Overview.

De Broglie–Bohm theory is based on the following postulates:  Notably, even though this latter relation is frequently presented as an axiom of the theory, in Bohm's original papers of 1952 it was presented as derivable from statistical-mechanical arguments. This argument was further supported by the work of Bohm in 1953 and was substantiated by Vigier and Bohm's paper of 1954, in which they introduced stochastic "fluid fluctuations" that drive a process of asymptotic relaxation from quantum non-equilibrium to quantum equilibrium (ρ → |ψ|).

Double-slit experiment.

The double-slit experiment is an illustration of wave-particle duality. In it, a beam of particles (such as electrons) travels through a barrier that has two slits. If one puts a detector screen on the side beyond the barrier, the pattern of detected particles shows interference fringes characteristic of waves arriving at the screen from two sources (the two slits); however, the interference pattern is made up of individual dots corresponding to particles that had arrived on the screen. The system seems to exhibit the behaviour of both waves (interference patterns) and particles (dots on the screen).  If we modify this experiment so that one slit is closed, no interference pattern is observed. Thus, the state of both slits affects the final results. We can also arrange to have a minimally invasive detector at one of the slits to detect which slit the particle went through. When we do that, the interference pattern disappears.  The Copenhagen interpretation states that the particles are not localised in space until they are detected, so that, if there is no detector on the slits, there is no information about which slit the particle has passed through. If

Theory.

Ontology.

The ontology of de Broglie–Bohm theory consists of a configuration formula_15 of the universe and a pilot wave formula_16. The configuration space formula_3 can be chosen differently, as in classical mechanics and standard quantum mechanics.  Thus, the ontology of pilot-wave theory contains as the trajectory formula_15 we know from classical mechanics, as the wavefunction formula_16 of quantum theory. So, at every moment of time there exists not only a wavefunction, but also a well-defined configuration of the whole universe (i.e.,

Guiding equation.

For a spinless single particle moving in formula_21, the particle's velocity is given by  For many particles, we label them as formula_4 for the formula_29-th particle, and their velocities are given by

Schrödinger's equation.

The one-particle Schrödinger equation governs the time evolution of a complex-valued wavefunction on formula_21. The equation represents a quantized version of the total energy of a classical

Relation to the Born rule.

In Bohm's original papers [Bohm 1952], he discusses how de Broglie–Bohm theory results in the usual measurement results of quantum mechanics. The main idea is that this is true if the positions of the particles satisfy the statistical distribution given by formula_40. And that distribution is guaranteed to be true for all time by the guiding equation if the initial distribution of the particles satisfies formula_40.  For a given experiment, we can postulate this as being true and verify experimentally that it does indeed hold true, as it does. But, as argued in Dürr et al., one needs to argue that this distribution for subsystems is typical. They argue that formula_40 by virtue of its equivariance under the dynamical evolution of the system, is the appropriate measure of typicality for initial conditions of the positions of the particles. They then prove that the vast majority of possible initial configurations will give rise to statistics obeying the Born rule (i.e., formula_40) for measurement outcomes. In

The conditional wavefunction of a subsystem.

In the formulation of the de Broglie–Bohm theory, there is only a wavefunction for the entire universe (which always evolves by the Schrödinger equation). It should, however, be noted that the "universe" is simply the system limited by the same boundary conditions used to solve the Schrödinger equation. However, once the theory is formulated, it is convenient to introduce a notion of wavefunction also for subsystems of the universe. Let us write the wavefunction of the universe as formula_45, where formula_46 denotes the configuration variables associated to some subsystem (I) of the universe, and formula_47 denotes the remaining configuration variables. Denote respectively by formula_48 and formula_49 the actual configuration of subsystem (I) and of the rest of the universe. For simplicity, we consider here only the spinless case. The "conditional wavefunction" of subsystem (I) is defined by  It follows immediately from the fact that formula_51 satisfies the guiding equation that also the configuration formula_48 satisfies a guiding equation identical to the one presented in the formulation of the theory, with the universal wavefunction

Extensions.

Relativity.

Pilot-wave theory is explicitly nonlocal, which is in ostensible conflict with special relativity. Various extensions of "Bohm-like" mechanics exist that attempt to resolve this problem. Bohm himself in 1953 presented an extension of the theory satisfying the Dirac equation for a single particle. However, this was not extensible to the many-particle case because it used an absolute time.  A renewed interest in constructing Lorentz-invariant extensions of Bohmian theory arose in the 1990s; see Bohm and Hiley: The Undivided Universe, and, and references therein. Another approach is given in the work of Dürr et al., in which they use Bohm–Dirac models and a Lorentz-invariant foliation of space-time.

Spin.

To incorporate spin, the wavefunction becomes complex-vector-valued. The value space is called spin space; for a spin-1⁄2 particle, spin space can be taken to

Quantum field theory.

In Dürr et al., the authors describe an extension of de Broglie–Bohm theory for handling creation and annihilation operators, which they refer to as "Bell-type quantum field theories". The basic idea is that configuration space becomes the (disjoint) space of all possible configurations of any number of particles. For part of the time, the system evolves deterministically under the guiding

Curved space.

To extend de Broglie–Bohm theory to curved space (Riemannian manifolds in mathematical parlance), one simply notes that all of the elements of these equations make sense, such as gradients and Laplacians. Thus, we use equations that

Exploiting nonlocality.

De Broglie and Bohm's causal interpretation of quantum mechanics was later extended by Bohm, Vigier, Hiley, Valentini and others to include stochastic properties. Bohm and other physicists, including Valentini, view the Born rule linking formula_93 to the probability density function formula_94 as representing not a basic law, but a result of a system having reached "quantum equilibrium" during the course of the time development under the Schrödinger equation. It can be shown that, once an equilibrium has been reached, the system remains in such equilibrium over the course of its further evolution: this follows from the continuity equation associated with the Schrödinger evolution of formula_25. It is less straightforward to demonstrate whether and how such an equilibrium is reached in the first place.

Results.

Below are some highlights of the results that arise out of an analysis of de Broglie–Bohm theory. Experimental results agree with all of quantum mechanics' standard predictions insofar as it has them. But while standard quantum mechanics is limited to discussing the results of "measurements", de Broglie–Bohm theory governs the dynamics of a system without the intervention of outside observers (p. 117 in Bell).  The basis for agreement with standard quantum mechanics is that the particles are distributed according to formula_40. This is a statement of observer ignorance, but it can be proven that for a universe governed by this theory, this will typically be the case. There is apparent collapse of the wave function governing subsystems of the universe, but there is no collapse of the universal wavefunction.

Measuring spin and polarization.

According to ordinary quantum theory, it is not possible to measure the spin or polarization of a particle directly; instead, the component in one direction is measured; the outcome from a single particle may be 1, meaning that the particle is aligned with the measuring apparatus, or −1, meaning that it is aligned the opposite way. For an ensemble of particles, if we expect the particles to be aligned, the results are all 1. If we expect them to be aligned oppositely, the results are all −1. For other alignments, we expect some results to be 1 and some to be −1 with a probability that depends on the expected alignment. For a full

Measurements, the quantum formalism, and observer independence.

De Broglie–Bohm theory gives the same results as quantum mechanics. It treats the wavefunction as a fundamental object in the theory, as the wavefunction describes how the particles move. This means that no experiment can distinguish between the two theories. This section outlines the ideas as to how the standard quantum formalism arises out of quantum mechanics. References include Bohm's original 1952 paper and Dürr et al.

Collapse of the wavefunction.

De Broglie–Bohm theory is a theory that applies primarily to the whole universe. That is, there is a single wavefunction governing the motion of all of the particles in the universe according to the guiding equation. Theoretically, the motion of one particle depends on the positions of all of the other particles in the universe. In some situations, such as in experimental systems, we can represent the system itself in terms of a de Broglie–Bohm theory in which the wavefunction of the system is obtained by conditioning on the environment of the system. Thus, the system can be analyzed with Schrödinger's equation and the guiding equation, with an initial formula_40 distribution for the particles in the system (see the section on the conditional wavefunction

Operators as observables.

In the standard quantum formalism, measuring observables is generally thought of as measuring operators on the Hilbert space. For example, measuring position is considered to be a measurement of the position operator. This relationship between physical measurements and Hilbert space operators is, for standard quantum mechanics, an additional axiom of the theory. The de Broglie–Bohm theory, by contrast, requires no such measurement axioms (and measurement as such is not a dynamically distinct or special sub-category of physical processes in the theory). In particular, the usual operators-as-observables formalism is, for de Broglie–Bohm theory, a theorem. A major point of the analysis is that many of the measurements of the observables do not correspond to properties of the particles; they are (as in the case of spin discussed above) measurements of the wavefunction.  In the history of de Broglie–Bohm theory, the proponents have often had to deal with claims that this theory is impossible. Such arguments are generally based on inappropriate analysis of operators as observables. If one believes that spin measurements are indeed measuring the spin of a particle that existed prior to the measurement, then one does reach contradictions. De Broglie–Bohm theory deals with this by noting that

Hidden variables.

De Broglie–Bohm theory is often referred to as a "hidden-variable" theory. Bohm used this description in his original papers on the subject, writing: "From the point of view of the usual interpretation, these additional elements or parameters [permitting a detailed causal and continuous description of all processes] could be called 'hidden' variables." Bohm and Hiley later stated that they found Bohm's choice of the term "hidden variables" to be too restrictive. In particular, they argued that a particle is not actually hidden but rather "is what is most

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

The Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that when two complementary measurements are made, there is a limit to the product of their accuracy. As an example, if one measures the position with an accuracy of formula_99 and the momentum with an accuracy of formula_100, then formula_101 If we make further measurements in order to get more information, we disturb the system and change the trajectory into a new one depending on the measurement setup; therefore, the measurement results are still subject to Heisenberg's uncertainty relation.  In de Broglie–Bohm theory, there is always a matter of fact about the position and momentum of a particle. Each particle has a well-defined trajectory, as

Quantum entanglement, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox, Bell's theorem, and nonlocality.

De Broglie–Bohm theory highlighted the issue of nonlocality: it inspired John Stewart Bell to prove his now-famous theorem, which in turn led to the Bell test experiments.  In the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox, the authors describe a thought experiment that one could perform on a pair of particles that have interacted, the results of which they interpreted as indicating that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory.  Decades later John Bell proved Bell's theorem (see p. 14 in Bell), in which he showed that, if they are to agree with the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics, all such "hidden-variable" completions of quantum mechanics must either be nonlocal (as the Bohm interpretation is) or give up the assumption that experiments produce unique results (see counterfactual definiteness and many-worlds interpretation). In particular, Bell proved that any local theory with unique results must make empirical predictions satisfying a statistical constraint called "Bell's inequality".  Alain Aspect performed a series of Bell test experiments that test Bell's inequality using

Classical limit.

Bohm's formulation of de Broglie–Bohm theory in terms of a classically looking version has the merits that the emergence of classical behavior seems to follow immediately

Quantum trajectory method.

Work by Robert E. Wyatt in the early 2000s attempted to use the Bohm "particles" as an adaptive mesh that follows the actual trajectory of a quantum state in time and space. In the "quantum trajectory" method, one samples the quantum wavefunction with a mesh of quadrature points. One then evolves the quadrature points in time according to the Bohm equations of motion. At each time step, one then re-synthesizes the wavefunction from the points, recomputes the quantum forces, and continues the calculation. (QuickTime movies of this for H + H reactive scattering can be found on the Wyatt group web-site at UT Austin.) This approach has been adapted, extended, and used by a number of researchers in the chemical physics community as a way to compute semi-classical and quasi-classical molecular dynamics. A recent (2007) issue of the Journal of Physical Chemistry A

Zitterbewegung.

As has been recently demonstrated, charged extended particles can experience self-oscillatory dynamics as a result of classical electrodynamic self-interactions. This trembling motion has a frequency closely related to the zitterbewegung frequency in Dirac's equation. The mechanism producing these fluctuations arises because some parts of an accelerated charged corpuscle emit electromagnetic perturbations

Similarities with the many-worlds interpretation.

Kim Joris Boström has proposed a non-relativistic quantum mechanical theory that combines elements of de Broglie-Bohm mechanics and Everett’s many-worlds. In particular, the unreal many-worlds interpretation of Hawking and Weinberg is similar to the Bohmian concept of unreal empty branch worlds:  Many authors have expressed critical views of de Broglie–Bohm theory by comparing it to Everett's many-worlds approach. Many (but not all) proponents of de Broglie–Bohm theory (such as Bohm and Bell) interpret the universal wavefunction as physically real. According to some supporters of Everett's theory, if the (never collapsing) wavefunction is taken to be physically real, then it is natural to interpret the theory as having the same many worlds as Everett's theory. In the Everettian view the role of the Bohmian particle is to act as a "pointer", tagging, or selecting, just one branch of the universal wavefunction (the assumption that this branch indicates which "wave packet" determines the observed result of a given experiment is called the "result assumption"); the other branches are designated "empty" and implicitly assumed by Bohm to be devoid of conscious observers. H. Dieter Zeh comments on these "empty" branches:  David Deutsch has expressed the same point more "acerbically":

Occam's-razor criticism.

Both Hugh Everett III and Bohm treated the wavefunction as a physically real field. Everett's many-worlds interpretation is an attempt to demonstrate that the wavefunction alone is sufficient to account for all our observations. When we see the particle detectors flash or hear the click of a Geiger counter, Everett's theory interprets this as our "wavefunction" responding to changes in the detector's "wavefunction", which is responding in turn to the passage of another "wavefunction" (which we think of as a "particle", but is actually just another wave packet). No particle (in the Bohm sense of having a defined position and velocity) exists according to that theory. For this reason Everett sometimes referred to his own many-worlds approach as the "pure wave theory". Of Bohm's 1952 approach, Everett said: In

Derivations.

De Broglie–Bohm theory has been derived many times and in many ways. Below

History.

De Broglie–Bohm theory has a history of different formulations and names. In this section, each stage is given a name and a main reference.

Pilot-wave theory.

Louis de Broglie presented his pilot wave theory at the 1927 Solvay Conference, after close collaboration with Schrödinger, who developed his wave equation for de Broglie's theory. At the end of the presentation, Wolfgang Pauli pointed out that it was not compatible with a semi-classical technique Fermi had previously adopted in the case of inelastic scattering. Contrary to a popular legend, de Broglie actually gave the correct rebuttal that the particular technique could not be generalized for Pauli's purpose, although the audience might have been lost in the technical details and de Broglie's mild manner left the impression that Pauli's objection was valid. He was eventually persuaded to abandon this theory nonetheless because he was "discouraged by criticisms which [it] roused". De Broglie's theory already applies to multiple spin-less particles, but lacks an adequate theory of measurement as no one understood quantum decoherence at the time. An analysis of de Broglie's presentation

Bohmian mechanics.

Bohmian mechanics is the same theory, but with an emphasis on the notion of current flow, which is determined on the basis of the quantum equilibrium hypothesis that the probability follows the Born rule. The term "Bohmian mechanics" is also often used to include most of the further extensions past the spin-less

Causal interpretation and ontological interpretation.

Bohm developed his original ideas, calling them the "Causal Interpretation". Later he felt that "causal" sounded too much like "deterministic" and preferred to call his theory the "Ontological Interpretation". The main reference is "The Undivided Universe" (Bohm, Hiley 1993).  This stage covers work by Bohm and in collaboration with

Hydrodynamic quantum analogs.

Pioneering experiments on hydrodynamical analogs of quantum mechanics beginning with the work of Couder and Fort (2006) have shown that macroscopic classical pilot-waves can exhibit characteristics previously thought to be restricted to the quantum realm. Hydrodynamic pilot-wave analogs have been able to duplicate the double slit experiment, tunneling, quantized orbits, and numerous other quantum phenomena which have led to a resurgence in interest in pilot wave theories. Coulder and Fort note in their 2006

Experiments.

Researchers performed the ESSW experiment. They found that the photon trajectories seem surrealistic only if one fails to take into account the nonlocality inherent in Bohm’s theory.

The de Broglie–Bohm theory, also known as the pilot wave theory, Bohmian mechanics, Bohm's interpretation, and the causal interpretation, is an interpretation of quantum mechanics. In addition to a wavefunction on the space of all possible configurations, it also postulates an actual configuration that exists even when unobserved. The evolution over time of the configuration (that is, the positions of all particles or the configuration of all fields) is defined by the wave function by a guiding equation. The evolution of the wave function over time is given by the Schrödinger equation. The theory is named after Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) and David Bohm (1917–1992).

Die De-Broglie-Bohm-Theorie oder auch bohmsche Mechanik ist – je nach Definition der Begriffe – eine Interpretation oder ein alternativer Formalismus der Quantenmechanik. Sie reproduziert alle Vorhersagen der (nichtrelativistischen) Quantenmechanik, hat aber, als Interpretation aufgefasst, ein von der Kopenhagener Deutung radikal abweichendes Wirklichkeitsverständnis zur Grundlage.


Family.

The origin and the name of the noble family are linked to an ancient Byzantine tradition, rich in historical details.  According to this tradition, the Anguissolas are descended from the Constantinopolitan warlord Galvano Sordo or Galvano de Soardi/Sourdi (Σούρδη, a family name still in use today in Greece, Constantinople and Smyrna). In 717, Galvano served in the army of the Byzantine emperor Leo III the Isaurian, and "with an ingenious artificial fire, contributed to liberate the city of Constantinople from the Saracens who had kept it besieged by land and sea”. This “artificial fire” was the so-called Greek fire, an incendiary weapon developed in the late 7th century, which was responsible for many key Byzantine military victories, most notably the salvation of Constantinople from two Arab sieges, thus securing the Empire's survival. Since the shield of the Sourdi carried the effigy of an asp (in Latin: "anguis"), after Galvano’s victory over the Umayyads, his brothers-in-arms and the people of Constantinople exclaimed: ""Anguis sola fecit victoriam"!", i.e.: "The snake alone brought the victory!" This saying became very popular, and Galvano himself was nicknamed "Anguissola". The emperor eventually bestowed the Anguissola surname to all his descendants. In this regard, it has been suggested that the monogram depicted on Sofonisba’s miniature self-portrait may contain the family motto ""Anguis sola fecit victoriam"" or, more simply, the name of Sofonisba's father, Amilcare.  Fleeing from a pestilence that raged in Constantinople, the descendants of the first Anguissola settled in Italy, intermarried with other noble families such as the Komnenoi, the Gonzagas, the Caracciolos, the Scottis and the Viscontis, and built autonomous estates in Piacenza, Cremona, Vicenza and other regions of Italy. The Anguissolas who settled in Venice belonged to the patriciate of that city from 1499 to 1612.

Childhood and training.

Sofonisba Anguissola was born in Cremona, Lombardy in 1532, the oldest of seven children, six of whom were girls. Her father, Amilcare Anguissola, was a member of the Cremonese nobility, and her mother, Bianca Ponzone, was also of noble background. The family lived near the site of a famous 2nd century B.C. battle, the battle of the Trebbia, between Romans and Carthaginians, and several members of the Anguissola family were named after ancient Carthaginian historical characters: Amilcare named his first daughter after the tragic Carthaginian figure Sophonisba, and his only son Asdrubale after the warlord Hasdrubal Barca. Amilcare Anguissola, inspired by Baldassare Castiglione's book Il Cortigiano, encouraged all his daughters (Sofonisba, Elena, Lucia, Europa, Minerva and Anna Maria) to cultivate and perfect their talents. Four of the sisters (Elena, Lucia, Europa and Anna Maria) became painters, but Sofonisba was by far the most accomplished and renowned and taught her younger siblings. Elena Anguissola (c. 1532 – 1584) abandoned painting to become a nun. Both Anna Maria and Europa gave up art upon marrying, while Lucia Anguissola (1536 or 1538 – 1565–1568), the best painter of Sophonisba's sisters, died young. The remaining sister, Minerva, became a writer and Latin scholar. Asdrubale, Sophonisba's brother, studied music and Latin, but not painting.  Her aristocratic father made sure that Anguissola and her sisters received a well-rounded education that included the fine arts. Anguissola was fourteen when her father sent her and her sister Elena to study with Bernardino Campi, a respected portrait and religious painter of the Lombard school. When Campi moved to another city, Anguissola continued her studies with painter Bernardino Gatti (known as Il Sojaro), a pupil of Correggio's. Anguissola's apprenticeship with local painters set a precedent for women to be accepted as students of art. Dates are uncertain, but Anguissola probably continued her studies under Gatti for about three years (1551–1553).  One of Anguissola's most important early works was "Bernardino Campi Painting Sofonisba Anguissola" (c. 1550). The unusual double portrait depicts Anguissola's art teacher in the act of painting a portrait of her.  In 1554, at age twenty-two, Anguissola traveled to Rome, where she spent her time sketching various scenes and people. While in Rome, she was introduced to Michelangelo by another painter who was familiar with her work. Sofonisba initially showed Michelangelo a drawing of laughing girl, but the painter challenged her to draw a weeping boy, a subject which he felt would be more challenging. Anguissola drew "Boy Bitten by a Crayfish" and sent it back to Michelangelo, who immediately recognized her talent. Michelangelo subsequently gave Anguissola sketches from his notebooks to draw in her own style and offered advice on the results. For at least two years, Anguissola continued this informal study, receiving substantial guidance from Michelangelo.

Experiences as a female artist.

Anguissola's education and training had different implications from those of men, since men and women worked in separate spheres. Her training was not to help her into a profession where she would compete for commissions with male artists, but to make her a better wife, companion, and mother. Although Anguissola enjoyed significantly more encouragement and support than the average woman of her day, her social class did not allow her to transcend the constraints of her sex. Without the possibility of studying anatomy or drawing from life (it was considered unacceptable for a lady to view nudes), she could not undertake the complex multi-figure compositions required for large-scale religious or history paintings.  Instead, she experimented with new styles of portraiture, setting subjects informally. Self-portraits and family members were her most frequent subjects, as seen in such paintings as "Self-Portrait" (1554, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), "Portrait of Amilcare, Minerva and Asdrubale Anguissola" (c. 1557–1558, Nivaagaards Malerisambling, Niva, Denmark), and her most famous picture, "The Chess Game" (1555, Muzeum Narodowe, Poznań), which depicted her sisters Lucia, Minerva and Europa. Painted when Sofonisba was 23 years old, "The Chess Game" is an intimate representation of an everyday family scene, combining elaborate formal clothing with very informal facial expressions, which was unusual for Italian art at this time. "The Chess Game" explored a new kind of genre painting which places her sitters in a domestic setting instead of the formal or allegorical settings that were popular at the time. This painting has been regarded as a conversation piece, which is an informal portrait of a group engaging in lively conversation or some activity.  Anguissola's self-portraits also offer evidence of what she thought her place was as a woman artist. Normally, men were seen as creative actors and women as passive objects, but in her self-portrait of 1556, Anguissola presents herself as the artist, separating herself from the role as the object to be painted. Additional pieces show how she rebels against the notion that women are objects, in essence an instrument to be played by men. Her self-portrait of 1561 show her playing an instrument, taking on a different role.  She became well known outside of Italy, and in 1559 King Phillip II of Spain asked her to be lady-in-waiting and art teacher to Queen Elisabeth of Valois, who was only 14 at the time. Queen Elisabeth of Valois and Sofonisba became good friends, and when the Queen died nine years later, Sofonisba left the court because she was so sad. She had painted the entire royal family and even the Pope commissioned Anguissola to do a portrait of the Queen.

At the Spanish Court.

In 1558, already established as a painter, Anguissola went to Milan, where she painted the Duke of Alba. He in turn recommended her to the Spanish king, Philip II. The following year, Anguissola was invited to join the Spanish Court, which was a turning point in her career.  Anguissola was approximately twenty-six when she left Italy to join the Spanish court. In the winter of 1559–1560, she arrived in Madrid to serve as a court painter and lady-in-waiting to the new queen, Elisabeth of Valois, Philip’s third wife, who was herself an amateur portraitist. Anguissola soon gained Elisabeth's admiration and confidence and spent the following years painting many official portraits for the court, including Philip II’s sister, Joanna, and his son, Don Carlos.  These types of paintings were far more demanding than the informal portraits upon which Anguissola had based her early reputation, as it took a tremendous amount of time and energy to render the many intricate designs of the fine fabrics and elaborate jewelry associated with royal subjects. Yet despite the challenge, Anguissola's paintings of Elisabeth of Valois – and later of Anne of Austria, Philip II’s fourth wife – were vibrant and full of life. During her 14-year residence, she guided the artistic development of Queen Elisabeth, and influenced the art made by her two daughters, Isabella Clara Eugenia and Catherine Michelle. Anguissola painted a portrait of the King's sister, Margaret of Parma, for Pope Pius IV in 1561 and, after Queen Elisabeth's death in childbirth in 1568, painted the likeness of Anne of Austria, Philip's fourth wife. While she continued painting portraits at the court, the Althorp "Self-Portrait" is the "only securely attributed work surviving from this period". For the royal family, Anguissola produced detailed scenes of their lives that now hang in the Prado Museum. With the gifts and a dowry of 12,000 scudi she earned along with her salary as court painter and lady-in-waiting to the queen, she amassed an admirable return from her craft. While in the service of Elizabeth of Valois, Anguissola worked closely with Alonso Sanchez Coello. So closely in fact, that the famous painting of the middle-aged King Philip II was long attributed to Coello or Juan Pantoja de la Cruz. Only recently has Anguissola been recognized as the painting's creator.

Personal life.

After the death of Elisabeth of Valois in 1568, Philip II took a special interest in Anguissola's future. He had wished to marry her to one of the nobles in the Spanish Court. In 1571, when she was approaching the age of 40, Anguissola entered an arranged marriage to a Sicilian nobleman chosen for her by the Spanish court. Philip II paid a dowry of 12,000 scudi for her marriage to, son of the Prince of Paternò, Viceroy of Sicily. Fabrizio was said to be supportive of her painting. Anguissola and her husband left Spain with the king's permission, and are believed to have lived in Paternò (near Catania) from 1573 to 1579, though some recent scholarship has suggested that the couple remained in Spain. She received a royal pension of 100 ducats that enabled her to continue working and tutoring would-be painters. Her private fortune also supported her family and brother Asdrubale following Amilcare Anguissola's financial decline and death. In Paternò she painted and donated "La Madonna dell'Itria".  Anguissola's husband died in 1579 under mysterious circumstances. Two years later, while traveling to Cremona by sea, she fell in love with the ship's captain, sea merchant Orazio Lomellino. Against the wishes of her brother, they married in Pisa on 24 December 1584 and lived in Genoa until 1620. She had no children, but maintained cordial relationships with her nieces and her stepson, Giulio.

Later years.

Lomellino's fortune, plus a generous pension from Philip II, allowed Anguissola to paint freely and live comfortably. By now quite famous, Anguissola received many colleagues who came to visit and discuss the arts with her. Several of these were younger artists, eager to learn and mimic Anguissola's distinctive style.  In her later life, Anguissola painted not only portraits but religious themes, as she had done in the days of her youth, although many of the latter have been lost. She was the leading portrait painter in Genoa until she moved to Palermo in her last years. In 1620 she painted her last self-portrait.  On 12 July 1624, Anguissola was visited by the young Flemish painter Anthony van Dyck, who recorded sketches from his visit to her in his sketchbook. Van Dyck, who believed her to be 96 years of age (she was actually about 92) noted that although "her eyesight was weakened", Anguissola was still mentally alert. Excerpts of the advice she gave him about painting survive from this visit, and he was said to have claimed that their conversation taught him more about the "true principles" of painting than anything else in his life. Van Dyck drew her portrait while visiting her. This last portrait made of Anguissola survives in on public display at Knole. The next year, she returned to Sicily.  Anguissola became a wealthy patron of the arts after the weakening of her sight. In 1625, she died at age 93 in Palermo.  Anguissola's adoring second husband, who described her as small of frame, yet "great among mortals", buried her with honor in Palermo at the Church of San Giorgio dei Genovesi. Seven years later, on the anniversary of what would have been her 100th birthday, her husband placed an inscription on her tomb that read in part:

Style.

The influence of Campi, whose reputation was based on portraiture, is evident in Anguissola's early works, such as the "Self-Portrait" (Florence, Uffizi). Her work was akin to the worldly tradition of Cremona, influenced greatly by the art of Parma and Mantua, in which even religious works were imbued with extreme delicacy and charm. From Gatti she seems to have absorbed elements reminiscent of Correggio, beginning a trend in Cremonese painting of the late 16th century. This new direction is reflected in "Lucia, Minerva and Europa Anguissola Playing Chess" (1555; Poznań, N. Mus.) in which portraiture merges into a quasi-genre scene, a characteristic derived from Brescian models.  The main body of Anguissola's earlier work consists of self-portraits (the many "autoritratti" reflect the fact that portraits of her were frequently requested due to her fame) and portraits of her family, which are considered by many to be her finest works.  Approximately fifty works have been attributed to Anguissola. Her paintings can be seen at galleries in Baltimore (Walters Art Museum), Bergamo, Berlin (Gemäldegalerie), Graz (Joanneum Alte Galerie), Madrid (Museo del Prado), Milan (Pinacoteca di Brera), Milwaukee (Milwaukee Art Museum), Naples (National Museum of Capodimonte), Poznań (National Museum, Poznań), Siena (Pinacoteca Nazionale), Southampton (City Art Gallery), and Vienna (Kunsthistorisches Museum).

Historical significance.

Sofonisba Anguissola's oeuvre had a lasting influence on subsequent generations of artists. Her portrait of Queen Elisabeth of Valois with a zibellino (the pelt of a marten set with a head and feet of jewelled gold) was widely copied by many of the finest artists of the time, such as Peter Paul Rubens, while Caravaggio allegedly took inspiration from Anguissola's work for his "Boy Bitten by a Lizard".  Anguissola is significant to feminist art historians. Although there has never been a period in Western history in which women were completely absent in the visual arts, Anguissola's great success opened the way for larger numbers of women to pursue serious careers as artists; Lavinia Fontana expressed in a letter written in 1579 that she and another woman, Irene di Spilimbergo, had “set [their] heart[s] on learning how to paint” after seeing one of Anguissola’s portraits. Some of her more well-known successors include Lavinia Fontana, Barbara Longhi, Fede Galizia and Artemisia Gentileschi.  A Cremonese school bears the name Liceo Statale Sofonisba Anguissola.

Crater.

On 4 August 2017 a crater on Mercury was named after her.

Sofonisba Anguissola ( – 16 November 1625), also known as Sophonisba Angussola or Sophonisba Anguisciola, was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Cremona to a relatively poor noble family. She received a well-rounded education that included the fine arts, and her apprenticeship with local painters set a precedent for women to be accepted as students of art. As a young woman, Anguissola traveled to Rome where she was introduced to Michelangelo, who immediately recognized her talent, and to Milan, where she painted the Duke of Alba. The Spanish queen, Elizabeth of Valois, was a keen amateur painter and in 1559 Anguissola was recruited to go to Madrid as her tutor, with the rank of lady-in-waiting. She later became an official court painter to the king, Philip II, and adapted her style to the more formal requirements of official portraits for the Spanish court. After the queen's death, Philip helped arrange an aristocratic marriage for her. She moved to Sicily, and later Pisa and Genoa, where she continued to practice as a leading portrait painter.

Sofonisba Anguissola (* um 1531/1532 in Cremona; † 16. November 1625 in Palermo) war eine italienische Malerin der Renaissance und die erfolgreichste Künstlerin dieser Epoche.


Career.

Knigge was born in Hamburg. He began his career initially as a textile businessman and fashion designer. In 1974, he received a record contract with Hans Bertram, who rechristened him "Tony Holiday". His first two singles met with little success. Holiday's breakthrough came in 1977 with the German recording of Italian singer Raffaella Carrà's 1976 single "A far l'amore comincia tu", retitled "Tanze Samba mit Mir" ("Dance the Samba With Me"). The song quickly became a hit in both Germany and Austria, peaking at No. 4 on the German music charts and reaching the Top 20 on the Austrian music charts.  In 1979, he participated with the title "Zuviel Tequila, zuviel schöne Mädchen" ("Too Much Tequila, Too Many Beautiful Girls") in the German finals for the Eurovision Song Contest and the song finished in ninth place.  Between 1975 and 1984, Holiday performed 11 times on the popular German music television program "ZDF-Hitparade".  In 1980, Holiday scored a second European hit with "Nie mehr allein sein" which reached the number 15 on the German music charts. The song was a reworking of "Sun of Jamaica" by the German band Goombay Dance Band. Holiday subsequently hosted several music programs on television and released several more singles throughout the 1980s.

Death and legacy.

Holiday was gay, but did not publicly acknowledge his homosexuality. He died on Valentine's Day, 1990 of an AIDS-related illness in Lausanne, aged 38, just ten days shy of his 39th birthday.  In 2000, Tony Holiday's single "Tanze Samba mit Mir" was prominently featured in the Teddy Award-winning François Ozon directed film "Gouttes d'eau sur pierres brûlantes" ("Water Drops on Burning Rocks"), an adaptation of the play "Tropfen auf heisse Steine" by German filmmaker and dramatist Rainer Werner Fassbinder.

Tony Holiday (born Rolf Peter Knigge; 24 February 1951 – 14 February 1990) was a German pop and schlager singer and songwriter.

Tony Holiday (* 24. Februar 1951 in Hamburg als "Rolf Peter Knigge"; † 14. Februar 1990 in Lausanne) war ein deutscher Schlagersänger und Texter.


Internationales Übereinkommen zur Verhütung der Meeresverschmutzung durch Schiffe

Provisions.

MARPOL is divided into Annexes according to various categories of pollutants, each of which deals with the regulation of a particular group of ship emissions.

Annex I.

MARPOL Annex I came into force on 2 October 1983 and deals with the discharge of oil into the ocean environment. It incorporates the oil discharge criteria prescribed in the 1969 amendments to the 1954 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL). It specifies tanker design features that are intended to minimize oil discharge into the ocean during ship operations and in case of accidents. It provides regulations with regard to the treatment of engine room bilge water (OWS) for all large commercial vessels and ballast and tank cleaning waste (ODME). It also introduces the concept of "special sea areas (PPSE)" which are considered to be at risk to pollution by oil. Discharge of oil within them has been completely outlawed, with a few minimal exceptions.  The first half of MARPOL Annex I deals with engine room waste. There are various generations of technologies and equipment that have been developed to prevent waste such as: Oily water separators (OWS), Oil Content meters (OCM), and Port Reception Facilities.  The second part of the MARPOL Annex I has more to do with cleaning the cargo areas and tanks. Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment (ODME) is a very important technology mentioned in MARPOL Annex I that has greatly helped improve sanitation in these areas.  The Oil Record Book is another integral part of MARPOL Annex I. The Oil Record Book helps crew members log and keep track of oily wastewater discharges among other things.

Annex II.

MARPOL Annex II came into force on 2 october 1983. It details the discharge criteria for the elimination of pollution by noxious liquid substances carried in large quantities. It divides substances into and introduces detailed operational standards and measures. The discharge of pollutants is allowed only to reception facilities with certain concentrations and conditions. No matter what, no discharge of residues containing pollutants is permitted within of the nearest land. Stricter restrictions apply to "special areas".  Annex II covers the International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code) in conjunction with Chapter 7 of the SOLAS Convention. Previously, chemical tankers constructed before must comply with the requirements of the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (BCH Code).

Annex III.

MARPOL Annex III came into force on 1 July 1992. It contains general requirements for the standards on packing, marking, labeling, documentation, stowage, quantity subtraction, division and notifications for preventing pollution by harmful substances. The Annex is in line with the procedures detailed in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, which has been expanded to include marine pollutants. The amendments entered into force on 1 January 1991.

Annex IV.

Marpol Annex IV came into force on 27 September 2003. It introduces requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage from ships.

Annex V.

MARPOL Annex V ("Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships") came into force on 31 December 1988. It specifies the distances from land in which materials may be disposed of and subdivides different types of garbage and marine debris. The requirements are much stricter in a number of "special areas" but perhaps the most prominent part of the Annex is the complete ban of dumping plastic into the ocean.

Annex VI.

MARPOL Annex VI came into force on 19 May 2005. It introduces requirements to regulate the air pollution being emitted by ships, including the emission of ozone-depleting substances, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulphur Oxides (SOx), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and shipboard incineration. It also establishes requirements for reception facilities for wastes from exhaust gas cleaning systems, incinerators, fuel oil quality, for off-shore platforms and drilling rigs and for the establishment of SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAs).

IMO 2020.

As of 1 January 2020 new emission standards are enforced for fuel oil used by ships, in a regulation known as IMO 2020. The global sulphur limit (outside SECA’s) dropped from an allowed 3.5% sulphur in marine fuels to 0.5%. This will significantly improve the air quality in many populated coastal and port areas, which will prevent over 100,000 early deaths each year, and many more cases of asthma in these regions and cities. Over 170 countries have signed on to the changes, including the United States. This is expected to create massive changes for the shipping and oil industries, with major updates required to ships and the increased production of lower sulphur fuel.  The IMO has worked on ensuring consistent implementation of the 0.5% sulphur limit in its Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) and its subcommittee on Pollution Prevention and Response (PPR). This has led to the development on several regulatory and practical measures (FONAR’s, Carriage Ban, Ship Implementation Plan etc.) to enable any non-compliance to be detected, for example during port State controls (PSC’s).

Amendments.

MARPOL Annex VI amendments according with MEPC 176(58) came into force 1 July 2010.  Amended Regulations 12 concerns control and record keeping of Ozone Depleting Substances.  Amended Regulation 14 concerns mandatory fuel oil change over procedures for vessels entering or leaving SECA areas and FO sulphur limits.  MARPOL Annex V has been amended multiple times, changing different aspects of the original text.  MEPC.219(63) came into force on 2 March 2012 to generally prohibit the discharge of any garbage into the ocean, with the exception of food wastes, cargo residues, wash-water, and animal carcasses. There are further provisions describing when and how to dispose of the acceptable wastes.  MEPC.220(63) came into force on 2 March 2012 to encourage the creation of a waste management plan on-board vessels.

Implementation and enforcement.

In order for IMO standards to be binding, they must first be ratified by a total number of member countries whose combined gross tonnage represents at least 50% of the world's gross tonnage, a process that can be lengthy. A system of tacit acceptance has therefore been put into place, whereby if no objections are heard from a member state after a certain period has elapsed, it is assumed they have assented to the treaty.  All six Annexes have been ratified by the requisite number of nations; the most recent is Annex VI, which took effect in May 2005. The country where a ship is registered (Flag State) is responsible for certifying the ship's compliance with MARPOL's pollution prevention standards. Each signatory nation is responsible for enacting domestic laws to implement the convention and effectively pledges to comply with the convention, annexes, and related laws of other nations. In the United States, for example, the relevant implementation legislation is the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships.  One of the difficulties in implementing MARPOL arises from the very international nature of maritime shipping. The country that the ship visits can conduct its own examination to verify a ship's compliance with international standards and can detain the ship if it finds significant noncompliance. When incidents occur outside such country's jurisdiction or jurisdiction cannot be determined, the country refers cases to flag states, in accordance with MARPOL. A 2000 US GAO report documented that even when referrals have been made, the response rate from flag states has been poor.  On January 1, 2015, maritime shipping levels became legally subject to new MARPOL directives because the SECA (Sulphur Emission Controlled Areas) zone increased in size. This larger SECA zone will include the North Sea, Scandinavia, and parts of the English Channel. This area is set to include all of the Republic of Ireland's international waters in 2020 culminating in all of Western Europe's subjection to the MARPOL directive. This has proven controversial for shipping and ferry operators across Europe.  Concerns have been raised about the environmental damage moving back to the roads by some of the larger ferry operators that ship substantial amounts of freight and passenger traffic via these routes affected by IMO standards. They claim that MARPOL will drive up ferry costs for the consumer and freight forwarding companies pushing them back onto the European roadways as a financially more cost effective measure compared to increased ferry costs, thereby defeating the object of reducing water pollution.

Enforcement of MARPOL Annex VI.

Concerns have also been raised whether the emission regulation in MARPOL Annex VI, such as the 0,5% global sulphur limit, can be enforced on the high seas by non-flag States, as some ships sail under a flag of convenience. It is believed that the United Nations Convention on the Law Of the Sea (UNCLOS) allows port States to assert jurisdiction over such violations of emission regulation (also of future regulations of GHG) when they occur on the high seas. Coastal States can assert jurisdiction over violations occurring within their waters, with certain exceptions pertaining to innocent passage and the right of transit passage. The special obligations for flag States and the broadened jurisdictions for coastal and port States, to enforce MARPOL (including Annex VI) are found within the special provisions of part XII of UNCLOS.

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78, MARPOL is short for International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and 73/78 short for the years 1973 and 1978) is one of the most important international marine environmental conventions. It was developed by the International Maritime Organization with an objective to minimize pollution of the oceans and seas, including dumping, oil and air pollution.

Das Internationale Übereinkommen von 1973 zur Verhütung der Meeresverschmutzung durch Schiffe (en. "International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973", auch MARPOL 73/78 (von "marine pollution")) ist in seiner 1978 geänderten Fassung ist ein weltweit gültiges Umweltabkommen. Die Aufgaben des Sekretariats nimmt die International Maritime Organization (IMO) wahr. Das Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) der IMO fungiert als Vertragsstaatenkonferenz, die Modifikationen und Ergänzungen des Vertragswerkes beschließen kann. Gemeinsam mit der Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)-Konvention von 1974 bildet die MARPOL-Konvention die rechtliche Basis für den Umweltschutz in der Seeschifffahrt und damit die Basis der weltweiten Anstrengungen zur Minimierung der Verschmutzung der Meeresumwelt.


History.

The company was founded in 1932, with operation commencing in November 1933. Initially the service was run with the single ferry "Schwan", built for the opening, and providing a half-hourly service. Service was suspended between 1942 and 1946, as a consequence of Second World War. From 1946, the ferry was reintroduced with an hourly service.  Over time, demand rose so that a continuous shuttle operation had to be introduced. In 1968 a replacement vessel, also known as "Schwan", was launched and took over the service, providing a half-hourly service. Over the next 35 years, four further ferries were constructed, allowing a more frequent service to be provided.  In 1973 a new approach to the Horgen ferry terminal was constructed, with a bridge over the lakeside railway line, allowing the previously used level crossing to be closed.

Operation.

On the Horgen side of the lake, the ferries operate from a ferry terminal with its own road-bridge across the lakeside railway line, and some on foot along the lakeside promenade from Horgen railway station. On the Meilen side of the lake, the ferries operate from a ferry terminal on "Seestrasse", a similar distance from Meilen railway station.  Ferries operate from early morning to late evening. Ferries operate every 10 minutes throughout the day, with frequencies increasing to every 6 or 7 minutes in peak periods. The crossing time is 10 minutes.  In 2011, 69,950 ferry crossings were operated, carrying in total 2,192,175 people, 1,226,540 cars and 99,470 trucks.

Fleet.

The ferry service is operated with a fleet of five motor ferries:

External links.

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The Zürichsee-Fähre Horgen–Meilen, or Horgen–Meilen Lake Zurich ferry, is a Swiss car ferry that operates across Lake Zurich between the lakeside towns of Horgen and Meilen. The ferry route is situated south of the city of Zurich, and the ferry avoids a round trip by road of some by road via that city.

Die Zürichsee-Fähre Horgen–Meilen AG (FHM) ist eine Schweizer Aktiengesellschaft und betreibt ganzjährig den Fährbetrieb auf dem Zürichsee zwischen Horgen und Meilen.


Background.

Around 1900, the Cunard Line faced tight competition from the British White Star Line and the German lines Norddeutscher Lloyd (North German Lloyd) and Hamburg America Line (HAPAG). Cunards largest liners, as of 1898 and, had a reputation for size and speed, both being of 12,950 gross register tons (GRT) and having held the "Blue Riband" for the fastest crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. However, Norddeutscher Lloyds new liner had taken the Blue Riband from them in 1897, while White Star was planning to place a new 17,000-GRT liner, into service. Cunard also updated its fleet during this time, ordering three new liners,,, and "Carpathia".  Rather than attempting to fully regain prestige by spending the additional money necessary to order liners that were fast enough to win back the Blue Riband from the German "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" or large enough to rival "Oceanic" in size, Cunard tried to maximize their profitability in order to remain solvent enough to fend off any takeover attempts by competing shipping conglomerate International Mercantile Marine Co..  The three new ships were not especially fast, as they were designed for the immigrant trade, but provided significant cost savings in fuel economy. The three ships became both instruments and models through which Cunard was able to successfully compete with its larger rivals – most notably IMM's lead company, White Star Line.  "Carpathia" was a modified design of the "Ivernia"-class ships, being approximately shorter than her "half-sisters." Like her predecessors, her design was based on a long hull, a low, well-balanced superstructure, and four masts fitted with cranes, allowing for effective handling of larger amounts of cargo than was customary on an ocean liner. "Carpathia" was designed with a single tall smokestack funnel to carry soot and smoke well clear of passenger areas.

History.

Design and construction.

RMS "Carpathia" was constructed by C. S. Swan & Hunter at their Newcastle upon Tyne, England shipyard for the Cunard Steamship Company, to operate between Liverpool and Boston alongside "Ivernia" and "Saxonia". She was laid down on 10 September 1901, and launched on 6 August 1902, when she was christened by Miss Watson, daughter of the vice-chairman of the Cunard line. She underwent her sea trials on a voyage from the River Tyne to the River Mersey between 22 and 25 April 1903.  At the time of her launch, she was described as being long, breadth, with gross register tonnage of 12,900. As completed her gross register tonnage had increased to more than 13,500. She was designed with "four complete steel decks, a steel orlop deck in Nos. 1 and 2 holds, and a bridge deck 290 ft. long for passenger, saloon and cabins" with a boat deck above this. At the time she was launched, it was said that she was to be fitted for carrying 200 first-class and 600 third-class passengers and large quantities of frozen meat. As completed, her capacity had increased to about 1,700 passengers. Despite being an intermediate liner designed for the second and third-class trade, "Carpathia"s interior accommodations were still quite comfortable and set a standard for the day. The dining saloon was described as decorated in "cream and gold, which combine effectively with the rich upholstery and mahogany of the...furniture...and old gold curtains screening the ports," and was capped by a stained-glass dome underneath an electrical fan for ventilation. The second-class accommodation also included a walnut-panelled smoking room located in the aft deckhouse and a handsome library at the forward end of the bridge (A) deck. After the 1905 renovation, these spaces would be converted to first-class accommodation. Third-class accommodation on "Carpathia" were extraordinarily generous for the time. The third-class dining saloon extended the full width of the ship and seated 300 passengers, with "walls panelled in polished oak and teak dado." Third-class also included a smoking room and ladies' room located immediately forward of the dining saloon on the upper (C) deck, adjacent to the enclosed promenade (or open space) similar to the design on "Ivernia" and "Saxonia". Officers were berthed in the forward deckhouse on the bridge (A) deck, above the second-class dining saloon, while the captain's quarters was located on the boat deck immediately below the ship's bridge.  "Carpathia"s lower decks were well-ventilated by means of deck ventilators, supplemented by electric fans. The ventilation systems were designed to force fresh air over coiled thermotanks, which could be fed with cool water during the summer or steam during the winter, thus heating and cooling the ship as conditions warranted. Although the ship was fully electrified with over 2,000 lamps, the ship still had backup oil lamps in the cabins when she entered service.  "Carpathia" had seven single-ended boilers, fitted with the Howden forced draught system, working at, which fed two independent sets of four-cylinder, four-crank, quadruple expansion engines, built by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, Ltd. of Wallsend, England with cylinders of:,,, and with a stroke of. The engine power available allowed for an intended trial speed of.  "Carpathia" made her maiden voyage on 5 May 1903 from Liverpool, England, to Boston, Massachusetts in the US, and ran services between New York City, and Mediterranean ports at Gibraltar, Algiers, Naples, Trieste, and Fiume.

Early service.

Although lacking the speed and grand luxury of express liners (initially she had no first-class accommodations), "Carpathia" quickly developed a reputation as a comfortable ship, particularly in rough weather, due to her relatively wide breadth to length ratio, the use of bilge keels, and the lack of vibration typically found in powerful engines. The ship became popular with both tourists and emigrants. During the summer season "Carpathia" operated mainly between Liverpool and New York City, and in the winter it travelled from New York City to the Mediterranean  After Cunard partnered with the Royal Hungarian Sea Navigation Company "Adria" in 1904 "Carpathia" was more on the duty to transfer Hungarian emigrants. As a result, "Carpathia" was renovated in 1905, increasing its capacity from 1,700 passengers to 2,550 passengers. Mainly third-class small cabins were converted to large shared dormitory rooms while adding first-class accommodation to areas that were previously second-class. In 1912, her tonnage was, and she had a capacity of 2,450 passengers (250 first and second-class combined, and 2,200 third-class. She had a crew in 1912 of about 300, including 6 officers. She carried 20 lifeboats.

"Titanic" disaster.

"Carpathia" departed from New York City on 11 April 1912 bound for Fiume, Austria-Hungary (now Rijeka, Croatia). Among its passengers were the American painters Colin Campbell Cooper and his wife Emma, author Philip Mauro, journalists Lewis Palmer Skidmore and Carlos Fayette Hurd, with their wives, Emily Vinton Skidmore and Katherine Cordell Hurd, photographer Dr. Francis H. Blackmarr, and Charles H. Marshall, whose three nieces were travelling aboard "Titanic". Also on board were Hope Brown Chapin, honeymooning youngest daughter of former governor of Rhode Island, Russell Brown, Pittsburgh architect Charles M. Hutchison and wife, Sue Eva Rule, sister of Judge Virgil Rule of the St. Louis court of appeals, as well as Louis Mansfield Ogden, Esq., with his wife, Augusta Davies Ogden, a granddaughter of Alexander H. Rice.  On the night of 14 April, "Carpathia"s wireless operator, Harold Cottam, had missed previous messages from the "Titanic", as he was on the bridge at the time. After his shift ended at midnight, he continued listening to the transmitter before bed, and received messages from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, stating they had private traffic for "Titanic". He thought he would be helpful and at 12:11 a.m. on 15 April sent a message to "Titanic" stating that Cape Cod had traffic for them. In reply he received "Titanic"s distress signal, stating that they had struck ice and were in need of immediate assistance.  Cottam took the message and coordinates to the bridge, where the officers on watch were sceptical about the seriousness of the distress call. Agitated, Cottam rushed down the ladder to the captain's cabin and awakened Captain Arthur Henry Rostron, who immediately sprang into action and "gave the order to turn the ship around", and then "asked the operator if he was absolutely sure it was a distress signal from the Titanic". The operator said that he had "received a distress signal from the "Titanic", requiring immediate assistance", gave "Titanic" position, and said that "he was absolutely certain of the message". Whilst dressing, Rostron set a course for "Titanic", and sent for the chief engineer and told "him to call another watch of stokers and make all possible speed to the "Titanic", as she was in trouble." Rostron later testified that the distance to "Titanic" was and took "Carpathia" three and a half hours.  Rostron ordered the ship's heating and hot water cut off in order to make as much steam as possible available for the engines, and had extra lookouts on watch to spot ice. Cottam, meanwhile, messaged the "Titanic" that "Carpathia" was "coming as quickly as possible and expect to be there within four hours." Cottam refrained from sending more signals after this, trying to keep the air clear for "Titanic"s distress signals. "Carpathia" reached the edge of the ice field by 2:45 a.m., and for the next two hours dodged icebergs as small growlers of ice ground along the hull plates. The "Carpathia" arrived at the distress position at 4:00 a.m., approximately an hour and a half after the "Titanic" went down, claiming more than 1,500 lives. For the next four and a half hours, the ship took on the 705 survivors of the disaster from "Titanic"s 20 lifeboats. Survivors were given blankets and coffee, and then escorted by stewards to the dining rooms. Others went on deck to survey the ocean for any sign of their loved ones. Throughout the rescue, "Carpathia"s own passengers assisted in any way that they could. By 9:00, the last survivor had been picked up, and Rostron gave the order to get under way.  After considering options for where to disembark the passengers, including the Azores (the destination with the least cost to the Cunard Line) and Halifax (the closest port, although along an ice-laden route), Rostron consulted with Bruce Ismay and decided to disembark the survivors in New York. News of the "Titanic" disaster spread on shore, and the humble "Carpathia" became the center of intense media attention as she steamed westward towards New York at 14 knots. Hundreds of wireless messages were being sent from Cape Race and other shore stations addressed to Captain Rostron from relatives of "Titanic" passengers and journalists demanding details in exchange for money. Rostron ordered that no news stories would be transmitted directly to the press, deferring such responsibilities to the White Star offices as Cottam provided details to "Titanic"s sister ship,. On Wednesday, 17 April, the scout cruiser began escorting "Carpathia" to New York. Cottam, by then assisted by "Titanic"s junior wireless operator Harold Bride, transmitted the names of third-class survivors to "Chester". Slowed by storms and fog since the early morning of Tuesday 16 April, "Carpathia" finally arrived in New York on the evening of Thursday 18 April 1912.  For their rescue work, the crew of "Carpathia" were awarded medals by the survivors. Crew members were awarded bronze medals, officers silver, and Captain Rostron a silver cup and a gold medal, presented by Margaret Brown. Rostron was knighted by King George V, and was later a guest of President Taft at the White House, where he was presented with a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honour the United States Congress could confer.

Service in the First World War.

During the First World War, "Carpathia" was used to transfer Canadian and American Expeditionary Forces to Europe. At least some of her voyages were in convoy, sailing from New York through Halifax to Liverpool and Glasgow. Among her passengers during the war years was Frank Buckles, who went on to become the last surviving American veteran of the war.

Sinking.

On 15 July 1918, "Carpathia" departed Liverpool in a convoy bound for Boston carrying 57 passengers (36 saloon class and 21 steerage) and 166 crew. The convoy travelled on a zig-zag course along with an escort in accordance with procedures against submarine attacks. The escort left the convoy early in the morning of 17 July, and the convoy was cut in half. The "Carpathia" continued west along with six other ships; as the largest, she assumed the role of commodore ship. Three and a half hours later, at 9:15 a.m. while sailing in the Southwest Approaches, a torpedo was sighted approaching on her port side. The engines were thrown in full-astern and the helm was turned hard-a-starboard, but it was no use. "Carpathia" was torpedoed near the No. 3 hatch on the port side by the Imperial German Navy submarine, followed by a second which penetrated the engine room, killing three firemen, two trimmers, and effectively removing her ability to escape. The explosion wrecked all the electrical gear, including the wireless, as well as two of the ship's lifeboats. As a result, Captain William Prothero, in command of "Carpathia" since 1916, signalled the other ships in the convoy to send out wireless messages, by use of flags. He then had rockets fired to attract the attention of nearby patrol boats. The remaining convoy steamed away at full speed to elude the submarine.  As "Carpathia" began to settle by the head and list to port, Captain William Prothero gave the order to abandon ship. All passengers and the surviving crew members boarded the 11 lifeboats as the vessel sank. There were 218 survivors of the 223 aboard. As the passengers and crew disembarked, Prothero, the chief officer, first and second officers and the gunners remained on the sinking ship, seeing to it that all the confidential books and documents were thrown overboard. The captain then signalled one of the lifeboats to come alongside, and he and the remaining crew abandoned their ship. "U-55" surfaced and fired a third torpedo into the ship near the gunner's rooms, resulting in a large explosion that doomed the ship. "U-55" started approaching the lifeboats when the sloop arrived on the scene and drove away the submarine with gunfire before picking up the survivors from "Carpathia" around 1 pm. "Snowdrop" arrived back in Liverpool with the survivors on the evening of 18 July.  "Carpathia" sank at 11:00 AM at a position recorded by "Snowdrop" as, about two and a half hours after the torpedo strike, and approximately west of Fastnet. At the time of her sinking, "Carpathia" was the fifth Cunard steamship sunk in as many weeks; the others being the "Ascania", "Ausonia", "Dwinsk", and "Valentia", leaving only five Cunarders afloat from the large pre-war fleet.

Discovery and salvage works.

On 9 September 1999, the Reuters and AP wire services reported that Argosy International Ltd., headed by Graham Jessop, son of the undersea explorer Keith Jessop, and sponsored by the National Underwater and Marine Agency (NUMA), had discovered "Carpathia"s wreck in of water, west of Land's End. Bad weather forced his ship to abandon the position before Jessop could verify the discovery using underwater cameras. However, when he returned to the location, the wreck was determined to be the Hamburg-America Line's "Isis", sunk on 8 November 1936.  In 2000, the American author and diver Clive Cussler announced that his organisation, NUMA, had found the true wreck of "Carpathia" in the Spring of that year, at a depth of. After the submarine attack, "Carpathia" landed upright on the seabed. NUMA gave the approximate location of the wreck as west of Fastnet, Ireland.  The wreck is owned by Premier Exhibitions Inc., formerly RMS "Titanic" Inc., which plans to recover objects from the wreck.

RMS "Carpathia" was a Cunard Line transatlantic passenger steamship built by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson in their shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

Die RMS "Carpathia" war ein 1903 in Dienst gestelltes Passagierschiff der Cunard Line. Durch seine Rolle bei der Rettung der Überlebenden des Untergangs der Titanic erlangte es weltweite Bekanntheit.


Origin.

The actual origin of the Jim Crow character has been lost to legend. One story claims it is Rice's emulation of a black slave that he had seen on his travels throughout the Southern United States, whose owner was a Mr. Crow. Several sources describe Rice encountering an elderly black stableman working in one of the river towns where Rice was performing. According to some accounts the man had a crooked leg and deformed shoulder. He was singing about Jim Crow, and punctuating each stanza with a little jump.  A more likely explanation behind the origin of the character is that Rice had observed and absorbed African American traditional song and dance over many years. He grew up in a racially integrated Manhattan neighborhood, and later Rice toured the Southern slave states. According to the reminiscences of Isaac Odell, a former minstrel who described the development of the genre in an interview given in 1907, Rice appeared onstage at Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1830s and learned there to mimic local black speech: "Coming to New York he opened up at the old Park Theatre, where he introduced his Jim Crow act, impersonating a black slave. He sang a song, 'I Turn About and Wheel About', and each night composed new verses for it, catching on with the public and making a great name for himself."

Jim Crow laws.

Rice's famous stage persona eventually lent its name to a generalized negative and stereotypical view of black people. The shows peaked in the 1850s, and after Rice's death in 1860 interest in them faded. There was still some memory of them in the 1870s however, just as the "Jim Crow" segregation laws were surfacing in the United States. The Jim Crow period, which started when segregation rules, laws and customs surfaced after the Reconstruction era ended in the 1870s, existed until the 1960s when the struggle for civil rights in the United States gained national attention.

Legacy.

By 1838, the term "Jim Crow" was used as an offensive term towards black people through to the end of the 19th century before it became associated with Jim Crow laws.  The "Jim Crow" character as portrayed by Rice popularized the perception of African-Americans as lazy, untrustworthy, dumb, and unworthy of integration. Rice's performances helped to popularize American minstrelsy, in which many performers imitated Rice's use of blackface and stereotypical depiction, touring around the United States. Those performers continued to spread the racist overtones and ideas manifested by the character to populations across the United States, contributing to white Americans developing a negative view of African-Americans in both their character and their work ethic.  Another character with the name Jim Crow was featured in the 1941 Walt Disney animated feature film "Dumbo" portrayed as a literal crow. The character, originally named Jim Crow on the original model sheets, was changed in the 1950s to "Dandy Crow" in attempt to avoid controversy. Floyd Norman, the first African-American animator hired at Walt Disney Productions during the 1950s, said that the reason for Jim's name was to make a cartoony jab at the Jim Crow laws in the South in an article entitled "Black Crows and Other PC Nonsense".  In the music video for Childish Gambino's "This Is America", Gambino shoots a man in the back of the head 53 seconds into the video while posing like a Jim Crow caricature.

The Jim Crow persona was a theatre character by Thomas D. Rice and a racist depiction of African-Americans and their culture. The character was based on a folk trickster named Jim Crow that had long been popular among black slaves. Rice also adapted and popularized a traditional slave song called "Jump Jim Crow" (1828).

Der Ausdruck Jim Crow („Jim, [die] Krähe“) war in den USA im 19. Jahrhundert die Bezeichnung für das Stereotyp eines tanzenden, singenden Schwarzen, der vor allem in den Minstrel Shows ein beliebtes Thema war. Geschaffen wurde die Bühnenfigur vermutlich vor 1832 von dem weißen Komiker Thomas D. Rice, der als "Blackface" auftrat.


Overview.

The saloon of the Tempra was shown for the first time in newspapers in November 1989, and introduced in February 1990 at the Geneva Motor Show, with the station wagon (marketed as the "Tempra SW") arriving two months later in Turin. The initial engine range comprised 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 petrol units and normally aspirated and turbocharged 1.9 litre diesel units.  The car began to be produced in Brazil for Latin American markets, after being introduced in Aruba, September 1991. First seen in September 1992, a two door coupé version of it, was produced exclusively for the market in Brazil. It was built until 1995, and an turbocharged petrol version was also available there.

Mechanics.

The Tempra's engine range was similar to that of the Tipo. Initially 1.4 and 1.6 litre models had carburettor engines. Both of these models were discontinued in 1992, due to the new European emission standards, and thus all models from 1992 on had catalytic converters and electronic injection.  Transmission was a standard five speed manual, but for the first time a midsize sedan was offered as with a continuously variable transmission which was previously available on the Fiat Uno, Panda, Ritmo and Tipo.  This, called the "Selecta", was available only with the 1.6 litre engine with either bodystyle. As of July 1991, the 2.0 litre SX model became available with an optional four speed automatic transmission.  Presented in Geneva 1992 (March), there was a version of the station wagon which offered the two litre engine, combined with permanent four wheel drive. The four wheel drive version had a slight front bias (56/44%).  During its six year production run, few changes were made apart from a minor facelift in April 1993, which resulted in a new front grille and other minor styling changes, as well as new equipment levels.  Main parts (most notably, the doors) were shared with the Fiat Tipo. Other vehicles, derived from the same chassis were Lancia Dedra (Tempra's most similar cousin, sharing all mechanical components) and Alfa Romeo 155.  The Fiat Tempra had two exclusive options in Brazil: two door version for any engine option (from 1992 to 1994), and a 2.0 litre turbo, which was sold with the two door as "Tempra Turbo" (1994 to 1995) and with the four door as "Tempra Turbo Stile" (1996 to 1997).  The engine delivered around and of torque.  "Car" magazine tests registered 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 8.2 seconds, and a top speed of by the Tempra Turbo two door 1994. As remark, the Tempra Turbo 1994 was the second turbocharged car to be produced in Brazil. The first one was the Uno Turbo, also in 1994.

Equipment and trim levels.

Only two trim levels were available in its early years: standard (S) and SX, both reasonably equipped considering the Tempra's low price.  SX models for example, featured power windows, power locks, adjustable belts and steering wheel, front fog lights, body coloured bumpers, velvet upholstery, a futuristic digital dashboard and many other standard extras. They were also available with optional extras like anti lock brakes, alloy wheels, sunroof, electronic climate control, etc.  A facelift in April 1993 featured more trim levels, now ranging from the standard models ("L" in the United Kingdom, where it was only available with 1.4 engine) via the S and SX to the top SLX, which was only available with 1.8, and 2.0 litre engines in the United Kingdom. An optional driver's airbag was another innovation that year.  The four wheel drive Station Wagons continued to be available in some markets, such as Switzerland.  In Turkey, where Tofaş built the car, there were also "SX A" and "SX AK" (climate control added) versions available. The 1,000,000th Tofaş built was a Tempra 2.0 i.e. 16V. The Turkish 16 valve Tempra was not sold in the rest of Europe; it was also available with station wagon bodywork and has a engine.  There was also the domestic market Marengo, a name also used before with the Regata Weekend and later again with the Marea Wagon. This is a commercial version of the Tempra which was based on the Station Wagon version, but with basic equipment, heavily tinted rear windows, and no rear seats. The engines were most commonly the naturally aspirated diesels.

Reports.

"Quattroruote", a popular Italian motoring magazine, reported some failures and defects with the Tempra. The first issue to be reported was some water ingress through the windscreen seals, an issue that previously plagued some other Fiat vehicles, especially Alfa 33, which in rainy conditions would carry a significant quantity of water on board.  This problem was reported from 1990–92, and was resolved with using a higher quantity of sealant when fitting the glass.  Another reported problem was a high oil consumption, especially the 1,581 cc engine, which was a common defect with Tipo (with the same engine) and Panda (1000 FIRE engine). The same was reported for other Fiat's vehicles, but disappeared with the new 1.6 L 66 kW engine.  On the same model, from 1994, the car started to show some electronic malfunctions, with items such as the electronic control unit, code key and electric system. A design flaw of the Tempra was that its rear window was too small and inclined and the tail too tall, so that rear visibility was poor. This issue was common with the 155 and Dedra, and was one of the reason the estate had more success than the saloon, especially in the United Kingdom.

Qualities.

Since the beginning, the Tempra was presented as a cheap and reliable car. 1.4 and 1.6 engines were able to run long distances with good fuel economy, also aided by a high capacity tanks of for the sedan and for the Station Wagon.  Average range for a 55 kW 1.6 litre sedan was around (), and consumption at constant speed was of at and at. All these were aided by a favourable aerodynamic (C 0.297) and only 17.2 PS subtracted at, which was the best result among all the rivals.  Another advantage was the galvanized structure, which allowed the model to be resistant against rust over the time, also showing a good response to weather and bad climate conditions after many years. Other qualities were the strength and reliability of the mechanics, thanks to the engine that could be used in urban drive, extra urban and highways.  For its luggage capacity, especially the Marengo version, was also one of the favourites among companies with the 1929 cc diesel engine, and the interior space was comfortable for five persons during long travels.

F1 Safety Car.

A Brazilian produced version of the 16 valve Tempra had the honourable role of being used in Formula One as the Safety Car during the season of, most notably at the Brazilian Grand Prix.

End of production.

The Tempra was discontinued in Europe in August 1996, and in Brazil in 1998. It was replaced by the Fiat Marea, which is based on the Fiat Bravo and Fiat Brava platform, the replacements for the Tempra's sister car the Fiat Tipo. In Brazil, 204,795 Tempras were produced in eight years, and in Turkey, where the car was manufactured by Tofaş from November 1990 until 1999, 129,590 were made.

The Fiat Tempra (Type 159) is a small family car produced by the Italian automaker Fiat from 1990 to 1997 in Italy. The Tempra was intended as a replacement for the Fiat Regata. The original project was called "Tipo 3", being a mid size car between the Fiat Tipo (project "Tipo 2") and the bigger Fiat Croma (project "Tipo 4"). The Tempra shares its Type Three platform with the Lancia Dedra and Alfa Romeo 155.

Der Fiat Tempra ist ein von Frühjahr 1990 bis Sommer 1996 gebautes Fahrzeugmodell der unteren Mittelklasse. Er ist der Nachfolger des Fiat Regata und Vorgänger der Fiat Marea-Baureihe.


Overview.

The pillars of the Peronist ideal, known as the "three flags", are social justice, economic independence and political sovereignty. Peronism can be described as a third position ideology as it rejects both capitalism and communism. Peronism espouses corporatism and thus aims to mediate tensions between the classes of society, with the state responsible for negotiating compromise in conflicts between managers and workers.  Peronism gained popularity in Argentina after the failure of its government to listen and recognize the needs of its middle class. Hipólito Yrigoyen, former President of Argentina, did not listen to the workers pleas for better wages and better working conditions after World War I. Yrigoyen was notorious for failing to oppose Argentina’s oligarchy. According to Teresa Meade in "A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present", Yrigoyen failed “to establish a middle-class-based political system from 1916 to 1930 – mainly because his Radical Civic Union had neither the will nor the means to effectively oppose the dominance of the oligarchy.” Many in power did not work to change the way things were. However, Juan Domingo Perón, at that time a military officer, used his experiences in Europe and his admiration for certain leaders like Mussolini, to create a new political atmosphere that he felt would better the lives of citizens in Argentina. Unlike Yrigoyen, Perón “recognized that the industrial working class was not necessarily an impediment, and could be mobilized to serve as the basis for building a corporatist state that joined the interests of labor with those of at least a large section of the national bourgeoisie to promote a nationalist agenda.”  However, it is a generally ill-defined ideology as different and sometimes contradictory sentiments are expressed in the name of Peronism. Today, the legacy and thought of Perón have transcended the confines of any single political party and bled into the broader political landscape of Argentina; therefore Peronists are usually described as a political movement. Traditionally, the Peronist movement has drawn its strongest support from the working class and sympathetic unions and has been characterized as proletarian in nature.  From the perspective of opponents, Peronism is an authoritarian ideology. Perón was often compared to fascist dictators, accused of demagoguery and his policies derided as populist. Proclaiming himself the embodiment of nationality, Perón's government often silenced dissent by accusing opponents of being unpatriotic. The corporatist character of Peronism drew attacks from socialists who accused his administration of preserving capitalist exploitation and class division. Conservatives rejected its modernist ideology and felt their status threatened by the ascent of the Peronist apparat. Liberals condemned the Perón regime's arbitrariness and dictatorial tendencies.  Defenders of Peronism also describe the doctrine as populist, albeit in the sense that they believe it embodies the interests of the masses and in particular the most vulnerable social strata. Admirers hold Perón in esteem for his administration's anti-imperialism and non-alignment as well as its socially progressive initiatives. Amongst other measures introduced by Perón's governments, social security was made universal while education was made free to all who qualified and working students were given one paid week before every major examination. Vast low-income housing projects were created and paid vacations became standard. All workers (including white-collar employees) were guaranteed free medical care and half of their vacation-trip expenses and mothers-to-be received three paid months off prior to and after giving birth. Workers' recreation centers were also constructed throughout the country.

Ideology.

Twenty Peronist Tenets.

From Peron's "Peronist Philosophy":

Perón's policies.

Perón's ideas were widely embraced by a variety of different groups in Argentina across the political spectrum. Some of Perón's personal views later became a burden on the ideology, such as his anti-clericalism, which did not strike a sympathetic chord with upper-class Argentinians.  Peronism is widely regarded as a form of corporate socialism, or "right-wing socialism". Perón's public speeches were consistently nationalist and populist. It would be difficult to separate Peronism from corporate nationalism, for Perón nationalized Argentina's large corporations, blurring distinctions between corporations and government. At the same time, the labor unions became corporate, ceding the right to strike in agreements with Perón as Secretary of Welfare in the military government from 1943–1945. In exchange, the state was to assume the role of negotiator between conflicting interests.  Peronism also lacked a strong interest in matters of foreign policy other than the belief that the political and economic influences of other nations should be kept out of Argentina—he was somewhat isolationist. Early in his presidency, Perón envisioned Argentina's role as a model for other countries in Latin America and beyond, but such ideas were ultimately abandoned. Despite his oppositional rhetoric, Perón frequently sought cooperation with the United States government on various issues.

Criticism of Perón.

Political opponents maintain that Perón and his administration resorted to organized violence and dictatorial rule; that Perón showed contempt for any opponents, and regularly characterized them as traitors and agents of foreign powers. Perón upheld the institutions of democratic rule, but subverted freedoms through such actions as nationalizing the broadcasting system, centralizing the unions under his control and monopolizing the supply of newspaper print. At times, Perón also resorted to tactics such as illegally imprisoning opposition politicians and journalists, including Radical Civic Union leader Ricardo Balbin; and shutting down opposition papers, such as "La Prensa".  Perón's admiration for Benito Mussolini is well documented. Many scholars categorize Peronism as a fascist ideology. Carlos Fayt believes that Peronism was "an Argentine implementation of Italian fascism". Hayes reaches the conclusion that "the Peronist movement produced a form of fascism that was distinctively Latin American".  One of the most vocal critics of Peronism was the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges. After Perón ascended to the presidency in 1946, Borges spoke before the Argentine Society of Writers (SADE) by saying: Dictatorships breed oppression, dictatorships breed servility, dictatorships breed cruelty; more loathsome still is the fact that they breed idiocy. Bellboys babbling orders, portraits of caudillos, prearranged cheers or insults, walls covered with names, unanimous ceremonies, mere discipline usurping the place of clear thinking... Fighting these sad monotonies is one of the duties of a writer. Need I remind readers of "Martín Fierro" or "Don Segundo" that individualism is an old Argentine virtue.

Attitudes towards Jews.

Perón's ideology was economic and political in character and did not feature the antisemitism of Nazism.  Before Perón came to power in Argentina, the country had the largest Jewish population in Latin America. After becoming president, he invited members of the Jewish community to participate in his government. One of his advisors was José Ber Gelbard, a Jewish man from Poland. Peronism did not have an antisemitic bias. The Jewish Virtual Library writes that while Juan Perón had sympathized with the Axis powers, "Perón also expressed sympathy for Jewish rights and established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1949. Since then, more than 45,000 Jews have immigrated to Israel from Argentina".  In the book "Inside Argentina from Perón to Menem", author Laurence Levine, also former president of the U.S.–Argentine Chamber of Commerce, writes that "although anti-Semitism existed in Argentina, Perón's own views and his political associations were not anti-Semitic". While Perón allowed many Nazi criminals to take refuge in Argentina, he also attracted many Jewish immigrants. Argentina has a Jewish population of over 200,000 citizens, the largest in Latin America and one of the largest in the world.

Peronism after Perón.

The fall of Perón.

A military and civilian coup, the "Revolución Libertadora", led by General Eduardo Lonardi, overthrew the Perón regime in 1955. During the coup, Lonardi drew analogies between Perón and Juan Manuel de Rosas. Lonardi used the quote "neither victors nor vanquished" (), which was used by Justo José de Urquiza after deposing Rosas in the battle of Caseros. The official perspective was that Perón was "the second tyranny", the first one being Rosas; and that both ones should be equally rejected and conversely both governments that ousted them should be praised. For this end, they draw the line of historical continuity "May – Caseros – Libertadora", matching the coup with the May Revolution and the defeat of Rosas. This approach backfired. Perón was highly popular and the military coup unpopular, so Peronists embraced the comparison established between Rosas and Perón, but viewing him with a positive light instead. Nationalist historians draw then their own line of historical continuity "San Martín – Rosas – Perón".  The absence of Perón, who lived for 16 years in exile in Francoist Spain, is an important key to understanding Peronism. After he went into exile, he could be invoked by a variety of Argentine sectors opposed to the current state of affairs. In particular, the personality cult of Eva Perón was conserved by supporters while despised by the "national bourgeoisie". In the 1960s, John William Cooke's writings became an important source of left-wing revolutionary Peronism. Left-wing Peronism was represented by many organizations, from the Montoneros and the Fuerzas Armadas Peronistas to the Peronist Youth, the Frente Revolucionario Peronista and the Revolutionary Peronist Youth, passing by Peronismo en Lucha or Peronismo de Base.  On the other hand, older Peronists formed the base of the orthodox bureaucracy, represented by the Unión Obrera Metalúrgica (Augusto Vandor, famous for his 1965 slogan "For a Peronism without Perón" and declaring as well that "to save Perón, one has to be against Perón", or José Ignacio Rucci). Another current was formed by the "62 Organizaciones 'De pie junto a Perón'", led by José Alonso and opposed to the right-wing Peronist unionist movement. In the early 1970s, left-wing Peronism rejected liberal democracy and political pluralism as the mask of bourgeois domination. The anti-communist right-wing Peronism also rejected it in the name of corporatism, claiming to return to a "Christian and humanist, popular, national socialism".

Perón restored.

By 1970, many groups from opposite sides of the political spectrum had come to support Perón, from the left-wing and Catholic Montoneros to the fascist-leaning and strongly antisemitic Tacuara Nationalist Movement, one of Argentina's first guerrilla movements. In March 1973, Héctor José Cámpora, who had been named as Perón's personal delegate, was elected President of Argentina, paving the way for the return of Perón from Spain. A few months after Perón's return and the subsequent Ezeiza massacre during which the Peronist Left and Right violently clashed, new elections were held in September with Perón elected president and his third wife Isabel vice president.  José Cámpora, a left-wing Peronist, had been replaced temporarily by interim President Raúl Alberto Lastiri while Perón had chosen to openly support the Peronist right. On 1 October 1973, Senator Humberto Martiarena, who was the national secretary of the Superior Council of the National Justicialist Movement, publicized a document giving directives to confront "subversives, terrorist and Marxist groups" which had allegedly initiated a "war" inside the Peronist organizations. From then on, the Superior Council took a firm grip on the Peronist organizations to expel the Left from it.  On that same day, a meeting took place among President Raúl Lastiri, Interior Minister Benito Llambí, Social Welfare Minister José López Rega, general secretary of the Presidency José Humberto Martiarena and various provincial governors, which has been alleged to have been the foundational act of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance death squad.  Perón's health was failing throughout his third and final term, which ended abruptly with his death and the succession of his wife to the presidency on 1 July 1974, but she was ousted by the military in another "coup d'état" in 1976, paving the way for the ensuing dictatorship's '"National Reorganization Process" and the subsequent "Dirty War" against everyone deemed subversive, especially leftists, including left-wing Peronists.

Menem years.

The official Peronist party is the Justicialist Party (PJ), which was the only Peronist party for a long time. During the government of Carlos Menem, a group of legislators led by Carlos Álvarez known as the "Group of 8" left the party, claiming that the government was not following Peronist doctrines. They created a new party, the Broad Front.  A short time later, José Octavio Bordón left the PJ as well, fearing that he might lose a primary election against Menem and thus he created his own party to take part in the 1995 elections and allied with Álvarez' Broad Front in the Front for a Country in Solidarity (Frepaso) coalition. Similar breakaway movements followed frequently after that, creating many small parties which were led by single politicians claiming to be the authentic inheritors of Peronism.

Kirchnerism.

The PJ did not participate as such during the 2003 elections. The party allowed all three precandidates to run for the general elections, using small parties created for that purpose. Néstor Kirchner won the elections running on a Front for Victory ticket. As he did not disband his party after the election, Kirchnerism relies on both the PJ and the Front for Victory.

Peronism or justicialism is an Argentine political movement based on the ideas and legacy of Argentine president Juan Perón (1895–1974). It has been an influential movement in 20th and 21st century Argentine politics. Since 1946 Peronists have won 10 out of the 13 presidential elections in which they have been allowed to run. The main Peronist party is the Justicialist Party. The policies of Peronist presidents have differed greatly, but the general ideology has been described as "a vague blend of nationalism and labourism" or populism.

Als Peronismus bezeichnet man eine politische und gesellschaftliche Bewegung in Argentinien, die seit den 1940er Jahren besteht. Benannt ist sie nach ihrem Anführer Juan Perón, der 1946 erstmals die Regierung übernahm. Der Peronismus stellt sich als vielgestaltige populistische Bewegung dar, die sich im Verlauf ihrer Geschichte ideologisch, organisatorisch und personell wesentlich veränderte. Sie integrierte eine Vielzahl politischer Ziele und Anschauungen, denen einzig die Berufung auf das Volk und auf Perón als Führer gemein war. Bis heute ist der Peronismus eine prägende politische Kraft Argentiniens.