Basic Information.

Březová is a village and municipality in Uherské Hradiště District in Zlín Region of the Czech Republic. The municipality covers an area of 13.77 square kilometres (5.32 sq mi), and has a population of 1,085 (as at 28 August 2006). Březová lies approximately 27 kilometres (17 mi) south-east of Uherské Hradiště, 35 km (22 mi) south of Zlín, and 273 km (170 mi) south-east of Prague.

History.

Name of the village is derived from the landscape of Birch trees, which was previously typical of this region. The first mention of the village dates back to 1492.The settlement of this area began with the establishment of the Cistercians monastery Smilheim, which was built in the 1261.The village was also visited by Leoš Janáček, who is a famous composer of the Czech republic. He visited Březová for several times to be inspired here by a variety of regional folk songs.

Monuments and attractions.

The Kyselka.

On 1576 a doctor of Tomáš Jordán of Klausenburk mentioned Březova’s spring in his medical book about healing water. The spring is considered to be healing and is generally known under the name of Kyselka.

The Lookout tower Lopeník.

On 16 July 2005 the new lookout tower Lopeník was built. It was constructed as a symbol of friendship between the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The tower is 20 meters high, it is built of oak timber on stone foundations. It offers a beautiful view of the Moravian and Slovakian surroundings.

The church of Saints Cyril and Methodius.

Initially, there was a small chapel in Březová. Afterwards, a little church was established there instead of the chapel. Finally, thanks to the initiative of the priest František Černoška, the contemporary church was constructed. The foundation stone of the new church was laid on 19 July 1865. Work on the church was very difficult due to unfavorable conditions, such as hail, frost, a fire that destroyed nineteen houses. The church was dedicated to Saints Cyril and Methodius. It became the biggest dominant of the village and valuable architectural evidence of the 19th century. Since 1987, it has been considered as a cultural monument.

References.

Literature.

LAPČÍK, Vladimír. Uherskohradišťsko. In Vlastivěda moravská sv. 63. Uherské Hradiště : Slovácké muzeum, 1982. Kapitola 10. Březová, s. 463–466.

Březová is a village and municipality ("obec") in Uherské Hradiště District in the Zlín Region of the Czech Republic. The municipality covers an area of, and has a population of 1,085 (as at 28 August 2006).

Březová (deutsch "Bresowa", 1939–1945 "Birkicht") ist eine Gemeinde in Tschechien. Sie liegt 13 Kilometer südöstlich von Uherský Brod und gehört zum Okres Uherské Hradiště.


History.

The first creation came in the Peerage of England in 1628 in favour of Robert Dormer, 2nd Baron Dormer of Wyng. For more information on this creation, which became extinct in 1709, see the Baron Dormer.  The second creation was in 1714 in the Peerage of Great Britain for James Brydges, 9th Baron Chandos. In 1719 he was further honoured when he was made "Marquess of Carnarvon" and "Duke of Chandos". For more information on this creation, which became extinct in 1789, see the Duke of Chandos.  The third creation was in 1793 in the Peerage of Great Britain for Henry Herbert, 1st Baron Porchester. The precise form of this creation was "Earl of the Town and County of Carnarvon", in the Principality of Wales, although in practice only the style of "Earl of Carnarvon" is used. He had previously represented Wilton in the House of Commons and had already in 1780 been created "Baron Porchester", of High Clere in the County of Southampton (also in the Peerage of Great Britain). Herbert was the son of Major-General the Hon. William Herbert, fifth son of Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke. He was succeeded by his eldest son Henry George Herbert, the second Earl, who sat as Whig Member of Parliament for Cricklade.  His eldest son Henry John George Herbert, the third Earl, briefly represented Wootton Bassett in Parliament as a Tory before he succeeded his father in the earldom. His eldest son Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, the fourth Earl, was a prominent Conservative politician and served as Secretary of State for the Colonies and as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He was succeeded by his only son from his first marriage, George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who is noted for discovering the tomb of Tutankhamun along with Howard Carter. , the titles are held by the fifth earl's great-grandson, the eighth Earl, who succeeded in 2001. As a male line descendant of Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke and 5th Earl of Montgomery, he is also in remainder to these peerages and their subsidiary titles.  Several other members of this branch of the Herbert family may be mentioned. The Very Reverend the Hon. William Herbert, third son of the first Earl, was a clergyman and noted botanist. His son Henry William Herbert was a novelist and writer on sport. Sir Robert George Wyndham Herbert, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1871 to 1892, was the son of the Hon. Algernon Herbert, fifth son of the first Earl.  The Hon. Auberon Herbert, second son of the third Earl, was a writer, theorist, and philosopher, and also represented Nottingham in the House of Commons. He married Lady Florence Amabel Cowper, daughter of George Cowper, 6th Earl Cowper and his wife Lady Anne Florence de Grey Cowper, 7th Baroness Lucas of Crudwell. In 1905, their only son Auberon Herbert succeeded his uncle as ninth Baron Lucas of Crudwell (see this title for further history of this branch of the family).  The Hon. Aubrey Herbert, second son of the fourth Earl, was Member of Parliament for South Somerset and for Yeovil. His son Auberon Herbert was an expert on Eastern Europe.  The family seat of the Herbert Earls of Carnarvon is Highclere Castle in Hampshire, which was the setting for the UK television series "Downton Abbey". The traditional burial place of the Herbert Earls of Carnarvon is the Carnarvon Mausoleum, located in the park at Highclere Castle; some other family members are buried in the Herbert Mausoleum at the Church of All Saints, Burghclere.

Earls of Carnarvon, third creation (1793).

, the heir apparent is the present holder's elder son George Kenneth Oliver Molyneux Herbert, Lord Porchester (born 1992). Until the birth of the Reginald Henry Michael, Lord Herbert to William Herbert, 18th Earl of Pembroke, on 21 October 2012, the 8th Earl of Carnarvon was the heir presumptive to the earldom of Pembroke and the earldom of Montgomery. The 8th Earl is third-in-line to those titles.

Earl of Carnarvon is a title that has been created three times in British history. The current holder is George Herbert, 8th Earl of Carnarvon. The town and county in Wales to which the title refers are historically spelled "Caernarfon," having been Anglicised to Carnarvon or Caernarvon. The traditional Welsh spelling is itself a modified form of the original name of antiquity, Caer-yn-Arfon, meaning "fortification opposite the island of Mona" (now Anglesey).

Earl of Carnarvon ist ein erblicher britischer Adelstitel, der bisher dreimal geschaffen wurde, einmal in der Peerage of England und zweimal in der Peerage of Great Britain. Er ist benannt nach der Stadt Caernarfon in Wales bzw. dem gleichnamigen County.


Early life.

Bodnăraș was born to a Ukrainian father and a German mother in 1904, in Iaslovăț, Suceava County, Bukovina, then under Austrian rule. His career as an artillery officer in the Romanian army was interrupted by a conflict with a member of the Romanian Royal House. He was transferred to a garrison in Bessarabia where he was contacted by Communist elements, became a Soviet spy and defected to the USSR in 1931. He returned to Romania in 1935 and fulfilled different special missions for Soviet military intelligence. Caught by accident, Bodnăraș was sentenced to ten years in prison. Imprisoned at Brașov, Doftana, and Caransebeș, he entered the Romanian Communist Party in 1940 becoming a key figure in Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej's faction. He was released in 1942.

Arrest and the leadership entry of the RCP.

In 1935, Emil Bodnăraș returned illegally to Romania to carry out special missions entrusted by the Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU) - Soviet foreign military-intelligence agency. However, he was recognized on the train and denounced by one of his former schoolmates. In May 1935 he was sentenced to 10 years of hard work for deserting in time of peace, theft of official acts and crimes against state security. After re-judging, the sentence was reduced to only five years of imprisonment. He was imprisoned in Aiud, Galați, Brașov, Doftana, and Caransebeș. At Doftana he became friends with Gheorghiu-Dej, and in 1940 he became a member of the RCP.  Being in Brașov Prison, Bodnăraș learned that he had lost Romanian citizenship, being a civil servant in the Soviet Union. ""In Brașov prison I got the USSR citizenship through an official communication made by the Soviet embassy, on the basis of a request that my brother made to the embassy on my behalf. Being a Soviet citizen in those years was advantageous, a citizen of Romania who received Soviet citizenship was a person with whom it was not advisable to be violent or to beat"", explained Bodnăraș personally in a stenograph in 1952.  On November 7, 1942, he was released from the prison in Caransebeș, at the request of the SSI (Romanian Intelligence Service). Upon release, "the comrades also gave me a large amount of money, 50,000 lei, which I hid in a box to be sent to my brother with my clothes and things, and personally, I held 10,000 lei. At that time it was a lot of money". He paid 8,000 lei to the security commissioner who issued the documents, to convince him to go over the detail of the Soviet citizenship, which - according to the law - led to the placement in the camp. He arrived in Galați, where he was sheltered by his brother, Manole. When released, Bodnăraș joined the "national" fraction of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. The rest of the money he used to organize - for two years - a lime, cement and tile business, based in Galați, which allowed him to trip freely through the country, although he was supervised by the Intelligence Service. In Bucharest, Bodnăraș used to get information from an agent named Kendler, a timber trader who - at Bodnaraș's order - paid 30,000 lei per month to Colonel Enache Borcescu, member of the General Staff of the Army, for information on Romanian and German troops movements. The common place of meetings between Kendler and Borcescu was a Greek Catholic church in Bucharest (according to an interview made by Dennis Deletant with Traian Borcescu, on March 8, 1995). He also arrived at Târgu Jiu, where, simulating an "appendicitis cramps" attack, was hospitalized in the same hospital room with a "sick" patient Gheorghiu-Dej. There, the maneuvers for the annihilation of the RCP's secretariat led by Ștefan Foriș, were drafted; also, the alliance plans were made to create a national front and the decision on Dej's escape was adopted.

1944–1947.

In 1944, Bodnăraș (together with Iosif Rangheț and Constantin Pîrvulescu) was a key participant in the political elimination and physical isolation of Ștefan Foriș, the General Secretary of the Party. The three of them dominated the leadership of the Party until Dej's escape from prison, in August of the same year. After the massive bombing of Bucharest on 4 April 1944, Bodnăraș and Rangheț captured Foriș and forced him to sign his deposition at gunpoint.  Bodnăraș participated in the 23 August 1944 coup led by King Michael against the government of Ion Antonescu. He organized underground paramilitary units and coordinated the weakening of a segment of the Moldavian front called "Poarta Iașiului" against the Soviet offensive of August 1944. He was part of a group of communists who took custody of Ion Antonescu after his arrest, and locked him together with Mihai Antonescu in a safe house, before handing them to the Red Army troops.  He became a member of the Romanian Politburo. During March 1945 and November 1947 he became secretary-general of the "Council of Ministers"' presidency, being in charge of secret intelligence services. From this position he was one of the orchestrators of the electoral fraud of 1946 and of the Tămădău Affair.  His enormous influence was due to permanent direct contact with the Soviet secret services (he was reporting on each of the Romanian Communist Party leaders, as revealed later on in the case of Ana Pauker).

Under Gheorghiu-Dej.

He held two important positions under Gheorghiu-Dej: Minister of Defense and Vice Premier. On 27 December 1947 he became Minister of Defense, taking over the position previously held by Mihail Lascăr. He held this office until 3 October 1955, while in 1956 he became Minister of Transportation. During his tenure, a Sovietization of the Romanian Army occurred. Bodnăraș sent several Romanian Communists to Moscow to be trained in a special military school, among them the young Nicolae Ceaușescu, who became a close and zealous collaborator and was appointed general and political commissar of the military forces.  He remained one of Gheorghiu-Dej's supporters until Dej's death, and he resisted the restructurations of the Party proposed by Iosif Chişinevschi and Miron Constantinescu.  During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Bodnăraș led a body authorized to intervene and open fire in crisis situations. In November, together with Gheorghiu-Dej, he headed up the Romanian delegation visiting Hungary, which held discussions with János Kádár about the support of the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. It seems he also had a key role in influencing Nikita Khrushchev's decision to withdraw the Red Army from Romania in 1958. According to Khrushchev's memoirs, Bodnăraș proposed the withdrawal of the troops at a time which was not in consideration of by the Soviet leaders, while they were expected to stay until the end of the Cold War.  After Gheorghiu-Dej's death in March 1965, Bodnăraș, as one of the most influential members of the Politburo, decided to support Ceaușescu instead of Gheorghe Apostol or Alexandru Drăghici, thus facilitating Ceaușescu's ascension to the position of General Secretary of the Party.

Under Ceaușescu.

Bodnăraș transferred his loyalty to Ceaușescu, receiving in exchange the position of vice president of the State Council, and he remained a member of the Communist élite until his death. The town of Milișăuți was renamed Emil Bodnăraș from 7 September 1976 to 20 May 1996.

Emil Bodnăraș (10 February 1904 – 24 January 1976) was a Romanian communist politician, an army officer, and a Soviet agent, who had considerable influence in Communist Romania.

Emil Bodnăraș (* 10. Februar 1904 in Iaslovăț; † 24. Januar 1976 in Bukarest) war ein rumänischer Politiker, Mitglied der Rumänischen Kommunistischen Partei (RKP) und von 1947 bis 1955 rumänischer Verteidigungsminister. 1954 wurde er auch stellvertretender Staatsratsvorsitzender.


Business component versus MVC.

A business component includes all software artifacts needed to define a business concept. OpenXava is a business component framework because it allows defining all information about a business concept in a single place. For example, for defining the concept of Invoice, in OpenXava a single file (Invoice.java) is used, and all information about invoice concept (including data structure, user interface layout, mapping with database, validations, calculations, etc.) is defined there.  In an "MVC" framework the business logic (the "Model"), the user interface (the "View") and the behavior (the "Controller") are defined separately. These types of frameworks are useful if the rate of change of logic and data structures is low and the possibility of changing user interface technology or data access technology is high.  In OpenXava, the addition of a new field to an Invoice only requires changing a single file: Invoice.java. But MVC frameworks are cumbersome when changes to structure and data are very frequent (as in the business application case). Imagine the simplest change, adding a new field to an Invoice. In the MVC framework the developer must change three sections: the user interface, the model class and the database table. Moreover, if the developer uses Java EE design patterns he has to change the DTO class, the Facade Session Bean, the Entity Bean mapping, etc.  Using OpenXava makes it possible to allocate the development work using a business logic oriented task distribution. For example, Invoice to one developer, Delivery to another, as opposed to technology layer business logic to one developer, user interface to another.

References.

Can you pl. put the history of OpenXava including since when this framework exists

OpenXava is a web framework for developing business applications in an effective way. It allows development of CRUD modules, report generation and business applications like accounting packages, customer relationship, invoicing, warehouse management, etc.

OpenXava ist ein quelloffenes Webframework zur Erstellung von Webanwendungen mit Java. Lizenziert ist es unter der GNU Lesser General Public License. Das Grundkonzept basiert auf der Idee von Business Komponenten. Seit 2004 wird das Projekt bei SourceForge verwaltet. OpenXava wird seit Jahren aktiv in produktiven Anwendungen eingesetzt und intensiv weiterentwickelt. Für den Einsatz benötigt man Java 5 oder höher.


History.

The synthesis of polyorganosilazanes was first described in 1964 by Krüger and Rochow. By reacting ammonia with chlorosilanes (ammonolysis), trimeric or tetrameric cyclosilazanes were formed initially and further reacted at high temperatures with a catalyst to yield higher molecular weight polymers. Ammonolysis of chlorosilanes still represents the most important synthetic pathway to polysilazanes. The industrial manufacture of chlorosilanes using the Müller-Rochow process, first reported in the 1940s, served as the cornerstone for the development of silazane chemistry. In the 1960s, the first attempts to transform organosilicon polymers into quasi-ceramic materials were described. At this time, suitable (“pre-ceramic”) polymers heated to 1000 °C or higher were shown to split off organic groups and hydrogen and, in the process, the molecular network is rearranged to form amorphous inorganic materials that show both unique chemical and physical properties. Using polymer derived ceramics (PDCs), new application areas can be opened, especially in the area of high performance materials. The most important pre-ceramic polymers are polysilanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-R^1R^2Si]_\mathit{n}</chem>, polycarbosilanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-CH2]_\mathit{n}</chem>, polysiloxanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-O]_\mathit{n}</chem> and polysilazanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-NR^3]_\mathit{n}</chem>.

Structure.

Like all polymers, polysilazanes are built from one or several basic monomer units. Linking together of these basic units can result in polymeric chains, rings or three-dimensionally crosslinked macromolecules with a wide range of molecular mass. While the monomer unit describes the chemical composition and the connectivity of the atoms (coordination sphere) it does not illustrate the macro-molecular structure.  In polysilazanes, each silicon atom is bound to two nitrogen atoms and each nitrogen atom to at least two silicon atoms (three bonds to silicon atoms are also possible). If all remaining bonds are with hydrogen atoms, perhydropolysilazane [HSi–NH] results (proposed structure is shown to the right). In organopolysilazanes, at least one organic substituent is bound to the silicon atom. The amount and type of organic substituents have a predominant influence on the macro-molecular structure of polysilazanes. Silazane copolymers are normally produced from ammonolyses of chlorosilane mixtures. In this chemical reaction, different chlorosilanes react at similar rates so that the monomers are statistically distributed in the copolymer.

Preparation.

Ammonia and chlorosilanes, both readily available and low-priced, are used as starting materials in the synthesis of polysilazanes. In the ammonolysis reaction, large quantities of ammonium chloride are produced and must be removed from the reaction mixture.  In the laboratory, the reaction is normally carried out in a dry organic solvent (polysilazanes decompose in the presence of water or moisture) and the ammonium chloride is removed by filtration from the reaction mass. Because the filtration step is both time-consuming and cost-intensive, several production methods were developed in which no solid materials are formed during the final reaction step.  The liquid-ammonia-procedure was developed by Commodore/KiON for polysilazane synthesis. It calls for adding chlorosilane or chlorosilane mixtures simultaneously to an excess of liquid ammonia. The resulting ammonium chloride dissolves in the liquid ammonia and phase separates from the polysilazane. Two immiscible liquids form. This allows for the simple isolation of pure polysilazane from the liquid ammonia/ammonium chloride solution. The patented procedure is used today by Merck KGaA, formerly AZ Electronic Materials in the manufacture of polysilazanes.  Previously, Hoechst AG manufactured VT 50 and ET 70 (now discontinued) as polysilsesquiazane solutions. Synthesis took place in two steps: first a trichlorosilane was reacted with dimethylamine and the resulting monomeric aminosilane was separated from dimethylammoniumchloride. In a subsequent salt-free step, the aminosilane was treated with ammonia to afford a polymer solution.  If hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) is used as a nitrogen source instead of ammonia, transamination takes place. The chlorine atoms liberated from the chlorosilane are tied to the trimethylsilyl groups of HMDS so that no chlorine-containing solid salts are formed. This procedure was used by Dow Corning to manufacture the hydridopolysilazane HPZ. Numerous additional procedures for the synthesis of Si–N based polymers have been described in the literature (for example a dehydrogenation coupling between Si–H and N–H or ring-opening polymerizations) but none are currently employed commercially.  For the industrial manufacture of perhydropolysilazane [HSi–NH], ammonolysis in a solvent is the standard process. Although this results in a higher price, the material is routinely used as a coating in the electronics industry due to its special properties (insulating effect in thin layers). The product is available in different solvents as 20% solutions.

Nomenclature.

Silicon-nitrogen compounds with alternating silicon- ("sila") and nitrogen atoms ("aza") are designated as silazanes. Simple examples of silazanes are disilazane HSi–NH–SiH and hexamethyldisilazane (HC) Si–NH–Si(CH). If only one silicon atom is bound to the nitrogen atom, the materials are known as silylamines or aminosilanes (for example triethylsilylamine (HC)Si–NH). If three silicon atoms are bound to each nitrogen atom, the materials are called silsesquiazanes. Small ring-shaped molecules with a basic network of Si-N are named cyclosilazanes (for example cyclotrisilazane [HSi–NH] ). In contrast to this, polysilazanes are silazane polymers consisting of both large chains and rings showing a range of molecular masses. A polymer with the general formula (CH)Si–NH–[(CH)Si-NH] –Si(CH) is designated as poly(dimethylsilazane). According to the IUPAC rules for the designation of linear organic polymers, the compound would actually be named poly[aza(dimethylsilylene)], and according to the preliminary rules for inorganic macromolecules catena-poly[(dimethylsilicon)-m-aza]. The labels normally used to describe the structure of silicones (M, D, T, and Q) are rarely employed for polysilazanes.

Characteristics.

Polysilazanes are colorless to pale yellow liquids or solid materials. Conditional of manufacturing, the liquids often contain dissolved ammonia that can be detected by smell. The average molecular weight can range from a few thousand to approximately 100,000 g/mol while the density normally lies around 1 g/cm. The state of aggregation and the viscosity are both dependent on the molecular mass and the molecular macrostructure. Solid polysilazanes are produced by chemical conversion of the liquid materials (crosslinking of smaller molecules). The solid materials can be fusible or unmeltable and can be soluble or insoluble in organic solvents. As a rule, polysilazane solids behave as thermosetting polymers, but in some cases, thermoplastic processing is possible.  After the synthesis, an aging process frequently takes place in which dissolved ammonia plays an important role. The RSi–NH groups resulting from the ammonolysis reaction form silazane units by splitting off ammonia. If ammonia can not escape, the silazane units can be split again into RSi–NH groups. Therefore, frequent venting of ammonia can lead to an increase in molecular mass. Also, functional groups that are not bound directly into the polymer backbone can react under suitable conditions (for example Si–H with N–H groups) and increase crosslinking of the rings and chains. An increase in molecular weight can also be observed during storage at higher temperatures or in sunlight.  With contact to water or moisture, polysilazanes decompose more or less quickly. Water molecules attack the silicon atom and the Si–N bond is cleaved. The RSi–NH–SiR forms RSi–NH and HO–SiR which can further react (condensation) to form RSi–O–SiR (siloxanes). The rate of the reaction with water (or other OH containing materials like alcohols) depends on the molecular structure of the polysilazanes and the substituents. Perhydropolysilazane [HSi–NH] will decompose very quickly and exothermically with contact to water while polysilazanes with large substituents react very slowly.  Polysilazanes are not vaporizable because of strong intermolecular forces. Heating polysilazanes results in crosslinking to form higher molecular weight polymers. At temperatures of 100-300 °C, further crosslinking of the molecules takes place with evolution of hydrogen and ammonia. If the polysilazane contains further functional groups such as vinyl units, additional reactions can take place. In general, liquid materials will be converted to solids as the temperature increases. At 400-700 °C, the organic groups decompose with the evolution of small hydrocarbon molecules, ammonia and hydrogen. Between 700 and 1200 °C a three-dimensional amorphous network develops containing Si, C and N ("SiCN ceramics") with a density of ca. 2 g/cm. A further temperature increase can result in crystallization of the amorphous material and the formation of silicon nitride, silicon carbide and carbon. This so-called pyrolysis of the polysilazanes produces ceramic materials from low-viscosity liquids with very high yield (up to 90%). Due to the organic groups that are often used to give good polymer processability, ceramic yield is normally in the range of 60-80%.

Applications.

For a long time polysilazanes have been synthesized and characterized, and their great potential for many applications was acknowledged. However, up to now, very few products have been developed into a marketable commodity. The development effort for these rather expensive chemicals is relatively high because of changing commercial availability among other things. Nevertheless, for some applications, polysilazanes proved to be competitive products. Taking advantage of their reaction with moisture and polar surfaces, polysilazanes are used as coating materials. Many metals, glass, ceramics or plastics with OH groups on the surface are easily wetted by polysilazanes. Reaction of Si–N with OH leads to the formation of Si–O–metal bonds generating good adhesion of the coating to the substrate. The “free” surface of the coating can react with humidity thereby creating a siloxane-like structure with excellent “easy to clean” properties. "TutoProm", an organopolysilazane-based product, is used by Deutsche Bahn on their carriages as an anti-graffiti coating. Beyond that, organopolysilazanes can be applied as high temperature coatings or anti-corrosion varnishes. The inorganic perhydropolysilazane can be used in a similar way. Curing in air yields a carbon-free amorphous coating of SiO. Compared to organopolysilazane-derived materials, these coatings are less flexible but very smooth and dense. They show excellent barrier properties (against water vapor or oxygen) and a low electrical conductivity. This makes them suitable candidates for different application in electronics or solar industry.  Polysilazanes can be used as or in combination with synthetic resins. First experiments on specially treated components have shown that thermally cured materials can withstand temperatures of 400 - 600 °C. Most plastics are not applicable in this temperature range. The resins will be used for the fabrication of non-combustible fiber-reinforced composites.  Polysilazanes are suitable precursors for ceramic materials. Since most ceramic materials are produced by powder processing and sintering, near net shape forming is very difficult for complex components. With the aid of organic binders added to ceramic powders, injection molding or other casting techniques are possible, but removal of the organics (“debinding”) is expensive and results in fragile “white bodies” which are difficult to handle and shrink significantly during sintering. Pre-ceramic polymers can replace these organic binders. After compounding, casting and curing, the thermoset material can be pyrolyzed in one step to give a ceramic component in high yield. However, this application is still in its infancy in the civilian area.  Physical and chemical properties of pre-ceramic polymers can be varied in a wide range by chemical modifications. This is crucial for the production of ceramic fibers, an important topic both at universities and in industrial research. Silicon carbide fibers made from polycarbosilanes were the first to be used for reinforcement of ceramic matrix composites. The production of silicon nitride fibers from perhydropolysilazane was described by Tonen Corp. at the end of the 1980s. Dow Corning modified the HPZ polymer as a precursor for SiCN fibers, and Hoechst AG did successful experiments with VT50. More recently, G. Singh at Kansas State University demonstrated synthesis of boron-modified polysilazane for synthesis of Si(B)CN functionalized carbon nanotubes, which were stable in air up to 1000 C. The PDC-CNT composites are being explored for applications such as damage resistant coatings for high power laser thermal detectors as well as Li-ion battery anodes.

Polysilazanes are polymers in which silicon and nitrogen atoms alternate to form the basic backbone. Since each silicon atom is bound to two separate nitrogen atoms and each nitrogen atom to two silicon atoms, both chains and rings of the formula <chem>[R^1R^2Si-NR^3]_\mathit{n}</chem> occur. <chem>R^1-R^3</chem> can be hydrogen atoms or organic substituents. If all substituents R are H atoms, the polymer is designated as Perhydropolysilazane, Polyperhydridosilazane, or Inorganic Polysilazane ([HSi–NH]). If hydrocarbon substituents are bound to the silicon atoms, the polymers are designated as Organopolysilazanes. Molecularly, polysilazanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-NH]_\mathit{n}</chem> are isoelectronic with and close relatives to Polysiloxanes <chem>[R^1R^2Si-O]_\mathit{n}</chem> (silicones).

Polysilazane sind polymere Verbindungen, in denen Silicium- und Stickstoffatome in alternierender Anordnung das chemische Grundgerüst bilden. Häufig ist dabei jedes Siliciumatom an zwei Stickstoffatome gebunden und jedes Stickstoffatom an zwei Siliciumatome, so dass sich bevorzugt molekulare Ketten und Ringe der Formel [RRSi–NR] bilden. R-R können dabei Wasserstoffatome oder organische Reste sein. Sind nur H-Atome als Substituenten vorhanden, bezeichnet man das Polymer als Perhydropolysilazan ([HSi–NH], auch Polyperhydridosilazan, anorganisches Polysilazan). Sind Kohlenwasserstoffreste am Silicium gebunden, spricht man von Organopolysilazanen. In ihrer molekularen Struktur sind die Polysilazane [RRSi–NH] eng verwandt mit den Polysiloxanen [RRSi–O] (Silikone), mit denen sie isoelektronisch sind.


History and description.

The neighborhood was long regarded as part of Little Italy, but has lost its recognizable Italian character in recent decades because of rapidly rising rents. The Feast of San Gennaro, dedicated to Saint Januarius ("pope of Naples"), is held in the neighborhood every year following Labor Day, on Mulberry Street between Houston and Grand Streets. The feast, as recreated on Elizabeth Street between Prince and Houston Streets, was featured in the film "The Godfather Part II".  In the second half of the 1990s, the neighborhood saw an influx of yuppies and an explosion of expensive retail boutiques and trendy restaurants and bars. After previous unsuccessful tries to pitch the neighborhood as part of SoHo, real estate promoters and others came up with several different names for consideration of this newly upscale neighborhood. The name that stuck, as documented in an article on May 5, 1996 in the "New York Times" City Section debating various monikers for the newly trendy area, was "Nolita", an abbreviation for North of Little Italy. This name follows the portmanteau pattern started by SoHo (South of Houston Street) and TriBeCa (Triangle Below Canal Street).  The neighborhood includes St. Patrick's Old Cathedral, at the intersection of Mulberry, Mott, and Prince Streets, which opened in 1815 and was rebuilt in 1868 after a fire. The cornerstone was laid on June 8, 1809. This building served as New York City's Roman Catholic cathedral until the new St. Patrick's Cathedral was opened on Fifth Avenue in Midtown in 1879. St. Patrick's Old Cathedral is now a parish church. In 2010, St. Patrick's Old Cathedral was honored and became The Basilica at St. Patrick's Old Cathedral.  Another neighborhood landmark is the Puck Building, an ornate structure built in 1885 on the corner of Houston and Lafayette Streets, which originally housed the headquarters of the now-defunct "Puck" Magazine.  Since 2010, a "Little Australia" has emerged and is growing in Nolita.

References.

Notes

Nolita, sometimes written as NoLIta, and deriving from "North of Little Italy" is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Nolita is situated in Lower Manhattan, bounded on the north by Houston Street, on the east by the Bowery, on the south roughly by Broome Street, and on the west by Lafayette Street. It lies east of SoHo, south of NoHo, west of the Lower East Side, and north of Little Italy and Chinatown.

NoLIta (= "North of Little Italy") – manchmal auch einfach nur „"Nolita"“ geschrieben – ist ein kleines Viertel in New Yorks Stadtbezirk Manhattan.


History.

Positioned on the shores of a glacial lake at the end of the last Ice Age, Pickering was in an ideal place for early settlers to benefit from the multiple natural resources of the moorlands to the north, the wetlands to the south, running water in the beck and the forests all around. It had wood, stone, wildfowl, game, fish, fresh water and fertile easily worked soils. The east–west route from the coast passed along the foothills of the North York Moors through the site at a place where the beck could be forded. There is evidence of Celtic and Roman era habitation in the areas surrounding Pickering but little remains in the town. Legendary sources suggest an early date for the establishment of a town but traces of earlier settlements have been erased by subsequent development.  The town probably existed throughout the Anglo-Saxon period of British history. According to the "Domesday Book" there was enough arable land for 27 ploughs, meadows and extensive woodlands. The town may have grown up to service the Norman castle.

After the conquest.

After 1066 when William I became the King, the town and its neighbourhood were in the possession of the crown. A castle and church were built at this time and the medieval kings occasionally visited the area. After the Harrying of the North by the Normans, the value of the village fell from £88 to £1. In 1267 the manor, castle and forest of Pickering were given by Henry III to his youngest son, Edmund, First Earl of Lancaster. The estate was confiscated by the King and then returned. Eventually, it passed to Henry, Duke of Lancaster who became King Henry IV of England. It has belonged to the monarch ever since.  In 1598 the streets of Pickering were: East Gate, Hall Garth, Hungate, Birdgate, Borrowgate (the present Burgate) and West Gate.  Many older small houses were built at this time, some of stone with thatched roofs. The stocks, shambles and the market cross stood in the centre of town in the Market Place. The castle fell into disrepair yet the town flourished. In the English Civil War, Parliamentary soldiers were quartered in the town and damaged the church and castle and Pickering was the location of a minor skirmish but not a pitched battle.  In the 1650s George Fox, the founder of Society of Friends, or Quakers, visited the town to preach on at least two occasions.  Nicholas Postgate, the Catholic martyr, lived for a time in Pickering. He was hanged, drawn and quartered in York in 1679.

Early Modern.

Pickering prospered as a market town and agricultural centre. It had watermills and several inns and was a centre for mail coach traffic and trade. At this time the beck was an open sewer and it remained so until the early part of the 20th century.  Many townspeople adoptioned Non-conformist religious sects and were visited by John Wesley on several occasions, the first in 1764 and the last in 1790. The Quakers held meetings in a cottage long before they built their Meeting House in Castlegate in 1793. In 1789 the first Congregational Church was built in Hungate and for several years following 1793 a private residence was licensed for divine worship by protestant dissenters. The Pickering Methodist Circuit was formed in 1812.

19th century.

Non-conformism flourished in Pickering during the 19th century and meeting houses and chapels were enlarged. There were both Wesleyan and Anglican schools in the town from the middle of the century.  The Whitby and Pickering Railway was opened in May 1836. At first the carriages and wagons were horse drawn but steam locomotives were used from 1847. The Forge Valley Line ran from 1882 to 1950, connecting Pickering to the Whitby–Scarborough line. The local Health Board (the forerunner of the Urban District Council) was formed in 1863. A Gas and Water Company provided gaslight and piped drinking water. The shop fronts were closed in and glass windows were used to display goods for sale.

20th century.

At the 1901 census, Pickering had 3,491 people and by 1911 this had risen to 3,674 who were living in 784 households. There were more than 60 shops. In the early 20th century the growth of non-conformist religious sects, particularly Methodism, generated a political spirit of Liberalism and Pickering built a great Liberal tradition.  In 1901 the Catholic priest Fr Edward Bryan came to the town and established a school, parish and, in 1911, St Joseph's Church, the work of the architect Leonard Stokes. It contains a font by the celebrated sculptor Eric Gill.  In 1922 an old mill was converted to the Memorial Hall in memory of the Pickering men killed in the First World War. This hall, now modernised, serves as a community centre. The Castle Cinema was built in 1937 in Burgate. Electricity had arrived a few years earlier.  The years from 1920 to 1950 saw a decline in Pickering's role as an agricultural market town and the population fell from a peak of 4,193 in 1951 to 4,186 in 1961. The closure of the railway in 1965 under the Beeching axe was a blow to the area.  The economy of the town saw a turn around in the following decades with the greater mobility of the working population and a rise in tourism due to increasing car ownership. Tourism is a major occupation since the reopening of the North Yorkshire Moors Railway as a restored steam railway and the filming of the television series "Heartbeat" on the moors. In 1991 the population was 6,269.

Landmarks.

Pickering Parish Church is at the eastern end of the Market Place and dominates views of Pickering from all directions. It is a Grade I Listed building that dates from the 12th century. It is notable for its mid-15th-century wall paintings, which cover the north and south walls. The wall paintings were covered over at the Reformation, but rediscovered in 1852. They were painted over once more, but were restored in the 1870s. The church is open every day. North of the church at the top of the hill is Pickering Castle, which was built in the late 11th century to defend the area against the Scots and Danes. The sloping Market Place between the church and the beck is lined with two- and three-storey buildings dating from a variety of periods. Most are listed for their historical or architectural interest. This area is the centre of the town's main Conservation Area.

Governance.

The Member of the UK Parliament is Kevin Hollinrake (Conservative).  Until the 2010 general election Pickering was in the Ryedale constituency but due to boundary changes was moved to the new Thirsk and Malton constituency.  There are 2 electoral wards in Pickering (east and west). Their cumulative population is equal to that listed for the Town.  Pickering is one of the few places with Liberal Party councillors, on Rydale district council where they are the second largest party, and on North Yorkshire County Council.

Geography.

Situation.

Pickering is situated at the junction of the A170, which links Scarborough with Thirsk, and the A169 linking Malton and Whitby. It occupies a broad strip of land between the Ings and Low Carrs to the south of the main road and a ridge of higher, sloping ground which is surmounted by the castle to the north. It is sited where the older limestone and sandstone rocks of the North York Moors meet the glacial deposits of the Vale of Pickering. The limestone rocks form the hill on which the higher parts of the town and the castle are situated. Pickering Beck is a watercourse that runs north to south through the centre of the town. It rises on the moors and drains southwards through Newton Dale before reaching Pickering. It is prone to flooding at times of exceptional rainfall when areas of town close to the beck become flooded. The town centre lies east of the beck, though the population is almost equally divided between its east and west wards. Pickering has developed around the old Market Place but the majority of houses are now in the residential estates off the main A170 road.

Physical geography.

To the north of Pickering is the high moorland of the North York Moors, rising from above sea level at its southern edge to over on Urra Moor. It is dissected by a series of south-flowing streams which include Pickering Beck. Most of the moorland consists of Jurassic sandstone with occasional cappings of gritstone on the highest hills.  To the south these rocks are overlaid with oolitic limestone which forms flat-topped tabular hills with an escarpment to the north and gentler slopes to the south. Ice action in the last glaciation deepened pre-existing valleys, and determined the line of the rivers and streams. Newtondale to the north of Pickering was cut by meltwater from ice in Eskdale gouging a deep channel as it flowed southwards to the lake which filled the Vale of Pickering. This lake was blocked by ice and glacial deposits near the coast so it drained through the Kirkham Gorge towards the River Ouse. South of Pickering, extensive marshes have been drained and exploited as fertile agricultural land.

Climate.

Located in the northern part of the UK, Pickering has a temperate maritime climate which is dominated by the passage of mid-latitude depressions. The weather is very changeable from day to day and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream makes the region mild for its latitude. The average total annual rainfall is 729 mm with rain falling on 128 days of the year. January is usually the coldest month and December the wettest. The warmest month is August and the driest is February.

Flooding.

Pickering Beck has a history of flooding, which occurs on average every five years. However, out-of-bank flows are experienced on some sections of the watercourse annually. These areas include Potter Hill and the grassed area upstream of Pickering Bridge. The flood in March 1999 caused widespread damage to the town. Areas affected were Park Street, Beck Isle, Bridge Street, Potter Hill, The Ropery, Hungate, Vivis Walk and Undercliff. Flooding in 2006 caused extensive damage to properties in the Market Place as well as the above areas.  Since 2007, Pickering has planted trees and built 167 retaining dams above the town to keep back water.

Demography.

According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 Pickering had a population of 6,846 people in 3,071 households. There were 3,213 males and 3,633 females. The mean age of the population for the East Ward was 45.30 years and for the West Ward it was 43.47 years. Both of these ages are significantly higher than the national mean age of 38.6 years. In the census year 25.39% of Pickering's population was over 65 years compared with 15.89% nationally. There were 1,183 people below the age of 16 and 886 over the age of 75. The census for 2011 only showed a marginal difference in population at 6,830.

Economy.

Pickering has two main shopping areas, Market Place, which is by far the larger, and Eastgate Square, which is a mixed housing and retail development. There is a small supermarket off the Market Place. There are few large employers in the town. Most people find jobs in retailing, tourism and small industries based in the two industrial development areas at Westgate Carr Road and Thornton Road to the west and east of the town respectively.  Pickering is an important tourist centre and there are banking, insurance and legal services in the town as well as an outdoor market each Monday. In 2008, plans were put forward to build a new supermarket in the area of an old coal yard.

Natural gas industry.

A natural gas processing facility was formerly located in Pickering. The Lockton natural gas field was discovered under the North York Moors National Park by the Home Oil Company of Canada in 1966. It is located at a depth of 5,700 ft (1,740 m) in Middle Magnesian Limestone. The gas is about 94% methane, 3% inert gas with traces of hydrogen sulphide. Recoverable reserves were initially estimated to be 250 billion cubic feet (7 billion m). In an agreement between the Gas Council and Home Oil/Gas Council Exploration provision was to have been made to use the Lockton gas field for the seasonal storage of natural gas.

Facilities.

To minimise development within the national park area only the gas wells, a field gathering station and underground pipelines were located in the Park. Gas from the gathering station was piped at 1,075 psi (74 bar) via an 18-inch (460 mm) diameter underground pipeline nine miles (14.5 km) to a treatment plant in Outgang Lane on the outskirts of Pickering. Construction of the plant at Pickering started in May 1969 and was operational by August 1971. The total cost of the facilities was £4–£8 million. It employed about 24 people.

Operation.

Hot water from the treatment plant was circulated in small-bore pipes alongside the pipeline to reduce heat losses and potential hydrate formation, an ice-like substance that can cause blockages. At the Pickering treatment plant raw gas was routed through a slug catcher and inlet separator to remove liquid hydrocarbons and water. Gas flowed to two parallel vetrocoke absorbers where it was washed with a counter-current aqueous solution of soda ash and arsenic compounds to convert the hydrogen sulphide to elemental sulphur. Gas then flowed to a hydrocarbon recovery unit where it was chilled to remove further liquid hydrocarbons, the dry sulphur-free gas passed through a British Gas metering station to Feeder No. 6 of the National Transmission System which passes through Pickering. The sulphur-rich solution from the absorbers was routed to oxidiser regenerators where air was bubbled through the solution to remove the sulphur in the form of a froth. The froth was dried in a rotary vacuum filter and heated in an autoclave to allow removal of impurities prior to being stored in tanks at about 130 °C from where it was removed by heated road tanker. The regenerated absorber solution from the oxidisers, together with recovered solution from the vacuum filters, was returned for reuse in the vetrocoke absorbers. Hydrocarbon liquids were routed to condensate stabilizers and then to storage tanks for removal by road tanker.

Gas production and closure.

The original agreement between Home Oil and British Gas was a 15-year contract valued at £27 million for the delivery of per day of gas at standard conditions with a maximum flow of per day. By 1974 aquifer water ingress into the gas reservoir had significantly reduced gas production to about per day. The production and gas treatment facility was permanently shut down in October 1974. Over three years it had produced at standard conditions, only 4.5% of the estimated recoverable reserves.

Gas field redevelopment.

The Lockton gas field is now known as Ebberston Moor. It is licensed to Third Energy. In 2014 Third Energy announced a joint venture with Moorland Energy Limited (MEL) to develop the Ebberston Moor South development. Gas from the existing Ebberston Moor South well will be transported via a new 14-km pipeline to the Knapton Generating Station.

Culture, media and sport.

There are three theatre venues in the town offering a very wide range of amateur and professional productions. In July the annual Jazz Festival is held in Pickering.  There is a leisure centre, a swimming pool and a modern library and information centre. Sports activities include athletics, football, cricket, badminton and bowls. Pickering is home to Pickering Town F.C., who currently play in Division One North-West of the Northern Premier League, Level 8 of the football league pyramid.  Notable sports-people from the town include, footballing brothers Craig Short and Chris Short, and snooker player Paul Davison.  Local newspapers are  Notable residents of Pickering have included Dorothy Cowlin who wrote many articles about the area and its people.

Places of interest in and around Pickering.

Beck Isle Museum.

The Beck Isle Museum is housed in a Regency period residence near the centre of town, adjacent to the Pickering Beck, a stream that flows under a four-arched road bridge. It was here that William Marshall planned England's first Agricultural Institute in the early 19th century. The house contains a collection of bygones relating to the rural crafts and living style of Ryedale. The collection is not restricted to a particular period, but aims to reflect local life and customs and trace the developments in social and domestic life during the last 200 years. A selection of photographs from the Sidney Smith collection held in the museum are displayed around the building, particularly in the photography and model rooms. Sidney Smith was born in Pickering. He is thought of as a successor to Frank Meadow Sutcliffe of Whitby. The museum is owned by the Beck Isle Museum Trust and is staffed and operated by volunteers.

Dalby Forest.

Dalby Forest is on the southern slopes of the North York Moors National Park. The southern part of the forest is divided by valleys creating a 'Rigg and Dale' landscape whilst to the north, the forest sits on the upland plateau. Although the forest is mostly pine and spruce, there are many broadleaf trees such as oak, beech, ash, alder and hazel in the valleys and on the 'Riggs'. Clear streams arising as springs run north and south out of the forest which is home to the crossbill and the nightjar. Roe deer abound and badgers, the symbol of the forest, are a common but nocturnal resident. The signs of the past are evidenced in burial mounds, linear earthworks of unknown purpose and the remains of a rabbit warrening industry can be found in the wood. A network of forest roads including the Dalby Forest Drive provide access. The landscape was formed in the last Ice Age and shaped by the people of the Bronze Age to the present day.

North York Moors National Park.

The national park authority works to promote enjoyment and encourage understanding of the area by the public and balance it with conservation. This includes producing information and interpretation, managing public rights of way and access areas, car parks and toilets and having a Ranger Service.

North Yorkshire Moors Railway.

The North Yorkshire Moors Railway is a heritage railway. The line is the second-longest heritage line in the United Kingdom and runs across the moors from Pickering via Levisham, Newton Dale and Goathland to Grosmont. It is run by the North York Moors Historical Railway Trust and operated and staffed by volunteers. Pickering station has been its terminus since 1965 when the Malton-Pickering route connecting to the York to Scarborough main line was closed. Before the station became a terminus, the double-track railway took up the space now occupied by The Ropery (a road) and the car park to the east. Trains run daily from mid-March to early November and on selected dates through the winter. Trains are mostly steam-hauled; however in some cases heritage diesel engine is used. At the height of the running timetable, trains depart hourly from each station. During the summer months, steam services extend to the seaside town of Whitby. Passenger numbers have topped 350,000 in recent years.

Pickering Castle.

Pickering Castle is situated at the edge of the moors. It is a classic, well-preserved example of an early motte and bailey castle refortified in stone during the 13th and 14th centuries, centred upon a shell keep crowning an impressive motte. There is an exhibition in the chapel.

Pickering Church.

Pickering Church has a Saxon foundation, but the earliest phases of the present building date to the 12th and 13th centuries, with substantial additions in the 14th and 15th. In 1852 restoration work revealed a series of wall paintings on the north and south walls of the nave. Despite a local and national outcry, the paintings were whitewashed, and only rediscovered and restored in 1876–78. They have been called “the most complete collection of medieval wall paintings in England”.

Saint Joseph's Church.

Saint Joseph's Roman Catholic Church, on Potter Hill, was designed by the architect Leonard Stokes in 1911, on the instructions of the parish priest, Fr Edward Bryan. It contains a stone font by the sculptor Eric Gill, and the portable altar-stone of the 17th-century martyr Blessed Nicholas Postgate; also a fine icon, painted in Rome, of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour, and a mosaic of Christ blessing the loaves and fishes by local artist Audrey Murty. Outside the church is a statue of Saint Joseph designed by Peter Paul Pugin, son of Augustus Welby Pugin. The church features in the book "A Glimpse of Heaven" by Christopher Martin (English Heritage 2006).

Events.

Pickering is host to a very popular War Weekend, which consists of parades, soup kitchens, and much more fun! There is also a theatre named Kirk Theatre which is a popular tourist attraction.

Transport.

Bus services operated by Yorkshire Coastliner connect to York via Malton, Whitby and Thirsk and to Scarborough operated by East Yorkshire. There is a town bus which travels a circular route around the town.  The nearest mainline railway station is at Malton, away and the North Yorkshire Moors heritage railway runs seasonal services to Grosmont and Whitby.  Plans to reopen the Pickering–Rillington Junction railway line (connecting to the Scarborough line near Rillington village) have surfaced multiple times but rail reopenings in England are exceptional, and no funds have been secured to rebuild it. If rebuilt, the line would cost £21 million despite being just six miles long. The track does not follow the same corridor as the A169 road. A monorail has been suggested as a cheaper alternative, but this would prevent interoperability of through services from York and Malton to Pickering and Whitby. , a history of Pickering since pre-historic times, by Gordon Home.

Pickering is an ancient market town and civil parish in the Ryedale district of North Yorkshire, England, on the border of the North York Moors National Park. Historically part of the North Riding of Yorkshire, it sits at the foot of the moors, overlooking the Vale of Pickering to the south. According to legend the town was founded by King Peredurus around 270 BC; however, the town as it exists today is of medieval origin. The legend has it that the king lost his ring and accused a young maiden of stealing it, but later that day the ring was found in a pike caught in the River Costa for his dinner. The king was so happy to find his ring he married the young maiden; the name Pike-ring changed over the years to Pickering. It is a nice tale told to fit the name, but it is not the origin. Pickering is thought to be named after the followers of an Anglian man named Picer or some such personal name – the Picer-ingas.

Pickering ist eine Kleinstadt im District Ryedale der englischen Grafschaft North Yorkshire mit Einwohnern (Stand: ). Hauptsehenswürdigkeiten des Ortes sind das Beck Isle Museum und die Saints Peter and Paul Church mit ihren berühmten mittelalterlichen Wandmalereien.


History.

The Oregon Dunes are over 100,000 years old and stretch approximately. The youngest dunes, which are the closest to the ocean, began forming about 7,000 years ago. Studies of individual sand grains show that these sands were carried down from the mountains by the Umpqua, Siuslaw, and other smaller rivers.  In 1963, Congressman Robert B. Duncan introduced a bill to establish a national seashore at the Oregon Dunes; it unanimously passed the Senate Interior Committee. Senator Wayne Morse opposed provisions of the bill that increased environmental protections by restricting property uses. In 1972 Congress set aside of the total dune area as the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area. The actual dunes are managed by the U.S. Forest Service, while the remaining area is private or county land.

Geology.

The sand dunes were formed by wind and water over time. The dune formation is mainly dependent on the wind. In the summer the wind blows from the north and northwest at. Mountain barriers near the coast deflect the wind currents, forming the sand into many different shapes. In the winter the winds are much slower (except during storms when the winds can reach up to ), coming from the south and southwest. These winds move large amounts of sand, reshaping the dunes' structure. Water also plays a role in dune formation. Waves and tides dredge sand from the ocean floor and deposit it onto the beaches, where the wind takes over.  The water currents also create marshy areas where standing water is several feet deep. Upward pressure causes the sand grains to become saturated and float. This process results in quicksand. Quicksand is found in the low, unvegetated areas between the dunes.  The barrage lakes are the largest lakes in Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area. They were formed when streams flowing west from the Coast Range foothills were dammed up by the rapidly developing dunes.

Plants and animals.

Plants.

Stable native plant species are vital to the success of the dunes ecosystem. Several native plants and plant groups have been identified as crucial and are part of active management and conservation efforts. These plants include red fescue, Port Orford cedar, evergreen huckleberry, seashore bluegrass, shore pine, hairy manzanita, bearberry, bog blueberry, tufted hairgrass, slough sedge, Sitka spruce, and skunk cabbage.  Original native plant species were drastically reduced over the years due to the planting of European beachgrass, Scotch broom and shore pine for sand stabilization that occurred from 1910 through 1979.

Birds.

Many species of birds live in the varied habitats of the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area. The South Jetty area includes beach, marsh, and coastal wetlands where the tundra swan, marsh wren, Canada goose, yellow-rumped warbler, red-tailed hawk, sanderling, long-billed curlew, dunlin, and least sandpiper make their home. The great blue heron, American bittern, green heron, Virginia rail, cinnamon teal, common yellowthroat, common merganser, belted kingfisher, snowy plover, bald eagle, and osprey live along the Siticoos area by the Waxmyrtle Trail. The Eel Creek area includes many shore pines and provides shelter to the pine siskin, chestnut-backed chickadee, Swainson's thrush, wrentit, northern flicker, red crossbill, olive-sided flycatcher, and Anna's hummingbird. The white-tailed kite, northern harrier, violet-green swallow, downy woodpecker, orange-crowned warbler, yellow warbler, black-throated gray warbler, Townsend’s warbler, hermit warbler, great horned owl, and great egret have been sighted in the Horsefalls area.

Western snowy plover.

The western snowy plover uses the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area as a nesting site. In 1993, it was identified as a "threatened" species by the US Fish and Wildlife Service, with only 68 birds remaining in Oregon. Multiple agencies used a multi-pronged approach to protect the plovers and increase their numbers. Techniques included restoring the plover habitat along the sand dunes by removing invasive beach grasses and maintaining the appropriate structures optimal for nest building. Protection of nesting sites is achieved by education, signage, and beach restrictions during the nesting season from March 15 through September 15. When necessary, these restrictions are enforced by police officers. Other techniques include removal of predators and accurate population monitoring. As of 2012, the number of plovers had increased to 403 birds.

Oregon Dunes Restoration Collaborative.

The Oregon Dunes Restoration Collaborative is an organization that works with numerous government entities to preserve and restore the dunes. The group, formed in 2014, is engaged in efforts to combat the spread of invasive plant species that consume a large portion of the dunes. The invasive species seen today are a result of a twentieth-century effort by land managers to stabilize the dunes by planting grasses. While these grasses were successful in stabilizing the dunes, they have flourished to the point where they interfere with the natural shaping of dunes.  Today the group, along with the United States Forest Service, is creating prioritization plans, locating funding sources, and raising public awareness of the project. The group encourages individuals to volunteer in engagement and stewardship initiatives around the dunes, employ sustainable recreation practices while visiting the dunes, and engage others about the current issues involving the dunes.

Off-highway vehicle use.

The Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area is among the top United States Forest Service sites in the country for off-highway vehicle (OHV) use. Until the first management plan was adopted in 1979, 91% of the site was available for the use of OHVs. A revised 1994 Recreation Use Plan restricted the use of OHVs to only 31% of the total site, split between two large units or "Management Areas." As of 2018, visitors can use the North, Middle, and South OHV riding areas.

The Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area is located on the Oregon Coast, stretching approximately north of the Coos River in North Bend to the Siuslaw River in Florence, and adjoining Honeyman State Park on the west. It is part of Siuslaw National Forest and is administered by the United States Forest Service.

Die Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area umfassen einen Dünengürtel an der Pazifikküste im US-Staat Oregon. Das National Recreation Area ist 130 Quadratkilometer groß.


Origin.

The term "Rohilla" first became common in the 17th century. "Rohilla" was used to refer to the people coming from the land of "Roh". "Roh" was originally a geographical term corresponding with the territory stretching from Swat and Bajaur in the north to Sibi in the south, and from Hasan Abdal (Attock) in the east to Kabul and Kandahar in the west. Roh was the homeland of the Pashtuns, in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush. Historically, the region of Roh has also been called "Pashtunkhwa" and "Afghanistan". Pashtuns especially the Mandarr Yousafzai tribe living in this valley were also known as Rohillas when they settled the area then known as Katehr. It later became known as Rohilkhand which means "the land of the Rohillas". A majority of Rohillas migrated from Pashtunistan to North India between the 17th and 18th century.

History.

Early history.

The founders of the Pashtun state of Rohilkhand were Daud Khan and his adopted son Ali Muhammad Khan. Daud Khan arrived in South Asia in 1705. He brought along a band of his tribe, the Barech. Daud Khan was awarded the "Katehr" region in the then northern India by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707) to suppress Rajput uprisings, which had afflicted this region. Originally, some 20,000 soldiers from various Pashtun tribes such as (Yusafzai, Ghori, Ghilzai, Barech, Marwat, Durrani, Tareen, Kakar, Naghar, Afridi, Bangash and Khattak) were hired by Mughals to provide mercenary soldier for the Mughal armies. This was appreciated by Aurangzeb and since this force of 25,000 men was given respected positions in the Mughal Army.  Daud Khan was succeeded by Ali Muhammad Khan in 1721. He became so powerful that he refused to send tax revenues to the central government. Safdar Jang, the Nawab of Oudh, warned the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah of the growing power of the Rohillas. This caused Mohammed Shah to send an expedition against him as a result of which he surrendered to imperial forces. He was taken to Delhi as a prisoner, but was later pardoned and appointed governor of Sirhind. Most of his soldiers has already settled in the Katehar region during Nadir Shah's invasion of northern India in 1739 increasing the Rohilla population in the area to 100,000. Due to the large settlement of Rohilla Pashtuns, this part Katehar region came to be known as Rohilkhand. Bareilly was made the capital of this newly formed Rohilkhand state.  When Ali Muhammad Khan died, leaving six sons. However, two of his elder sons were in Afghanistan at the time of his death while the other four were too young to assume the leadership of Rohilkhand. As a result, power transferred to other Rohilla Sardars, the most important being Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech, Najib-ud-Daula and Dundi Khan. According to the 1901 census of India, the total Pathan (Pashtun) population of Bareilly District was 40,779, while the total population was 1,090,117.

Following the Battle of Panipat in 1761.

In the third battle of Panipat (1761) one of the Rohilla Sardars, Najib-ul-Daula, allied himself with Ahmad Shah Abdali against the Marathas. He not only provided 40,000 Rohilla troops but also 70 guns to the allied. He also convinced Shuja-ul-Daula, the Nawab of Oudh, to join Ahmad Shah Abdali's forces against the Marathas. In this battle, the Marathas were defeated and as a consequence the Rohilla increased in power.  The Marathas invaded Rohilkhand to retaliate against the Rohillas' participation in the Panipat war. The Marathas under the leadership of the Maratha ruler Mahadji Shinde entered the "land" of Sardar Najib-ud-Daula which was held by his son Zabita Khan after the sardar's death. Zabita Khan initially resisted the attack but was eventually defeated by the Marathas and forced to flee to the camp of Shuja-ud-Daula and his country was ravaged by Marathas. The Maratha ruler Mahadji Shinde captured the family of Zabita Khan, desecrated the grave of Najib ad-Dawlah and looted his fort. The principal remaining Rohilla Sardar was Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech and through him an agreement was formed with the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daula, by which the Rohillas agreed to pay four million rupees in return for military help against the Marathas. However, after Oudh attacked the Rohillas, they refused to pay.  Later Rohillas were attacked by the neighbouring kingdom of Oudh, who also received assistance from the British East India Company forces under Colonel Alexander Champion. This conflict is known as the Rohilla War. When Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech was killed, in April 1774, Rohilla resistance crumbled, and Rohilkhand was annexed by the kingdom of Oudh. Rohillas fled into the dense forests across the Ganges, and later began a guerrilla war. In response, many Rohillas were hunted down by the troops of British East India company and subsequently scattered in the countryside. They settled in many small towns and cities. Charges of ethnic cleansing and genocide were brought against Warren Hastings of the East India Company, by Edmund Burke and were later taken up by Thomas Babington Macaulay.  From 1774 to 1799, the region was administered by Khwaja Almas Khan, a Meo from Haryana, as representative of the Awadh(kingdom of Oudh) rulers. This period was particularly tough for the Rohillas, as Almas Khan made every effort to weaken the Rohillas. In 1799, British East India company annexed the territory, and started to pay a pension to the family of Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech.

Establishment of Rampur State.

While most of Rohilkhand was annexed, the Rohilla State of Rampur was established by Nawab Faizullah Khan on 7 October 1774 in the presence of British Commander Colonel Champion, and remained a pliant state under British protection thereafter. The first stone of the new Fort at Rampur was laid in 1775 by Nawab Faizullah Khan. The first Nawab proposed to rename the city "Faizabad", but many other places were known by that name so its name was changed to "Mustafabad".  Nawab Faizullah Khan ruled for 20 years. He was a patron of education and began the collection of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindustani manuscripts which are now housed in the Rampur Raza Library. After his death his son Muhammad Ali Khan took over. He was assassinated by Rohilla elders after reigning for 24 days, and Muhammad Ali Khan's brother, Ghulam Muhammad Khan, was proclaimed Nawab. The East India Company took exception to this, and after a reign of just 3 months and 22 days Ghulam Muhammad Khan was besieged and defeated by English forces. East India company supported Muhammad Ali Khan's son, Ahmad Ali Khan, to be the new Nawab. He ruled for 44 years. He did not have any sons, so Muhammad Saeed Khan, son of Ghulam Muhammad Khan, took over as the new Nawab after his death. He established Courts and improved the economic conditions of farmers. His son Muhammad Yusuf Ali Khan took over after his death and his son, Kalb Ali Khan, became the new Nawab after his death in 1865.

Between 1857 and 1947.

The period between the revolt of 1857 and the independence of India in 1947 was a period of stability for the Rohilla community. In 1858, the British government issued a general pardon to all those who had taken part in the War of Independence and restored many lands. Some of the tribes were punished for aiding the rebels. Some tribes had to migrate to Delhi and Gurgaon, while others migrated to the Deccan region. Conditions improved after some years and migration from the North West Frontier Province and Afghanistan recommenced, adding to the Rohilla population. During this period, the Rohillas were also effected by the reformist movement of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, with many taking to modern education. The founder of the Barelvi sect of Sunni Islam, Ahmad Raza Khan, was also born among the Rohillas and the city of Bareilly became an important centre of Islamic learning in Northern India.  While a majority of Rohillas remained landowners and cultivators, a significant minority took to western education, and entered professions such as law and medicine. They also began to take an interest in the political debates during the last decade of the 19th Century. Some of them joined the newly formed Indian National Congress, while others were attracted to pan-Islamism. This period also saw a wholesale adoption of North Indian Muslim culture, with Urdu becoming the native language of the Rohilla. In fact the term of Rohilla was slowly replaced with the term "Pathan", which was a new self-identification. However a sense of distinct identity remained strong, with the Rohillas residing in distinct quarters of cities, such as, Kakar Tola, Pani Tola and Gali Nawaban in Bareilly, which was home to the descendants of Hafiz Rahmat Khan. There was intermarriages with neighbouring Muslim communities such as the Shaikh, Muslim Rajput and Kamboh. Thus at the dawn of independence, the Rohilla were losing their distinct community status.

Present circumstances.

The independence of Pakistan and India in 1947 had a profound effect on the Rohilla community. The vast majority of them emigrated to Pakistan in 1947. Those that were left in India, were affected by the abolishment of the zamindari system in 1949, as well as the ascension of the State of Rampur to India and many of them migrated to join their kinsmen in Karachi, Pakistan. The Rohilla now form two distinct communities with the majority in Pakistan and a small minority residing in India.

In India.

The Rohilla now form one of the larger Muslim communities of Uttar Pradesh and are found throughout Uttar Pradesh, with settlements in Rampur, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur in Rohilkhand being the densest. They now speak Hindustani in towns, and Khari boli in their rural settlements.  The Pathan (Rohilla) community of UP has sixteen sub-groups, the Ghilzai, Afridi, Barakzai, Barech, Daudzai, Marwat, Durrani, Naghar, Ghorghushti, Sur Pashtun, Kakar, Khalil, Mohmand, Mohammadzai, Orakzai, Yousafzai and Wazir, all of which are descended from well known Pashtun tribes. Some Rohilla Pathans reside in Maharashtra's Washim and Nanded district, Tehsil Kinwat Tribal Area. There is also a small population in Bendi and Kopra, two villages in Kinwat Taluka. In older parts of the Muslim areas of the towns in UP, the Pathans have maintained their own residential neighbourhoods. The Pathan are not an endogamous group, and arranged marriages do occur with other Sunni Muslim communities of similar social status, such as the Mughal tribe, Muslim Rajput and Shaikh although there is still a preference of marriage within the community.  The Rohilla have historically been landowners and soldiers, therefore, some parts of the community are associated with agriculture in Rohilkhand, while many Rohilla officers who worked in the British Indian Army in the 1940s migrated to Pakistan and joined the Pakistani Army; famous among them are General Rahimuddin Khan and General Akhtar Abdur Rahman. They have also been prominent in the Muslim religious sphere in UP, having produced many "alims" and "Huffaz" and have built and financed many Mosques and Madrassahs. In terms of formal education, they are seen as a community that has a favourable attitude towards western education, and many are professional doctors and lawyers.

In Pakistan.

In Pakistan, the Rohillas and other Urdu-speaking Pathans have now completely assimilated into larger Urdu speaking community. There is no sense of corporate identity among the descendants of Rohilla Pathans in Pakistan with high degree of intermarriage with other Muslims. They mainly live in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, and other urban areas of Sindh. Many have held high positions in the government, notably Sahibzada Yaqub Khan, a Rohilla, who was Pakistan's Minister of Foreign Affairs during the 1980s.

Rohillas are a community of Pashtun ancestry, historically found in Rohilkhand, a region in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It forms the largest Pashtun diaspora community in India, and has given its name to the Rohilkhand region. The Muslim Rohillas are identified as Pathans, where as the Hindu Rohillas regard themselves as Rajput.

Die Rohilla sind ein aus dem afghanischen Roh stammender Stamm. Während der Herrschaft der Moguln wanderten sie in Nordindien ein und dominierten nach dem Niedergang derer Macht Gebiete im Westen des heutigen Uttar Pradesh. Die Region Rohilkhand trägt ihren Namen. Angesichts von Angriffen durch die Marathen gingen sie später eine Allianz mit Oudh ein, wurden aber von 1774 der Britischen Ostindienkompanie besiegt und ihr Gebiet annektiert.


Travel and detention.

With his friends Shafiq Rasul and Asif Iqbal, Ahmed in October 2001, weeks after the 9/11 attacks in the United States, traveled to Pakistan for a friend's wedding. While there, they went into Afghanistan and got caught when war broke out with US and allied bombings and attacks. They were captured by soldiers of the Northern Alliance and transferred to the custody of the US Army, as they had lost all their identification and luggage. They were detained there and transported to Guantanamo Bay detention camps on US territory in Cuba, where they were severely interrogated and treated as enemy combatants.

Return to UK.

They were returned to the UK in March 2004, and released the next day without charges.  In August 2004, they compiled and released a report on their abuses while in US custody.

Three suicides at Guantanamo, June 2006.

The "Associated Press" quoted Ahmed following the US announcement of the deaths of three detainees at Guantanamo in June 2006, who were alleged to have committed suicide. He said, "There is no hope in Guantanamo. The only thing that goes through your mind day after day is how to get justice or how to kill yourself. It is the despair - not the thought of martyrdom - that consumes you there." He went on, "A Saudi detainee in the cell in front of us had had enough. We could hear him rip up his sheets and tie it to the wire mesh roof of the cell. He jumped off his sink and tried to hang himself. We shouted to the military police and they came and saved him." Last, he said, "It's weird because when we left we weren't even that religious, We were young - average British lads. Obviously if we knew what we were getting ourselves into we would have never gone."  Ahmed has taken part in a campaign against torture, organized by Amnesty International.

McClatchy interview.

On 15 June 2008, the McClatchy News Service published articles based on interviews with 66 former Guantanamo captives. McClatchy reporters interviewed Ruhal Ahmed in Britain.  Ahmed said when he returned to Tipton, someone had hung an effigy clad in an orange Guantanamo overall, labelled "Tipton Taliban will die."

Ruhal Ahmed (also spelled Rhuhel Ahmed) (born 3 November 1981) is a British citizen who was detained without trial for over two years by the United States government, beginning in Afghanistan in 2001, and then in the United States Guantánamo Bay detention camp, Cuba. His Internment Serial Number was 110. Ahmed was returned to the United Kingdom in March 2004, where he was released the next day without charges.

Ruhal Ahmed (* 11. März 1981 in Birmingham) ist ein britischer Staatsbürger, der für mehr als zwei Jahre ohne Gerichtsverfahren zunächst in Afghanistan und dann im Gefangenenlager der Guantanamo Bay Naval Base festgehalten wurde.


Club career.

Early career.

Ruslan Mingazow started playing football at the age of 6, being taken to the first training by his father, who is also a former Turkmeni footballer. At the beginning he had to train with an older group of players because there was none for his age. Mingazow played for FC Aşgabat youth team and was taken to the first team in 2007, aged 16. The same year he helped his club win the Turkmenistan Super Cup. A year later Mingazow became the champion of Turkmenistan, winning the 2008 Ýokary Liga. In 2009 Mingazow participated in the Turkmenistan President's Cup and helped his club reach the semi-finals, scoring two goals in three matches.

Skonto Rīga.

Following the impressive performance at the Turkmenistan President's Cup, Mingazow was invited to join the tournament's finalists, Latvian Higher League club Skonto Rīga, on trial by their manager Paul Ashworth. Having received another offer from Armenian Premier League, Mingazow, eventually, signed a contract with the Latvian side in June 2009. He scored his first Latvian Higher League goal in a 5–0 victory over Daugava Rīga on 8 July 2009. During his first season at the club Mingazow participated in 20 league matches, scoring twice. In 2010 Mingazow helped Skonto become the champions of Latvia for the first time since 2004 under their new manager Aleksandrs Starkovs. In 2011 Skonto won the Baltic League, beating another Latvian side FK Ventspils in the final's penalty shoot-out. In 2012 Mingazow won the Latvian Cup, as Skonto beat Liepājas Metalurgs in the final via penalty shoot-out. On 4 July 2013 Mingazow scored the only goal in 1–0 away victory over FC Tiraspol, helping Skonto reach the second round of the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League. In the second round Mingazow provided an excellent assist for his team-mate Artūrs Karašausks as Skonto beat the Synot liga side Slovan Liberec 2–1 at home. Mingazow was named the best player of the Latvian Higher League in August 2013.

Baumit Jablonec.

On 27 August 2014 Mingazow joined the Czech First League club Baumit Jablonec.

Slavia Prague.

Mingazow joined another Czech First League team, Slavia Prague, in June 2016. On 2 April 2017, he gained notoriety in Czech press after winning a controversial penalty kick in the Sparta - Slavia derby, allowing Slavia to equalize from the spot in injury time. The disciplinary board of referees later ruled that it had been a dive by Mingazow, but no punishment was issued. He scored his first league goal for Slavia on 17 April 2017 in a 4–0 home win against Hradec Králové. On 15 June 2018, Slavia announced that Mingazow will be looking for new opportunities and will no longer play for Slavia. On 7 September 2018, Slavia announced that Mingazow had joined 1. FK Příbram on loan for the first half of the season.

FC Irtysh Pavlodar.

July 23, 2019 Ruslan Mingazov, as a free agent, signed a contract with Kazakhstani FC Irtysh Pavlodar.

International career.

Mingazow made his senior national team debut on 14 April 2009, in an 2010 AFC Challenge Cup Qualification match against Maldives. He scored his first national team goal against Bhutan in the very next match on 16 April 2009, also in AFC Challenge Cup qualifying.

Honours.

Ýokary Liga:  Turkmenistan Super Cup:  Latvian Higher League:  Latvian Football Cup:  Triobet Baltic League:  Czech Cup:  AFC Challenge Cup:

Personal life.

Mingazow is an ethnic Tatar. Ruslan Mingazow's father Kamil is also a former Turkmenistani footballer, who played for the national team. He has got two sisters, one of whom is 3 years older and the other one 14 years younger. During his stay in Riga Mingazow was studying business management at the Baltic International Academy.

Ruslan Mingazow (born 23 November 1991) is a Turkmenistani footballer who plays for FC Irtysh Pavlodar, and the Turkmenistan national football team, as a right or left midfielder.

Ruslan Kamilýewiç Mingazow (; auch "Ruslan Mingazov" geschrieben; * 23. November 1991 in Aşgabat) ist ein turkmenischer Fußballspieler, der zurzeit in der kasachischen Premjer-Liga bei Irtysch Pawlodar unter Vertrag steht. Für die Nationalmannschaft von Turkmenistan spielte er insgesamt 21 Mal.


Origin.

According to the "Illuminated Chronicle", Wolfer and Héder belonged to the Counts of Hainburg. Mark of Kált's work incorrectly – accidentally or intentionally – refers to Grand Prince Géza (c. 972–997), father of Saint Stephen, the first King of Hungary, in fact, Wolfer and Héder arrived to Hungary during the first regnal years of the minor Géza II of Hungary (definitely before 1146). The brothers' place of origin is in dispute. Simon of Kéza's "Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum" writes that Wolfer and Héder came from ""Vildonia"" with forty armored soldiers, referring to Burgruine Wildon in Styria, however the castle itself was built only after 1157 thus that identification is incorrect. Johannes de Thurocz says in his work "Chronica Hungarorum" that the two knights originated from Hainburg of ""Alemannia"", therefore the Duchy of Swabia. Presumably Mark of Kált's version is closer to the truth, as there was a certain knight Wolfger von Erlach in the first half of the 12th century in Hainburg.  In 1157, Gervasius, Bishop of Győr contributed and permitted the foundation of the Benedictine Abbey of Küszén (later Németújvár, present-day Burg Güssing in Austria), to "comes" Wolfer, who donated several surrounding lands to the monastery. Gervasius subordinated the monastery to the Pannonhalma Abbey and dedicated the new monastery to Virgin Mary. Both Wolfer and Héder were considered strong confidants of Géza II. Héder was the ancestor of the prestigious Hédervári family, while the infamous Kőszegi family originated from Wolfer. As later the Héder genus was named after Héder and not after his elder brother, historian János Karácsonyi argued that Héder ""was more talented than Wolfer or lived a very long time" [after his brother's death]". Wolfer was buried in the Küszén Abbey.  Based on Alexander Köcski's seal, the Köcski family was presumably also related to the local powerful Kőszegi family and thus was a scion of the "gens" Héder too, at least from maternal side. Historian Pál Engel, however, considered that Alexander Köcski individually adopted his seal following his decisive victory over his ardent enemies, the Kőszegis, as a prominent general in Charles I of Hungary's unification war against the oligarchic domains.

Members and their landholdings.

Wolfer's branch.

The brothers were granted their coherent and extensive possession from a crown land after the cessation of the "gyepű" border system. Accordingly, the Héders' first lands were part of the so-called "gyepűelve", a mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited area beyond the Austrian border, comparable to the modern buffer zones. The clan's lands concentrated mainly in the catchment area of the rivers Rába (Raab) and Lapincs (Lafnitz) in the southwestern part of Vas County at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the lands laid in the valley of stream Strém (or Strem) and centered around the hill of Küszén. According to historian Géza Érszegi, the Héders owned the whole territory between the streams Strém (and thus the parallel Királyút, lit. "King's Road") and Medves, i.e. southeast to Küszén. However, the Héders also owned contiguous lands towards the opposite direction and the mountain of Höheberg (or Hochberg) was considered the northwest border point of their territories.  Béla III of Hungary (r. 1172–1196) confiscated the Abbey of Küszén from the Benedictines and built a royal castle (called Németújvár, or simply Újvár, "New Castle", today Güssing in Austria) on top of the hill in the 1180s. He compensated its parton, "comes" Hencse I (Wolfer's son, also known as Henc or Aenz) with the patronage of the newly constructed abbey of Kapornak in Zala County. Furthermore, Wolfer's descendants remained the owners of the nearby Szentelek and Szentkút (present-day Stegersbach and Heiligenbrunn in Austria, respectively). A document from 1198 refers to the vineyards of Szentkút as the accessory of the newly built castle (Újvár, or "Novi Castri"). Wolfer's great-grandson, Virunt (or Werenherth), who served as a canon of the cathedral chapter of Győr, still owned Szentkút itself and the surrounding villages, Mérhart, Szombatfalva, Újfalva and Pinka in the middle of the 13th century. In his last will, Virunt bequeathed the villages to Béla IV of Hungary and the Royal Crown, who soon donated them to Herrand, a representative of the Héder clan's other branch. The offspring Hédervári family possessed the area thereafter until its extinction. Beyond the Strém valley, the kindred also owned some lordships, for instance Rábagyarmat and two unidentified estates, "Chegge" and "Podrag". According to a census of the Szentgotthárd Abbey from 1198, family members Simon and Lawrence I owned portions in Szentgotthárd and Battyán (once laid near Nagysimonyi), while Lawrence I, Denis I (from the Hédervári branch) and Hencse I also had interests in Almás. Battyán later was recalled Simonremetefölde (lit. "the land of hermit Simon"), which confirms that Simon became a friar in the last years of his life. Denis and Hencse also owned Pácsony until they donated it to the collegiate chapter of Vasvár sometime before 1217. The local wasteland is still called after Hencse.  Hencse's son, Henry I possessed lands along the river Lendva (Ledava) near the Western border with Austria. He appears in some documents in the period between 1208 and 1212. Henry I and his brother, Michael spent their childhood outside Hungary. They had inherited the right of patronage of the Kapornak Abbey, which was usurped by their some degree of relatives, Fabian and Benz during their absent. They unsuccessfully contested the right for themselves, but Andrew II of Hungary restored Henry and Michael as the rightful owners of the patronage upon their request in 1212. Henry I also owned an estate near Szentbenedek (present-day Kančevci in Slovenia). Michael died sometime after 1212; his widow married Michael Hahót later. Michael's sons, Hencse II and Virunt, and their cousin, Henry II were patrons of the Kapornak Abbey in 1237. Brothers John I and Wolfer II, whose parentage is uncertain, possessed portions in the northeast part of the lordship, near Prosznyákfalva (today a borough in Prosenjakovci, Slovenia). Summarizing, the sporadic data from the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century clearly state that Wolfer's branch had possessions on the originally uninhabited borderlands, along the lines of defense, or ones close to royal households. The granted possession of Küszén was the part of a larger clan possession covering the whole valley of the stream Strém as far as the Rába, but they also had lands along the Rába near Szentgotthárd and the Mura (Mur) near the estate of the fortress of Felsőlendva (present-day Grad in Slovenia).  The most ambitious and powerful member of the branch was Henry II. He entered the service of Béla IV and had gradually distanced himself from his relatives. Receiving large-scale personal land donations for his military career and loyalty, he was the founder and first member of the Kőszegi family (formerly incorrectly also called Németújvári in historiographical works), which had dominated the northwestern part of Vas County and their lands were arranged around significant fortresses, for instance Borostyánkő, Léka (today Bernstein and Lockenhaus in Austria, respectively) and the eponymous Kőszeg. Henry Kőszegi established his lordship independently of his kinship and did not rely on the clan's formerly acquired landholdings in the opposite parts of Vas County. Henry Kőszegi and his sons had become the dominant power of whole Transdanubia within decades, spreading from their paterfamilias' first acquired lands in Vas County.

Héder's branch.

The younger brother, Héder I was granted lands in the island plain of Szigetköz in Győr County. The centre of his estates, Hédervár was named after him. It emerged into the most important settlement in Szigetköz and became the eponymous village of the influential and powerful Hédervári family. Héder's only known son was Denis I, whose person was first identified by historians Gábor Kiss and Balázs Zágorhidi Czigány (formerly Pál Engel also considered an intermediate generation between Héder and his grandchildren). During the determination of borders of the estate of Novák in 1210, Héder II (Hederic or Hedrich) was referred to as the owner of the neighboring estate, Hédervár (it is also the first mention of the village by contemporary records). Héder II served as "ispán" of Győr County in 1223. He had two sons, James I and Lawrence III, and a daughter, who married Pousa Bár-Kalán. In 1255, James and Lawrence successfully recovered their sister's dowry from the late Pousa's son, Nana. Lawrence had a son, Héder IV (fl. 1309) and a daughter Margaret, who married Solomon Dárói. After her husband's death, she strove to keep the estate of Déshida (today an area at Lake Deseda) in Somogy County for her daughter, Anne (wife of Stephen Gyovad) in 1309 and 1310. In the presence of her brother, Héder IV, Margaret pledged the land to the distant relative, Henry II Kőszegi, Ban of Slavonia on 23 October 1309. The powerful lord last appeared as a living person in that document. Henry died by 1 May 1310, when Margaret wanted to pay the loan and recover Déshida, according to a document issued by the Somogyvár Abbey four days later. As the envoy of Henry's sons did not bring the redemption certificate, Margaret refused to pay the pledge.  James married Nabut Monoszló, the daughter of Thomas Monoszló, Ban of Slavonia. He acquired the villages of Árpádsoka and Bős (today Gabčíkovo, Slovakia) in 1269. However, the original owner, Lothard Gutkeled, who lost it during the 1260s civil war, reclaimed the estates after the death of Béla IV. Queen Elizabeth the Cuman, the spouse of Stephen V of Hungary, supported his protege in this effort and officially returned the villages to the Gutkeleds. Amid such a political situation, James was willing to reach a peaceful agreement and sold Bős and Árpádsoka for 70 marks and also paid 7 marks as a compensation to Lothard in 1271. James claimed the village of Bokod (today a wasteland in Celldömölk) from himself through his wife, Nabut Monoszló in 1278. He gradually became a "familiaris" of his powerful relatives, the Kőszegi brothers and joined their rebellion in that year. As a result, Ladislaus IV of Hungary confiscated the village of Fonyó from him in August. James and Nabut had four sons, Lawrence IV, Egyed, Henry III and Stephen I, who also joined that rebellion, which invited the future Andrew III to the Hungarian throne. Among them, Henry III was further mentioned in February 1284, when his land of Bolda in Vas County was confiscated because of affiliation to the Kőszegi family. Of them, only Lawrence IV had descendants, the Bokodi family. He was still alive in 1311, when sold a portion of Bokod, called Nádszeg to Emeric Káldi from the "gens" (clan) Herény. His son was Stephen III and grandson was John III, who appeared in a contemporary record in 1336. Stephen's wife was Chuna Szőlősi, a sister of James Szőlősi from the "gens" (clan) Péc. In October 1336, Stephen and John provided the daughters' quarter from a portion of Bokod to Chuna. It is plausible that they were not related to that Bokodi family, which possessed lands in the region a century later.  Héder's another grandson, Denis II was known only by name, there is no further information about him. He had three sons, Héder III, Herrand and Denis III (also known as the "White-headed"). Héder III married an unidentified daughter of a certain Vekhard. She was the widow of Maurus II Győr. Her husband and their only son, Conrad II both died before 1252. In that year, Héder successfully filed a lawsuit for his wife's dowry against the Győr clan. He functioned as "ispán" of Hont County in 1269. He also acquired a portion from the village Árpádsoka in that year, but after Stephen V ascended the Hungarian throne in the next year, he had to give back to its original owner, Lothard Gutkeled. He last appeared in contemporary records in 1279, when he acted as an arbiter in a lawsuit over the ownership of Gesztence (today a borough in Jánossomorja) between Conrad Győr and a maternal relative, a certain James, son of Michael. Héder had a son, John II, who was a supporter of Stephen V. He fought against the Bohemians, who invaded the Western borderlands of Hungary in April 1273. Therefore, he was granted Dabrony in Veszprém County. Later, he also joined the allegiance of the Kőszegis. He died sometime around 1284; there were some complaints that he unlawfully held a portion of Novák after his lord and relative, Ivan Kőszegi seized it from Conrad Győr. Denis II's second son, Herrand was a long-time partisan of Béla IV. For his military service in the Duchy of Austria, he was granted the landholdings – Szentkút, Mérhart, Szombatfalva, Újfalva and Pinka – of his late relative, canon Virunt by Béla in 1255. Herrand served as Master of the horse from 1262 to 1270, while also held the ispánates of Trencsén, then Moson counties. He regained influence after the death of Stephen V, holding various positions in the queenly court. Today's Mesteri once was called "Hernádmesteri" after him. Herrand had three sons and a daughter. Dominic was mentioned in 1268 and 1269. James II handed his lands in Moson County – Rusovce, Szerdahely (present-day Rusovce and Dunajská Streda in Slovakia, respectively), Csütörtökhely and Rajka, over to King Andrew III in 1297, in exchange for Monyorókerék (today Eberau in Austria). His new seat laid near the lordship of Németújvár (Güssing). Herrand's third son, Nicholas I died in 1326; he donated Bekény (near Egyházashetye) to Peter Intai in his last will and testament. Herrand's only daughter, Elizabeth married to Gregory Rumi from the Tengerdi kinship.  Through his sons, Denis (III) the White-headed became forefather of the prestigious Hédervári family. Both the descendants of Desiderius and Nicholas II bore the Hédervári surname. Desiderius was first mentioned in 1285, when he was granted the land of Bodak in Csilizköz (Medzičiližie; today a southern region of Žitný ostrov in Slovakia). Abandoning the forced alliance with the Kőszegis, he became an ardent partisan of Charles I of Hungary, as a result lost several lands temporarily during the clashes against the Kőszegi family. He sacrificed his life to enable the king's escape during the disastrous Battle of Posada in November 1330. Nicholas II served as "ispán" of Győr County from 1324 to 1330. The Héderváris' main branch ascended from him, which survived the Middle Ages and flourished until the late 17th century.

Héder (also Heydrich or Hedrich) was the name of a "gens" (Latin for "clan"; "nemzetség" in Hungarian) in the Kingdom of Hungary, several prominent secular dignitaries came from this kindred. The ancestors of the kindred were two German knights from the Duchy of Swabia, brothers Wolfer and Héder. They were granted large-scale domains in Western Hungary. The powerful and influential Hédervári and Kőszegi noble families descended from them.

Die von Héder waren ein Adelsgeschlecht in Ungarn im Hochmittelalter. Die beiden Hauptlinien des Geschlechts waren die Herren von Güns (von Heder) teilweise auch nur die „Güssinger“ genannt und die Héderváry. Diese beiden Linien beherrschten gegen Ende des 13. Jahrhunderts den Großteil des westungarischen Grenzraumes und Teile Slawoniens sowie der Slowakei.