their parent company 38 Studios had laid off their entire staff.

Formation of Epic Baltimore.

In June 2012, Epic Games announced the opening of a new studio in Baltimore called Epic Baltimore. The studio consists of a significant portion of ex-Big Huge developers. It was later renamed Impossible Studios. Impossible Studios was officially closed on February 8, 2013.

Revival, Acquisition by Nexon.

In October 2014, it was revealed that Reynolds and Train had acquired the name "Big Huge Games" at auction from the state of Rhode Island, which owned it following the bankruptcy of 38 Studios. This name was given to their new venture founded in 2013, which was formerly known as SecretNewCo. The new studio developed a game for mobile platforms called "DomiNations", for release on iOS and Android. It is published by Nexon's mobile gaming group. and was released for Android and iOS in April 2015.  The game had been a major success; as of March 2016, it had been downloaded over 19 million times. On March 9, 2016, Nexon announced that it had acquired Big Huge Games; the studio will continue to produce new titles and maintain "DomiNations".

Game engine.

Big Huge Games made use of their internally developed game engine, the Big Huge Engine, in both "Rise of Nations" and "Catan". The engine features support for a variety of applications and technologies, including physics, artificial intelligence, animation, and others.

Games developed.

Unreleased.

At the time of their move from THQ to 38 Studios, Big Huge Games was working on two large game projects, which are now canceled.

Big Huge Games is a video game developer located in Timonium, Maryland. The company was founded in February 2000 by four veteran video game industry developers: Tim Train, David Inscore, Jason Coleman and Brian Reynolds (lead designer of "Alpha Centauri", et al.). Their first game, "Rise of Nations", was a critical and commercial hit. The original studio became defunct in May 2012, but the name "Big Huge Games" was later reacquired by Reynolds and Train for their new venture (previously known as SecretNewCo). The revived studio released the mobile game "DomiNations" on Android and iOS in April 2015.

Big Huge Games Inc. (BHG) ist der Name zweier amerikanischer Entwicklungsstudios für Computerspiele, die beide von Spieledesigner Brian Reynolds gegründet wurden. Das erste Unternehmen dieses Namens wurde mit Sitz in Timonium, Maryland, gegründet und erlangte vor allem durch die Entwicklung von Strategiespielen wie "Rise of Nations" Bekanntheit. 2012 wurde das Studio aufgrund der Insolvenz des Mutterunternehmens 38 Studios geschlossen. 2013 ersteigerte Firmengründer Brian Reynolds die Rechte an dem Namen "Big Huge Games" und benannte sein zuvor in Baltimore neugegründetes Studio SecretNewCo in Big Huge Games um. Im März 2016 wurde das Studio von dem koreanischen Spieleanbieter Nexon gekauft.


History.

This was long the territory of the Oneida people, one of the first Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy or "Haudenosaunee". They occupied the area until after the Revolutionary War, when they were forced off the land, although they had been allies of the patriot colonists. They were granted a small reservation, which settlers continued to encroach on.  When English colonists organized counties in 1683 in what is now New York, the present Chenango County was part of Albany County. This was an enormous county, including the northern part of New York State as well as all of the present State of Vermont and, in theory, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. But, territories located to the west of present-day Pennsylvania were under effective French control as part of New France. Albany County was reduced in size on July 3, 1766, by the creation of Cumberland County, and further on March 16, 1770, by the creation of Gloucester County, both containing territory now in Vermont.  On March 12, 1772, what was left of Albany County was split into three parts, one remaining under the name Albany County. One of the other pieces, Tryon County, contained the western portion (and thus, since no western boundary was specified, theoretically still extended west to the Pacific). The eastern boundary of Tryon County was approximately five miles west of the present city of Schenectady, and the county included the western part of the Adirondack Mountains and the area west of the West Branch of the Delaware River. The area then designated as Tryon County has since been organized as 37 counties of New York State. The county was named for William Tryon, the British colonial governor of New York.  In the years prior to 1776, during the increasing tensions most of the Loyalists in Tryon County fled to Fort Niagara on the Western Frontier. In 1784, following the peace treaty that ended the American Revolutionary War, the Americans renamed Tryon County as Montgomery County in honor of the US general, Richard Montgomery. He had captured several places in Canada and died attempting to capture the city of Quebec. The US residents replaced the name of the former British governor.  In 1788 the Oneida Reservation was considerably reduced by what is known as Clinton's Purchase, when land was sold off west of the Unadilla River to create what are now 20 towns. (See map to the right.) Settlers from eastern New York and New England entered the area and started farming.  In 1789, Montgomery County was reduced in size by the splitting off of Ontario County. The area split off from Montgomery County was much larger than the present Ontario County, as it included the present Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Niagara, Orleans, Steuben, Wyoming, Yates, and part of Schuyler and Wayne counties. It was the practice to establish a large geographic county and divide it as settlement increased.  In 1791, Herkimer, Otsego and Tioga counties were organized from land separated from Montgomery County.  Chenango County was formed on March 15, 1798 from of Tioga and Herkimer counties. Its eastern border is formed by the Unadilla River. The land had been purchased the year before from the Oneida, who were forced into a smaller reservation to the north.  On April 4, 1804, of Chenango County was partitioned to expand Oneida County; the communities of Waterville, and Sangerfield were assigned to the new Oneida County.  On March 21, 1806, of Chenango County was partitioned to produce Madison County. This established the current borders of Chenango County, which have been maintained to the early 21st century. This area was developed for agriculture in the nineteenth century and is still largely rural.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.6%) is water.  Chenango County is in the approximate center of the state, west of Albany, north of Binghamton, and southeast of Syracuse. The county is considered to be in the Southern Tier region of New York State.  The Chenango River, a tributary of the Susquehanna River, flows southward through the county.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 51,401 people, 19,926 households, and 13,549 families residing in the county. The population density was 58 people per square mile (22/km2). There were 23,890 housing units at an average density of 27 per square mile (10/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 97.65% White, 0.82% Black or African American, 0.27% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. 1.07% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 20.2% were of English, 14.5% German, 13.8% Irish, 12.3% American and 8.9% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. 96.7% spoke English and 1.3% Spanish as their first language.  There were 19,926 households out of which 32.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.10% were married couples living together, 9.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.00% were non-families. 26.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.01.  In the county, the population was spread out with 26.20% under the age of 18, 7.00% from 18 to 24, 27.50% from 25 to 44, 24.40% from 45 to 64, and 14.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 97.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.70 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $33,679, and the median income for a family was $39,711. Males had a median income of $30,363 versus $22,429 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,427. About 10.70% of families and 14.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.50% of those under age 18 and 8.70% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Chenango County has a Board of Supervisors that consists of 23 Town/City elected officials, serving as representatives at the County level. The term for each Supervisor is based on the term set by each particular Town. A Supervisor holds office for either two or four years. In 21st-century United States politics, Chenango County is considered a "red" county, where the majority of voters elect national Republican candidates. In 2004, Republican George Bush won by an 11% margin over Democrat John Kerry. For state and congressional offices, voters sometimes elect Democratic candidates. In 2006 both Eliot Spitzer and Hillary Clinton carried it, winning 57% and 54% of the vote for governor and US Senator, respectively. In 2008, John McCain carried Chenango County over Barack Obama in the presidential election by a close margin of 49.59%-48.45% or a difference of 237 votes. In 2010, Democrat Andrew Cuomo for governor, and Democrats Chuck Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand for the US Senate each carried it.

Education.

Morrisville State College has a branch in Norwich.

Communities.

Norwich, the county seat, is the only city in Chenango County.  In addition to the city of Norwich, the county has the following named settlements:

Towns.

In New York, a "town" is a political subdivision (synonymous with township). The towns in northern Chenango County originated from the Twenty Townships ceded by the Oneida tribe to the State of New York.

Chenango County is a county located in the south-central section U.S. state of New York. As of the 2010 census, the population was 50,477. Its county seat is Norwich. The county's name originates from an Oneida word meaning "large bull-thistle."

Chenango County ist ein County im Bundesstaat New York der Vereinigten Staaten. Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2000 hatte das County 51.401 Einwohner und eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 22 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer. Der Verwaltungssitz (County Seat) ist Norwich.


General mechanism.

The mechanism that leads to vasoconstriction results from the increased concentration of calcium (Ca ions) within vascular smooth muscle cells. However, the specific mechanisms for generating an increased intracellular concentration of calcium depends on the vasoconstrictor. Smooth muscle cells are capable of generating action potentials, but this mechanism is rarely utilized for contraction in the vasculature. Hormonal or pharmacokinetic components are more physiologically relevant. Two common stimuli for eliciting smooth muscle contraction are circulating epinephrine and activation of the sympathetic nervous system (through release of norepinephrine) that directly innervates the muscle. These compounds interact with cell surface adrenergic receptors. Such stimuli result in a signal transduction cascade that leads to increased intracellular calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through IP3-mediated calcium release, as well as enhanced calcium entry across the sarcolemma through calcium channels. The rise in intracellular calcium complexes with calmodulin, which in turn activates myosin light-chain kinase. This enzyme is responsible for phosphorylating the light chain of myosin to stimulate cross-bridge cycling.  Once elevated, the intracellular calcium concentration is returned to its normal concentration through a variety of protein pumps and calcium exchangers located on the plasma membrane and sarcoplasmic reticulum. This reduction in calcium removes the stimulus necessary for contraction, allowing for a return to baseline.

Causes.

Factors that trigger vasoconstriction can be exogenous or endogenous in origin. Ambient temperature is an example of exogenous vasoconstriction. Cutaneous vasoconstriction will occur because of the body's exposure to the severe cold. Examples of endogenous factors include the autonomic nervous system, circulating hormones, and intrinsic mechanisms inherent to the vasculature itself (also referred to as the myogenic response).

Examples.

Examples include stimulants, amphetamines, and antihistamines. Many are used in medicine to treat hypotension and as topical decongestants. Vasoconstrictors are also used clinically to increase blood pressure or to reduce local blood flow. Vasoconstrictors mixed with local anesthetics are used to increase the duration of local anesthesia by constricting the blood vessels, thereby safely concentrating the anesthetic agent for an extended duration, as well as reducing hemorrhage.  The routes of administration vary. They may be both systemic and topical. For example, pseudoephedrine is taken orally and phenylephrine is topically applied to the nasal passages or eyes.  Examples include:

Endogenous.

Vasoconstriction is a procedure of the body that averts orthostatic hypotension. It is part of a body negative feedback loop in which the body tries to restore homeostasis (maintain constant internal environment).  For example, vasoconstriction is a hypothermic preventative in which the blood vessels constrict and blood must move at a higher pressure to actively prevent a hypoxic reaction. ATP is used as a form of energy to increase this pressure to heat the body. Once homeostasis is restored, the blood pressure and ATP production regulates.  Vasoconstriction also occurs in superficial blood vessels of warm-blooded animals when their ambient environment is cold; this process diverts the flow of heated blood to the center of the animal, preventing the loss of heat.

Pathology.

Vasoconstriction can be a contributing factor to erectile dysfunction. An increase in blood flow to the penis causes an erection.  Improper vasoconstriction may also play a role in secondary hypertension.

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, in particular the large arteries and small arterioles. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessels. The process is particularly important in controlling hemorrhage and reducing acute blood loss. When blood vessels constrict, the flow of blood is restricted or decreased, thus retaining body heat or increasing vascular resistance. This makes the skin turn paler because less blood reaches the surface, reducing the radiation of heat. On a larger level, vasoconstriction is one mechanism by which the body regulates and maintains mean arterial pressure.

Vasokonstriktion (von lat. "vas" ‚Gefäß‘ und "constringere" ‚zusammenschnüren‘) ist der medizinische Fachbegriff für Gefäßverengung. Eine Vasokonstriktion erfolgt hauptsächlich durch Kontraktionen der glatten Muskulatur in den kleinen Arterien und Arteriolen meist unter dem Einfluss des Sympathikus. Diese Blutgefäße werden auch als Widerstandsgefäße bezeichnet, da sie den peripheren Widerstand für den Blutfluss darstellen. Bei einer Verengung dieser Adern werden der Widerstand und somit auch der Blutdruck sowie die Strömungsgeschwindigkeit des Blutes erhöht. Es gelten das Ohmsche und das Hagen-Poiseuillesche Gesetz. Die Durchblutung des Gewebes hinter den betroffenen Gefäßabschnitten verringert sich.


Early life.

Prince Andrew was born in the Belgian Suite of Buckingham Palace on 19 February 1960, the third child and second son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He was baptised in the Palace's Music Room on 8 April 1960 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher. He is the namesake of his paternal grandfather, Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark, who died sixteen years before he was born.

Military service.

Royal Navy.

The Royal Household announced in November 1978 that Prince Andrew would join the Royal Navy the following year. In December he underwent various sporting tests and examinations at the Aircrew Selection Centre, at RAF Biggin Hill, along with further tests and interviews at HMS "Daedalus", and interviews at the Admiralty Interview Board, HMS "Sultan". During March and April 1979, the prince was enrolled at the Royal Naval College Flight, undergoing pilot training, until he was accepted as a trainee helicopter pilot and signed on for 12 years from 11 May 1979. On

Falklands War.

Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British overseas territory claimed by Argentina, on 2 April 1982, leading to the Falklands War. "Invincible" was one of the two operational aircraft carriers available at the time, and, as such, was to play a major role in the Royal Navy task force assembled to sail south to retake the islands.  Prince Andrew's place on board and the possibility of the Queen's son being killed in action made the British government apprehensive, and the cabinet desired that Prince Andrew be moved to a desk job for the duration of the conflict. The Queen,

Career naval officer.

In late 1983, Prince Andrew transferred to RNAS Portland, and was trained to fly the Lynx helicopter. On 1 February 1984 he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant, whereupon the Queen appointed him as her personal aide-de-camp. Prince Andrew served aboard HMS "Brazen" as a flight pilot until 1986, including deployment to the Mediterranean Sea as part of Standing NRF Maritime Group 2. He undertook the Lieutenants' Greenwich Staff course. On 23 October 1986, the Duke of York (as he was by then) transferred to the General List, enrolled in a four-month helicopter warfare instructor's course at RNAS Yeovilton, and, upon graduation, served from February 1987 to April 1988 as a helicopter warfare officer in 702 Naval Air Squadron, RNAS Portland. He also served on HMS "Edinburgh" as an Officer of the Watch and Assistant Navigating Officer until 1989, including a six-month deployment to the Far East as part of exercise "Outback 88".  The Duke of

Personal life.

Personal interests.

Prince Andrew is a keen golfer with a low single-figure handicap. He was Captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews between 2003 and 2004—during the club's 250th anniversary season—is patron of a number of royal golf clubs, and has been

Relationship with Koo Stark.

Prince Andrew met Koo Stark in February 1981, and they were close for some two years, before and after his active service in the Falklands War. Tina Brown has claimed that this was Andrew's only serious love interest. In October 1982, they took a holiday together on the island of Mustique. According to Lady

Marriage to Sarah Ferguson.

Prince Andrew married Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey on 23 July 1986. The same day, the Queen created him Duke of York, Earl of Inverness, and Baron Killyleagh. The first two of these titles were previously held by both his maternal grandfather and great-grandfather. Prince Andrew had known Ferguson since childhood; they had met occasionally at polo matches, and became re-acquainted with each other at Royal Ascot in 1985.  The couple appeared to have a happy marriage and had two daughters together, presenting a united outward appearance during the late 1980s. His wife's personal qualities were seen as refreshing in the context of the formal protocol surrounding the Royal Family. However, the Duke of York's frequent travel due to his military career, as well as relentless, often critical, media attention focused on the Duchess of York, led to fractures in the marriage. On 19 March 1992, the couple announced plans to separate and did so in an amicable way. Some months later, pictures appeared in the tabloid media of the Duchess in intimate association

Association with Jeffrey Epstein.

Friendship with Epstein and sex abuse allegations.

BBC News reported that Prince Andrew's friendship with Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier and convicted sex offender, was producing "a steady stream of criticism" in March 2011, with calls for him to step down from his role as trade envoy. The Duke was also criticized in the media after Sarah Ferguson disclosed that he helped arrange for Epstein to pay off £15,000 of her debts. Prince Andrew had been photographed in December 2010 strolling with Epstein in Central Park during a visit to New York City. In July 2011, the Duke's role as trade envoy was terminated and he reportedly cut all ties with Epstein.  On 30 December 2014, a Florida court filing by lawyers Bradley J. Edwards and

"Newsnight" interview and repercussions.

In November 2019, the BBC's "Newsnight" recorded an interview between Prince Andrew and Emily Maitlis in which he recounted his friendship with Epstein for the first time. The interview was recorded in Buckingham Palace on 14 November and was broadcast on 16 November. In the interview, Prince Andrew says he met Epstein in 1999 through Maxwell; this contradicts comments made by the Duke's private secretary in 2011, who claims the two met in "the early 1990s". The Duke also said he did not regret his friendship with Epstein, saying "the people that I met and the opportunities that I was given to learn either by him or because of him were actually very useful".  In the interview, Prince Andrew denied having sex with Giuffre on 10 March 2001, as she had accused, because he had been at home with his daughters after attending a party at PizzaExpress in Woking with his elder daughter Beatrice. The Duke said that he had "no recollection of ever meeting" Giuffre and that he had "absolutely no memory" of a photograph taken of him with Giuffre at Maxwell's residence in London. The Duke said he had investigations carried out to establish

Trade, business, activities, and charitable work.

From 2001 until July 2011, the Duke of York worked with UK Trade & Investment, part of the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, as the United Kingdom's Special Representative for International Trade and Investment. The post, previously held by Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, involved representing and promoting the UK at various trade fairs and conferences around the world. His suitability for the role was challenged in the House of Commons by Shadow Justice Minister Chris Bryant in February 2011, at the time of the 2011 Libyan civil war, on the grounds that he was "not only a very close friend of Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, but also... a close friend of the convicted Libyan gun smuggler Tarek Kaituni". The Duke is Patron of the Middle East Association (MEA), the UK's premier organisation for promoting trade and good relations with the Middle East, North Africa, Turkey and Iran. Since that ended the Duke continued to support UK enterprise without a special role. Robert Jobson claims he does this work well and wrote, "He is particularly passionate when dealing with young start-up entrepreneurs and bringing them together with successful businesses at networking and showcasing events. Andrew is direct and to the point, and his methods seem to work."  The Duke is also Patron of Fight for Sight, a charity dedicated to research into the prevention and treatment of blindness and eye disease, and was a member of the Scout Association. He tours Canada frequently to undertake duties related to his Canadian military role. Rick Peters, the former Commanding Officer of the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada stated that Prince Andrew is "very well informed on Canadian military methods." The Duke of York receives a £249,000 annuity from the Queen. "The Sunday Times" reported in July 2008 that for "the Duke of York's public role... he last year received £436,000 to cover his expenses." On 8 March 2011, "The Daily Telegraph" reported:

Other controversies.

Alleged comments on corruption and Kazakhstan.

As the United Kingdom's Special Trade Representative, the Duke of York travelled the world to promote British businesses. It was revealed in the United States diplomatic cables leak that the Duke had been reported on by Tatiana Gfoeller, the United States Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan, discussing bribery in Kyrgyzstan and the investigation into the Al-Yamamah arms deal. The Duke, she explained, "was referencing an investigation, subsequently closed, into alleged kickbacks a senior Saudi royal had received in exchange for the multi-year, lucrative BAE Systems contract to provide equipment

Election to Royal Society.

Andrew's election to the Royal Society prompted "Britain's leading scientists" to "revolt" due to Andrew's lack of scientific background, with some noting he had only a secondary school level

Meetings with Ilham Aliyev.

As of November 2014, the Duke had met Ilham Aliyev, the president of Azerbaijan, on 12 separate occasions. He had to stand down as a trade

Arms sales.

In March 2011, Kaye Stearman of the Campaign Against the Arms Trade told Channel 4 News CAAT sees Prince Andrew as part of a bigger problem, "He is the front man for UKTI. Our concerns are not just Prince Andrew, it's the whole UKTI set up. They see arms as just another commodity but it has completely disproportionate resources. At the London office of UKTI the arms sector has more staff than all the others put together. We are concerned that Prince Andrew is used to sell arms, and where you sell arms it is likely to be to despotic regimes. He is the cheerleader in chief for the arms

Questionable language.

Rohan Silva, a former Downing Street aide, claimed that, when they met in 2012, the Duke had commented, "Well, if you’ll pardon the expression, that really is the

Titles, styles, honours and arms.

Titles and styles.

Andrew is currently the eighth in the line of succession to the throne. He is known by his secondary titles of Earl of

Personal flag for Canada.

Since 2014, the Duke of York has a personal heraldic flag for use in Canada. It is the Royal Arms of Canada in banner form defaced with

Postage stamps.

Appears on two stamps

Prince Andrew, Duke of York, (Andrew Albert Christian Edward, born 19 February 1960) is a member of the British royal family. As a result of accusations of sexual abuse and his connections to the sex offender Jeffrey Epstein he resigned from all public roles in 2019–2020.

HRH Prince Andrew Albert Christian Edward, Duke of York, KG, GCVO, genannt Prinz Andrew (* 19. Februar 1960 im Buckingham Palace, London), ist das dritte Kind und der zweite Sohn der britischen Königin Elisabeth II. und Prinz Philips.


Early life.

Ouattara was born on 1 January 1942 in Dimbokro in French West Africa. He is a descendant on his father's side of the Muslim rulers of Burkina Faso, then part of the Kong Empire — also known as the Wattara (Ouattarra) Empire. Ouattara himself is of Muslim background. He received a bachelor of science degree in 1965 from the Drexel Institute of Technology, which is now called Drexel University, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Ouattara then obtained both his master's degree in economics in 1967 and a PhD in economics in 1972 from the University of Pennsylvania.  In 1991, Ouattara was married to Dominique Nouvian, a French Catholic businesswoman of Jewish descent. Their wedding ceremony was held in the town hall of the prestigious 16th arrondissement of Paris.

Career at financial institutions.

He was an economist for the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C. from 1968 to 1973, and afterwards he was the "Chargé de Mission" in Paris of the Banque Centrale des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (West African Central Bank) from 1973 to 1975. With the BCEAO, he was then Special Advisor to the Governor and Director of Research from February 1975 to December 1982 and Vice Governor from January 1983 to October 1984. From November 1984 to October 1988 he was Director of the African Department at the IMF, and in May 1987 he additionally became Counsellor to the Managing Director at the IMF. On 28 October 1988 he was appointed as Governor of the BCEAO, and he was sworn in on 22 December 1988. Ouattara has a reputation as a hard-worker, keen on transparency and good governance.

Political career.

Prime Minister.

In April 1990, the IMF under the Structural Adjustment Program forced the Ivorian President, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, to accept Ouattara as Chairman of the Inter-ministerial Committee for Coordination of the Stabilization and Economic Recovery Programme of Côte d'Ivoire. While holding that position, Ouattara also remained in his post as BCEAO Governor. He subsequently became Prime Minister of Côte d'Ivoire on 7 November 1990, still under the IMF imposition, after which Charles Konan Banny replaced him as Interim BCEAO Governor.  While serving as Prime Minister, Ouattara also tried, illegally and against the constitution, to carry out presidential duties for a total of 18 months, including the period from March to December 1993, when Houphouët-Boigny was ill. Houphouët-Boigny died on 7 December 1993, and Ouattara announced his death to the nation, saying that "Côte d'Ivoire is orphaned". A brief power struggle ensued between Ouattara and Henri Konan Bédié, the President of the National Assembly, over the presidential succession in total disregard for the constitution that clearly gave Bedié the legal right to lead the country if Houphouet became unfit. Bédié prevailed and Ouattara resigned as Prime Minister on 9 December. Ouattara then returned to the IMF as Deputy Managing Director, holding that post from 1 July 1994, to 31 July 1999.

1995 election.

Prior to the October 1995 presidential election, the National Assembly of Côte d'Ivoire approved an electoral code that barred candidates if either of their parents were of a foreign nationality and if they had not lived in Côte d'Ivoire for the preceding five years. It was widely thought these provisions were aimed at Ouattara. Owing to his duties with the IMF, he had not resided in the country since 1990. Also, his father was rumoured to have been born in Burkina Faso. The Rally of the Republicans (RDR), an opposition party formed as a split from the ruling Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire (PDCI) in 1994, sought for Ouattara to be its presidential candidate. In late June 1995, RDR Secretary-General Djéni Kobina met with Ouattara, at which time, according to Kobina, Ouattara said: "I'm ready to join you." The party nominated Ouattara as its presidential candidate on 3 July 1995 at its first ordinary congress. The government would not change the electoral code, however, and Ouattara declined the nomination. The RDR boycotted the election, along with the Ivorian Popular Front (FPI) of Laurent Gbagbo, leaving the PDCI's candidate, incumbent president Henri Konan Bédié, to win an easy victory.

President of the RDR.

While serving as Deputy Managing Director at the IMF, in March 1998 Ouattara expressed his intention to return to Côte d'Ivoire and take part in politics again. After leaving the IMF in July 1999, he was elected President of the RDR on 1 August 1999 at an extraordinary congress of the party, as well as being chosen as its candidate for the next presidential election. He said he was eligible to stand in the election, pointing to documents he said demonstrated that he and his parents were of Ivorian birth.  He was accused of forging these papers, however, and an investigation was begun. President Bédié described Ouattara as a Burkinabé and said that Houphouët-Boigny "wanted Alassane Ouattara to concern himself only with the economy". Ouattara's nationality certificate, issued in late September 1999, was annulled by a court on 27 October. An arrest warrant for Ouattara was issued on 29 November, although he was out of the country at the time; he nevertheless said that he would return by late December.  On 24 December, the military seized power, ousting Bédié. Ouattara returned to Côte d'Ivoire after three months in France on 29 December, hailing Bédié's ouster as "not a coup d'état", but "a revolution supported by all the Ivorian people".  A new constitution, approved by referendum in July 2000, controversially barred presidential candidates unless both of their parents were Ivorian, and Ouattara was disqualified from the 2000 presidential election. The issues surrounding this were major factors in the First Ivorian Civil War, which broke out in 2002.  When asked in an interview about Ouattara's nationality, Burkinabé President Blaise Compaoré responded, "For us things are simple: he does not come from Burkina Faso, neither by birth, marriage, or naturalization. This man has been Prime Minister of Côte d'Ivoire."  President Gbagbo affirmed on 6 August 2007 that Ouattara could stand in the next Ivorian presidential election. Ouattara was designated as the RDR's presidential candidate at its Second Ordinary Congress on 1–3 February 2008; he was also re-elected as President of the RDR for another five years. At the congress, he invited the former rebel New Forces, from whom he had previously distanced himself, to team up with the RDR for the election.  At the time, Ouattara said publicly that he did not believe Gbagbo would organize transparent and fair elections.  The RDR and the PDCI are both members of the Rally of Houphouëtistes, and while Ouattara and Bédié ran separately in the first round, each agreed to support the other if only one of them made it into a potential second round.

2010 presidential election and aftermath.

The presidential elections that should have been organized in 2005 were postponed until November 2010. The preliminary results announced independently by the president of the Electoral Commission from the headquarters of Ouattara due to concern about fraud in that commission. They showed a loss for Gbagbo in favour of former prime minister Alassane Ouattara.  The ruling FPI contested the results before the Constitutional Council, charging massive fraud in the northern departments controlled by the rebels of the New Forces. These charges were contradicted by United Nations observers (unlike African Union observers). The report of the results led to severe tension and violent incidents. The Constitutional Council, which consisted of Gbagbo supporters, declared the results of seven northern departments unlawful and that Gbagbo had won the elections with 51% of the vote – instead of Ouattara winning with 54%, as reported by the Electoral Commission. After the inauguration of Gbagbo, Ouattara—who was recognized as the winner by most countries and the United Nations—organized an alternative inauguration. These events raised fears of a resurgence of the civil war; thousands of refugees fled the country.  The African Union sent Thabo Mbeki, former President of South Africa, to mediate the conflict. The United Nations Security Council adopted a resolution recognising Alassane Ouattara as winner of the elections, based on the position of the Economic Community of West African States, which suspended Ivory Coast from all its decision-making bodies while the African Union also suspended the country's membership.  In 2010, a colonel of the Ivory Coast armed forces, Nguessan Yao, was arrested in New York in a year-long U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement operation charged with procuring and illegal export of weapons and munitions: 4,000 9 mm handguns, 200,000 rounds of ammunition, and 50,000 tear-gas grenades, in violation of a UN embargo. Several other Ivory Coast officers were released because they had diplomatic passports. His accomplice, Michael Barry Shor, an international trader, was located in Virginia.  The 2010 presidential election led to the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis and the Second Ivorian Civil War. International organizations reported numerous human-rights violations by both sides. In the city of Duékoué, hundreds of people were killed. In nearby Bloléquin, dozens were killed. UN and French forces took military action against Gbagbo. Gbagbo was taken into custody after a raid into his residence on 11 April 2011. The country was severely damaged by the war, and observers say it will be a challenge for Ouattara to rebuild the economy and reunite Ivorians.  The developments in the country were welcomed by world leaders. U.S. President Barack Obama applauded news of the developments in Côte d'Ivoire and CNN quoted U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton as saying Gbagbo's capture "sends a strong signal to dictators and tyrants... They may not disregard the voice of their own people".

2012 Marriage Law row.

In a controversial move in November 2012, President Ouattara sacked his government in a row over a new marriage law that would make wives joint heads of the household. His own party supported the changes but the elements of the ruling coalition resisted, with the strongest opposition coming from the Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire.

Second term, 2015–present.

Alassan Ouattara won a second five-year term in 2015 with almost 84% of the vote. With 2,118,229 votes, or 83.66% of votes cast, and a 54.63% turnout, Ouattara's victory was a landslide compared to the 50% required to avoid a run-off and the 9% of his closest rival, FPI leader Pascal Affi N'Guessan.  At the RDR's Third Ordinary Congress on 9–10 September 2017, it was expected that Ouattara would be elected as President of the RDR, but he instead proposed Henriette Diabaté for the post, and she was duly elected by acclamation.

External links.

Alassane Ouattara.com Political Web site from Ouattara's circle of influence.

Alassane Dramane Ouattara (; born 1 January 1942) is an Ivorian politician who has been President of Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) since 2010. An economist by profession, Ouattara worked for the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Central Bank of West African States (, BCEAO), and he was the Prime Minister of Côte d'Ivoire from November 1990 to December 1993, appointed to that post by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Ouattara became the President of the Rally of the Republicans (RDR), an Ivorian political party, in 1999.

Alassane "Ado" Dramane Ouattara [] (* 1. Januar 1942 in Dimbokro, Elfenbeinküste) ist ein ivorischer Politiker und Volkswirt. Er ist Vorsitzender des Rassemblement des Républicains. Am 4. Dezember 2010 legte er ebenso wie sein Kontrahent in den vorausgegangenen Wahlen, Laurent Gbagbo, den Amtseid als Präsident der Elfenbeinküste ab. Für einige Zeit hatte das Land somit faktisch zwei Präsidenten. Nach Gbagbos Festnahme wurde Ouattara Anfang Mai 2011 als Staatspräsident der Elfenbeinküste vereidigt und trat das Amt offiziell am 21. Mai 2011 an. Seit 17. Februar 2012 ist Ouattara Vorsitzender der Westafrikanischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft (ECOWAS/CEDEAO). Bei der Präsidentschaftswahl im Oktober 2015 wurde Ouattara mit über 83 Prozent erneut für eine fünfjährige Amtszeit bestätigt.


Early Constantin.

"Constantin Filmverleih GmbH" was founded in West Germany on 1 April 1950 by Preben Philipsen and Waldfried Barthel, who would later become the head of publicity for the company. It was originally the country's national distributor of films produced by Columbia Pictures and United Artists. Throughout the 1950s, Constantin distributed both popular and art-house films from several nations as well as medium-budgeted domestic films.  Constantin's popularity grew through the late 1950s to the 1960s by not only distributing popular films but creating its own in-house talent roster of contract players (Joachim Fuchsberger, Heinz Drache), directors and producers (Wolf C. Hartwig), as well as co-financing international co-production films shot in Italy, such as the Clint Eastwood spaghetti westerns, the films of Harry Alan Towers and others using their own stable of stars. Constantin also had great success with their Jerry Cotton film series, though projected film series of Sherlock Holmes, Jules Maigret and Perry Rhodan only had one entry.  Constantin Filmverleih was renamed to "Constantin Film GmbH" on 21 September 1964, and on 1 July 1965, Bertelsmann Publishing became the majority shareholder of Constantin. They attempted to increase output without increasing investment that resulted in the demise of many of the studio's popular film series, investment in sex films, and a stronger emphasis on releasing films from other nations rather than shooting their own. Bertelsmann sold its shares in 1969. The "old" Constantin Film GmbH was eventually declared bankrupt in October 1977.

New Constantin.

Founded in 1979 by Bernd Eichinger, with Bernd Schaefers, as "Neue Constantin Film" after acquiring the assets of the bankrupt "old" Constantin Film GmbH the previous year, Constantin Film developed into the first German film distributor with its own production company in just six years, with production activities extending to the international market. In 1986, the Kirch Group (at the time Europe's biggest film and TV license traders) acquired a minority stake in Neue Constantin Film. Eichinger retained one of the company's leading executives and a major shareholder to his death in 2011.  In the following years, Constantin Film fixed its position on the international movie market by establishing various production subsidiaries across Europe in 1996. At the end of the 1990s, Constantin Film acquired majority stakes in the film production companies Olga Film GmbH, Engram Pictures and MOOVIE GmbH. In September 1999, the company then went public on the German stock market as "Constantin Film AG". Deutsche Börse placed the Constantin Film share on the selection index Nemax 50 in March 2000. Constantin Film AG founded Rat Pack Filmproduktion GmbH with producer Christian Becker and his team in 2001. The Swiss Highlight Communications AG (a strategy and finance holding with the operative segments of film and sports and event marketing) acquired 23 percent of the capital stock of Constantin Film AG from Kirch Beteiligungs GmbH und Co. KG and from diversified holdings for the first time in 2002. In 2003, the board of Constantin Film AG embarked on a new strategic path for the company: the traditional business areas of production and distribution were expanded to include the three areas of license trading, home entertainment exploitation and increased TV service production (especially TV entertainment). Constantin Film AG also acquired 61 percent of the shares in KirchMedia Entertainment GmbH (now renamed Constantin Entertainment GmbH), one of the market leaders in German show and entertainment production. The stake was increased to 100 percent in 2005. At the end of 2009, the listing of Constantin Film AG expired; all the shares were transferred to Highlight Communications after a squeeze-out. As of 7 October 2009, Constantin Film is no longer listed at the Frankfurter Börse.  Since January 2017 Bernhard Burgener is chairman of the supervisory board, with Martin Moszkowicz as chairman of the executive board. In this capacity, Moszkowicz is responsible for the company's film business, including worldwide production and distribution, world sales, marketing and publicity as well as corporate communication and legal affairs.  Oliver Berben has joined the Constantin Film AG Managing Board on 1 January 2017. The newly created division “TV, Entertainment and Digital Media” concentrates the development and manufacture of all national and international productions of the company that are not intended for cinema exploitation. Oliver Berben founded the MOOVIE GmbH in 1996, which became a subsidiary of Constantin Film AG in 1999. In January 2009, Oliver Berben also assumed the position of Managing Director "Production" of Constantin Film Production GmbH. Oliver Berben will continue his work as a producer.

Production.

The most successful license titles and internal or co-productions in Germany include (in terms of numbers of viewers) "The Never Ending Story" (approx. 5 million), "The Name of the Rose" (5.9 million), "The House of the Spirits" (nearly 4 million), "Dances With Wolves" (nearly 6.8 million), "Seven" (more than 2.8 million), "The Sixth Sense" (more than 4 million), "Maybe... Maybe Not" (more than 6.6 million), "Werner – Beinhart!" (more than 4.9 million), "Rossini" (more than 3.2 million), "Ballermann 6" (more than 2.4 million), "Asterix & Obelix vs. Caesar" (nearly 3.6 million), "Werner – Volles Rooäää!!!" (nearly 2.8 million), "American Pie" (more than 6 million viewers, the biggest film of 2000), "Downfall" (more than 4.6 million viewers. Oscar-nominated), "" (nearly 5.6 million), "The Baader-Meinhof Complex" (more than 2.4 million), "Manitou's Shoe" (the second-most successful German film ever with more than 11.7 million viewers), "Dreamship Surprise – Period 1" (9 million), "Lissi and the Wild Emperor" (more than 2.2 million), "Vicky the Viking" (nearly 5 million), "Nowhere in Africa" (1.66 million viewers. Oscar winner for "Best Foreign Language Film" in 2003), "The Wave" (more than 2.5 Mio), "Hui Buh" (more than 2 million), "The White Massai" (more than 2.2. million), "Männersache" (1.8 million), "Horst Schlämmer – Isch kandidiere!" (1.35 million), "Maria, He Doesn't Like It" (1.3 million), "Pope Joan" (2.3 million), the "Wild Chicks" series (3.2 million), "Girls on Top" (nearly 1.8 million), "Türkisch für Anfänger" (2.4 million), "Suck me Shakespeer" (7.3 million) and the international self-production "Resident Evil" (3.6 million viewers), which developed into a successful international franchise.

Constantin Film AG is a German film production and film distribution company based in Munich. The company, which belongs to Highlight Communications AG, is a large independent German maker and distributor of productions in the entire field of audio-visual fiction and non-fiction. Company activity is based on the five pillars of film production/procurement of rights, TV production, film distribution, home entertainment and licence trading/TV exploitation. Constantin Film AG has released 36 of the 100 most successful German films of the last 20 years, including four of the Top 5: "Manitou's Shoe" (11.7 million viewers), "Traumschiff Surprise – Periode 1" (9 million), "Fack ju Göhte" (7.3 million) and "Fack ju Göhte 2" (7.7 million). The "Fack ju Göhte" trilogy was concluded in 2017 with "Fack ju Göhte 3" (6 million viewers) and is now the most successful German film series of all time. Internationally, Constantin Film is best known for the successful "Resident Evil" film franchise, which has earned worldwide to date and is also known as the highest-grossing film series based on a video game. Most recent successes include TV series "Shadowhunters", which won four People's Choice Awards in 2018. Constantin has also been involved in 20th Century Fox's "Fantastic Four" film franchise. Upcoming productions include bestseller adaption "The Silence" and "Monster Hunter".

Die Constantin Film AG ist ein Filmunternehmen mit Sitz in München, das sowohl als Filmverleih als auch als Filmproduktionsgesellschaft tätig ist. Das Unternehmen ist heute eine Tochtergesellschaft der Schweizer Highlight Communications AG und der erfolgreichste unabhängige Hersteller und Auswerter von Produktionen in Deutschland. Die Geschäftstätigkeit basiert auf den fünf Säulen Kinoproduktion/Rechteerwerb, TV-Produktion, Kinoverleih, Home Entertainment und Lizenzhandel / TV-Auswertung.


Overview.

The town was founded by Germans under the command of Colonel Theodor von Leutwein in 1897 as a small military base in order to explore the northern area of German South West Africa. The local historical museum (Franke Haus Museum) details the campaign of Major Viktor Franke in Ovamboland.  The "Naulila monument" commemorates the small expedition on the Portuguese fort of Naulila in Angola by Major Viktor Franke in October 1914 following the massacre of a German delegation which had been sent to negotiate a treaty of non-aggression.  South of Outjo is the Ugab River, one of the major rivers of Namibia. The town lies near Gamkarab Cave, known for its stalactites and stalagmites and its pietersite. The caves are on private ground and not open to the public.

Politics.

Outjo is governed by a municipal council that has seven seats.  The 2015 local authority election was won by SWAPO which gained four seats (1,307 votes). Two seats went to the United Democratic Front (UDF, 706 votes), and the remaining seat was won by the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) with 381 votes.

Transport.

Situated on the C38 southwest of Anderson Gate, Outjo is the gateway to the Etosha National Park. Damaraland is also reached by travelling through Outjo on the C39 to Khorixas, and the C40 towards Kamanjab leads to the Kaokoveld.  Outjo has an airstrip about out of town that accommodates small fixed-winged planes. Outjo is the terminus of a branch railway of the Namibian railway system, but there is no railway service.

Schools.

Immediately in Outjo are three primary schools and two secondary schools as well as a combined private school with a total of 2634 students and 96 teachers (as of December 2009).  The following schools are located in the vicinity of the city:

Touristic Attractions.

Outjo offers some sights, but it is above all an important tourist transit and supply point. In 2006, more than 22,000 tourists were counted per month.  Near the city is fingerlike rock formation created through erosion called Vingerklip (its mostly used Afrikaans name).

Outjo (Otjiherero: "small hills") is a city of 6,000 inhabitants in the Kunene Region of Namibia. It is the district capital of Outjo Constituency. It is best known as a main gateway to Etosha National Park.

Outjo (Otjiherero für „kleiner Hügel“) ist eine Gemeinde im gleichnamigen Wahlkreis in der Region Kunene in Namibia. Die Stadt hat 8400 Einwohner (Stand 2011).


Precursor and types.

Angiotensinogen.

Angiotensinogen is an α-2-globulin synthesized in the liver and is a precursor for angiotensin, but has also been indicated as having many other roles not related to angiotensin peptides. It is a member of the serpin family of proteins, leading to another name: Serpin A8, although it is not known to inhibit other enzymes like most serpins. In addition, a generalized crystal structure can be estimated by examining other proteins of the serpin family, but angiotensinogen has an elongated N-terminus compared to other serpin family proteins.  Angiotensinogen is also known as renin substrate. It is cleaved at the N-terminus by renin to result in angiotensin I, which will later be modified to become angiotensin II. This peptide is 485 amino acids long, and 10 N-terminus amino acids are cleaved when renin acts on it. The first 12 amino acids are the most important for activity.  Plasma angiotensinogen levels are increased by plasma corticosteroid, estrogen, thyroid hormone, and angiotensin II levels.

Angiotensin I.

Angiotensin I (CAS# 11128-99-7), officially called proangiotensin, is formed by the action of renin on angiotensinogen. Renin cleaves the peptide bond between the leucine (Leu) and valine (Val) residues on angiotensinogen, creating the decapeptide (ten amino acid) (des-Asp) angiotensin I. Renin is produced in the kidneys in response to renal sympathetic activity, decreased intrarenal blood pressure (<90mmHg systolic blood pressure ) at the juxtaglomerular cells, or decreased delivery of Na+ and Cl- to the macula densa. If a reduced NaCl concentration in the distal tubule is sensed by the macula densa, renin release by juxtaglomerular cells is increased. This sensing mechanism for macula densa-mediated renin secretion appears to have a specific dependency on chloride ions rather than sodium ions. Studies using isolated preparations of thick ascending limb with glomerulus attached in low NaCl perfusate were unable to inhibit renin secretion when various sodium salts were added but could inhibit renin secretion with the addition of chloride salts. This, and similar findings obtained in vivo, has led some to believe that perhaps "the initiating signal for MD control of renin secretion is a change in the rate of NaCl uptake predominantly via a luminal Na,K,2Cl co-transporter whose physiological activity is determined by a change in luminal Cl concentration."  Angiotensin I appears to have no direct biological activity and exists solely as a precursor to angiotensin II.

Angiotensin II.

Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II (AII) through removal of two C-terminal residues by the enzyme "angiotensin-converting enzyme" (ACE), primarily through ACE within the lung (but also present in endothelial cells, kidney epithelial cells, and the brain). Angiotensin II acts on the CNS to increase vasopressin production, and also acts on venous and arterial smooth muscle to cause vasoconstriction. Angiotensin II also increases aldosterone secretion; it therefore acts as an endocrine, autocrine/paracrine, and intracrine hormone.  ACE is a target of ACE inhibitor drugs, which decrease the rate of angiotensin II production. Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by stimulating the Gq protein in vascular smooth muscle cells (which in turn activates an IP3-dependent mechanism leading to a rise in intracellular calcium levels and ultimately causing contraction). In addition, angiotensin II acts at the Na/H exchanger in the proximal tubules of the kidney to stimulate Na reabsorption and H excretion which is coupled to bicarbonate reabsorption. This ultimately results in an increase in blood volume, pressure, and pH. Hence, ACE inhibitors are major anti-hypertensive drugs.  Other cleavage products of ACE, seven or nine amino acids long, are also known; they have differential affinity for angiotensin receptors, although their exact role is still unclear. The action of AII itself is targeted by angiotensin II receptor antagonists, which directly block angiotensin II AT receptors.  Angiotensin II is degraded to angiotensin III by angiotensinases located in red blood cells and the vascular beds of most tissues. It has a half-life in circulation of around 30 seconds, whereas, in tissue, it may be as long as 15–30 minutes.  Angiotensin II results in increased inotropy, chronotropy, catecholamine (norepinephrine) release, catecholamine sensitivity, aldosterone levels, vasopressin levels, and cardiac remodeling and vasoconstriction through AT1 receptors on peripheral vessels (conversely, AT2 receptors impair cardiac remodeling). This is why ACE inhibitors and ARBs help to prevent remodeling that occurs secondary to angiotensin II and are beneficial in CHF.

Angiotensin III.

Angiotensin III has 40% of the pressor activity of angiotensin II, but 100% of the aldosterone-producing activity. Increases mean arterial pressure. It is a peptide that is formed by removing an amino acid from angiotensin II by aminopeptidase A

Angiotensin IV.

Angiotensin IV is a hexapeptide that, like angiotensin III, has some lesser activity. Angiotensin IV has a wide range of activities in the central nervous system.  The exact identity of AT4 receptors has not been established. There is evidence that the AT4 receptor is insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP). There is also evidence that angiotensin IV interacts with the HGF system through the c-Met receptor.  Synthetic small molecule analogues of angiotensin IV with the ability to penetrate through blood brain barrier have been developed.  The AT4 site may be involved in memory acquisition and recall, as well as blood flow regulation.

Effects.

Angiotensins II, III and IV have a number of effects throughout the body:

Adipic.

Angiotensins "modulate fat mass expansion through upregulation of adipose tissue lipogenesis... and downregulation of lipolysis."

Cardiovascular.

They are potent direct vasoconstrictors, constricting arteries and veins and increasing blood pressure. This effect is achieved through activation of the GPCR AT1, which signals through a Gq protein to activate Phospholipase C, and subsequently increase intracellular calcium.  Angiotensin II has prothrombotic potential through adhesion and aggregation of platelets and stimulation of PAI-1 and PAI-2. When cardiac cell growth is stimulated, a local (autocrine-paracrine) renin–angiotensin system is activated in the cardiac myocyte, which stimulates cardiac cell growth through protein kinase C. The same system can be activated in smooth muscle cells in conditions of hypertension, atherosclerosis, or endothelial damage. Angiotensin II is the most important Gq stimulator of the heart during hypertrophy, compared to endothelin-1 and α1 adrenoreceptors.

Neural.

Angiotensin II increases thirst sensation (dipsogen) through the area postrema and subfornical organ of the brain, decreases the response of the baroreceptor reflex, increases the desire for salt, increases secretion of ADH from the posterior pituitary, and increases secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. It also potentiates the release of norepinephrine by direct action on postganglionic sympathetic fibers.

Adrenal.

Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex, causing it to release aldosterone, a hormone that causes the kidneys to retain sodium and lose potassium. Elevated plasma angiotensin II levels are responsible for the elevated aldosterone levels present during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.

Renal.

Angiotensin II has a direct effect on the proximal tubules to increase Na reabsorption. It has a complex and variable effect on glomerular filtration and renal blood flow depending on the setting. Increases in systemic blood pressure will maintain renal perfusion pressure; however, constriction of the afferent and efferent glomerular arterioles will tend to restrict renal blood flow. The effect on the efferent arteriolar resistance is, however, markedly greater, in part due to its smaller basal diameter; this tends to increase glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure and maintain glomerular filtration rate. A number of other mechanisms can affect renal blood flow and GFR. High concentrations of Angiotensin II can constrict the glomerular mesangium, reducing the area for glomerular filtration. Angiotensin II is a sensitizer to tubuloglomerular feedback, preventing an excessive rise in GFR. Angiotensin II causes the local release of prostaglandins, which, in turn, antagonize renal vasoconstriction. The net effect of these competing mechanisms on glomerular filtration will vary with the physiological and pharmacological environment.

Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that causes vasoconstriction and an increase in blood pressure. It is part of the renin–angiotensin system, which regulates blood pressure. Angiotensin also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex to promote sodium retention by the kidneys.

Angiotensine, früher "Angiotonine" oder "Hypertensine", sind eine zu den Gewebshormonen zählende Gruppe von Peptidhormonen, die durch enzymatische Spaltung durch verschiedene Peptidasen aus Angiotensinogen der Leber gebildet werden und durch eine verengende bzw. zusammenziehende Wirkung auf Blutgefäße den Blutdruck aufrechterhalten bzw. erhöhen können sowie Einfluss auf die Nebennieren (vermehrte Abgabe von Aldosteron) haben. Zu den Angiotensinen zählen:


Rituals.

On the last day of the month Pyanepsion, the priestess of Athena Polias and the Arrephoroi, a group of girls chosen to help in the making of the sacred peplos, set up the loom on which the enormous peplos was to be woven by the Ergastinai, another group of girls chosen to spend about nine months making the sacred peplos. They had to weave a theme of Athena's defeat of Enkelados and the Olympian's defeat of the Giants. The peplos of the statue was changed each year during the Plynteria.  The peplos played a role in the Athenian festival of the Great Panathenaea. Nine months before the festival, at the arts and crafts festival titled "Chalkeia", a special peplos would begin to be woven by young women. This peplos was placed on the statue of Athena during the festival procession. The peplos had myths and stories woven into its material and usually consisted of purple and saffron yellow cloth.

In modern fashion.

The peplum dress has been revived several times in the modern era due to longstanding admiration for Greek culture. Regency era women wore translucent shift dresses in keeping with the neoclassical architecture and interior design which favoured white marble and pale pastel colors. From the 1950s until the 1970s, classical inspired dresses became part of mainstream British and American fashion due to the emerging popularity of Italian peplum films and package holidays to the Mediterranean. These were revived again during the 1990s and 2010s due to nostalgia for the disco era and Old Hollywood glamour.

A peplos () is a body-length garment established as typical attire for women in ancient Greece by 500 BC (the Classical period). It was a long, tubular cloth with the top edge folded down about halfway, so that what was the top of the tube was now draped below the waist, and the bottom of the tube was at the ankle. The garment was then gathered about the waist and the folded top edge pinned over the shoulders. The folded-down top of the tube provided the appearance of a second piece of clothing. (The Caryatid statues show a typical drapery.)

Der Peplos () war eine Frauenbekleidung im antiken Griechenland. Der Peplos wurde auch in verschiedenen anderen Ländern seit der Eisenzeit getragen. Er besteht im Unterschied zu dem leichten Chiton aus einem langen schweren Stoff. Das viereckige Tuch wird zunächst waagerecht so gefaltet, dass oben ein Teil als Überfall (Apoptygma) umgeschlagen wird; dann wird es, mit dem Apoptygma nach außen, um den Körper gelegt. Hierbei entstehen die Varianten des seitlich offenen ("ionischen" oder "lakonischen") und des seitlich zugenähten ("dorischen") Peplos. Meist verleiht ein Gürtel dem Peplos zusätzlichen Halt; er kann sowohl über dem Apoptygma als auch unter diesem liegen. Zuweilen wird das Gewand über dem Gürtel hervorgezogen und bildet einen Bausch (Kolpos). An den Schultern wird er mit jeweils einer Fibel befestigt. Häufig überliefert finden wir den Peplos in der schwarz- und rotfigurigen Vasenmalerei, bei statuarischer Plastik seit der Archaik (zum Beispiel beim Typ der Kore), aber auch in der Architekturplastik (zum Beispiel auf Metopen).