The Welsh church.

Before the 8th century AD there were several Christian rites in Western Europe. Such diversity of practice was often considered unimportant so long as Rome's primacy was accepted. Gradually the diversity tended to lessen so that by the time of the final fusion in the Carolingian period the Roman Rite, its Ambrosian variant, and the Hispano-Gallican Mozarabic Rite were practically all that were left.  British bishops attended the Council of Arles in A.D. 314 and the Council of Rimini in 359. Communication with Gaul may be inferred from dedications to St. Martin at Whithorn and at Canterbury, from the mission of Victridius of Rouen in A.D. 396 and those of Germanus of Auxerre, with St. Lupus in 429 and with St. Severus in 447, directed against the Pelagianism of which the bishops of Britain stood accused.  However much of Britain derived their religion from Irish missionsaries. Aidan of Lindisfarne, Foillan, Diuma, Finan of Lindisfarne, Jaruman and others evangalised the Anglo-Saxons. Ia of Cornwall and her companions, Saint Piran, St. Sennen, Petroc came to Cornwall and probably brought with them whatever rites they were accustomed to. Cornwall had an ecclesiastical quarrel with Wessex in the days of St. Aldhelm, which appears in Leofric's Missal, though the details of it are not specified.  The certain points of difference between the British Church and the Roman in prior to [Bede] were: (1) The rule of keeping Easter (2) the tonsure (3) the manner of baptizing. Gildas also records elements of a different rite of ordination.

Liturgy.

There is a mass, probably of the 9th century, apparently Cornish since it mentions ""Ecclesia Lanaledensis"" (perhaps St Germans in Cornwall, though this was also the Breton name of Aleth, now part of Saint-Malo) and in honour of St. Germanus. It is quite Roman in type, probably written after that part of Cornwall had come under Saxon influence, but with a unique Proper Preface.The manuscript also contains glosses, held by Professor Loth to be Welsh but possibly Cornish or Breton. There is little other evidence as to what liturgy was in use.  Anglicans of the 19th century such as Sir William Palmer in his "Origines Liturgicae" and the Bishop of Chichester in his "Story of the English Prayerbook" proposed that Irenaeus, a disciple of St. Polycarp the disciple of St. John the Divine, brought the Ephesine Rite to Provence whence it spread through Gaul to Britain and became the foundation of the Sarum Rite. The Ephesine origin of the Gallican Rite rested first

Easter.

The Irish, the English, and the Britons adhered to the old cycle of 84 years instead of the newer cycle of 19 years and counted the third week of the moon (on the Sunday of which Easter must fall) from the 14th to the 20th instead of from the 15th to the 21st. Until 457, when the 532-year cycle of Victorius of Aquitaine was adopted at Rome, each agreed with Roman practice, differing from Alexandria and the East. In 525 Rome altered its rule again to the 19-year cycle of Dionysius Exiguus to conform to Eastern usage.  Colman at the

Establishment of the Irish Rite.

There were Christians in Ireland before Saint Patrick, but we have no information as to how they worshipped, and their existence is ignored by Tirechan's 7th-century "Catalogus Sanctorum Hiberniae", which divides the saints of Ireland into three orders covering about 225 years from the coming of St. Patrick in 440 in the reign of Laoghaire MacNeil to the reign of Blathmac and Diarmait sons of Áed Sláine in 665. Each order is stated to have lasted for the reigns of four kings - symmetry is attained by omitting about six intervening reigns, but the outside dates of each period are clear enough, and the document relates customs of the Divine Office and the Easter and tonsure questions.  The first order was in the time of St. Patrick, from the reign of Laoghaire to that of Túathal Máelgarb (c. 440-544). They were all bishops, 350 in number, founders of churches, all Romans, French (i.e. the Gauls), Britons and Scots. They had one Head, Christ, one leader, Patrick, one mass and one tonsure from ear to ear and they celebrated Easter a fortnight after the spring equinox (""quarta decima luna post aequinoctium vernale"").  The second order was of few bishops and many priests, 300 in number. It lasted from the end of the reign of Tuathal to that of Áed mac Ainmuirech (c. 544-99). They had one head, Christ, they celebrated different Masses and different rules (""diversas regulas""), they had one Easter, the fourteenth of the moon after the equinox, and one tonsure from ear to ear. They received a Mass from the Britons, David of Wales, Gilla (Gildas), and Docus (Cadoc). The "Life of Gildas" tells how King Ainmuire mac Sétnai sent for Gildas to restore ecclesiastical order in his kingdom in which the Catholic faith was being laid aside.  The third order were priests and a few bishops, 100 in number, living in wildernesses on an ascetic diet (""qui

Scottish sources.

In Scotland there is very little information. Intercourse with Ireland was considerable and the few details that can be gathered from such sources as Adamnan's Life of St. Columba and the various relics of the Scoto-Northumbrian Church point to a general similarity with Ireland in the earlier period. Of the rite of the monastic order of the Culdees (Céli Dé or Goillidhe-Dé, servants of God, or possibly Cultores Dei) very little is known, but they certainly had a rite of their own, which may have been similar to the Irish.  The Roman Easter and tonsure were adopted by the Picts in 710, and at Iona in 716-18, and much later, in about 1080, St. Margaret of Scotland, wife of King Malcolm III, wishing to reform the Scottish church in a Roman direction, discovered and abolished certain peculiar customs of which Theodoric, her chaplain and biographer, tells us less than we could wish.  It

Irish (insular and continental) sources.

In 590 St. Columbanus and his companions travelled to the Continent and established monasteries throughout France, South Germany, Switzerland, and North Italy, of which the best known were Luxeuil, Bobbio, St. Galen, and Ratisbon. It is from the Rule of St. Columbanus that we know something of a Celtic Divine Office. Irish missionaries, with their very strict rule, were not altogether popular among the lax Gallican clergy, who tried to get them discouraged. At a council at Macon, in 623, certain charges brought by one Agrestius were considered. Among them is the following: ""In summâ quod a caeterorum ritu ac norma desciscerent et sacra mysteria sollemnia orationum et collectarum multiplici varietate celebrarent"." There has been more than one interpretation of this phrase, some holding, with Pope Benedict XIV, that it refers to the use of many collects before the Epistle, instead of the one collect of the then Roman Missal, others that it implies a multiplicity of variables in the whole Mass, analogous to that existing in the Hispano-Gallican Rite. The Columbanian monasteries gradually drifted into the Benedictine Order.  The general conclusion seems to be that, while the Irish were not above borrowing from other Western nations, they originated a good deal themselves, much of which eventually passed into that composite rite which is now known as Roman. This seems to be a rough statement of the opinion of the English Roman Catholic scholar Edmund Bishop, which involves the much larger question of the origin and development of all the Western rites.

The Antiphonary of Bangor.

Copied at the Abbey of Bobbio from a manuscript compiled at the monastery of Bangor in County Down, during the time of Abbot Cronan (680-91), this so-called "antiphonary" is now

The Bobbio Missal.

A manuscript of the 7th century found by Mabillon at Bobbio in North Italy, now in the Bibliothèque nationale at Paris (Lat. 13,246). V. Neale and Forbes entitle it "Missale Vesontionense seu Sacramentarium Gallicanum", its attribution to Besançon being due to the presence of a Mass in

The Stowe Missal.

The Stowe Missal is a manuscript of the late 8th or early 9th century, with alterations in later hands, most of them written by one Moelcaich, who signs his name at the end of the Canon, and whom Dr. MacCarthy identifies, not very convincingly, with Moelcaich MacFlann, c. 750. It was discovered abroad, in the 18th century, by John Grace of Nenah, from whom it passed to the Duke of Buckingham's library at Stowe. It was bought by the Earl of Ashburnham in 1849, and from his collection it went to the Royal Irish Academy. It contains part of the Gospel of St. John, probably quite unconnected with what follows, bound up with the Ordinary and

The Book of Dimma.

An 8th-century Irish pocket gospel book originally from the Abbey of Roscrea, County Tipperary, Ireland. The Book

The Book of Mulling.

The Book of Mulling is a manuscript of the late 8th century. It contains the four Gospels, an office for the unction and communion of the sick, and a fragmentary directory or plan of a service. Dr. Lawlor thought the latter

Liber Hymnorum - The Book of Hymns.

This is a collection of forty hymns in Latin and Irish, almost all of Irish origin, with canticles and ""ccclxv orationes quas beatus Gregorius de toto psalterio congregavit"". There are explanatory prefaces in Irish or Latin to each hymn. Some of the hymns are found in the Antiphonary of Bangor, the "Leabhar Breac", and

Fragmentary texts.

The Turin Fragment is a manuscript of the 7th century in the Turin Library. Mayer considers the fragment to have been written at Bobbio. It consists of six leaves and contains the canticles, ""Cantemus Domino", "Benedicite"," and ""Te Deum"", with collects to follow those and the "Laudate" psalms (cxlvii-cl) and the ""Benedictus"", the text of which is not given, two hymns with collects to follow them, and two other prayers.  There are two Karlsruhe Fragments: four pages in an Irish hand of the late 8th or early 9th century in the Library of Karlsruhe contain parts of three masses, one of which is ""pro captivis"". The arrangement resembles that of the Bobbio Missal, in that the Epistles and Gospels seem to have preceded the other variables under the title of "lectiones ad misam". Another four pages in an Irish hand probably of the 9th century contain fragments of masses and a variant of the intercessions inserted in the Intercession for the Living in

Other manuscripts.

Besides these manuscripts there are certain others bearing on the subject which are not liturgical, and some of which are not Celtic, though they show signs of Celtic influences. The Book of Cerne is a large early 9th-century manuscript collection of prayers, etc. made for Æthelwold, Bishop of Lichfield (820-40). It once belonged to the Abbey of Cerne in Dorset, but is Mercian in origin and shows Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Carolingian, Roman, and Byzantine influences. The Leabhar Breac or Speckled Book, an Irish manuscript of the 14th century, belonging to the Royal Irish Academy, contains a very large collection of ecclesiastical and religious pieces in Irish. The contents are not as a rule of a liturgical character but the book contains a variant of the

Office and liturgy.

Evidence as to the nature and origin of the Irish office is found in the Rule of St. Columbanus, which gives directions as to the number of psalms to be recited at each hour, in the Turin fragment and the Antiphonary of Bangor, which gives the text of canticles, hymns, collects, and antiphons, in the 8th century tract in Cott. MS. Nero A. II., which gives what was held in the 8th century to be the origin of the ""Cursus Scottorum"" ("Cursus psalmorum" and "Synaxis" are terms used for the Divine Office in the Rule of St. Columbanus) and in allusions in the "Catalogus Sanctorum Hiberniae", which differentiates between the "Cursus Gallorum", which it derives imaginatively from Ephesus and St. John, through St. Polycarp and St. Irenaeus, and this "Cursus Scottorum" which, according to this writer, probably an Irish monk in France, originated with St. Mark at Alexandria. With St. Mark it came to Italy. St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St. Basil, and the hermits St. Anthony, St. Paul, St. Macarius, St. John, and St. Malchus used it. St. Cassian, St. Honoratus, and St. Porcarius of Lérins, St. Caesarius of Arles, St. Germanus, and St. Lupus also used it, and St. Germanus taught it to St. Patrick, who brought it to Ireland. There "Wandilochus Senex" and "Gomorillus" (Comgall) used it and St. Wandilochus and Columbanus brought it to Luxeuil. The part of the story from St. Germanus onwards may possibly be founded in fact. The other part is not so probable as it does not follow that what St. Columbanus carried to Gaul was the same as that which St. Patrick had brought from Gaul in an earlier age.

The Mass.

The Bobbio and Stowe Missals contain the Irish ordinary of a daily mass in its late Romanized form. Many of the variables are found in the Bobbio book and portions of some masses are in the Carlsruhe and Piacenza fragments besides which a little information is found in the St. Gall fragments, the Bangor Antiphonary, the order for the communion of the sick in the Books of Dimma, Mulling, and Deer, the tract in Irish at the end of the Stowe Missal and its variant in the Leabhar Breac.  The Bobbio book is a complete missal, for the priest only, with masses for holy days through the year. The Stowe Missal gives three differing forms, a fragmentary original of the 9th century, the correction by Moelcaich and the Mass described in the Irish tract. The pieces said by the people are in several cases only indicated by beginnings and endings. The original Stowe Mass approaches nearer to that of Bobbio than the revised form does.  Moelcaich's version is a mixed mass, Gelasian, Roman or Romano-Ambrosian for the most part, with much of a Hispano-Gallican type underlying it, and perhaps some indigenous details. It

Hours and psalms.

The Rule of St. Columbanus and the Bangor book distinguish eight Hours;  At the four lesser Hours St. Columanus orders three psalms each; at Vespers, "ad initium noctis", and "ad medium noctis" twelve each, and "ad matutinam", a very curious and intricate arrangement of psalmody varying in length with the longer and shorter nights. On Saturdays and Sundays from 1 November to 25 March, seventy-five psalms were recited on each day, under one antiphon for every three psalms. From 25 March to 24 June these were diminished by three psalms weekly to a minimum of thirty-six psalms. It would seem, though it does not say so, that

Baptism service.

There are two Irish orders of baptism extant: one in the 7th-century Bobbio Missal and one in the 9th-century part of the Stowe Missal. They differ considerably in the order of ceremony, though they have a good deal of their actual wording in common. Both the Stowe and the Bobbio have the Gallican washing of the feet after baptism, with words very similar to those in the "Gothicum" and "Vetus Gallicanum".  The Stowe is the longest of any early form and on the whole has most in common with the Gelasian and

Visitation, unction, and communion of the sick.

There are four extant specimens of these services: in the Stowe Missal and the Book of Dimma are the longest and most complete, and agree very closely. The Mulling differs in the preliminary bidding prayers and in beginning with blessings

Consecration of churches.

In the Leabhar Breac there is a tract describing the consecration of a church, a ceremony divided into five parts; consecration of the floor, of the altar with its furniture, consecration out of doors, aspersion inside and aspersion outside. The consecration of the

The term "Celtic Rite" is appliedto the various liturgical rites used in Celtic Christianity in Britain, Ireland and Brittany and the monasteries founded by St. Columbanus and Saint Catald in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy during the early middle ages. The term does not imply homogeneity; the evidence, scanty and fragmentary as it is, is in favour of considerable diversity.

Die Bezeichnung keltischer Ritus oder keltische Liturgie () fasst die katholischen Liturgien zusammen, die in Großbritannien, Irland und der Bretagne und teilweise auch im Königreich Galicien und auf der nördlichen Iberischen Halbinsel in Gebrauch waren, wie auch in den Klöstern, die von Iroschottischen Mönchen in Frankreich, Schweiz, Deutschland und Italien im frühen Mittelalter gegründet wurden. Der Begriff bezeichnet keine einheitliche Liturgie, sondern ist ein Sammelbegriff für eine große Vielfalt meist nur fragmentarisch bezeugter Riten. Die Beschäftigung mit außerrömischen Liturgien hat in Großbritannien eine besondere Bedeutung, da sich die hochkirchliche Bewegung der Anglikanischen Kirche immer wieder von Rom abgrenzen muss.


Overview.

In the traditional hierarchy of British and other Commonwealth universities, reader (and principal lecturer in the new universities) are academic ranks above senior lecturer and below professor, recognising a distinguished record of original research. Reader is similar to a professor without a chair, similar to the distinction between "professor extraordinarius" and "professor ordinarius" at some European universities, professor and chaired professor in Hong Kong and "professor name" (or associate professor) and chaired professor in Ireland. Readers and professors in the UK would correspond to full professors in the US.  The promotion criteria applied to a readership in the United Kingdom are similar to those applied to a professorship: advancing from senior lecturer to reader generally requires evidence of a distinguished record of original research.  In Denmark and Norway, "docent" was traditionally a title ranking between associate professor and professor, and was virtually identical to a readership in the United Kingdom, although today, the title is used somewhat differently. The traditional Danish/Norwegian "docent" title is widely translated as reader. Historically, there would often only be one professor (chair) for each institute or discipline, and other academics at the top academic level would be appointed as docents. In Norway all docents became full professors when the docent rank was abolished in 1985. In Sweden and countries influenced by Sweden, "docent" is the highest academic title below that of (full) Professor, but it is usually not an academic position in itself, but is more like a degree; in this sense it is somewhat comparable to the Habilitation found in certain countries in Continental Europe. The Swedish "docent" title is translated as either reader or associate professor in the sense of a title above senior lecturer (i.e. associate professor as an alternative title of reader, as found in certain Commonwealth countries and Ireland).  Several UK universities (e.g. the University of Leeds; the University of Oxford) have recently dispensed with the reader grade (those currently holding readerships retain the title, but no new readers will be appointed). In the few UK universities that have adopted North American academic titles (i.e. lecturer is equivalent to assistant professor; senior lecturer equivalent to associate professor; professor equivalent to professor), readerships have become assimilated to professorships.

Associate professor in place of reader.

At some universities in Commonwealth countries, such as India, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Malaysia, and in Ireland, the title "associate professor" is used in place of "reader", and similarly ranks above senior lecturer and below professor. This "associate professor" title should not be confused with the "associate professor" title used in the North American system; like the reader title it ranks higher than an "associate professor" in the North American system, as the North American "associate professor" corresponds to the senior lecturer rank in Commonwealth universities. About half as many people hold the full professor title in Commonwealth universities as compared to U.S. universities; hence the "reader" or "associate professor" rank in the Commonwealth system broadly corresponds to the lower half of the U.S. full professor rank.

Comparison.

The table presents a broad overview of the traditional main systems, but there are universities which use a combination of those systems or other titles. Note that some universities in Commonwealth countries have adopted the American system in place of the Commonwealth system.

Notable examples.

This rank was the highest academic rank reached by Alan Turing, Chaim Weizmann, and Mary Cartwright.

The title of reader in the United Kingdom and some universities in the Commonwealth of Nations, for example India, Australia and New Zealand, denotes an appointment for a senior academic with a distinguished international reputation in research or scholarship.

Reader bezeichnet im Vereinigten Königreich und einigen Universitäten von Ländern des Commonwealth of Nations eine akademische Berufsbezeichnung für führendes akademisches Personal mit einer ausgezeichneten internationalen Reputation in Forschung und Lehre. Der Reader ordnet sich vom Rang her über dem Senior Lecturer und unterhalb des Professors ein. Die Berufung zum Reader erfolgt in Großbritannien ähnlich wie für eine volle Professur: Die Beförderung vom Senior Lecturer erfordert im Allgemeinen den Nachweis der herausragenden Leistung. An den meisten Universitäten in Australien, Neuseeland, Südafrika, Irland und an einigen Universitäten in Südostasien ist der gleichwertige Titel "Associate Professor", der nicht mit dem nordamerikanischen Gebrauch dieses Titels zu verwechseln ist, der dem Titel "Senior Lecturer" entspricht.


Early life.

Speakes was born in Cleveland in northwestern Mississippi, which had the nearest hospital to his parent's middle-class home in Merigold in Bolivar County. His father, Harry Earl Speakes, was a banker. His mother was the former Ethlyn Frances Fincher.

Early career.

Mississippi newspaperman.

Speakes received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Journalism from the University of Mississippi in Oxford. He served as editor of the "Oxford Eagle"' in 1961, and thereafter as managing editor of the "Bolivar Commercial" in Cleveland from 1962 to 1966. From 1966 to 1968, he worked as general manager and editor of Progress Publishers of Leland, Mississippi.

Senate press secretary.

Speakes headed to Washington, D.C. in 1968, serving as press secretary to Democratic Senator James Eastland of Mississippi. In this capacity, he worked as spokesman for the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary and a coordinator of the senator's reelection campaign in 1972 against the Republican Gil Carmichael.

Work in the White House.

The White House tapped Speakes in 1974 as a Staff Assistant and soon became the Press Secretary to the Special Counsel to the President at the height of the Watergate scandal. Upon Nixon's resignation, President Ford appointed Speakes to be Assistant Press Secretary to the President. Speakes served as Bob Dole's press secretary during his unsuccessful vice-presidential run with Ford.  After briefly serving as President Ford's personal press secretary in 1977, Speakes ventured into the private sector as vice president of the international public relations firm of Hill & Knowlton until 1981. After the 1980 presidential campaign, he worked on the staff of the Reagan-Bush team, helping to "straighten out" the press operation, eventually becoming deputy spokesman for the President-elect during the transition. Before the 1988 presidential election, Speakes had considered working for the campaigns of George H. W. Bush, Jack Kemp, and Alexander Haig; however, Bush's people never got back to him, Speakes decided that Kemp was "too hot" (meaning too quick with an answer) for television, and was advised by another Washington insider, "You can do that [join the Haig team] if you want to, but let me tell you one thing: Al Haig ain't going to be President."

Presidential spokesman.

When James Brady was shot in the assassination attempt on President Reagan on March 30, 1981, he was unable to return to work, though he retained the title of "Press Secretary" for the duration of Reagan's presidency. In Brady's absence, Speakes took over the job of handling the daily press briefings.  On June 17, 1981, Speakes was appointed "Deputy Assistant to the President and Deputy Press Secretary."  On August 5, 1983, Speakes was appointed "Assistant to the President and Principal Deputy Press Secretary," and remained in that post until January 1987, when he resigned and Marlin Fitzwater took over the role.  On January 30, 1987, he was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Reagan.  Speakes wrote in his 1988 memoir "Speaking Out" that he twice invented statements himself and attributed them to President Reagan. These statements included ones after the KAL 007 shootdown in 1983 and during the Geneva Summit of 1985. Speakes thought that Gorbachev's remarks at the summit had been highly quotable while Reagan's were "disappointingly lackluster", so he asked his aides to make up some quotes, polished them himself, then issued them to the press as President Reagan's statements. Speakes' revelations, something of a side note in the book, touched off a minor controversy; reporters were annoyed at having been fooled, and Marlin Fitzwater, Speakes's successor, called it a "damn outrage" and complained that they unfairly called into question the veracity of other presidential statements. Speakes said "I was representing his thought if not his words", but also apologized to Reagan, saying he had "provided fodder for those who would aim the cannons of criticism at the President I served loyally for 6 years." Speakes left a job at Merrill Lynch which he had held for a short time as a result of the controversy.  In 2017, Speakes became a target of controversy surrounding the Reagan administration's handling of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. During press briefings over the course of several years, reporter Lester Kinsolving asked Speakes what response, if any, the administration had to the developing crisis. On most of these occasions, Speakes and the White House press corps responded with homophobic jokes, laughter, and disinterest; responses that have been largely pointed to as symbols of the Reagan administration's slow response to the disease.

Personal life.

Speakes was married to the former Laura Christine Crawford (born 1945), whom he met in high school. Long ago divorced, she resides in Oxford, Mississippi. They had three children.  Speakes was also married to the former Betty J. Robinson and in 2001 Aleta Sindelar, a registered nurse from Bethesda, Maryland, who claims that Speakes gave her control of his $1 million estate, an issue that has pitted her in legal dispute with Speakes' children. Ultimately, the Mississippi courts sided with Speakes' daughter and oldest child, Sondra "Sandy" Lanell Speakes Huerta of Cleveland, Mississippi. Sindelar's visitation with her husband was restricted. The Speakes' children said that Sindelar had deserted Larry and left him to care for himself in a condominium in Arlington, Virginia.

Death.

Speakes died in Cleveland, Mississippi, on January 10, 2014, at the age of 74, of Alzheimer's disease. His body was interred a few hours after his death at North Cleveland Cemetery.

Larry Melvin Speakes (September 13, 1939 – January 10, 2014) was the acting White House Press Secretary for the White House under President Ronald Reagan, having held the position from 1981 to 1987.

Larry Speakes (* 13. September 1939 in Cleveland, Mississippi; † 10. Januar 2014 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Journalist, der während der Amtszeit von US-Präsident Ronald Reagan als "White House Deputy Press Secretary" sechs Jahre lang kommissarischer Pressesprecher des Weißen Hauses war.


Procedure.

A person would telephone a nurse, saying that he was a doctor and giving a fictitious name, asking the nurse to administer 20 mg of a fictitious drug named "Astroten" to a patient, and that he/she would provide the required signature for the medication later. A bottle labelled "Astroten" had been placed in the drug cabinet, but there was no drug of that name on the approved list. The label clearly stated that 10 mg was the maximum daily dose.  The experimental protocol was explained to a group of twelve nurses and twenty-one nursing students, who were asked to predict how many nurses would give the drug to the patient; ten nurses and all the nursing students said they would not do it.  Hofling then selected 22 nurses at a hospital in the United States for the actual experiment. They were each telephoned by an experimenter who identified himself as Dr. Smith, who asked them to administer the drug and said that he would write up the paperwork as soon as he got to the hospital. Nurses who followed the instruction were stopped at the door to the patient room before they could administer the "drug".  The nurses should have refused "Dr Smith's" instructions for any one of several reasons:

Findings.

Hofling found that 21 out of the 22 nurses would have given the patient an overdose of medicine. None of the investigators, and only one experienced nurse who examined the protocol in advance, correctly guessed the experimental results. He also found that 21 of 22 nurses to whom he had given the questionnaire had said they would not obey the orders of the doctor, and that 10 out of the 22 nurses had done this before, with a different drug.

Conclusions.

Through the experiment, Hofling was able to demonstrate that people are very unwilling to question those who are considered "authority figures", even when they might have good reason to. This experiment helped illustrate how one could be willing to do something they are ordered to do, even if they know what they are being ordered to do is wrong (such as giving a patient too much of a drug). This study was also very important in relation to the Milgram experiment.

In 1966, the psychiatrist Charles K. Hofling conducted a field experiment on obedience in the nurse-physician relationship. In the natural hospital setting, nurses were ordered by unknown doctors to administer what could have been a dangerous dose of a (fictional) drug to their patients. In spite of official guidelines forbidding administration in such circumstances, Hofling found that 21 out of the 22 nurses would have given the patient an overdose of medicine.

Das sogenannte Astroten-Experiment, in der englischsprachigen Literatur als "Hofling (hospital) experiment" oder "Hofling study" bekannt, ist ein Feldexperiment einer Forschergruppe um den Psychiaters Charles K. Hofling. Es beschäftigt sich mit dem Verhältnis zwischen Ärzten und Krankenschwestern und gehört zu den klassischen Experimenten zu abweichendem Verhalten in Organisationen.


History.

Auchinleck Castle was recorded as being extant in 1241. At that time, the castle was the seat of the Auchinlecks of that Ilk, who had held the barony since at least the 13th century and possibly earlier. The castle, and the barony, remained within the Auchinleck family until 1504 when due to a failing Auchinleck male line, and the marriage of a daughter of Sir John Auchinleck to a Thomas Boswell, the estate and the title were granted to Boswell by King James IV. Boswell assumed the title of laird from that date. It is not known when Auchinleck Castle ceased to be inhabited. The ruins still stand within the grounds of the Auchinleck estate, on the low sandstone cliff which overlooks the confluence of the River Lugar and the Dippol Burn.

The Boswells.

In 1591 John Boswell was in trouble with the Privy Council for practising witchcraft, sorcery and enchantments, consulting with witches and taking part in other devilish activities. Richie Graham, the most notorious wizard of his day, admitted to having raised the Devil at Auchinleck. Boswell's response to these allegations was to flee the country.  Auchinleck Old House was built in 1612, and was the home of the Boswell family prior to the building of the current Auchinleck House. Again, the ruins are still standing within the estate.  The "new" Auchinleck House was built "circa" 1760 by Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, 8th Laird of Auchinleck. It later passed on to his son, James Boswell, the biographer of Samuel Johnson. Boswell and Johnson visited the house in 1773 on their way back from their journey to the Hebrides. In 1782, James Boswell became the 9th Laird of Auchinleck. The design of the house has been attributed to Robert Adam, although it may have been designed by Alexander Boswell himself.

Auchinleck House in the 20th century.

During the Second World War, the then Laird of Auchinleck gave permission for Officers from the armies of Poland, Canada and France to live in Auchinleck House.  In 1986 the remains of the buildings were turned over to the Scottish Historic Buildings Trust by James Boswell, a descendant of the 18th-century Boswells. The Trust repaired the roof, and thus ensured the survival of the building. In 1999 Auchinleck House was bought by the Landmark Trust, a building preservation charity whose aim it is to "rescue historic and architecturally interesting buildings and their surroundings from neglect and, when restored, to give them new life by letting them for holidays." Now restored, Auchinleck House is used for holiday lets, and is occasionally open to the public.

Auchinleck House is an 18th-century mansion in Scotland. It is situated near the town of Auchinleck near Cumnock and Ayr in East Ayrshire. The Auchinleck Estate has been inhabited since the 13th century, and the remains of Auchinleck Castle and Auchinleck Old House stand in the estate. The house is protected as a category A listed building, while the two ruined dwellings are scheduled monuments.

Auchinleck House ist ein Herrenhaus rund zwei Kilometer nördlich der schottischen Ortschaft Ochiltree in der Council Area East Ayrshire. 1971 wurde das Bauwerk in die schottischen Denkmallisten in die höchste Kategorie A aufgenommen.


History.

The site of Lawrenceburg was settled in the early 1780s by a German immigrant named Jacob Kaufman and was first called Kaufman's or Coffman's Station. The post office was established as Lawrenceburgh on January 22, 1817, for William Lawrence, a local tavern owner. The community was incorporated as Lawrence in 1820 by the Court of Franklin County (of which it was then a part) but renamed Lawrenceburg in 1827. James Lawrence, a naval officer, is the namesake.  The city was formally incorporated by the state assembly in 1850.  The Four Roses distillery in Lawrenceburg was founded in 1888 and the physical distillery was built in 1910 in Spanish Mission-style architecture, and it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Wild Turkey bourbon distillery is also located in Lawrenceburg.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 10,505 people, 4,194 households, and 2,882 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 4,582 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 93.3% White, 3.2% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.9% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 1.9% of the population.  There were 4,194 households out of which 34.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.7% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.3% were non-families. 26.3% of all households were made up of individuals living alone and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.96.  The age distribution was 26.7% under 18, 5.7% from 20 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 23.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 or older. The median age was 35.2 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $44,778, and the median income for a family was $58,582. Males had a median income of $38,040 versus $35,184 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,427. About 9.1% of families and 13.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.2% of those under age 18 and 8.5% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Public library.

Lawrenceburg has a lending library, the Anderson Public Library.

Lawrenceburg is a home rule-class city in Anderson County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 10,505 at the 2010 census. It is the seat of its county. Lawrenceburg is part of the Frankfort, Kentucky, micropolitan statistical area.

Lawrenceburg ist eine Stadt mit dem Status City und gleichzeitig Verwaltungssitz (County Seat) des Anderson County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Kentucky mit 11042 Einwohnern (2012).


Life.

Bakere was formerly Bishop of Manicaland until his retirement. He continued to reside in Mutare, the see city of his diocese, until he was asked by the Dean of the Church of the Province of Central Africa on 7 November 2007 to take over the Diocese of Harare after the ouster of Bishop Nolbert Kunonga, who had aligned himself with the Marxist régime of Robert Mugabe in an attempt to withdraw his diocese from the Province of Central Africa. It was expected Bakare would be a caretaker bishop until a substantive leader could be elected.  Bakare denounced Mugabe's treatment of Christians, particularly Anglicans who refuse to recognize the authority of Kunonga. Many Anglican churches have been closed on the orders of Mugabe's party, Zanu-PF, which believes it should continue to rule Zimbabwe despite an electoral defeat in March 2008.  At the decennial Lambeth Conference in Canterbury, England, Bakare spoke of Zimbabwe to newsmen: "The ruling system is so oppressive that it has denied the people their human rights, including religious freedom. My diocese continues to suffer persecution. We have been denied the freedom to worship."  On 30 October 2008, it was announced that Bakare had been awarded Sweden's 2008 Per Anger Prize for his "committed work for human rights in a politically unstable Zimbabwe." He received the award in Stockholm on 10 November 2008. "It is like a war, in the sense that there is total absence of peace," Bakare told Swedish radio news in describing conditions in his homeland.

Sebastian Bakare (born 1940) is a Zimbabwean retired Anglican Bishop of the Diocese of Harare and former Bishop of Manicaland. He was once in a power struggle over the leadership of the Diocese of Harare with Nolbert Kunonga, the former Bishop of Harare, since Kunonga was stripped of his episcopacy in January 2008 by the Province.

Sebastian Bakare (* 1940 in Südrhodesien) ist ein simbabwischer anglikanischer Geistlicher und Hochschullehrer. Er war von 1999 bis 2006 Bischof von Manicaland und von 2007 bis 2009 Diözesanadministrator ("caretaker bishop") von Harare.


Early life.

The Steyn family lived near Winburg on the farm Josephinesdal. Steyn was born on 2 October 1857 on the farm Rietfontein near Winburg in the Orange Free State. His father Marthinus (known as Marthinus 'blinkstewels') was away from home, following the death of his own father, to assist his mother on a three month long round trip from Winburg to Swellendam in the Cape Colony. As Cecilia, Steyn's mother, was pregnant with Marthinus Theunis, they thought it safer for her to stay with her sister Gertruida, who was married to Theunis Wessels, a farmer at Rietfontein. Steyn was intended to be named only Marthinus after his father, but because of the care that Theunis and Gertruida took during Cecilia's pregnancy, Steyn was named both after his father Marthinus and his uncle Theunis. In later years his family always called him Theunis.  During the Free State–Basotho War of 1858, the Steyns were driven from their farm and lost almost everything. After the death of Steyn's two grandfathers, his Wessels grandmother convinced his father to buy his own farm. They bought the farm Suurfontein/Zuurfontein, on the Modder River, about 13 miles from Bloemfontein. It is on this farm that Steyn spent most of his youth, and experienced the open and free spaces of the Free State.  Steyn started his school years in a small farm school, on the farm Rooiwal. The school was forty minutes away by horse and the teacher was Mr. Wiggins, who taught in English. Another Basotho War started in 1864, disrupting the family, and causing Theunis and his brother Tewie to stay with their grandmother in Wessels, where they attended a small grammar school briefly; afterwards they were sent to Grey College.  At the age of 16, he left school with his brother Tewie to farm on Zuurfontein. Steyn's family lived right across from the then president of the Free State, J.H. Brand, in Bloemfontein. The family socialized with other groups of Dutch families. The Steyn home in Bloemfontein, Green Lodge, was the meeting place for the young people of Bloemfontein. The house was open for everybody: from the Fichardts of German origin, to the English speaking Robertses, to the Jewish Baumans, to English speaking Afrikaners, like President Brand, as well as the Dutch community.

Studies.

After finishing his studies at Grey College, and after farming for four years on Suurfontein/Zuurfontein, a visit by Judge James Buchanan, a member of the Orange Free State High Court changed Steyn's direction from farming towards further studies in law. According to Judge Buchanan's daughter, he was set on convincing Steyn's father that they needed to send Steyn to the Netherlands to study law at Leiden University.  Steyn and his friend Harry Vels left in May 1877 on the Dunrobin Castle from Port Elizabeth for Cape Town and from there to Europe. In Cape Town, more passengers, including Rev. Colin Fraser and his family, on his way to Scotland as delegate for the Free State Church at the Pan-Presbyterian Council (now known as the World Alliance of Reformed Churches), (accompanied by the 12 year old Tibbie Fraser, later to become the wife of Steyn). Also onboard was the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek government delegation consisting of Paul Kruger, the then Vice State President, E.J.P. Jorissen, the state attorney and their secretary, Willem Eduard Bok, on their way to England to lay a formal protest against the proclamation of Theophilus Shepstone asserting British sovereignty over the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek.  Steyn and Vels did preparatory studies under W.F.P. Enklaar and Dr. B. Wisselink at the Gymnasium in Deventer. In September 1879, they would have taken their admission exams for the Leiden University, however, they decided to move to England instead. This decision was made as they needed an English certificate and training to be allowed to practice law in South Africa. Steyn took his admission exam in January 1880 for the Inner Temple in London. Steyn was called to the English bar in November 1882 and shortly afterwards returned to South Africa.

Law career.

After his return to South Africa he set up practice as barrister in Bloemfontein. In 1889, Steyn was appointed state attorney of the Orange Free State. A few months afterwards he became second puisne judge, and in 1893 first puisne judge of the high court. His decisions won him a reputation for ability and sound judgment.

Early political career.

Marthinus 'blinkstewels', father of Steyn, as member of the Executive Council, regularly accompanied State President Johannes Brand on visits to determine the needs of the people of the Orange Free State. Steyn, as a lover of books, who took a small library of books with him during the Anglo-Boer War, was well read. Through his father and visits home, he kept in contact with the latest political views, activities and needs of the people.  Steyn's first interest in the politics of the day was initiated by the disputed annexation of the diamond fields in the Kimberley area by the British government in 1871. Following the claims of the Griqua captain, Nicolaas Waterboer, Britain, driven by its "New Imperialism" agreed that the Cape Governor, Sir Henry Barkly, could annex the land, in direct conflict to the wishes of the Cape Colony Government and the Orange River Convention (Bloemfontein Convention) of 1854. The resolution of the payment, £90, 000 and the building of a railway to the Orange Free State by the British Government in 1876, was not deemed acceptable to the people.

President of the Orange Free State.

In 1895, upon the resignation of state president Francis William Reitz, Steyn was the candidate of the pan-Dutch party for the vacant post. The election was held in February 1896 and resulted in a decisive victory for Steyn, who assumed office as president. The beginning of the Second Boer War, in 1899, caused Steyn to link the fortunes of his state with those of the Transvaal, allying with it against the British Empire. While the Orange Free State was under British occupation, Steyn ran his government from the field, playing a key role in continuing Boer resistance and the coordination of guerrilla warfare that made up most of the Boer War from 1900 onwards.  Regarded as one of the most irreconcilable of the Boer leaders, he took part, however, in the preliminary peace negotiations at Klerksdorp in April 1902 but was prevented by illness from signing the Treaty of Vereeniging at Pretoria on 31 May 1902. The treaty ended the independence of the Orange Free State and Steyn's term as its president.

After 1902.

By 1902, Steyn was suffering from myasthenia gravis brought on by his constant exertions; and in July 1902 he sailed for Europe, where he remained until the autumn of 1904. He then took the oath of allegiance to the British crown, and returning to South Africa partially restored to health resumed an active participation in politics. In 1908–1909, he was vice-president of the National Convention, the constitutional convention which resulted in the establishment of the Union of South Africa. Here he was distinguished for his statesmanlike and conciliatory attitude, while maintaining the rights of the Boer community.  While addressing a meeting in Bloemfontein in November 1916, he collapsed and died of a heart attack, at 59.

Legacy.

From early on, Steyn, along with many other prominent Freestaters, came under the influence of a German, Carl Borckenhagen, the editor of the "Bloemfontein Express" newspaper, and in 1881 he had joined Borckenhagen in founding the Afrikaner Bond.  In the Union of South Africa he was a co-founder of the South African Party which he left in 1914 with James Barry Munnik Hertzog and Christiaan Rudolf de Wet to found the National Party.  Steyn, James Barry Munnik Hertzog and Christiaan Rudolf de Wet co-founded the National Party in 1914.  The Anglo-Boer War and the great loss in woman and children was a driving force behind the origin of the C&N Oranje Meisieskool, an originally Dutch and now Afrikaans girls school, that was initiated by Steyn. The school opened its doors in 1907.  The Vrouemonument, the first monument in the world dedicated to women and children, was unveiled on 16 December 1913 and was initiated by the ideals of Steyn and the family friend, Emily Hobhouse. The sculptor Anton van Wouw and the architect Frans Soff designed the monument.  In December 1895, Steyn mentioned in his election speech that he would do everything possible to see to it that the children of the Orange Free State received a good education. He consulted with the Government (Volksraad) to devise a framework to uplift the standard of education to the same level of other wealthier states. Steyn believed that education would bring about unification between different groups in the Free State.  During his inauguration speech in 1896, President Steyn stated that his vision, with regards to educational facilities, for the city of Bloemfontein was a university where youth from all over the country could come and study.  The University of the Free State was established as a higher institute of learning in 1904.

Descendants.

Many of Steyn’s descendants followed the family tradition of a career in politics or the legal profession.  Steyn’s son, Dr. Colin Steyn, was a Minister of Justice and Minister of Employment in Jan Smuts' South African Party Cabinet.  Steyn's grandson, Marthinus Steyn - also known as Theunie - was a Judge in the South African Supreme Court of Appeal. He also served as Administrator-General of South-West Africa during its transition to the independent Republic of Namibia. During his tenure as Administrator-General, Theunie played an important role in instituting democratic reforms, including universal suffrage.  Another grandson of Steyn, Jan, was a partner and head of the Patent Department of Pretoria law firm Adams & Adams.  Steyn's great grandsons, Theuns and Colin Steyn, practice as lawyers. Theuns is a partner and corporate lawyer at the law firm Edward Nathan Sonnenbergs (ENSAfrica) in Cape Town. Colin is a senior public prosecutor in Bloemfontein. The former is married to South African High Court Judge Elize Steyn.  Steyn's great-great grandson, Marthinus Steyn - also known as Theunie - is a tax lawyer at Sovereign Group in Hong Kong, a corporate services provider and trust company. Steyn's great-great granddaughter, Bonnie Basson, is a partner and medical malpractice lawyer at Bowmans law firm in Cape Town.  Outside law and politics, Steyn's great-great granddaughter, Martine, is a French-English translator and copywriter who lives and works between Cape Town and Paris, France. Steyn's granddaughter was the well-known South African actress Nerina Ferreira.

Quote.

"The nation of the Orange Free State stand ready for war in such circumstances where peace cannot be secured with honour, and although we recognize our shortcomings, our nation depend on the power of God to deliver us and secure us a victory. With a deep understanding of what we can expect when we place our trust in the Almighty, our nation will enter the war with courage and will fight until the bitter end to preserve the independence of our beloved fatherland"

Statue.

In honour to the fact that Steyn had worked diligently for an indigenous Free State University during the years before the Anglo-Boer War, and the desire of the Afrikaanse Studentebond to inspire young Afrikaners to take up leadership in South Africa, it was decided to erect a statue at the University of the Free State.  Before the statue was built, a period of 12 years was dedicated to the planning and funding thereof. The statue was erected with funds collected by the Afrikaner Studentebond. The statue was constructed by the praised, Dutch-born sculptor, Anton van Wouw. Steyn is presented as a person of reflection as well as a person that commands respect. The size of the statue is 2:1 and is mounted on a base built from local stone. The statue was unveiled on 28 September 1929.  In April 2015, the University of the Free State, under leadership of UFS Rector and Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Jonathan Jansen, led a three-day discussion session about the role and place of statues, symbols, and signs at the university. Speaking about the statue, Jansen stated that the discourse on transformation was not about only one person's memories, but about everyone's in the country.  In 2018, the university targeted the statue as a priority to be dealt with according to its Integrated Transformation Plan (ITP). In November, the Rector and Vice-Chancellor, Prof Francis Petersen, stated that a large portion of the student body felt unwelcome near the statue and that a “Special Task Team” found that there could be no historical reinterpretation of the statue and that it should therefore be relocated. Although according to the National Museum in Bloemfontein the current location on campus is important because "President Steyn embodies the ideal of the establishment of a Free State university".

Martinus (or Marthinus) Theunis Steyn (2 October 1857 – 28 November 1916) was a South African lawyer, politician, and statesman. He was the sixth and last president of the independent republic the Orange Free State from 1896 to 1902.

Marthinus Theunis Steyn, auch "Martinus Theunis Steyn" (* 2. Oktober 1857 in Rietfontein bei Winburg; † 28. November 1916 in Bloemfontein) war ein burischer Jurist und Politiker und von 1896 bis 1902 der letzte gewählte Staatspräsident des Oranje-Freistaats.


Background.

Before the 2011 season, the Seahawks drafted cornerback Richard Sherman in the 5th round and cornerback Byron Maxwell in the 6th round of the 2011 NFL Draft and signed cornerback Brandon Browner as a free agent from the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League (CFL), adding to 2010 draftees free safety Earl Thomas and strong safety Kam Chancellor. They first met during the 2011 NFL lockout at a charity basketball game put on by Jamal Crawford, and played good team defense together from the start. After an injury to Marcus Trufant and Walter Thurmond, Sherman earned his first career start on October 30, 2011 against the Cincinnati Bengals, marking the first time the four original members started a game together. The group's dominating play over the rest of the 2011 season would inspire the nickname. Browner, Thomas and Chancellor would all go on to make the Pro Bowl that year. On August 2, 2012, safety Kam Chancellor was a guest on 710 ESPN Seattle's Bob and Groz show and asked fans to suggest a nickname for the Seattle Seahawks' secondary. The name "Legion of Boom" was suggested to the show by fans on Twitter and noting the way the secondary "brings the boom". It is also a play on the Legion of Doom supervillain group from DC Comics. Shortly thereafter, Google searches for the term skyrocketed. The term became commonly used in the media by the start of the 2012 season by sources like NFL.com and ESPN commentator Jon Gruden. Nike offered "Legion of Boom" branded apparel as the group grew in popularity. An ESPN feature found the "Legion of Boom" comparable to nicknamed great defenses such as the Purple People Eaters, Monsters of the Midway, Big Blue Wrecking Crew, Steel Curtain and the Doomsday Defense.  The unit's aggressive nature was notable in an era where the NFL had placed particular emphasis on player safety. Kris Richard, who served as defensive backs coach from 2012 to 2017 and as defensive coordinator from 2015 to 2017, helped build the Legion of Boom into a unit that hit hard while staying within the rules. During practice, the receivers run routes with shields strapped to their chests that ran from neck to mid-thigh, and Richard taught the defensive backs to keep their hits within that area in order to limit penalties for blows to the head. "Bleacher Report" described the Legion of Boom as a monument both to Richard and head coach Pete Carroll, who was a safety himself in his playing days and a defensive backs coach in his early coaching career. Carroll also studied taller cornerback tandems like Mike Haynes and Lester Hayes when assembling the core of defensive backs.  Following the 2017 NFL season, the release of Richard Sherman and the career-ending injury of Kam Chancellor changed the Seahawks defense. Over seven seasons, the Legion of Boom's core had consisted of Sherman, Thomas and Chancellor, with the comings and goings of the cornerback opposite Sherman. At the start of the 2018 NFL season, only Thomas remained, but in a Week 4 win over the Arizona Cardinals, he suffered a season-ending broken leg (his second in three seasons), and would eventually sign with the Baltimore Ravens on March 13, 2019, ending the LOB era in Seattle.

Super Bowl appearances.

The Legion of Boom’s crowning achievement was their team's 43–8 win in Super Bowl XLVIII, a blowout victory over the 2013 Denver Broncos, who were considered the best single season passing offense of all time and one of the best offenses in league history. The Seahawks became the fastest team to score in a Super Bowl when they had a safety 12 seconds into the game. They also became the first team to ever score with a safety, interception return for a touchdown and kickoff return for a touchdown in a Super Bowl. They led the game for 59 minutes, 48 seconds, which is the longest lead in Super Bowl history. It was the 3rd largest point difference in a Super Bowl (35 points) which was just one point less than the lead the Chicago Bears finished with in Super Bowl XX.  The season following the Seahawks' first Super Bowl victory, they made it back to Super Bowl XLIX but lost to the New England Patriots by four points when Patriots' rookie cornerback Malcolm Butler intercepted the ball with the Seahawks one yard from scoring the go-ahead touchdown and only 20 seconds remaining in the game. Former LOB starter Brandon Browner was playing for the opposing New England Patriots, and was instrumental in jamming up the play and forcing the interception. Sherman, Thomas and Chancellor were all plagued by injuries before and during the game.

Members.

Other featured.

The 2017 backups and starters included the Seahawks 3rd round pick out of UCF Shaquill Griffin, Justin Coleman whom the Seahawks acquired over a trade with the New England Patriots, returning veteran Byron Maxwell and Bradley McDougald who was signed from free agency after leaving the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Griffin and McDougald would prove to be very important players for the Seahawks defense who were without Richard Sherman and Kam Chancellor.  Griffin, Coleman and McDougald all became starters for the 2018 Seattle Seahawks season with the loss of Sherman and Chancellor. Rookie cornerback Tre Flowers and safety Tedric Thompson also were brought in to fill in for former LOB players.  In 2019 (the first season without any original LOB members) the starters included Shaquill Griffin, Bradley McDougald, Tre Flowers, Quandre Diggs, Tedric Thompson as well as rookies Marquise Blair and Ugo Amadi.

Backups.

The other defensive backs on the Seahawks roster are also considered members of the Legion of Boom. Particularly following the suspensions of Brandon Browner in 2012 (four games) and 2013 (suspended indefinitely, but reinstated March 4, 2014), as well of that of Sherman (which he successfully appealed in December 2012), the term "Legion of Boom" has encompassed more than just the four original starters. At the Super Bowl parade in Seattle, Sherman called the Legion of Boom "more than the secondary, it's the linebackers, the defensive line, the entire defense."  The 2013 backups during their Super Bowl XLVIII-winning year were: Byron Maxwell (replacing injured starter Brandon Browner), Jeremy Lane, Walter Thurmond, Jeron Johnson and DeShawn Shead.  The 2014 backups during their subsequent Super Bowl XLIX year were: Jeremy Lane, Jeron Johnson, Tharold Simon, Marcus Burley, Steven Terrell and DeShawn Shead. After the 2014 season, Richard Sherman expressed his approval of two new Legion of Boom members: rookie Tye Smith, and veteran Cary Williams (who was subsequently released by the Seahawks after starting 10 games in the 2015 season).  Backups during the 2015 season were: DeShawn Shead, Jeremy Lane, Marcus Burley, Steven Terrell and Kelcie McCray. DeShawn Shead emerged as the starter at right cornerback.  The 2016 backups were: veterans Kelcie McCray and Steven Terrell, newcomers Dewey McDonald and Neiko Thorpe, and rookies DeAndre Elliott and Tyvis Powell. Terrell advanced to full-time starter at free safety after Earl Thomas suffered a broken leg during a game.

Accomplishments.

Early success.

The 2010 season saw the emergence of rookie safety tandem Earl Thomas and Kam Chancellor who were drafted in the first and fifth rounds respectively. Thomas would lead the team in interceptions with five. The Seahawks would win their division at 7-9 and host the defending Super Bowl champion New Orleans Saints. The game went on to be remembered as the Beast Quake game in NFL lore as the Seahawks upset the Saints 41-36. The following week they would go on to lose on the road to the Chicago Bears.  Following the 2011 season, Thomas, Chancellor, and Browner were named to the 2012 Pro Bowl. Thomas also earned AP All-Pro honors. Browner tied for fourth in the NFL with six interceptions. In every year thereafter, at least three members of the "Legion of Boom" have been named either AP All-Pro or voted to the Pro Bowl.  After the 2012 season, both Sherman and Thomas were named AP All-Pro. Sherman finished second in the league with eight interceptions, despite this he was snubbed from the Pro Bowl. Additionally, the team defense finished first in points allowed, and second in passing touchdowns allowed. The team would make the playoffs with an 11-5 record and go on to beat the Washington Redskins on the road in the Wild Card round but would come up short the following week against the Atlanta Falcons in the Divisional round.

2013 season.

The Legion of Boom had a banner year in 2013. In the regular season, they allowed the fewest passing yards and passing touchdowns in the league while anchoring the league's best passing defense as well as overall defense. Sherman finished first in the league with eight interceptions. Seattle finished the season with the most interceptions in the NFL. Sherman and Thomas were named first-team AP All-Pro, while Chancellor was named to the second team. Sherman, Chancellor, and Thomas were also named to the 2014 Pro Bowl, but did not play due to the Seahawks playing in Super Bowl XLVIII. In their rout of the Denver Broncos, they held Peyton Manning and the record-setting Broncos offense to only eight points, intercepting Manning twice, forcing two fumbles, and playing a major part in securing the first Super Bowl championship in franchise history.  In a Week 10 revenge game against the Atlanta Falcons, Seattle allowed 10 points and 226 yards in a 33–10 win. Thurmond would force and recover a fumble in the win.  Week 11 brought the Minnesota Vikings to Seattle, who managed 336 yards and 20 points, but turned it over 4 times. Thurmond returned an interception 29 yards for a touchdown in the 41–20 win.  In Week 13, in a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, the Seahawks faced off against the eventual #2 ranked passing attack in the league. They held the Saints to 188 yards in a 34–7 blowout.  In Week 15, the Seahawks shut the New York Giants out, winning 23–0. It was one of the best games of the season for the Legion of Boom, the Giants managing just 181 yards of offense and turning it over 5 times. Byron Maxwell had two interceptions, as did Richard Sherman. Sherman also tipped a pass to Earl Thomas for an interception. Sherman also recovered a fumble.  The next week, Seattle kept the Arizona Cardinals to 168 total yards and 17 points, forcing 4 turnovers. Sherman had two more interceptions and Chancellor added another. However, the Seahawks would fall 17–10, a late 31–yard touchdown pass from Carson Palmer to Michael Floyd being the difference.  They would close the regular season strong, beating the St. Louis Rams 27–9 and allowing 158 total yards. Byron Maxwell would add an interception and the Rams would not score a touchdown until 4:18 remained in the game, with the game already decided.  In the divisional round, a rematch with the New Orleans Saints, the Saints did not score until early in the 4th quarter, although a late flurry got them 15 points and 409 offensive yards. Of note was the Seahawks holding tight end Jimmy Graham to a single catch for 8 yards. The Seahawks would win 23–15.  For the third time that season, the Seahawks played the San Francisco 49ers. The Niners scored 17 points and gained 308 total yards, but Seattle survived 23–17 after forcing turnovers on all three of the 49ers' fourth-quarter possessions. Kam Chancellor picked off a pass to set up a field goal, and Richard Sherman tipped a pass to Malcolm Smith to clinch the game with less than 30 seconds left. This play and the immediate aftermath became infamous, for a brief shoving match between Sherman and 49ers wide receiver Michael Crabtree, Sherman's choke sign at QB Colin Kaepernick that he was later fined for, and his post-game rant in an interview with Erin Andrews.  The Seahawks saved their best for last with their performance in Super Bowl XLVIII, holding the Denver Broncos record-breaking offense to 306 yards and 8 points, forcing 4 turnovers and not allowing a score until the final play of the 3rd quarter. Kam Chancellor intercepted one pass and Byron Maxwell forced a fumble.  The 2013 Seahawks allowed just one 300-yard passer, Matt Schaub in Week 5, and a second in the divisional round against Drew Brees. Eleven times in the regular season they held an opposing quarterback to less than 200 yards passing, then did it once more in the NFC Championship game. The team's 28 interceptions were most in the league, and 16 passing touchdowns allowed the second fewest.  On June 6, 2014, Richard Sherman won the "Madden NFL 15" cover vote against Carolina Panthers quarterback Cam Newton. The rest of the LOB was featured on the games start menu.

2014 season.

During the 2014 season, the Legion of Boom helped their team reach their second straight Super Bowl, which ended in a loss to the New England Patriots, 28–24. Thomas, Chancellor, and Sherman were selected to the 2015 Pro Bowl, marking the second year in a row in which all three were named to the Pro Bowl together. Thomas and Sherman were again named first-team All-Pro while Chancellor was named to the second-team.  The Seahawks again allowed the fewest points in the NFL, the first NFL defense to accomplish this three seasons in a row since the 1969–1971 Minnesota Vikings. They also allowed the fewest yards, becoming the first defense since the 1985–1986 Chicago Bears to allow the fewest points and yards two seasons in a row. They allowed the fewest passing yards and passing touchdowns, though they ranked 20th in interceptions.  In Week 1, the Green Bay Packers scored 16 points and gained 255 yards in a 36–16 victory by the Seahawks. Byron Maxwell, now the full-time starter at left corner after Brandon Browner's departure, intercepted a pass in the game.  In Week 3, a rematch against the Denver Broncos, Seattle allowed 332 yards and 20 points, eventually winning 26–20 in overtime. Kam Chancellor forced a fumble and intercepted a pass.  In Week 8, another trip to play the Carolina Panthers saw the Seattle defense allow 9 points and 266 yards, just enough for the 13–9 win. Marcus Burley, a 5th corner forced into action due to injuries, was the key member of the Legion on the day with an interception and 24-yard return.  In Week 9, the visiting Oakland Raiders scored 17 points on offense with 226 yards of total offense. Sherman intercepted his first pass of the season and also forced a fumble.  In Week 12, with the season on the line, the Seahawks beat the Arizona Cardinals 19–3. Allowing 3 points and 204 yards, the game featured a Byron Maxwell interception and Jeremy Lane forced fumble. This game began a six-game hot-streak for the Seahawks, particularly on defense, which would give up an average of 6.5 points for the remainder of the year and allow fewer than 250 total yards in all six games.  In Week 13, they allowed 3 points and 164 total yards in another 19–3 victory, this against the San Francisco 49ers. Sherman had two interceptions.  In Week 14, against a Philadelphia Eagles offense that would eventually rank third in the league in points and fifth in yards, the Seahawks gave up 139 yards and 14 points. Tharold Simon picked off his first pass of the season and Earl Thomas recovered a fumble. The Seahawks won, 24–14.  In another tilt against the 49ers in Week 15, San Francisco had 245 yards and 7 points in the 17–7 loss.  In a game that would likely decide the NFC West division, the Seahawks traveled to play the Arizona Cardinals. The Seahawks won 35–6, holding Arizona to 216 yards and the 6 points. Sherman grabbed the only turnover of the game, intercepting a pass and returning it 53 yards.  To close out their run, the Seahawks beat the St. Louis Rams 20–6, giving up 245 yards. The game was sealed on an Earl Thomas forced fumble at the goal line.

2014 postseason.

Seattle surrendered 362 yards in the divisional-round game against the Carolina Panthers, as well as 17 points. Kam Chancellor sealed the game with an interception that he took 90 yards for a touchdown. He also twice leaped over the center on field-goal tries in attempts to block the kick, although he missed the ball both times and both plays were whistled dead by a penalty. Richard Sherman recorded an interception as well, and Earl Thomas forced a fumble. Seattle won, 31–17.  In an improbable "miracle" comeback against the Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship game, the Seahawks scored 15 points in the final 2:09 of regulation and winning on a 35-yard touchdown reception by Jermaine Kearse in overtime. Sherman and Maxwell each recorded an interception in the game. The Seahawks offense and special teams turned the ball over five times in the game, but the defense forced overtime, and the 28–22 victory sent the Seahawks to a second straight Super Bowl.  The 2014 Seahawks defense did not allow a single 300-yard passer in any game, regular season or postseason, heading into the Super Bowl. Ten times they held the opposing quarterback to under 200 yards passing, doing it an 11th time against MVP Aaron Rodgers in the NFC Championship game.  The Legion of Boom returned to defend their title in Super Bowl XLIX, they recorded two interceptions facing Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, by cornerback Jeremy Lane and linebacker Bobby Wagner. Starting nickelback Jeremy Lane suffered a gruesome injury during the game. After intercepting Tom Brady's pass in the end-zone and attempting to return the ball downfield, Lane was tackled awkwardly while attempting to brace himself for impact with the ground, severely fracturing his wrist and forearm, while simultaneously damaging the ACL in his knee. Unfortunately, backup nickelback Marcus Burley had been listed as inactive, so Lane was replaced by backup outside cornerback Tharold Simon for the remainder of the game. Simon, seemingly overmatched, was outplayed by slot receiver Julian Edelman and repeatedly targeted by Tom Brady, fostering an unlikely Patriots' 4th-quarter comeback. Lane later said he immediately was sent to surgery to fix his injury, and when he woke up he saw the Seahawks with the ball on the one yard line and witnessed the interception that followed. Defensive end Cliff Avril was also injured during the game, he left during the 3rd quarter due to a concussion and did not return. Despite having a torn ligament in his elbow sustained during the NFC Championship Game, Richard Sherman played the entire game, as did Earl Thomas, even though he dislocated his shoulder during the game. In addition, Kam Chancellor suffered a bruised knee during pre-game practice, but also played. Some point to all these injuries as the cause of the 28 points that the Seahawks allowed to the Patriots, which was unusual for a defense that only allowed an average of 15.9 points during the regular season (first in the NFL). The main focus following the game, however, was the coaching staff's decision to throw the ball on the one yard line instead of allowing Marshawn Lynch to run the ball. Lynch led the league (tied with DeMarco Murray) in running touchdowns that season and was fourth in total rushing yardage.  Their defeat in Super Bowl XLIX was the first time all season that the Legion of Boom allowed a 300-yard passer. It was only the second time in the 2014 season that they allowed more than two passing touchdowns in one game, and the only time they allowed four passing touchdowns. The Legion of Boom has given up 300 or more passing yards in only six games since their inception with Richard Sherman's first start in 2011; of those six, two are their games against the New England Patriots. The LOB went 2-1 in their meeting with the Patriots with their only loss against them coming in the Super Bowl (wins in 2012 and 2016).

2015 season.

The Legion of Boom had a rocky start to the 2015 season, both on and off the field. Kam Chancellor did not attend training camp and missed the entire preseason, holding out in an effort to get the team to renegotiate his contract, which had three seasons remaining. The holdout continued into the regular season, with Chancellor not being a part of the team for the first two games. The Seahawks would lose both games, the defense allowing 27 points in both games. Dion Bailey, replacing Chancellor at Strong Safety in Week 1, fell down in coverage and allowed the game-tying touchdown with less than a minute left in the fourth quarter.  Chancellor would bring the Legion back together in Week 3 by ending his holdout without any contract concessions from the team. In that Week 3 game, the Seahawks surrendered 0 points and 146 total offensive yards.  The next week, the Seahawks defense allowed 3 points and 256 yards against the Lions. With less than two minutes remaining in the game and the Seahawks leading 13-10, Lions Wide Receiver Calvin Johnson caught a pass and was preparing to leap into the endzone for the go-ahead touchdown, but Kam Chancellor punched the ball out at the one-yard line, the forced fumble ultimately preserving the win. The play garnered more attention for what happened after the fumble, with K. J. Wright illegally batting the ball out of the back of the endzone for a touchback, which should have been a penalty that would have kept the ball in the possession of the Lions.  Against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 5, the LOB recorded an interception from Andy Dalton, the first interception by the Seahawks in the 2015 season. In Week 6 against the Carolina Panthers, both Earl Thomas and Kam Chancellor recorded interceptions. Both games, however, would end in close losses for the Seahawks.  In Week 7, playing the San Francisco 49ers on the road, the Seahawks defense allowed just 142 offensive yards (the 49ers lowest output in a game since 2006) in a 20–3 victory. The following week, the Seahawks held the Dallas Cowboys to 220 total yards and 12 points on four field goals in a 13-12 victory.  Despite allowing a then-team record 456 passing yards to Pittsburgh Steelers' quarterback Ben Roethlisberger (since broken by Matt Schaub's 460 yards passing in 2019), the Legion of Boom recorded 4 interceptions (their most since Super Bowl XLVIII) in a crucial Week 12 game in Seattle (2 off of Roethlisberger, 2 off of backup Landry Jones). In addition, they held star wide receiver Antonio Brown to just 6 catches for 51 yards. The turnovers, especially the two by Sherman, would help lead Seattle to a 39–30 win. In Week 17, to close out another dominant year, the Legion of Boom dismantled the high-powered Arizona Cardinals offense in a 36–6 win. They held Arizona to only 236 yards and recorded 3 interceptions. It was the only time all year that the Cardinals would score fewer than 20 points and gain fewer than 350 yards at home.  Although they were not quite as dominant defensively as they were the last 3 years, 2015 marked the fourth straight season that the Seahawks led the NFL in points allowed, averaging 17.3 points per game. The Legion of Boom also held opponents to the second-fewest passing yards and the fewest passing touchdowns of any defensive secondary in the NFL. According to Football Outsiders' proprietary DVOA metric, Seattle's defense was ranked third against the pass and fourth overall, their lowest rankings in those respective categories since 2011.

Coaches.

Several key Seahawks defensive coaches in the Carroll Legion of Boom era have gone on to jobs elsewhere in the league. Defensive coordinator Gus Bradley became the head coach of the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2013, and is currently the defensive coordinator of the Los Angeles Chargers. His successor Dan Quinn is the current head coach of the Atlanta Falcons and took his team to Super Bowl LI. Kris Richard was fired on January 10, 2018, after five seasons as a defensive back coach and three as defensive coordinator, and was hired by the Dallas Cowboys to fill in as their defensive backs coach and defensive play caller.  Linebackers coach Ken Norton Jr. was hired as the defensive coordinator of the Oakland Raiders and then returned to the Seahawks as their defensive coordinator in 2018. Defensive backs coach Jerry Gray, who coached the unit in 2010, became the defensive coordinator of the Tennessee Titans the following year. Defensive line coach Todd Wash is the current defensive coordinator of the Jaguars and helped lead his team to the 2017 AFC Championship Game. Quality control coach Robert Saleh is the current defensive coordinator of the San Francisco 49ers, he helped lead them to Super Bowl LIV. Defensive assistant Marquand Manuel was the defensive coordinator of the Atlanta Falcons until the end of the 2018 season.

The Legion of Boom (LOB) was the nickname given to the Seattle Seahawks' secondary during their rise to prominence in the 2010s. The original group that was nicknamed the Legion of Boom consisted of the main starters in the Seahawks defensive backfield, or secondary (the cornerback and safety positions): Richard Sherman, Earl Thomas, Kam Chancellor, Brandon Browner, Walter Thurmond, and Byron Maxwell. Over time, the nickname grew to encompass the Seahawks defense as a whole, including prominent players such as Bobby Wagner, K. J. Wright, Michael Bennett, Cliff Avril, Malcolm Smith, Brandon Mebane, Frank Clark, Chris Clemons and Bruce Irvin. Other eventual starting members of the secondary included DeShawn Shead, Jeremy Lane, Shaquill Griffin, Justin Coleman and Bradley McDougald.

Legion of Boom bezeichnete zwischen 2012 und 2018 die Secondary der Seattle Seahawks, welche für ihre harte und sehr erfolgreiche Spielweise bekannt wurde. Die Defensive Backs rechtfertigten diesen Titel, indem sie die NFL-Statistiken in unzähligen Kategorien anführten und das Team 2013 und 2014 jeweils in den Super Bowl führte. Die Krönung gelang Ihnen mit dem Sieg im Super Bowl XLVIII, in dem sie gegen die statistisch beste Offensive der NFL-Geschichte nur acht Punkte zuließen.


Life.

Two Moons was the son of Carries the Otter, an Arikara captive who married into the Cheyenne tribe. Perhaps known best for his participation in battles such as the Battle of the Rosebud against General Crook on June 17, 1876, in the Montana Territory, the Battle of Little Big Horn on June 25, 1876 and what would prove to be his last battle, the Battle of Wolf Mountain on January 8, 1877. Two Moons' defeat at Wolf Mountain by General Nelson A. Miles led inevitably to the surrender of his Cheyenne band to Miles at Fort Keogh in April 1877.  After the surrender of his Cheyenne band, Two Moons enlisted as an Indian Scout under General Miles. As a result of Two Moons' pleasant personality, the friendliness that he showed towards the whites, as well as his ability to get along with the military, General Miles appointed him head Chief of the Cheyenne Northern Reservation. As head Chief, Two Moons played a crucial role in the surrender of Chief Little Cow's Cheyenne band at Fort Keogh.

Northern Cheyenne Reservation.

Two Moons traveled on multiple occasions to Washington, D.C., to discuss and fight for the future of the Northern Cheyenne people and to better the conditions that existed on the reservation. In 1914, Two Moons met with President Woodrow Wilson to discuss these matters.  Two Moons was one of the models selected for James Fraser's famous Buffalo Nickel.

Death.

Two Moons died in 1917 at his home in Montana at the age of 70. Two Moons' grave still lies alongside U.S. Route 212, west of Busby, Montana.

Two Moons (1847–1917), or "Ishaynishus" (Cheyenne: "Éše'he Ôhnéšesêstse"), was one of the Cheyenne chiefs who took part in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and other battles against the United States Army.

Two Moons (* 1847 im heutigen Montana; † 1917), oder "Ishaynishus" (Cheyenne: "Éše'he Ôhnéšesêstse") (englisch für "Zwei Monde"), war ein Häuptling der Cheyenne. Er war einer der militärischen Führer, die den Sieg bei Little Bighorn gegen die US-Armee erreichten. Er nahm an mehreren militärischen Auseinandersetzungen mit der US-Army teil.


Qur'anic basis.

The concept of inimitability originates in the Qur'an. In five different verses, opponents are challenged to produce something like the Qur'an. The suggestion is that those who doubt the divine authorship of the Qur'an should try to disprove it by demonstrating that a human being could have created it:  In the verses cited, Muhammad's opponents are invited to try to produce a text like the Qur'an, or even ten chapters, or even a single chapter. It is understood among Muslims that that challenge has not been met.

Studies.

The literary quality of the Qur'an has been generally acknowledged by Muslim and some non-Muslim scholars and intellectuals. and there is evidence that Muslims accepted Islam on the basis of evaluating the Qur'an as a text that surpasses all human production. Whilst western views typically ascribe social, ideological, propagandistic, or military reasons for the success of early Islam, Muslim sources view the literary quality of the Qur'an as a decisive factor for the adoption of the Islamic creed and its ideology, resulting in its spread and development in the 7th century. A thriving poetic tradition existed at the time of Muhammad, however, according to Afnan Fatani, a contemporary scholar of Islamic studies, Muhammad had brought, in spite of being illiterate, something that was superior to anything that the poets and orators had ever written or heard. They did not question this, what they rejected was the Qur'an's ideas, especially monotheism and resurrection. Numerous scholars devoted time to finding out why the Qur'an was inimitable. The majority of opinions was around eloquence of the Qur'an both in wording and meaning as its speech does not form to poetry nor prose commonly expressed in all languages. Thus it is understood that the inimitability of the Qur'an resides in this third genre in which words have been arranged in a particular way accompanied with flawless meaning that humans are unable to reproduce.  Nonliguistic approaches focus on the inner meanings of the Qur'an. Oliver Leaman, favoring a nonlinguistic approach, criticizes the links between aesthetic judgment and faith and argues that it is possible to be impressed by something without thinking that it came about supernaturally and vice versa it is possible to believe in the divine origin of the Qur'an without agreeing to the aesthetic supremacy of the text. He thinks that it is the combination of language, ideas, and hidden meanings of the Qur'an that makes it an immediately convincing product.

Classic works.

There are numerous classical works of literary criticism which have studied the Qur'an and examined its style:  The most famous works on the doctrine of inimitability are two medieval books by the grammarian Al Jurjani (d. 1078 CE), "Dala’il al-i'jaz" ('the Arguments of Inimitability') and "Asraral-balagha" ('the Secrets of Eloquence'). Al Jurjani argued that the inimitability of the Qur'an is a linguistic phenomenon and proposed that the Qur'an has a degree of excellence unachievable by human beings. Al Jurjani believed that Qur'an's eloquence must be a certain special quality in the manner of its stylistic arrangement and composition or a certain special way of joining words. He studied the Qur'an with literary proofs and examined the various literary features and how they were utilized. He rejected the idea that the words ("alfaz") and meaning ("ma'ani") of a literary work can be separated. In his view the meaning was what determined the quality of the style and that it would be absurd to attribute qualities of eloquence to a text only by observing its words. He explains that eloquence does not reside in the correct application of grammar as these are only necessary not sufficient conditions for the quality of a text. The originality of Al Jurjani is that he linked his view on meaning as the determining factor in the quality of a text by considering it not in isolation but as it is realized within a text. He wished to impress his audience with the need to study not only theology but also grammatical details and literary theory in order to improve their understanding of the inimitability of the Qur'an. For Al Jurjani the dichotomy much elaborated by earlier critics between 'word' and'meaning' was a false one. He suggested considering not merely the meaning but 'the meaning of the meaning'. He defined two types of meaning one that resorts to the 'intellect' the other to the 'imagination'. Al-Baqillani (d. 1013 CE) wrote a book named "I'jaz al-Qur'an" ('inimitability of the Qur'an') and emphasized that the style of the Qur'an cannot be classified, and eloquence sustains throughout the Qur'an in spite of dealing with various themes. Al Baqillani's point was not that the Qur'an broke the custom by extraordinary degree of eloquence but that it broke the custom of the existing literary forms by creating a new genre of expression.  Ibrahim al-Nazzam of Basra (d. 846 CE) was among the first to study the doctrine. According to Al Nazzam, Qur'ans inimitability is due to the information in its content which as divine revelation contains divine knowledge. Thus, Qur'an's supremacy lies in its content rather than its style. A- Murtaza (d. 1044 CE) had similar views, turning to divine intervention as the only viable explanation as to why the challenge was not met.  Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar (d. 1025 CE), in his book "Al-Mughni" ("the sufficient book"), insists on the hidden meanings of the Qur'an along with its eloquence and provides some counter-arguments against the criticism leveled at Muhammad and the Qur'an. Abd al-Jabbar studies the doctrine in parts 15 and 16 of his book series. According to Abd al-Jabbr, Arabs chose not to compete with Muhammad in the literary field but on the battlefield and this was another reason that they recognized the superiority of the Qur'an. Abd al-Jabbar rejected the doctrine of "sarfah" (the prohibition from production) because according to him "sarfah" makes a miracle of something other than the Qur'an and not the Qur'an itself. The doctrine of "sarfah" means that people can produce a rival to the Qur'an but due to some supernatural or divine cause decide against doing so. Therefore, according to Abd al-Jabbar, the correct interpretation of "sarfah" is that the motives to rival the Qur'an disappears because of the recognition of the impossibility of doing so.  Yahya ibn Ziyad al-Farra (d. 822 CE), Abu Ubaydah (d. 824 CE), Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889 CE), Rummani (d. 994 CE), Khattabi (d. 998 CE), and Zarkashi (d. 1392 CE) are also among notable scholars in this subject. Ibn Qutaybah considered 'brevity' which he defined as ""jam' al-kathir mi ma'anih fi l-qalil min lafzih"" (collection of many ideas in a few words) as one aspect of Qur'anic miraculousness. Zarkashi in his book "Al-Burhan" stated that miraculousness of the Qur'an can be perceived but not described.

Scientific "I'jaz" Literature.

Some hold that some verses of the Qur'an contain scientific theories that have been discovered only in modern times confirming Qur'an's miraculousness. This has been criticized by the scientific community.  Maurice Bucaille in his writings provides some interpretations of verses that he claimed to be in agreement with modern science and that had not been known in the past. Bucaille states that he has examined the degree of compatibility between the Qur'an and modern scientific data and that this study has led him to the conclusion that the Qur'an did not contain statements that contradicted modern science. He then argues that it is inconceivable that the scientific statements of the Qur'an could have been the work of man.  Some examples of these verses include 41:11, 23:12-14, 51:47, 78:7, and 21:30 referring to the gaseous state of the material that composed the early stage of the universe, the development of fetus in womb, expansion of the universe, geological concept of mountains serving as stabilizers of the earth's crust, and the aquatic origin of life respectively.  The methodology of scientific "I'jaz" has not gained full approval by Islamic scholars and is the subject of ongoing debate. According to Ziauddin Sardar, the Qur'an does not contain many verses that point towards nature, however, it constantly asks its readers to reflect on the wonders of the cosmos. He refers to verse 29:20 which says "Travel throughout the earth and see how He brings life into being" and 3:190 which says "In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day there are indeed signs for men of understanding" and concludes that these verses do not have any specific scientific content, rather they encourage believers to observe natural phenomena and reflect on the complexity of the universe. According to Nidhal Guessoum some works on miracles in the Qur'an follow a set pattern; they generally begin with a verse from the Qur'an, for example, the verse "So verily I swear by the stars that run and hide..." (81:15-16) and quickly declare that it refers to black holes, or take the verse "I swear by the Moon in her fullness, that ye shall journey on from stage to stage" (84:18-19) and decide it refers to space travel, and so on. "What is meant to be allegorical and poetic is transformed into products of science".

Muhammad's literacy.

In Islamic theology, Muhammad's illiteracy is a way of emphasizing that he was a transparent medium for divine revelation and a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood since the illiterate prophet could not have composed the eloquent poetry and prose of the Qur'an. According to Tabatabaei (d. 1981), a Muslim scholar, the force of this challenge becomes clear when we realize that it is issued for someone whose life should resemble that of Muhammad namely the life of an orphan, uneducated in any formal sense, not being able to read or write and grew up in the unenlightened age of the "jahiliyah" period (the age of ignorance) before Islam.  The references to illiteracy are found in verses 7:158, 29:48, and 62:2. The verse 25:5 also implies that Muhammad was unable to read and write. The Arabic term ""ummi"" in 7:158 and 62:2 is translated to 'illiterate' and 'unlettered'. The medieval exegete Al Tabari (d. 923 CE) maintained that the term induced two meanings: firstly, the inability to read or write in general and secondly, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures.  The early sources on the history of Islam provide that Muhammad especially in Medina used scribes to correspond with the tribes. Likewise, though infrequently rather than constantly, he had scribes write down, on separate pages not yet in one single book, parts of the Qur'an. Collections of prophetic tradition occasionally mention Muhammad having basic knowledge of reading and writing, while others deny it. For example, in the book Sahih al-Bukhari, a collection of early sayings, it is mentioned that when Muhammad and the Meccans agreed to conclude a peace treaty, Muhammad made a minor change to his signature or in one occasion he asked for a paper to write a statement.  Fakhr Al-Razi, the 12th century Islamic theologian, has expressed his idea is his book "Tafsir Al Razi":

Contrary views.

Imitators.

Towards the end of Muhammad's life and after his death several men and a woman appeared in various parts of Arabia and claimed to be prophets. Musaylimah, a contemporary of Muhammad, claimed that he received revelations, some of his revelations is recorded. Ibn al-Muqaffa' was a critic of the Qur'an and reportedly made attempts to imitate it. Bashar ibn Burd (d. 784), Abul Atahiya (d. 828), Al-Mutanabbi (d. 965), and Al-Maʿarri (d. 1058) claimed that their writings surpassed Qur'an in eloquence.

Critics.

Theodor Nöldeke criticized the Qur'anic text as careless and imperfect, however this has been responded to in Muhammad Mohar Ali's ""The Qur'an and the Orientalists"". He questioned the Qur'an's divine origin by critically searching for linguistic defects. Schwally (1919) and Wansbrough had similar opinions. Some writers have questioned Muhammad's illiteracy. Ruthven states that "The fact of Muhammad's illiteracy would in no way constitute proof of the Qur'an miraculous origin as the great pre-Islamic poets were illiterate." Peters writes: "We do not know where this minor merchant of Mecca learned to make poetry...most oral poets and certainly the best have been illiterate." Others believe that Muhammad hired poets or that the Qur'an was translated into Arabic from another language.

In Islam, ’i‘jāz () or inimitability of the Qur’ān is the doctrine which holds that the Qur’ān has a miraculous quality, both in content and in form, that no human speech can match. According to this doctrine the Qur'an is a miracle and its inimitability is the proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. It serves the dual purpose of proving the authenticity of its divineness as being a source from the creator; and proving the genuineness of Muhammad's prophethood to whom it was revealed as he was one bringing the message. The concept of miraculousness of the Qur'an was understood as soon as it was revealed by Muhammed to the Arabs beginning on 22 December 609 CE, when Muhammad was 40 years of age. According to Sophia Vasalou, a contemporary scholar in theology, the reports about the Arabs' bewildered reception of the Qur'an is crucial in the argument. "The Arabs, upon hearing it, were lost for words in trying to classify it: 'is it poetry?' 'is it magic?' 'is it soothsaying?' they could not find a literary form to which the Qur'an corresponded" Vasalou adds.

Iʿdschāz () ist ein Terminus technicus der islamischen Theologie, der die sprachliche und inhaltliche Unnachahmlichkeit und Unübertrefflichkeit des Korans bezeichnet. Das Iʿdschāz-Konzept, das bereits im Koran selbst angelegt ist, ist eng mit dem islamischen Verständnis von Mohammeds Prophetentum verbunden, als dessen Hauptbeweis die Wunderhaftigkeit des Korans gilt. Der Glaube an den Iʿdschāz des Korans stellt konfessionsübergreifend eines der wichtigsten Dogmen des Islams dar und bestimmt in entscheidender Weise die ästhetische Rezeption dieses Buchs durch die Muslime.


Biography.

Zurla was born at Legnago, Veneto, of noble parents and christened Giacinto (Hyacinth). At the age of eighteen Zurla entered the Camaldolese Monastery of St. Michael, situated on the island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon. When he entered the novitiate of the monastery, he took the name Placid. There he found a lifelong friend in Mauro Cappellari (afterwards Pope Gregory XVI), then a young monk of his own age. He became Lector in philosophy and theology, and in 1802 published a theological textbook. As librarian, his attention was attracted by the map of the world executed between 1457 and 1459 in that same monastery by the famous Camaldolese cartographer Fra Mauro. In 1806 Zurla published an account of it entitled "Il Mappamondo di Fra Mauro". This led to further studies on early travelers, of which the most important result was the work, "Di Marco Polo e degli altri viaggiatori veneziano" (2 volumes, Venice, 1818–19). In 1809 Zurla was elected a Definitor of his Congregation and given the title of Abbot. The next year the monastery was suppressed by order of Napoleon I, but the monks kept up their college dressed as secular priests. Of this institution Zurla acted as Rector and Cappellari as Lector of philosophy until its complete dissolution in 1814. From that year he taught theology at the Patriarchal Seminary of Venice till 1821, when he moved to Rome and resumed the white habit of St. Romuald at the Monastery of St. Gregory the Great. By that time, Cappellari was prior of that community. Pope Pius VII named Zurla as a consultor to various congregations and Prefect of Studies at the Pontifical Urban College. in 1821 he received the cardinal's hat, and in the following year the titular see of Archbishop of Edessa. He served as Cardinal Vicar to Pope Leo XII and his two successors, and took an active interest in the organization of the Roman seminary, the reform of criminal tribunals, the delimitation of Roman parishes, and the affairs of the many Sacred Congregations of which he was a member. Cardinal Zurla was greatly loved by his friends, but his zeal for the reform of abuses made him some enemies in Rome.  He died at Palermo in 1834.

Placido Zurla, O.S.B. Cam., (April 2, 1769 – 29 October 1834) was an Italian Camaldolese monk and prelate, who was Cardinal Vicar of Rome and a writer on medieval geography.

Placido Zurla OSBCam (* 2. April 1769 in Legnago als "Giacinto Francesco Zurla"; † 29. Oktober 1834 in Palermo) war ein italienischer Ordensgeistlicher, Kardinal und Kardinalvikar.