History.

The Council on Foreign Relations, founded in the summer of 1921, primarily counted diplomats, financiers, scholars, and lawyers among its members. Its founding charter declared its purpose should be to "afford a continuous conference on international questions affecting the United States, by bringing together experts on statecraft, finance, industry, education, and science." In its first year, the Council engaged primarily in discourse via meetings and small discussion groups, however, eventually it decided to seek a wider audience and it began publishing "Foreign Affairs" in September 1922 on a quarterly basis.  The Council named Professor Archibald Cary Coolidge of Harvard University as the journal's first editor. As Coolidge was unwilling to move from Boston to New York, Hamilton Fish Armstrong, a Princeton alumnus and a European correspondent of the "New York Evening Post", was appointed managing editor and worked New York, handling the day-to-day mechanics of publishing the journal. Armstrong chose the distinctive light blue color for the cover of the magazine, while his sisters, Margaret and Helen, designed the logo and lettering respectively.  "Foreign Affairs" is a successor publication of the "Journal of International Relations" (which ran from 1910 to 1922), which in turn was a successor to the " Journal of Race Development" (which ran from 1911 to 1919).

1922–1945.

The lead article in the first issue of "Foreign Affairs" was written by former Secretary of State under Theodore Roosevelt's Administration, Elihu Root. The article argued that the United States had become a world power, and that as such the general population needed to be better informed about international matters. John Foster Dulles, then a financial expert attached to the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, who would later become Secretary of State under Dwight D. Eisenhower, also contributed an article to the inaugural issue of "Foreign Affairs" on Allied debt following World War I.  In 1925, "Foreign Affairs" published a series of articles, entitled "Worlds of Color", by prominent African American intellectual W. E. B. Du Bois. DuBois, a personal friend of Armstrong, wrote mainly about race issues and imperialism. Although in the early days of publication the journal did not have many female authors, in the late 1930s American journalist for "Time (magazine)" magazine Dorothy Thompson would contribute articles.

1945–1991.

The journal rose to its greatest prominence after World War II when foreign relations became central to United States politics, and the United States became a powerful actor on the global scene. Several extremely important articles were published in "Foreign Affairs", including the reworking of George F. Kennan's "Long Telegram", which first publicized the doctrine of containment that would form the basis of American Cold War policy.  Louis Halle, a member of the U.S. Policy Planning Staff, also wrote an influential article in "Foreign Affairs" in 1950. His article, "On a Certain Impatience with Latin America", created the anticommunist intellectual framework that justified U.S. policy towards Latin America in the Cold War era. Halle's article described that the encouragement of democracy in postwar Latin America had ended. He demonstrated disgust over Latin America's inability to assume autonomy and to become democratic. His rationalization towards Latin America was later used to justify U.S. efforts to overthrow the left-leaning Guatemalan government.  Eleven U.S. Secretaries of State have written essays in "Foreign Affairs".

1991–present.

Since the end of the Cold War, and especially after the 9/11 attacks, the journal's readership has grown significantly. "Foreign Affairs"' current total readership is 351,000 for the print magazine and it has 955,000 unique visitors per month for the website.  In the Summer 1993 issue, "Foreign Affairs" published Samuel P. Huntington's influential "Clash of Civilizations?" article. In the article, Huntington argued that "the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural."  In the November/December 2003 issue of "Foreign Affairs", Kenneth Maxwell wrote a review of Peter Kornbluh's book "The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability", which gave rise to a controversy about Henry Kissinger's relationship to the regime of Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet and to Operation Condor. Maxwell claims that key Council on Foreign Relations members, acting at Kissinger's behest, put pressure on "Foreign Affairs" editor James Hoge to give the last word in a subsequent exchange about the review to William D. Rogers, a close associate of Kissinger, rather than to Maxwell; this went against established "Foreign Affairs" policy. Then-opposition leader and former Ukrainian Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko caused a stir by publishing an article entitled "Containing Russia" in the May–June 2007 issue of "Foreign Affairs" accusing Russia under Vladimir Putin of expansionism and urging the rest of Europe to stand against him. Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov wrote an article in response, but he withdrew it, citing "censorship" from the "Foreign Affairs" editorial board. Tymoshenko's party went on to win the 2007 elections and she became Prime Minister once again.  In 2009, "Foreign Affairs" launched its new website, ForeignAffairs.com, which offers both print content and online-only features.

Book reviews.

Since its inception, "Foreign Affairs" has included a long book review section, typically reviewing 50 or more books per issue. The magazine's first editor, Archibald Cary Coolidge, asked his Harvard colleague, William L. Langer, a historian and World War I veteran, to run the section. Langer initially had full control over the magazine's book reviews and did all the reviews by himself. A month before the reviews were due, the "Foreign Affairs" office in New York would ship approximately one hundred books to Langer for review and within two weeks he would return his completed reviews for the next issue.  Beginning with the first issue in 1922, Harry Elmer Barnes authored a reoccurring section titled “Some Recent Books on International Relations”. By 1924, the Foreign Affairs website lists Barnes as Bibliographical Editor.  In the late 1930s, the review section was broken down into several categories. Currently, the "Foreign Affairs" reviews are broken down into long review essays, which are placed at the front of the books section, and the "Recent Books" section, where shorter reviewers are featured. The "Recent Books" section is further broken down into the following subject categories.  The majority of the book reviews featured in the "Recent Books" section are reviewed by the same person; however, other reviewers contribute to the "Recent Books" section on occasion.

Influence.

"Foreign Affairs" is considered an important forum for debate among academics and policy makers. In 1996, the Deputy Secretary of State, Strobe Talbott, noted: "Virtually everyone I know in the foreign policy-national security area of the Government is attentive to ["Foreign Affairs"]."  According to the "Journal Citation Reports", the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 2.009, ranking it 6th out of 85 journals in the category "International Relations".

Foreign Affairs is an American magazine of international relations and U.S. foreign policy published by the Council on Foreign Relations, a nonprofit, nonpartisan, membership organization and think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international affairs. Founded in 1922, the print magazine is currently published every two months, while the website publishes articles daily and anthologies every other month.

Foreign Affairs (deutsch: „Auswärtige Angelegenheiten“) ist der Titel eines seit 1922 in New York City erscheinenden Journals (zurzeit sechs Mal jährlich; ursprünglich bis in die 1990er Jahre ein "Quarterly", also mit vierteljährlicher Erscheinungsweise) mit den Schwerpunkten US-Außenpolitik und internationale Politik bzw. internationale Beziehungen. Herausgeber ist James F. Hoge, Jr. im Auftrag des Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), einer großen US-Denkfabrik, der neben zahlreichen Autoren und Wissenschaftlern unter anderem viele ehemalige US-Präsidenten, US-Außenminister und US-Finanzminister angehören.


Musical career.

Previous projects.

Luca Anzilotti and Michael Münzing started working together in 1985 in the group Off (Organisation For Fun) with Sven Väth. They recorded two albums, Organisation For Fun (1988) and Ask Yourself (1989), and a series of singles, including "Electrica Salsa", until 1990.  The two created the side project 16 BIT in 1986 and had a big success with their first single "Where Are You?". In 1987, they released the album "Inaxycvgtgb" for BMG.

Formation and first album.

Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti formed Snap! in 1989 under the aliases Benito Benites and John "Virgo" Garrett III, as they thought that the public had negative preconceived ideas of German music. Their first hit "The Power", which was fronted by rapper Turbo B. and American singer Penny Ford, peaked at No. 2 in Germany in April 1990 and spent five weeks in that position eventually going Gold for sales of 250,000 units. The single topped the charts in the United Kingdom, and picked up a Silver award for sales of 200,000 units.<ref name="UK's Singles/Albums Positions for Snap!"></ref> In the U.S., it reached No.2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and was certified Platinum for 1,000,000 units.  Jackie Harris was used to mime Penny Ford's voice in the video "The Power" and left the group shortly after and Penny Ford became its full-time lead singer, recording the second single "Ooops Up", a re-working of "I Don't Believe You Want to Get Up and Dance (Ooops!)", a 1980 hit by The Gap Band, with which Penny was a former backing singer. The song "Oops Up" was another No. 2 hit in Germany which spent nine weeks in the position. The single entered the Top 5 in the UK picking up another Silver award, it was also awarded a Gold certification in the U.S. Further hits followed with the oriental-sounding "Cult of Snap", which charted at No. 3 in Germany and No. 8 in the UK, and "Mary Had a Little Boy", which charted at No. 4 in Germany, and again No. 8 in the UK. Their first album "World Power" reached No. 7 in Germany, No. 10 in the UK and No. 30 in the U.S. The album received Platinum in Germany, and Gold in the UK and the U.S.

Second album.

In 1991, after American singer, composer, songwriter and dancer Thea Austin joined the line-up and helped to write "Rhythm Is a Dancer", which was initially planned to be the lead single from the second album but later was pushed back to be the second single from the second album. The first single, "Colour of Love" managed to peak at No. 9 in Snap!'s home of Germany, but stalled at No. 54 in the UK. "Rhythm Is a Dancer" was released as the second single in July 1992 which uses a sample from the song "Automan" by early '80s American electronic hip-hop band Newcleus, it went on to become their biggest hit yet. The single shot to No. 1 in Germany, the UK, France, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In the U.S., it peaked at No. 5 collecting another Gold for sales of 500,000 units. At home in Germany, the single went Platinum for 500,000 units, and picked up a Gold in the UK for sales of 400,000 units. The third single "Exterminate" from the second album, which charted at No. 3 in Germany and No.2 in the UK, was awarded with a Gold certification in Germany.  Despite that the second album, "The Madman's Return" did well in the charts, peaking at No. 3 in Germany and entering the Top 10 in the UK, the Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland, Turbo B decided to leave the project due to disagreements with the act's producers. The album went Gold in Germany and the UK, for sales of 250,000 units and 100,000 units respectively.  Follow-up singles "Exterminate" (charting No. 2 in the UK and No. 3 in Germany) and "Do You See the light?" featured Niki Haris, a professional vocalist also known for her long-time work with Madonna, on lead vocals.

Third album.

The producers, Münzing and Anzilotti recruited Washington, D.C.-born American singer Summer to front the act for the third album. Summer was born Paula Brown and previously had worked as a dancer in the TV series Fame and in the Spike Lee movie, "School Daze". Snap! moved towards a progressive house sound and released their first single called "Welcome to Tomorrow (Are You Ready?)" in September 1994. The single peaked at No. 4 in Germany, No. 6 in the UK and was followed by the album, also titled "Welcome to Tomorrow". The second single "The First the Last Eternity (Till the End)" was a moderate hit in the UK, but managed to climb as high as No. 7 in Germany. Snap! released two more singles from the album "World in My Hands" and "Rame" (featuring Rukmani), both of which experienced a moderate chart entries.

Breakup and return.

In 1996 the group was officially disbanded after releasing a greatest hits compilation called "". The album included a new version of their first hit "The Power '96" and "Rhythm Is a Dancer '96".  However, the act made a surprising return in 2000 with a track entitled "Gimme a Thrill", complete with a rap performed by Turbo B. and vocal from the band's newest singer Maxayn. It didn't attract much attention and peaked only at No. 11 in the German Dance Charts.  A new version of "Do You See the Light" remixed by Plaything was released in 2002. The following year, a remixed album, "The Cult of Snap!" was released and re-worked singles were issued. "Rhythm Is a Dancer 2003" peaked at No. 7 in Germany and No. 17 in the UK, while "The Power (of Bhangra 2003)" charted moderately in Austria, Switzerland and Denmark. The act also released a re-done version of "Oops Up!" which featured vocals by NG3 and managed to enter the Swedish Charts at No. 40 and the German top 100 singles chart at No. 69.  Buoyed by the success of the remixes, Münzing and Anzilotti went back into the studio with male singer Damien Behanan, also known as Loc, and released the single "Beauty Queen" in September 2005 through Luma Music, which peaked inside the top10 of the German Dance Charts but it failed to enter the official charts. They would also release another digital download single in 2008 featuring Loc, Jumping!, but this also failed to chart.  On 16 June 2008, a new version of "Rhythm Is a Dancer '08" was released as a CD single in the UK which peaked at No. 23 there.  In 2018, rights to all recordings of Snap!, previously owned by Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti themselves, were transferred to BMG Rights Management, a current incarnation of Bertelsmann Music Group.

Snap! are a German Eurodance group formed in 1989 by producers Michael Münzing and Luca Anzilotti. The act has been through a number of line-up changes over the years, including American singers, songwriters and rappers Thea Austin, Turbo B, and Penny Ford. Their best known hits are "The Power" and "Rhythm Is a Dancer", both of which took the No. 1 spot in multiple countries.

Snap! ist ein 1989 in Deutschland gegründetes Eurodance- und Trance-Projekt der Frankfurter Produzenten Michael Münzing und Luca Anzilotti (vorher bekannt als 16 BIT und gemeinsam mit Sven Väth als OFF).


Term.

The term "consumerism" has several definitions. These definitions may not be related to each other and confusingly, they conflict with each other.  In a 1955 speech, John Bugas (number two at the Ford Motor Company) coined the term "consumerism" as a substitute for "capitalism" to better describe the American economy:  Bugas's definition aligned with Austrian economics founder Carl Menger's vision (in his 1871 book "Principles of Economics") of consumer sovereignty, whereby consumer preferences, valuations, and choices control the economy entirely (a concept directly opposed to the Marxian perception of the capitalist economy as a system of exploitation).  Vance Packard worked to change the meaning of the term "consumerism" from a positive word about consumer practices to a negative word meaning excessive materialism and waste. The ads for his 1960 book "The Waste Makers" prominently featured the word "consumerism" in a negative way.

History.

Origins.

The consumer society emerged in the late seventeenth century and intensified throughout the eighteenth century. While some claim that change was propelled by the growing middle-class who embraced new ideas about luxury consumption and about the growing importance of fashion as an arbiter for purchasing rather than necessity, many critics argue that consumerism was a political and economic necessity for the reproduction of capitalist competition for markets and profits, while others point to the increasing political strength of international working-class organizations during a rapid increase in technological productivity and decline in necessary scarcity as a catalyst to develop a consumer culture based on therapeutic entertainments, home-ownership and debt. The "middle-class" view argues that this revolution encompassed the growth in construction of vast country estates specifically designed to cater for comfort and the increased availability of luxury goods aimed at a growing market. Such luxury goods included sugar, tobacco, tea and coffee; these were increasingly grown on vast plantations (historically by slave labor) in the Caribbean as demand steadily rose. In particular, sugar consumption in Britain during the course of the 18th century increased by a factor of 20.  Critics argue that colonialism did indeed help drive consumerism, but they would place the emphasis on the supply rather than the demand as the motivating factor. An increasing mass of exotic imports as well as domestic manufactures had to be consumed by the same number of people who had been consuming far less than was becoming necessary. Historically, the notion that high levels of consumption of consumer goods is the same thing as achieving success or even freedom did not precede large-scale capitalist production and colonial imports. That idea was produced later, more or less strategically, in order to intensify consumption domestically and to make resistant cultures more flexible to extend its reach.

Culture of consumption.

The pattern of intensified consumption became particularly visible in London where the gentry and prosperous merchants took up residence and promoted a culture of luxury and consumption that slowly extended across socio-economic boundaries. Marketplaces expanded as shopping centres, such as the New Exchange, opened in 1609 by Robert Cecil in the Strand. Shops started to become important as places for Londoners to meet and socialise and became popular destinations alongside the theatre. From 1660, Restoration London also saw the growth of luxury buildings as advertisements for social position, with speculative architects like Nicholas Barbon and Lionel Cranfield operating.  Industries like glass making and silk manufacturing grew, and much pamphleteering of the time justified the private vice for luxury goods as promoting the greater public good. This then-scandalous line of thought caused great controversy with the publication of the influential work "Fable of the Bees" in 1714, in which Bernard Mandeville argued that a country's prosperity ultimately lay in the self-interest of the consumer.  Advertising plays a major role in fostering a consumerist society, marketing goods through various platforms in nearly all aspects of human life, and pushing the message that the potential customer's personal life requires some product. Consumerism is discussed in detail in the textbook "Media in Everyday Life". The authors write, "Consumerism is deeply integrated into the daily life and the visual culture of the societies in which we live, often in ways that we do not even recognize" (Smulyan 266). She continues, "Thus even products that are sold as exemplifying tradition and heritage, such as Quaker Oats cereal, are marketed through constantly changing advertising messages" (Smulyan 266). Advertising changes with the consumer in order to keep up with their target, identifying their needs and their associations of brands and products before the viewer is consciously aware. Mediums through which individuals are exposed to ads change and grow continuously as marketers try to get in touch with their audience and adapt to ways to keep audience attention. For example, billboards, invented around the time that the automobile became prevalent in society, aimed to provide audiences with short details about a brand or a "catch phrase" that a driver could spot, recognize, and remember (Smulyan 273). In the 21st century there is an extreme focus on technology and the digitization of culture. Much of the advertising takes place in cohesive campaigns through various mediums that make ignoring companies' messages very difficult. Aram Sinnreich writes about the relationship between online advertisers and publishers and how it has been strengthened by the digitization of media, as consumers' data is always being collected through their online activity (Sinnreich 3). In this way consumers are targeted based on their searches and bombarded with information about more goods and services that they may eventually "need", positioned as needs rather than as wants. These trends accelerated in the 18th century as rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption. Important shifts included the marketing of goods for individuals (as opposed to items for the household), and the new status of goods as status symbols, related to changes in fashion and to be desired for aesthetic appeal, as opposed to just their utility. The pottery entrepreneur and inventor, Josiah Wedgwood, noticed the way that aristocratic fashions, themselves subject to periodic changes in direction, slowly filtered down through different classes of society. He pioneered the use of marketing techniques to influence and manipulate the movement of prevailing tastes and preferences to cause the aristocracy to accept his goods; it was only a matter of time before the middle classes also apidly bought up his goods. Other producers of a wide range of other products followed his example, and the spread and importance of consumption fashions became steadily more important.

Mass production.

The Industrial Revolution dramatically increased the availability of consumer goods, although it was still primarily focused on the capital goods sector and industrial infrastructure (i.e., mining, steel, oil, transportation networks, communications networks, industrial cities, financial centers, etc.). The advent of the department store represented a paradigm shift in the experience of shopping. For the first time, customers could buy an astonishing variety of goods, all in one place, and shopping became a popular leisure activity. While previously the norm had been the scarcity of resources, the industrial era created an unprecedented economic situation. For the first time in history products were available in outstanding quantities, at outstandingly low prices, being thus available to virtually everyone in the industrialized West.  By the turn of the 20th century the average worker in Western Europe or the United States still spent approximately 80–90% of their income on food and other necessities. What was needed to propel consumerism, was a system of mass production and consumption, exemplified by Henry Ford, an American car manufacturer. After observing the assembly lines in the meat packing industry, Frederick Winslow Taylor brought his theory of scientific management to the organization of the assembly line in other industries; this unleashed incredible productivity and reduced the costs of commodities produced on assembly lines around the world.  Consumerism has long had intentional underpinnings, rather than just developing out of capitalism. As an example, Earnest Elmo Calkins noted to fellow advertising executives in 1932 that "consumer engineering must see to it that we use up the kind of goods we now merely use", while the domestic theorist Christine Frederick observed in 1929 that "the way to break the vicious deadlock of a low standard of living is to spend freely, and even waste creatively".  The older term and concept of "conspicuous consumption" originated at the turn of the 20th century in the writings of sociologist and economist, Thorstein Veblen. The term describes an apparently irrational and confounding form of economic behaviour. Veblen's scathing proposal that this unnecessary consumption is a form of status display is made in darkly humorous observations like the following: The term "conspicuous consumption" spread to describe consumerism in the United States in the 1960s, but was soon linked to debates about media theory, culture jamming, and its corollary productivism.

In the 21st century.

Madeline Levine criticized what she saw as a large change in American culture – "a shift away from values of community, spirituality, and integrity, and toward competition, materialism and disconnection."  Businesses have realized that wealthy consumers are the most attractive targets of marketing. The upper class's tastes, lifestyles, and preferences trickle down to become the standard for all consumers. The not-so-wealthy consumers can "purchase something new that will speak of their place in the tradition of affluence". A consumer can have the instant gratification of purchasing an expensive item to improve social status.  Emulation is also a core component of 21st century consumerism. As a general trend, regular consumers seek to emulate those who are above them in the social hierarchy. The poor strive to imitate the wealthy and the wealthy imitate celebrities and other icons. The celebrity endorsement of products can be seen as evidence of the desire of modern consumers to purchase products partly or solely to emulate people of higher social status. This purchasing behavior may co-exist in the mind of a consumer with an image of oneself as being an individualist.  Cultural capital, the intangible social value of goods, is not solely generated by cultural pollution. Subcultures also manipulate the value and prevalence of certain commodities through the process of bricolage. Bricolage is the process by which mainstream products are adopted and transformed by subcultures. These items develop a function and meaning that differs from their corporate producer's intent. In many cases, commodities that have undergone bricolage often develop political meanings. For example, Doc Martens, originally marketed as workers boots, gained popularity with the punk movement and AIDs activism groups and became symbols of an individual's place in that social group. When corporate America recognized the growing popularity of Doc Martens they underwent another change in cultural meaning through counter-bricolage. The widespread sale and marketing of Doc Martens brought the boots back into the mainstream. While corporate America reaped the ever-growing profits of the increasingly expensive boot and those modeled after its style, Doc Martens lost their original political association. Mainstream consumers used Doc Martens and similar items to create an "individualized" sense identity by appropriating statement items from subcultures they admired.  When consumerism is considered as a movement to improve rights and powers of buyers in relation to sellers, there are certain traditional rights and powers of sellers and buyers.  American Dream has long been associated with consumerism. According to Sierra Club's Dave Tilford, "With less than 5 percent of world population, the U.S. uses one-third of the world’s paper, a quarter of the world’s oil, 23 percent of the coal, 27 percent of the aluminum, and 19 percent of the copper."  China is the world's fastest-growing consumer market. According to biologist Paul R. Ehrlich, "If everyone consumed resources at the US level, you will need another four or five Earths."

Criticism.

Overview.

Since consumerism began, various individuals and groups have consciously sought an alternative lifestyle. These movements range on a spectrum from moderate "simple living", "eco-conscious shopping", and "localvore"/"buying local", to Freeganism on the extreme end. Building on these movements, the discipline of ecological economics addresses the macro-economic, social and ecological implications of a primarily consumer-driven economy.  In many critical contexts, "consumerism" is used to describe the tendency of people to identify strongly with products or services they consume, especially those with commercial brand-names and perceived status-symbolism appeal, e.g. a luxury car, designer clothing, or expensive jewelry. Consumerism can take extreme forms – such that consumers sacrifice significant time and income not only to purchase but also to actively support a certain firm or brand. As stated by Gary Cross in his book "All Consuming Century: Why Consumerism Won in Modern America", he states "consumerism succeeded where other ideologies failed because it concretely expressed the cardinal political ideals of the century – liberty and democracy – and with relatively little self-distructive behavior or personal humiliation" (Cross, 2). He discusses how consumerism won in its forms of expression.  Opponents of consumerism argue that many luxuries and unnecessary consumer-products may act as a social mechanism allowing people to identify like-minded individuals through the display of similar products, again utilizing aspects of status-symbolism to judge socioeconomic status and social stratification. Some people believe relationships with a product or brand name are substitutes for healthy human relationships lacking in societies, and along with consumerism, create a cultural hegemony, and are part of a general process of social control in modern society. Critics of consumerism often point out that consumerist societies are more prone to damage the environment, to contribute to global warming and to use up resources at a higher rate than other societies. Dr. Jorge Majfud says that "Trying to reduce environmental pollution without reducing consumerism is like combatting drug trafficking without reducing the drug addiction."  In 1955, economist Victor Lebow stated: Critics of consumerism include Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI, Pope Francis, German historian Oswald Spengler (1880–1936), who said: "Life in America is exclusively economic in structure and lacks depth"), and French writer Georges Duhamel (1884–1966), who held American materialism up as "a beacon of mediocrity that threatened to eclipse French civilization". Pope Francis also critiques consumerism in his book "Laudato Si' On Care For Our Common Home." He critiques the harm consumerism does to the environment and states, "The analysis of environmental problems cannot be separated from the analysis of human, family, work-related and urban contexts, nor from how individuals relate to themselves, which leads in turn to how they relate to others and to the environment." Pope Francis believes individuals obsession with consumerism leads us farther away from our humanity and makes us forget the interrelated nature between ourselves and the environment. Francis Fukuyama blames consumerism for moral compromises.  Another critic is James Gustave Speth. He argues that the growth imperative represents the main goal of capitalistic consumerism. In his book "The Bridge at the Edge of the World" he notes, "Basically, the economic system does not work when it comes to protecting environmental resources, and the political system does not work when it comes to correcting the economic system".  In an opinion segment of "New Scientist" magazine published in August 2009, reporter Andy Coghlan cited William Rees of the University of British Columbia and epidemiologist Warren Hern of the University of Colorado at Boulder saying that human beings, despite considering themselves civilized thinkers, are "subconsciously still driven by an impulse for survival, domination and expansion... an impulse which now finds expression in the idea that inexorable economic growth is the answer to everything, and, given time, will redress all the world's existing inequalities." According to figures presented by Rees at the annual meeting of the Ecological Society of America, human society is in a "global overshoot", consuming 30% more material than is sustainable from the world's resources. Rees went on to state that at present, 85 countries are exceeding their domestic "bio-capacities", and compensate for their lack of local material by depleting the stocks of other countries, which have a material surplus due to their lower consumption. Not only that, but McCraken indicates that the ways in which consumer goods and services are bought, created and used should be taken under consideration when studying consumption.  Furthermore, some theorists have concerns with the place commodity takes in the definition of one's self. Media theorists Straut Ewen coined the term "commodity self" to describe an identity built by the goods we consume. For example, people often identify as PC or Mac users, or define themselves as a Coke drinker rather than Pepsi. The ability to choose one product out of an apparent mass of others allows a person to build a sense "unique" individuality, despite the prevalence of Mac users or the nearly identical tastes of Coke and Pepsi. By owning a product from a certain brand, one's ownership becomes a vehicle of presenting an identity that is associated with the attitude of the brand. The idea of individual choice is exploited by corporations that claim to sell "uniqueness" and the building blocks of an identity. The invention of the commodity self is a driving force of consumerist societies, preying upon the deep human need to build a sense of self.  Not all anti-consumerists oppose consumption in itself, but they argue against increasing the consumption of resources beyond what is environmentally sustainable. Jonathan Porritt writes that consumers are often unaware of the negative environmental impacts of producing many modern goods and services, and that the extensive advertising-industry only serves to reinforce increasing consumption. Likewise, other ecological economists such as Herman Daly and Tim Jackson recognize the inherent conflict between consumer-driven consumption and planet-wide ecological degradation.

Consumerism as cultural ideology.

In the 21st century's globalized economy, consumerism has become a noticeable part of the culture. Critics of the phenomenon not only criticized it against what is environmentally sustainable, but also the spread of consumerism in cultural aspects. However, several scholars have written about the intersection of consumer culture and the environment. Discussions of the environmental implications of consumerist ideologies in work by economists Gustave Speth and Naomi Klein, and consumer cultural historian Gary Cross. Leslie Sklair proposes the criticism through the idea of culture-ideology of consumerism in his works. He says that,  As of today, people are exposed to mass consumerism and product placement in the media or even in their daily lives. The line between information, entertainment, and promotion of products has been blurred so people are more reformulated into consumerist behaviour. Shopping centers are a representative example of a place where people are explicitly exposed to an environment that welcomes and encourages consumption as some of them are open for 24 hours. Goss says that the shopping center designers "strive to present an alternative rationale for the shopping center's existence, manipulate shoppers' behavior through the configuration of space, and consciously design a symbolic landscape that provokes associative moods and dispositions in the shopper". On the prevalence of consumerism in daily life, Historian Gary Cross says that "The endless variation of clothing, travel, and entertainment provided opportunity for practically everyone to find a personal niche, no matter their race, age, gender or class."  The success of the consumerist cultural ideology can be witnessed all around the world. People rush to the mall to buy products and end up spending money with their credit cards, thus locking themselves into the financial system of capitalist globalization.

References.

Ryan, Michael T. (2007) "consumption" in George Ritzer (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, 701–705

Consumerism is a social and economic order that encourages an acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. With the industrial revolution, but particularly in the 20th century, mass production led to overproduction—the supply of goods would grow beyond consumer demand, and so manufacturers turned to planned obsolescence and advertising to manipulate consumer spending. In 1899, a book on consumerism published by Thorstein Veblen, called "The Theory of the Leisure Class", examined the widespread values and economic institutions emerging along with the widespread "leisure time" in the beginning of the 20th century. In it Veblen "views the activities and spending habits of this leisure class in terms of conspicuous and vicarious consumption and waste. Both are related to the display of status and not to functionality or usefulness."

Konsumismus, auch Konsumerismus oder Konsumentismus (von – verbrauchen), ist eine Lebenshaltung, die darauf ausgerichtet ist, das Bedürfnis nach neuen Konsumgütern stets zu befriedigen. Es kann zum Beispiel der gesellschaftlichen Distinktion oder dem Streben nach Identität, Lebenssinn und Glück dienen. Eine krankhafte Extremform ist die Kaufsucht. Der Begriff wird zumeist in kritischer Absicht verwendet.


Function.

Hammer drills have a cam-action or percussion hammering mechanism, in which two sets of toothed gears mechanically interact with each other to hammer while rotating the drill bit. With cam-action drills, the chuck has a mechanism whereby the entire chuck and bit move forward and backward on the axis of rotation. This type of drill is often used with or without the hammer action, but it is not possible to use the hammer action alone as it is the rotation over the cams which causes the hammer motion. A hammer drill has a specially designed clutch that allows it to not only spin the drill bit, but also to punch it in and out (along the axis of the bit). The actual distance the bit travels in and out and the force of its blow are both very small, and the hammering action is very rapid—thousands of "BPM" (blows per minute) or "IPM" (impacts per minute). Although each blow is of relatively low force, these thousands of blows per minute are more than adequate to break up concrete or brick, using the masonry drill bit's carbide wedge to pulverize it for the spiral flutes to whisk away. For this reason, a hammer drill drills much faster than a regular drill through concrete or brick. Hammer drills are increasingly powered by cordless technology.

Use.

Holes in hard materials are needed for anchor bolts, concrete screws and wall plugs. Hammer drills are not typically used for production construction drilling, but rather for occasional drilling of holes into concrete, masonry or stone. They are also used to drill holes in concrete footings to pin concrete wall forms and to drill holes in concrete floors to pin wall framing. Hammer drills almost always have a lever or switch that locks off the special "hammer clutch," turning the tool into a conventional drill for wood or metal work. Hammer drills are more expensive and more bulky than regular drills, but are preferable for applications where the material to be drilled—concrete block or wood studs—is unknown. For example, an electrician mounting an electrical box to a wall would be able to use the same hammer drill to drill into either wood studs (hammer disabled) or masonry walls (hammer enabled).

History.

Ancient China's principal drilling technique, percussive drilling, was invented during the Han dynasty. The process involved two to six men jumping on a level at rhythmic intervals to raise a heavy iron bit attached to long bamboo cables from a bamboo derrick. Utilizing cast iron bits and tools constructed of bamboo, the early Chinese were able to use percussion drilling to drill holes to a depth of. The construction of percussion drilling machines took more than two to three generations of workers. The cable tool drilling machines developed by the early Chinese involved raising and dropping a heavy string of drilling tools to crush through rocks into diminutive fragments. In addition, the Chinese also used a cutting head secured to bamboo rods to drill to depths of. The raising and dropping of the bamboo drill strings allowed the drilling machine to penetrate less denser and unconsolidated rock formations.  The origin of the first hammer drill is a matter of contention. German company Fein patented a ("drill with electro-pneumatic striking mechanism") in 1914. German company Bosch produced the first "Bosch-Hammer" around 1932 in mass production. The US company Milwaukee Electric Tool Corporation states that in 1935, it was selling a lightweight electric hammer drill (cam-action).

A hammer drill, also known as a percussion drill or impact drill, is a power tool used chiefly for drilling in hard materials. It is a type of rotary drill with an impact mechanism that generates a hammering motion. The percussive mechanism provides a rapid succession of short hammer thrusts to pulverize the material to be bored, so as to provide quicker drilling with less effort. If a hammer drill's impact mechanism can be turned off, the tool can be used like a conventional drill to also perform tasks such as screwdriving.

Eine Schlagbohrmaschine ist eine Bohrmaschine, bei der neben der normalen Drehbewegung eine vibrationsähnliche Bewegung in axialer Richtung zugeschaltet werden kann. Dadurch kann die Maschine ohne „Schlag“ zum Bohren in Holz, Metall, Kunststoffe und ähnlichem verwendet werden, mit „Schlag“ um in relativ feste Materialien wie Ziegelsteine oder Leichtbeton zu bohren.


Early life and education.

Epstein's parents, Max and Mary Epstein, were Polish Jewish refugees, living on New York's Lower East Side. His family was middle-class, and he was the third of five children. His interest in drawing came from long periods of illness; as a child he suffered from pleurisy.  He studied art in his native New York as a teenager, sketching the city, and joined the Art Students League of New York in 1900. For his livelihood, he worked in a bronze foundry by day, studying drawing and sculptural modelling at night. Epstein's first major commission was to illustrate Hutchins Hapgood's 1902 book "Spirit of the Ghetto". Epstein used the money from the commission to move to Paris.

Move to Europe.

Moving to Europe in 1902, he studied in Paris at the Académie Julian and the École des Beaux-Arts. He settled in London in 1905 and married Margaret Dunlop in 1906. Epstein became a British subject on 4 January 1911. Many of Epstein's works were sculpted at his two cottages in Loughton, Essex, where he lived first at number 49 then 50, Baldwin's Hill (there is a blue plaque on number 50). He served briefly in the 38th Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers, known as the Jewish Legion during World War I; following a breakdown, he was discharged in 1918 without having left England.

Work.

In London, Epstein involved himself with a bohemian and artistic crowd. Revolting against ornate, pretty art, he made bold, often harsh and massive forms of bronze or stone. His sculpture is distinguished by its vigorous rough-hewn realism. Avant-garde in concept and style, his works often shocked his audience. This was not only a result of their (often explicit) sexual content, but also because they deliberately abandoned the conventions of classical Greek sculpture favoured by European academic sculptors, to experiment instead with the aesthetics of art traditions as diverse as those of India, China, ancient Greece, West Africa, and the Pacific Islands. People in Liverpool nicknamed his nude male sculpture over the door of Lewis's department store (1954–56) "Dickie Lewis". Such factors may have focused disproportionate attention on certain aspects of Epstein's long and productive career, throughout which he aroused hostility, especially challenging taboos surrounding the depiction of sexuality.  London was not ready for Epstein's first major commission – 18 large nude sculptures made in 1908 for the façade of Charles Holden's building for the British Medical Association on The Strand (now Zimbabwe House) were initially considered shocking to Edwardian sensibilities, again mainly due to the perception that they were sexually over-explicit. In art-historical terms, however, the Strand sculptures were controversial for quite a different reason: they represented Epstein's first thoroughgoing attempt to break away from traditional European iconography in favour of elements derived from an alternative sculptural milieu – that of classical India. The female figures in particular may be seen deliberately to incorporate the posture and hand gestures of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu art from the subcontinent in no uncertain terms. The current, mutilated condition of many of the sculptures is also not entirely connected with prudish censorship; the damage was caused in the 1930s when possibly dangerous projecting features were hacked off after pieces fell from one of the statues.  One of the most famous of Epstein's early commissions is "Oscar Wilde's tomb" in Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, "which was condemned as indecent and at one point was covered in tarpaulin by the French police."  Between 1913 and 1915, Epstein was associated with the short-lived Vorticism movement and produced one of his best known sculptures "The Rock Drill".  In 1915, John Quinn, wealthy American collector and patron to the modernists, bought some Epstein sculptures to add to his private collection.  In 1916, Epstein was commissioned by Viscount Tredegar to produce a bronze head of Newport poet W. H. Davies. The bronze, regarded by many as the most accurate artistic impression of Davies and a copy of which Davies owned himself, may be found at Newport Museum and Art Gallery  In 1928, Epstein sculpted the head of the popular singer and film star Paul Robeson. A commission from Holden for the new headquarters building of the London Electric Railway generated another controversy in 1929. His nude sculptures "Day" and "Night" above the entrances of 55 Broadway were again considered indecent and a debate raged for some time regarding demands to remove the offending statues which had been carved "in-situ". Eventually a compromise was reached to modify the smaller of the two figures represented on "Day". But the controversy affected his commissions for public work which dried up until World War II.  Between the late 1930s and the mid-1950s, numerous works by Epstein were exhibited in Blackpool. "Adam", "Consummatum Est", "Jacob and the Angel and Genesis", and other works, were initially displayed in an old drapery shop surrounded by red velvet curtains. The crowds were ushered in at the cost of a shilling by a barker on the street. After a small tour of American fun fairs, the works were returned to Blackpool and were exhibited in the anatomical curiosities section of Louis Tussaud's waxworks. The works were displayed alongside dancing marionettes, diseased body parts and conjoined ("Siamese") twin babies in jars. Placing Epstein within the context of freakish curiosity perhaps added to Epstein's decision not to create further large-scale direct carvings.  Bronze portrait sculpture formed one of Epstein's staple products, and perhaps the best known. These sculptures were often executed with roughly textured surfaces, expressively manipulating small surface planes and facial details. Some fine examples are in the National Portrait Gallery. Another example is the bust of the Arsenal manager Herbert Chapman that sat in the marble halls of Highbury for many years before being moved to the new Emirates Stadium.  During the Second World War, Epstein was asked to undertake six commissions for the War Artists' Advisory Committee. After completing bronze busts of Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham, General Sir Alan Cunningham, and Air Marshal Sir Charles Portal - and Ernest Bevin, Epstein accepted a commission to create busts of John Anderson and Winston Churchill. He completed a bust of Winston Churchill in early 1947.  Epstein's aluminium figure of Christ in Majesty (1954–55), is suspended above the nave in Llandaff Cathedral, Cardiff, on a concrete arch designed by George Pace.  His larger sculptures were his most expressive and experimental, but also his most vulnerable. His depiction of Rima, one of author W. H. Hudson's most famous characters, graces a serene enclosure in Hyde Park. Even here, a visitor became so outraged as to defile it with paint. He was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd Sculpture International, which was organised by the Fairmount Park Association (now the Association for Public Art) and held at the Philadelphia Museum of Art in the summer of 1949.  Epstein would often sculpt the images of friends, casual acquaintances, and even people dragged from the street into his studio almost at random. He worked even on his dying day. He also painted; many of his watercolours and gouaches were of Epping Forest, where he lived (at Loughton) and sculpted. These were often exhibited at the Leicester Galleries in London. His "Monkwood Autumn" and "Pool, Epping Forest" date from 1944–45.  Epstein was Jewish, and negative reviews of his work sometimes took on an antisemitic flavour, though he did not attribute the "average unfavorable criticism" of his work to antisemitism.  Epstein met Albert Einstein at Roughton Heath, Norfolk, in 1933 and had three sittings for a bust. He remembered his meeting with Einstein as, "His glance contained a mixture of the humane, the humorous and the profound. This was a combination which delighted me. He resembled the ageing Rembrandt."

Personal life.

Despite being married to and continuing to live with Margaret, Epstein had a number of relationships with other women that brought him his five children: Peggy Jean (1918–2010), Theo (1924–1954), Kathleen (1926–2011), Esther (1929–1954) and Jackie (1934–2009). Margaret generally tolerated these relationships – even to the extent of bringing up his first and last children. In 1921, Epstein began the longest of these relationships, with Kathleen Garman, one of the Garman sisters, mother of his three middle children, which continued until his death. Margaret "tolerated Epstein's infidelities, allowed his models and lovers to live in the family home and raised Epstein's first child, Peggy Jean, who was the daughter of Meum Lindsell, one of Epstein's previous lovers. Evidently, Margaret's tolerance did not extend to Epstein's relationship with Kathleen Garman, as in 1923 Margaret shot and wounded Kathleen in the shoulder."  Margaret Epstein died in 1947, and after Epstein was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1954 New Year Honours, he married Kathleen Garman in 1955.  Their eldest daughter, also named Kathleen but known as "Kitty", married painter Lucian Freud in 1948 and was mother of his daughters Annie and Annabel. She is the subject of the painting "Portrait of Kitty". In 1953 they divorced. She married a second time in 1955, to economist Wynne Godley. They have one daughter.

Death and legacy.

Epstein died in August 1959 in Kensington and is buried in Putney Vale Cemetery. A blue plaque may be found at "Deerhurst", 50 Baldwins Hill in Loughton, which was his home from 1933 to 1950.  The Garman Ryan Collection, including several works by Epstein, was donated to the people of Walsall, by Lady Epstein in 1973. It is on display at The New Art Gallery Walsall.  His art is displayed all over the world; highly original for its time, its influence on the younger generation of sculptors such as Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth was significant. According to June Rose, in her biography, Moore was befriended by the older sculptor during the early 1920s and visited Epstein in his studio. Epstein, along with Moore and Hepworth, all expressed a deep fascination with the non-western art from the British Museum.  In March 2000 the Epstein Estate appointed Tate Images as the Copyright Agent for all permissions clearance.

Further reading.

Below is a brief overview of key texts relating to Epstein:

Sir Jacob Epstein (10 November 1880 – 21 August 1959) was an American-British sculptor who helped pioneer modern sculpture. He was born in the United States, and moved to Europe in 1902, becoming a British subject in 1911. He often produced controversial works which challenged ideas on what was appropriate subject matter for public artworks. He also made paintings and drawings, and often exhibited his work.

Sir Jacob Epstein KBE (* 10. November 1880 in New York; † 19. August 1959 in London) war ein amerikanisch-britischer Bildhauer und Zeichner.


Structure.

The guidelines for lab notebooks vary widely between institution and between individual labs, but some guidelines are fairly common, for example, like those in the reference. The lab notebook is typically permanently bound and pages are numbered. Dates are given as a rule. All entries are with a permanent writing tool, e.g., a ballpoint pen (though a permanent marker may be undesirable, as the ink might bleed through multiple pages). The lab notebook is usually written as the experiments progress, rather than at a later date. In many laboratories, it is the original place of record of data (no copying is carried out from other notes) as well as any observations or insights. For data recorded by other means (e.g., on a computer), the lab notebook will record that the data was obtained and the identification of the data set will be given in the notebook. Many adhere to the concept that a lab notebook should be thought of as a diary of activities that are described in sufficient detail to allow another scientist to replicate the steps. In laboratories with several staff and a common laboratory notebook, entries in the notebook are signed by those making them.

Legal aspects.

To ensure that data cannot be easily altered, notebooks with permanently bound pages are often recommended. Researchers are often encouraged to write only with unerasable pen, to sign and date each page, and to have their notebooks inspected periodically by another scientist who can read and understand it. All of these guidelines can be useful in proving exactly when a discovery was made, in the case of a patent dispute. It is worth noting however that following March 2013, lab notebooks are of limited legal use in the United States, due to a change in the law that grants patents to the first person to file, rather than the first person to invent. The lab notebook is still useful for proving that work was not stolen, but can no longer be used to dispute the patent of an unrelated party.

Electronic formats.

Several companies now offer electronic lab notebooks. This format has gained some popularity, especially in large pharmaceutical companies, which have large numbers of researchers and great need to document their experiments.

Open lab notebooks.

Lab notebooks kept online have started to become as transparent to the world as they are to the researcher keeping them, a trend often referred to as Open Notebook Science, after the title of a 2006 blogpost by chemist Jean-Claude Bradley. The term is frequently used to distinguish this aspect of "Open Science" from the related but rather independent developments commonly labeled as Open Source, Open Access, Open Data and so forth. The openness of the notebook, then, specifically refers to the set of the following points, or elements thereof: The use of a wiki makes it convenient to track contributions by individual authors.

A laboratory notebook ("colloq." lab notebook or lab book) is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab notebook to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation of these experiments. The notebook serves as an organizational tool, a memory aid, and can also have a role in protecting any intellectual property that comes from the research.

Ein Laborjournal oder Laborbuch ist ein Notizbuch, in dem die Planung, Durchführung und Auswertung von wissenschaftlichen Experimenten dokumentiert wird. Da die Zuerkennung einer wissenschaftlichen Entdeckung oder eines Patents (in einigen Ländern, z. B. in den USA) davon abhängen kann, wer als erster eine Entdeckung oder Erfindung gemacht hat, gibt es strenge Regeln, wie ein Laborjournal zu führen ist, wobei vom Arbeitgeber bzw. von der Hochschule auch abweichende Regelungen getroffen werden können. Im Allgemeinen sollte aber so verfahren werden:


History.

The community was established in 1901; it was named for the daughter of Captain Demarest, the founder of the village, which had formerly been known as Demarest on the Hill. Besides the Demarests, the first settlers included members of the Brown, Clark, Cooper, Crowell, Douglass, Edgar, and Thorpe families.

Community.

The Avenel Fire Company #1 celebrated its 100th Anniversary on June 8, 2013, with a parade and picnic. The area also has three public schools, Avenel Middle School, Avenel Street School #4&5 and Woodbine Avenue School #23.  Avenel is home to Woodbridge Developmental Center, a residential care facility for people with developmental disabilities.  Places of worship in Avenel include the First Presbyterian Church, St. Andrew's Roman Catholic Church, Central Baptist Church and Fellowship Bible Church.  Parks in Avenel include Mayor Frank Pelzman Memorial Park at Avenel, formerly Avenel Park, Eric LeGrand "Believe" Park, formerly Fifth District Park, and Prospect Avenue Park.  Sport teams in Avenel include the Avenel Warriors who currently play at their home field : Gatorade Park, soon to be Montesinos Complex in Iselin (Home to the Iselin Panthers) temporarily because they are building a new field for them to play on.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Avenel had a total area of 3.532 square miles (9.148 km), including 3.517 square miles (9.109 km) of land and 0.015 square miles (0.039 km) of water (0.42%).

Demographics.

Census 2000.

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 17,552 people, 5,233 households, and 3,799 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,970.0/km (5,099.2/mi). There were 5,353 housing units at an average density of 600.8/km (1,555.2/mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 53.52% White, 19.66% African American, 0.35% Native American, 18.90% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 3.65% from other races, and 3.89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.85% of the population.  There were 5,233 households, out of which 36.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.9% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.4% were non-families. 21.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.73 and the average family size was 3.23.  In the CDP the population was spread out, with 20.8% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 42.8% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 134.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 145.2 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $54,929, and the median income for a family was $61,029. Males had a median income of $48,000 versus $31,804 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,794. About 6.1% of families and 9.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.1% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over.  As part of the 2000 Census, 13.65% of Avenel's residents identified themselves as being Indian American. This was the fifth highest percentage of Indian people in any place in the United States with 1,000 or more residents identifying their ancestry.

Economy.

Avenel was the flagship location of Bradco Supply, founded in 1966, one of the country's leading distributors of building products. The company had grown to over 130 locations in more than 30 states.  Amazon.com operates a fulfillment center in Avenel. The facility, which opened in June 2013 covers.

Transportation.

The Avenel station provides service on NJ Transit's North Jersey Coast Line. In the wake of the creation of a 500-unit development transit village near the station and requests from passengers, NJ Transit announced that there would be new weekday stops at the station starting in September 2019 and that weekend service would resume for the first time since 1985.  NJ Transit 115 to PABT originates/terminates in Avenel.

Notable people.

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Avenel include:

Avenel is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) located within Woodbridge Township, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the CDP's population was 17,011.

Avenel ist eine Siedlung und Census-designated place innerhalb der Woodbridge Township im Middlesex County, New Jersey, USA. Bei der Volkszählung 2010 wurden 17.011 Einwohner registriert.


Mythology.

Aeolus was the son of Hellen and the nymph Orseis, and a brother of Dorus, Xuthus, Xenopatra, and, in some sources, of Amphictyon (who is otherwise a brother of Hellen). He married Enarete, daughter of Deimachus (otherwise unknown). Aeolus and Enarete had many children, although the precise number and identities of these children vary from author to author in the ancient sources. Laodice, daughter of Aloeus, was also called her wife who mothered his sons, Cretheus and Salmoneus while others mentioned a certain Iphis, daughter of Peneus, as the mother of Salmoneus.  The great extent of country which this race occupied, and the desire of each part of it to trace its origin to some descendant of Aeolus, probably gave rise to the varying accounts about the number of his children. Some scholars contend that the most ancient and genuine story told of only four sons of Aeolus: Sisyphus, Athamas, Cretheus, and Salmoneus, as the representatives of the four main branches of the Aeolic race. Other sons included Deioneus, Perieres, Cercaphus, Magnes, Macar, Macedon and sometimes Xuthus, Aethlius, Ceyx, Minyas. Another son is named Mimas, who provides a link to the third Aeolus in a genealogy that seems very contrived. Calyce, Peisidice, Perimede and Alcyone were counted among the daughters of Aeolus and Enarete. In some accounts, however, Alcyone's mother was described to be Aegiale.  This Aeolus also had an illegitimate daughter named Arne (Melanippe or Antiope), begotten on Melanippe, daughter of the Centaur Chiron. This Arne became the mother of the second Aeolus, by the god Poseidon. Tanagra, the daughter of Asopus, was sometimes given to have Aeolus as her father. Aeolus was also credited to begat Iope (or Cassiopeia), wife of Cepheus and thus, mother of Andromeda.

In Greek mythology, Aeolus (;, "Aiolos", Modern Greek: means "quick-moving, nimble") was the ruler of Aeolia (later called Thessaly) and held to be the founder of the Aeolic branch of the Greek nation.

Aiolos (, „Äolus“) ist in der griechischen Mythologie der Name eines Sohnes von Hellen und der Nymphe Orseis. Er gilt als der Stammvater der Aioler, seine Brüder sind Doros und Xuthos.


Location.

Baintha Brakk rises above the north side of the Biafo Glacier, one of the major glaciers of the central Karakoram. It lies about north of Skardu, the major town of the region, and about north of the roadhead at Askole.

Notable features.

Baintha Brakk is exceptional in its combination of altitude, height above local terrain, and steepness. It is a complex granite tower, steeper and rockier than most other Karakoram peaks. (The Latok peaks next to Baintha Brakk are similar, however.) For example, its South Face rises over above the Uzun Brakk Glacier in only 2 km (1.24 mi) of horizontal distance.  It is because of this steep, rocky nature that Baintha Brakk has been both so difficult to climb and so attractive a target for extremely high-level mountaineers.

Climbing history.

Following two unsuccessful attempts in 1971 and 1976, the peak was first climbed by two Britons, Doug Scott and Chris Bonington, in 1977. (The other members of the party were Mo Anthoine, Clive Rowland, Nick Estcourt, and Tut Braithwaite. Estcourt, Anthoine, and Rowland all reached the lower West Summit, while Braithwaite was injured early on by rockfall.) They climbed via the Southwest Spur to the West Ridge, and over the West Summit to the Main Summit. The ascent of the summit block required difficult rock climbing that extended the boundaries of what had been done at over.  The descent proved more dangerous still: On the first rappel from the summit, Scott broke both legs. Later, Bonington broke two ribs and contracted pneumonia. Also, much of the week-long descent to base camp was in a major storm. However, they were all able to reach base camp, where they had a long wait for assistance.  The second ascent of Baintha Brakk was made by Urs Stöcker, Iwan Wolf, and Thomas Huber, on 21 July 2001, via the South Pillar route, following their first ascent of the subsidiary peak Ogre III (circa ). They note that there were more than 20 unsuccessful expeditions in the interim. "Mountain INFO" magazine characterized their ascent as "arguably the most notable mountaineering achievement during the entire 2001 season."  A third ascent by a new line on the peak's South Face was made by Americans Kyle Dempster and Hayden Kennedy on August 21, 2012. Compatriot Josh Wharton had also accompanied them on the climb but had to abandon the attempt at approximately 6800 meters (approximately 22,310 feet) due to altitude sickness. Earlier in their trip the two had made another first ascent (along with Slovenian Urban Novak) of a new line on the massive east face of K7 (6,934 meters, 22,749 feet).

Baintha Brakk () or The Ogre is a steep, craggy mountain, high, in the Panmah Muztagh, a subrange of the Karakoram mountain range. It is located in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It is famous for being one of the hardest peaks in the world to climb: twenty-four years elapsed between the first ascent in 1977 and the second in 2001.

Der Ogre (eigentlich Baintha Brakk, gesprochen etwa "Benta Brak") ist ein hoher Berg im pakistanisch kontrollierten Teil des Karakorum bzw. der umstrittenen Region Kaschmir.


Resident company.

The acting company would usually consist of a leading lady, a leading man, a set of juveniles (one male and one female ingenue for the young often romantic role(s)), a character actor and actress (for the older or eccentric parts) and perhaps a vain and girlish soubrette. The company might occasionally bring in a guest star to increase interest, albeit in exchange for a cost increase often large enough to offset the rise in revenues brought by any increase in attendance. The resident cast would number seven, plus the resident director, usually serving as the artistic director in charge of the whole enterprise. Additionally there would be the stage director, the assistant stage manager (ASM), some unpaid apprentices, and light and sound technicians. Newcomers to the profession would often start their careers in this fashion, and members would gain a foundation upon which to base their future careers. Paid members could also be sure of a steady income for one or more seasons, which might last for six months. Examples of performers who went on to universal recognition are Errol Flynn, John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, Laurence Olivier, Jeremy Brett, Judi Dench, Rosemary Harris, Ian McKellen, Peter O'Toole, Christopher Plummer, Harold Pinter, Imelda Staunton, Lynn Redgrave, Arthur Lowe, Vanessa Redgrave, Patrick Stewart, Geraldine McEwan and Ronnie Barker. Dirk Bogarde wrote about his start at tiny Amersham rep in 1939, and Michael Caine has recounted his time spent at Horsham rep in the early fifties.

Weekly rehearsal schedule.

For weekly rep and for a typical three-act play, the actors' week would start on Tuesday, and go as follows:  Tuesday: notes on last night's opening of the "current" play from the director, then a sit-down read-through of the "next" week's play with some discussion by the director, on-the-feet blocking of the moves for Act I, with a few questions from the actors, followed by the second performance of the current play (which would also occupy every evening up to and including Saturday).  Wednesday: run Act I of next week's play and start to block Act II, but break early because there would be a matinée of the current play.  Thursday: finish blocking Act II of next week's play, run Act II and block Act III.  Friday: run Act III, run through the entire play with no scripts in hand, and technicals – meaning lights and sound – to watch, and write down cues.  Saturday: run through again, stop and go to test lighting and sound cues; costumes may be used if ready. Two shows today, including a matinée; the evening show closes the current play. After the last show, the set would be struck (taken down) by the crew - usually apprentices – and the stage manager.  Sunday: for actors, an opportunity to brush up on lines and moves, and for private rehearsals. However, for the crew it would mean putting up the new sets, hanging and focusing lights, and setting sound equipment.  Monday: in the morning, a run-through, usually without costumes (to save wear and tear), mainly for the technicals. In the afternoon: a "Full Perfect" dress rehearsal, maybe with a few friends seated in front to gauge reaction, then copious notes. In the evening, 8 o'clock opening night, followed by notes from the director, visits with friends from the audience and maybe a party nearby. The process would start all over again on Tuesday.

Audience and management.

From the audience's point of view, local communities would become fans, and champion their favourites who would be treated as celebrities. Sometimes entire families would make a visit to their local rep part of the weekly routine, like going to church, and for the young people it could became part of their future appreciation for live "legitimate" theatre.  During the forties, fifties and sixties, two impresarios dominated the field of British rep, mostly in the North. They were Harry Hanson and his Court players, and Frank H. Fortescue's Famous Players, with Arthur Brough in Folkestone for the South. Their system was the toughest of all, for if you joined one of their companies, it could mean "twice-nightly" shows, and a new play to learn every week. Rosemary Harris has told of her 50 consecutive weeks of doing just that at Bedford rep. That cannot happen any more, owing to the restrictions of British Equity, which came to mandate just eight shows a week, including perhaps two matinées. Fortescue, who died in 1957, was known to be a strict and upright man. When "Pygmalion" was playing at one of his theatres, the sign "FOR ADULTS ONLY!" would be posted in the front of house, because of Eliza Doolittle's line ""Not bloody likely!"".

Today's practice.

Not to be overlooked is a form of touring rep known as "bus and truck", which involves transporting the actors and sets for about five different plays which can be performed in smaller communities on consecutive nights.  In Russia and much of Eastern Europe, repertory theatre is based on the idea that each company maintains a number of productions that are performed on a rotating basis. Each production’s life span is determined by its success with the audience. However, many productions remain in repertory for years as this approach presents each piece a few times in a given season, not enough to exhaust the potential audience pool. After the fall of the Soviet regime and the substantial diminution of government subsidy, the repertory practice has required re-examination. Moscow Art Theatre and Lev Dodin’s Maly Drama Theatre of St. Petersburg are the world’s most notable practitioners of this approach.  In German-speaking countries, most opera companies function in a similar way, too.

UK.

Today in the UK, the practice of rep is more likely to be seen in large cities in the manner applied by such well-known established companies as Birmingham Rep in the Midlands of England, which states in its programmes: " 'The REP' presents a season with each play generally having an unbroken run of between three and six weeks. This is the form of repertory theatre that the majority of theatres like The REP — which are also called producing theatres — now follow." Actors have the luxury of at least three weeks of rehearsal, and audiences see better shows. Repertory can still be found in the UK in a variation of guises: in Sidmouth (12 plays), Wolverhampton (eight), Burslem and Taunton (four each). The Sheringham Little Theatre produces an in-house repertory season each summer, running from June until September. Weekly repertory theatre is also produced by the Summer Theatre season at Frinton-on-Sea. This season has been running for 77 seasons now.

United States.

In the United States, the repertory system has also found a base to compete with commercial theatre. Repertory theatre with mostly changing casts and longer running plays, perhaps better classed as "provincial" or "non-profit" theatre, has made a big come-back in cities such as Little Rock, AR, Washington, DC, Minneapolis, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, New York, Houston, Boston, San Francisco, San Diego, Buffalo, Kansas City, and Seattle. Festival theatre now provides actors with work in the summer.  America's oldest resident repertory theatre, Hedgerow Theatre, is located in Rose Valley, Pennsylvania. It was founded by actor Jasper Deeter in 1923. The present producing artistic director is actress and director Penelope Reed. Other notable repertory theatres include the Guthrie Theatre, which was set up as regional repertory theatre concept that is free from commercial constraints in the choice of repertoire. It is aligned in objectives to the repertory and resident theatre movement that emerged in the United States in the 1960s. This sought to establish an alternative and decentralized theatre network outside of New York, one with non-profit-making status and focused instead on the art of the theatre as well as the development of artists, craftsmen, and administrators. Publicly funded theatres that belong to this type have been receiving erratic support since the 1980s.  The Association of Producing Artists (APA) was one of the most successful repertory theatres in the United States, touring for four years and holding residencies in several cities before finally joining the Phoenix Theatre in New York, where it was known for staging plays with modest prices. Currently, the American Repertory Theatre is considered one of the most distinguished repertory theatres in the United States. Since its foundation in 1979, it has earned several awards including a Pulitzer Prize (1982), a Tony Award (1986), and a Jujamcyn Award (1985).

Canada.

The crowning achievements of repertory theatres are North America’s largest classical repertory theatre company, the world-renowned Stratford Festival, founded in 1953 primarily to present productions of William Shakespeare's plays, and North America’s second largest repertory theatre company, the Shaw Festival, which presents plays written or set during the lifetime of George Bernard Shaw or following Shaw's ideal of socially provocative theatre, founded in 1962.  The Vagabond Repertory Theatre Company was formed in March 2009 by artistic directors Nathaniel Fried and Ryan LaPlante, and currently resides and performs in Kingston, Ontario. However, the old English-style repertory theatres such as Ottawa's CRT (Canadian Repertory Theatre) and Toronto's Crest Theatre no longer exist—although they did have a version of summer theatre in smaller holiday districts, such as the "Straw Hat" players of Gravenhurst and Port Carling at Ontario's vacation Muskoka Lakes area.

Pros and cons.

Among the benefits of such a system are increased variety and better quality, due to fresh actors and shopped in directors. The theatre can afford to take risks, and a show that is likely to attract a large audience will effectively subsidize a show that is less likely, especially if season tickets are sold.  Drawbacks to the repertoire system are increased production costs as each show will need separate sets, props, costumes and actors (although sometimes an actor will be engaged to play in more than one production). Many such companies are large and are able to have a smaller space available to workshop an experimental production or present play readings. But the standard should be higher than under the old-time repertory system because of more time for rehearsal. Also, many repertoire companies today have non-profit status, so that budgets and income should be higher because they will not just depend upon ticket sales. However, the downside is that promotional costs will also be much higher, due to having to employ a separate staff.  In April 2017, Glenda Jackson blamed the increase in TV viewers being unable to understand what actors are saying on the decline of the repertory system.

Footnotes.

Murray, Stephen. "Taking Our Amusements Seriously". LAP, 2010..

A repertory theatre (also called repertory, rep or stock) can be a Western theatre or opera production in which a resident company presents works from a specified repertoire, usually in alternation or rotation. In British English a similar term, "weekly rep," denotes a movement started in the early 1900s that focused on shorter runs of a single new work, rather than having several plays ready to perform at any given time.

Ein Repertoiresystem (auch "Ensemble-System") haben Theater, die ein dauerhaft engagiertes Ensemble besitzen, mit dem sie mehrere hauseigene Inszenierungen über Monate oder Jahre hinweg im Repertoire behalten können. Solche Theater werden Repertoiretheater genannt. Die Besetzungen bleiben in der Regel gleich, nur in Einzelfällen kommt es zu Umbesetzungen (z. B. bei mit Gästen besetzten Hauptrollen oder bei Krankheit eines Darstellers). Das Gegenteil hierzu ist das En-Suite-System.