Early life.

Rudolf was born on 1 May 1218 at Limburgh Castle near Sasbach am Kaiserstuhl in the Breisgau region of present-day southwestern Germany. He was the son of Count Albert IV of Habsburg and of Hedwig, daughter of Count Ulrich of Kyburg. Around 1232, he was given as a squire to his uncle, Rudolf I, Count of Laufenburg, to train in knightly pursuits.

Count of Habsburg.

At his father's death in 1239, Rudolf inherited from him large estates around the ancestral seat of Habsburg Castle in the Aargau region of present-day Switzerland as well as in Alsace. Thus, in 1240 in order to quell the rising power of Rudolf and in an attempt to place the important "Devil’s Bridge" (') across the'under his direct control, Emperor Frederick II, granted Schwyz "Reichsfreiheit" in the "Freibrief von Faenza".  In 1242, Hugh of Tuffenstein provoked Count Rudolf through contumelious expressions. In turn, the Count of Habsburg had invaded his domains, yet failed to take his seat of power. As the day passed on, Count Rudolf bribed the sentinels of the city and gained entry, killing Hugh in the process. Then in 1244, to help control Lake Lucerne and restrict the neighboring forest communities of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, Rudolf built near its shores Neuhabsburg Castle. In 1245 Rudolf married Gertrude, daughter of Count Burkhard III of Hohenberg. He received as her dowry the castles of Oettingen, the valley of Weile, and other places in Alsace, and he became an important vassal in Swabia, the former Alemannic German stem duchy. That same year, Emperor Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV at the Council of Lyon. Rudolf sided against the Emperor, while the forest communities sided with Frederick. This gave them a pretext to attack and damage Neuhabsburg. Rudolf successfully defended it and drove them off. As a result, Rudolf, by siding with the Pope, gained more power and influence.  Rudolf paid frequent visits to the court of his godfather, the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II, and his loyalty to Frederick and his son, King Conrad IV of Germany, was richly rewarded by grants of land. In 1254, he engaged with other nobles of the Staufen party against Bertold II, Bishop of Basle. When night fell, he penetrated the suburbs of Basle and burnt down the local nunnery, an act for which Pope Innocent IV excommunicated him and all parties involved. As a penance, he took up the cross and joined Ottokar II, King of Bohemia in the Prussian Crusade of 1254. Whilst there, he oversaw the founding of the city of Königsberg, which was named in memory of King Ottokar.

Rise to power.

The disorder in Germany during the interregnum after the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty afforded an opportunity for Count Rudolf to increase his possessions. His wife was a Hohenberg heiress; and on the death of his childless maternal uncle Count Hartmann IV of Kyburg in 1264, Rudolf seized Hartmann's valuable estates. Successful feuds with the Bishops of Strasbourg and Basel further augmented his wealth and reputation, including rights over various tracts of land that he purchased from abbots and others.  These various sources of wealth and influence rendered Rudolf the most powerful prince and noble in southwestern Germany (where the tribal Duchy of Swabia had disintegrated, enabling its vassals to become completely independent). In the autumn of 1273, the prince-electors met to choose a king after Richard of Cornwall had died in England in April 1272. Rudolf's election in Frankfurt on 1 October 1273, when he was 55 years old, was largely due to the efforts of his brother-in-law, the Hohenzollern burgrave Frederick III of Nuremberg. The support of Duke Albert II of Saxony and Elector Palatine Louis II had been purchased by betrothing them to two of Rudolf's daughters.  As a result, within the electoral college, King Ottokar II of Bohemia (1230–1278), himself a candidate for the throne and related to the late Hohenstaufen king Philip of Swabia (being the son of the eldest surviving daughter), was almost alone in opposing Rudolf. Other candidates were Prince Siegfried I of Anhalt and Margrave Frederick I of Meissen (1257–1323), a young grandson of the excommunicated Emperor Frederick II, who did not yet even have a principality of his own as his father was still alive. By the admission of Duke Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria instead of the King of Bohemia as the seventh Elector, Rudolf gained all seven votes.

King of the Germans.

Rudolf was crowned in Aachen Cathedral on 24 October 1273. To win the approbation of the Pope, Rudolf renounced all imperial rights in Rome, the papal territory, and Sicily, and promised to lead a new crusade. Pope Gregory X, despite the protests of Ottokar II of Bohemia, not only recognised Rudolf himself, but persuaded King Alfonso X of Castile (another grandson of Philip of Swabia), who had been chosen German (anti-)king in 1257 as the successor to Count William II of Holland, to do the same. Thus, Rudolf surpassed the two heirs of the Hohenstaufen dynasty whom he had earlier served so loyally. In November 1274, the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg decided that all Crown estates seized since the death of the Emperor Frederick II must be restored, and that King Ottokar II must answer to the Diet for not recognising the new king. Ottokar refused to appear or to restore the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia together with the March of Carniola, which he had claimed through his first wife, a Babenberg heiress, and which he had seized while disputing them with another Babenberg heir, Margrave Hermann VI of Baden. Rudolf refuted Ottokar's succession to the Babenberg patrimony, declaring that the provinces reverted to the Imperial crown due to the lack of male-line heirs. King Ottokar was placed under the imperial ban; and in June 1276 war was declared against him.  Having persuaded Ottokar's former ally Duke Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria to switch sides, Rudolf compelled the Bohemian king to cede the four provinces to the control of the royal administration in November 1276. Rudolf then re-invested Ottokar with the Kingdom of Bohemia, betrothed one of his daughters to Ottokar's son Wenceslaus II, and made a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottokar, however, raised questions about the execution of the treaty, and procured the support of several German princes, again including Henry XIII of Lower Bavaria. To meet this coalition, Rudolf formed an alliance with King Ladislaus IV of Hungary and gave additional privileges to the Viennese citizens. On 26 August 1278, the rival armies met at the Battle on the Marchfeld, where Ottokar was defeated and killed. The Margraviate of Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolf's representatives, leaving Ottokar's widow Kunigunda of Slavonia in control of only the province surrounding Prague, while the young Wenceslaus II was again betrothed to Rudolf's youngest daughter Judith.  Rudolf's attention next turned to the possessions in Austria and the adjacent provinces, which were taken into the royal domain. He spent several years establishing his authority there but found some difficulty in establishing his family as successors to the rule of those provinces. At length the hostility of the princes was overcome. In December 1282, at the Hoftag (imperial diet) in Augsburg, Rudolf invested his sons, Albert and Rudolf II, with the duchies of Austria and Styria and so laid the foundation of the House of Habsburg. Additionally, he made the twelve-year-old Rudolf Duke of Swabia, a merely titular dignity, as the duchy had been without an actual ruler since Conradin's execution. The 27-year-old Duke Albert, married since 1274 to a daughter of Count Meinhard II of Gorizia-Tyrol (1238–95), was capable enough to hold some sway in the new patrimony.  In 1286, King Rudolf fully invested Albert's father-in-law Count Meinhard with the Duchy of Carinthia, one of the conquered provinces taken from Ottokar. The Princes of the Empire did not allow Rudolf to give everything that was recovered to the royal domain to his own sons, and his allies needed their rewards too. Turning to the west, in 1281 he compelled Count Philip I of Savoy to cede some territory to him, then forced the citizens of Bern to pay the tribute that they had been refusing. In 1289 he marched against Count Philip's successor, Otto IV, compelling him to do homage.  In 1281, Rudolf's first wife died. On 5 February 1284, he married Isabella, daughter of Duke Hugh IV of Burgundy, the Empire's western neighbor in the Kingdom of France.  Rudolf was not very successful in restoring internal peace. Orders were indeed issued for the establishment of landpeaces in Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia, and afterwards for the whole Empire. But the king lacked the power, resources, and determination to enforce them, although in December 1289 he led an expedition into Thuringia, where he destroyed a number of robber castles. In 1291, he attempted to secure the election of his son Albert as German king. The electors refused, however, claiming inability to support two kings, but in reality, perhaps, wary of the increasing power of the House of Habsburg. Upon Rudolf's death they elected Count Adolf of Nassau.

Death.

Rudolf died in Speyer on 15 July 1291 and was buried in Speyer Cathedral. Although he had a large family, he was survived by only one son, Albert, afterwards the German king Albert I. Most of his daughters outlived him, apart from Katharina who had died in 1282 during childbirth and Hedwig who had died in 1285/6.  Rudolf's reign is most memorable for his establishment of the House of Habsburg as a powerful dynasty in the southeastern part of the realm. In the other territories, the centuries-long decline of Imperial authority since the days of the Investiture Controversy continued, and the princes were largely left to their own devices.  In the Divine Comedy, Dante finds Rudolf sitting outside the gates of purgatory with his contemporaries and berates him as "he who neglected that which he ought to have done".

Family and children.

Rudolf was married twice. First, in 1251, to Gertrude of Hohenberg and second, in 1284, to Isabelle of Burgundy, daughter of Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy. All children were from the first marriage.  Rudolf's last legitimate agnatic descendant was Maria Theresa, Holy Roman Empress (1717–1780), by Albert I of Germany's fourth son Albert II, Duke of Austria.

Rudolf I, also known as Rudolf of Habsburg (, ; 1 May 1218 – 15 July 1291), was Count of Habsburg from about 1240 and King of Germany from 1273 until his death.

Rudolf I. (* 1. Mai 1218; † 15. Juli 1291 in Speyer) war als Rudolf IV. ab etwa 1240 Graf von Habsburg und von 1273 bis 1291 der erste römisch-deutsche König aus dem Geschlecht der Habsburger.


History.

From the very beginning, the publishing house has been active in the two fields of fiction and literature, with fictional fiction being published from 1933 to 1946. The foundation stones of the publishing house were laid with the participation in the magazine "Betriebsstechnik", which was incorporated into the publishing house in 1933. The activities in the field of trade journals, with 21 publications, play an important role in addition to the literature and specialist books.  The founder, Carl Hanser, withdrew from the active publishing management in 1976. In 1985 Carl Hanser died. Wolfgang Beisler, a grandson of Carl Hanser, became a member of the management in 1996. Michael Krüger was Managing Director of Carl Hanser Verlag until 2013 when Jo Lendle took over.  In 1961, Carl Hanser Verlag was one of eleven founding members of the dtv Verlagsgesellschaft. Already in 1954, it was one of the founders of the book series "Die Bücher der Neunzehn" (The Books of the Nineteen). In 1993 the joint venture "Hanser Gardner Publications, Inc." was founded in Cincinnati / Ohio. In the same year, the publishing house extended its activities to include children's literature. In 1995, Hanser took over the "Fachbuchverlag Leipzig" and the "Sanssouci Verlag". Since 1999, the Hanser children's and youth books have been published under the name "Reihe Hanser" and also as paperback at dtv. In the area of audiobooks, Hanser Verlag co-founded the start up of the "DHV - Der Hörverlag".

Current situation.

Today, the publisher is one of the few publishers in Germany that does not belong to a large corporation. At the Munich and Leipzig locations, approximately 200 employees are employed and generated sales amount to approximately €50 million. Its subsidiaries are the Paul Zsolnay Verlag in Wien, acquired in 1996, along with the Deuticke Verlag, acquired in 2004, the Nagel & Kimche Verlag in Zürich, acquired in 1999, as well as the Sanssouci Verlag and Hanser Publications, LLC in Cincinnati / USA. Participation also exists at DHV and dtv. Also included in the Hanser-Group since November 2010, is the "Henrich Publications" headquartered in Gilching near Munich, and is a publishing house for technical journals with readers mainly in manufacturing industry, mechanical engineering, metalworking, as well as electrical trade, in-house logistics and the energy industry.  In 2011 the subsidiary "Hanser Berlin" was founded, which started with the autumn program in 2012. Managing director at the beginning was the editor Elisabeth Ruge. In 2013, she stepped away from the Hanser publishing house, and her management position at "Hanser Berlin", which Karsten Kredel took over.  According to the Cicero magazines publishing questionnaire, Hanser is currently the most important publisher of German-language literature with authors such as Herta Müller, Martin Mosebach, Reinhard Jirgl and David Grossman. In the area of children and youth books, Hanser has always been able to secure the rights of important authors. Among other authors who write at Hanser, are David Almond, John Green, Finn-Ole Heinrich, Janne Teller, Peter Pohl and Rafik Schami. The publisher's work was awarded the "Virenschleuder-Preis" at the Frankfurt Book Fair in 2012.  "Hanser Fachbuch" publishes trade and specialized books from the fields of computer, technology, economy and knowledge. With its computer books, the publisher covers the areas of programming, software development, IT and project management as well as online marketing. On "HanserUpdate", the authors of the Computer books News and trades section are blogging about IT topics.

The Carl Hanser Verlag was founded in 1928 by Carl Hanser in Munich and is one of the few medium-sized publishing companies in the German-speaking area still owned by the founding family.

Der Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. KG wurde 1928 von Carl Hanser in München gegründet und ist eines der wenigen mittelständischen Verlagsunternehmen im deutschsprachigen Raum, die sich noch im Besitz der Gründerfamilie befinden.


Biography.

Roger Joseph Zelazny was born in Euclid, Ohio, the only child of Polish immigrant Joseph Frank Żelazny and Irish-American Josephine Flora Sweet. In high school, he became the editor of the school newspaper and joined the Creative Writing Club. In the fall of 1955, he began attending Western Reserve University and graduated with a B.A. in English in 1959. He was accepted to Columbia University in New York and specialized in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, graduating with an M.A. in 1962. His M.A. thesis was entitled "Two traditions and Cyril Tourneur: an examination of morality and humor comedy conventions in The Revenger's Tragedy."  Between 1962 and 1969 he worked for the U.S. Social Security Administration in Cleveland, Ohio and then in Baltimore, Maryland spending his evenings writing science fiction. He deliberately progressed from short-shorts to novelettes to novellas and finally to novel-length works by 1965. On May 1, 1969, he quit to become a full-time writer, and thereafter concentrated on writing novels in order to maintain his income. During this period, he was an active and vocal member of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society, whose members included writers Jack Chalker and Joe and Jack Haldeman among others.  His first fanzine appearance was part one of the story "Conditional Benefit" ("Thurban 1" #3, 1953) and his first professional publication and sale was the fantasy short story "Mr. Fuller's Revolt" ("Literary Calvalcade", 1954). As a professional writer, his debut works were the simultaneous publication of "Passion Play" ("Amazing", August 1962) and "Horseman!" ("Fantastic", August 1962). "Passion Play" was written and sold first. His first story to attract major attention was "A Rose for Ecclesiastes", published in "The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction", with cover art by Hannes Bok.  Roger Zelazny was also a member of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), a loose-knit group of heroic fantasy authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in Lin Carter's "Flashing Swords!" anthologies.  Zelazny died in 1995, aged 58, of kidney failure secondary to colorectal cancer.

Personal life.

Zelazny was married twice, first to Sharon Steberl in 1964 (divorced, no children), and then to Judith Alene Callahan in 1966. Prior to this he was engaged to folk singer Hedy West for six months from 1961 to 1962. Roger and Judith had two sons, Devin and Trent (an author of crime fiction) and a daughter, Shannon. At the time of his death, Roger and Judith were separated and he was living with author Jane Lindskold.  Raised as a Catholic by his parents, Zelazny later declared himself a lapsed Catholic and remained that way for the rest of his life. "I did have a strong Catholic background, but I am not a Catholic. Somewhere in the past, I believe I answered in the affirmative once for strange and complicated reasons. But I am not a member of any organized religion."

Characteristic themes.

In his stories, Roger Zelazny frequently portrayed characters from myth, depicted in the modern or a future world. Zelazny included many anachronisms, such as cigarette-smoking and references to modern drama, in his work. His crisp, minimalistic dialogue also seems to be somewhat influenced by the style of wisecracking hardboiled crime authors, such as Raymond Chandler or Dashiell Hammett. The tension between the ancient and the modern, surreal and familiar was what drove most of his work.  A very frequent motif in Zelazny's work is immortality or people who (have) become gods (as well as gods who have turned into people). The mythological traditions his fiction borrowed from include:  Additionally, elements from Norse, Japanese and Irish mythology, Arthurian legend as well as several references to real history appear in his magnum opus, "The Chronicles of Amber".  Aside from working with mythological themes, the most common recurring motif of Zelazny's is the "absent father" (or father-figure). Again, this occurs most notably in the Amber novels: in the first Amber series, the protagonist Corwin searches for his lost, god-like father Oberon; while in the second series, which focuses on Corwin's son Merlin (not to be confused with the Arthurian Merlin), it is Corwin himself who is strangely missing. This somewhat Freudian theme runs through almost every Zelazny novel to a smaller or larger degree. "Roadmarks", "Doorways in the Sand", "Changeling", "Madwand", "A Dark Traveling"; the short stories "Dismal Light", "Godson", "The Keys to December"; and the "Alien Speedway" series all feature main characters who are either searching for or have lost their fathers. Zelazny's father, Joseph, died unexpectedly in 1962 and never knew his son's successes as a writer; this event may have triggered Zelazny's unconscious and frequent use of the absent father motif.  Two other personal characteristics that influenced his fiction were his expertise in martial arts and his addiction to tobacco. Zelazny became expert with the épée in college, and thus began a lifelong study of several different martial arts, including judo, aikido (which he later taught as well, having gained a black belt), t'ai chi, and pa kua. In turn, many of his characters ably and knowledgeably use similar skills whilst dispatching their opponents. Zelazny was also a passionate cigarette and pipe smoker (until he quit in the early '80s), so much so, that he made many of his protagonists heavy smokers as well. However, he quit in order to improve his cardiovascular fitness for the martial arts; once he had quit, characters in his later novels and short stories stopped smoking too.  Another characteristic of Zelazny's writing is that many of his protagonists had sufficient familiarity with other languages to be able to quote French, German, Italian or Latin aphorisms when the occasion seemed appropriate (or even inappropriate), although Zelazny himself did not speak any of those languages.  He also often experimented with form in his stories. The novel "Doorways in the Sand" practices a flashback technique in which most chapters open with a scene, typically involving peril, not implied by the end of the previous chapter. Once the scene is established, the narrator backtracks to the events leading up to it, then follows through to the end of the chapter, whereupon the next chapter jumps ahead to another dramatic "non-sequitur".  In "Roadmarks", a novel about a road system that links all possible times, places and histories, the chapters that feature the protagonist are all titled "One". Other chapters, titled "Two", feature secondary characters, including original characters, pulp heroes, and real historical characters. The "One" storyline is fairly linear, whereas the "Two" storyline jumps around in time and sequence. After finishing the manuscript, Zelazny shuffled the "Two" chapters randomly among the "One" chapters in order to emphasize their non-linear nature relative to the storyline.  "Creatures of Light and Darkness", featuring characters in the personae of Egyptian gods, uses a narrative voice entirely in the present tense; the final chapter is structured as a play, and several chapters take the form of long poems.  Zelazny also tended to write a short fragment, not intended for publication, as a kind of backstory for a major character, as a way of giving that character a life independent of the particular novel being worked on. At least one "fragment" was published, the short story "Dismal Light", originally a backstory for "Isle of the Dead"s Francis Sandow. Sandow himself figures little in "Dismal Light", the main character being his son, who is delaying his escape from an unstable star system in order to force his distant father to come in and ask him personally. While "Isle of the Dead" has Sandow living a life of irresponsible luxury as an escape from his personal demons, "Dismal Light" anchors his character as one who will face up to his responsibilities, however reluctantly.  Another common stylistic approach in his novels is the use of "mixed genres", whereby elements of each are combined freely and interchangeably. "Jack of Shadows" and "Changeling", for example, revolve around the tensions between the two worlds of magic and technology. "Lord of Light", perhaps one of his most famous works, is written in the classic style of a mythic fantasy, while it is established early in the book that the story itself takes place on a colonized planet.  Many of Zelazny's works explore variations upon the idea that if there exists an infinite number of worlds, then every world that can be imagined must exist, somewhere. Powerful beings in many of his stories have the ability to travel to worlds that possess precisely the characteristics which that being wishes to experience. (Zelazny characters with this ability include Thoth in "Creatures of Light and Darkness", who teleports to these worlds; those with the royal blood of either Amber or Chaos in "The Chronicles of Amber", who "move through shadows" to reach these worlds; the guardian families of "A Dark Traveling", who move between realities using high-tech devices; and Red Dorakeen in "Roadmarks", who reaches these worlds by driving along a magical highway.) Many of these same characters wonder whether they are creating these special places anew, or are merely finding places which already exist (very much like "the problem of universals" in classical metaphysics). Usually each character who ponders this ultimately decides that the question is purely academic and therefore unanswerable.

Legacy.

Zelazny's stories inspired other authors in his generation including Samuel R. Delany, whose novel "Nova" and many of his short stories were written "partly in response to Zelazny’s eruption into the field." In 1967 Algis Budrys listed Zelazny, Delany, J. G. Ballard, and Brian W. Aldiss as "an earthshaking new kind of" writers, and leaders of the New Wave. Neil Gaiman said Zelazny was the author who influenced him the most, with this influence particularly seen in Gaiman's literary style and the topics he writes about.  The anthology "Lord of the Fantastic: Stories in Honor of Roger Zelazny", edited by Martin H. Greenberg, was released in 1998 and featured essays and stories in honor of Zelazny by Walter Jon Williams, Jack Williamson, John Varley, Gaiman, Gregory Benford and many other authors.  The anthology "Shadows & Reflections: A Roger Zelazny Tribute Anthology", edited by Trent Zelazny and Warren Lapine, was released in 2017 and featured two essays and fifteen stories set in universes Zelazny created. Contributors included George R.R. Martin, Shannon Zelazny, Zelazny, Steven Brust, Kelly McCullough, Jane Lindskold, Steve Perry, Gerald Hausman, Lawrence Watt-Evans, and others.

Awards.

Zelazny won at least 16 awards for particular works of fiction: six Hugo Awards, three Nebula Awards, two Locus Awards, one Prix Tour-Apollo Award, two Seiun Awards, and two Balrog Awards – very often Zelazny's works competed with each other for the same award.  In addition, Zelazny was the Worldcon Guest of Honor at Discon II in Washington, D.C. in 1974, and won the Inkpot Award for Best Prose Author at Comic-Con International in 1993. "A Rose for Ecclesiastes" was included in "Visions of Mars: First Library on Mars", a DVD taken on board the "Phoenix Mars Lander" in 2008.

Tributes.

The ostracod "Sclerocypris zelaznyi" was named after him.

Roger Joseph Zelazny (May 13, 1937 – June 14, 1995) was an American poet and writer of fantasy and science fiction short stories and novels, best known for "The Chronicles of Amber". He won the Nebula Award three times (out of 14 nominations) and the Hugo Award six times (also out of 14 nominations), including two Hugos for novels: the serialized novel "...And Call Me Conrad" (1965), subsequently published under the title "This Immortal" (1966) and then the novel "Lord of Light" (1967).

Roger Joseph Zelazny (* 13. Mai 1937 in Euclid, Ohio; † 14. Juni 1995 in Santa Fe, New Mexico) war ein US-amerikanischer Autor von Fantasy- und Science-Fiction-Kurzgeschichten und Romanen. Zelaznys Werke wurden mehrfach ausgezeichnet; so gewann er mit dreien seiner Storys den Nebula Award, sechsmal den Hugo Award und zweimal den Locus Award.


History.

The WhK was founded on 15 May 1897 (four days before Oscar Wilde's release from prison) by Magnus Hirschfeld, a Jewish-German physician, sexologist and outspoken advocate for gender and sexual minorities. Original members of the WhK included physician Magnus Hirschfeld, publisher Max Spohr, lawyer Eduard Oberg and writer Franz Joseph von Bülow. Adolf Brand, Benedict Friedländer, and Kurt Hiller also joined the organisation. A split happened in 1903. In 1929, Hiller took over as chairman of the group from Hirschfeld. At its peak, the WhK had about 500 members, and branches in approximately 25 cities in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands. The Committee was based in the Institute for Sexual Sciences in Berlin, until 1933 when it was destroyed by the Nazis, from which it took a great deal of scientific theories on human sexuality – such as the idea of a third sex between a man and a woman. The initial focus of the Committee was to repeal Paragraph 175, an anti-gay piece of legislation of the Imperial Penal Code, which criminalized "coitus-like" acts between males, and the goal of this categorization of human sexuality was to demonstrate the innateness of homosexuality and thus make the criminal law against male-male gay sex in Germany at the time inapplicable.  The Committee also assisted defendants in criminal trials, conducted public lectures, and gathered signatures on a petition for the repeal of the law. Signatories included Albert Einstein, Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Leo Tolstoy. Petitions were submitted to parliament, in 1898, 1922 and 1925, but failed to gain the support of the parliament, and the law continued to criminalise all male-male sexual acts until 1969 and wasn't entirely removed in West Germany until four years after East and West Germany became one country, in 1994.  Although it never had more than 500 members, it is considered an important milestone in the homosexual emancipation movement.

Publications.

It produced the Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen ("Yearbook for Intermediate Sexual Types"). This, as well as reporting the Committee's activities, carried articles of scientific, polemical and literary natures. It was published regularly from 1899 to 1923 (sometimes quarterly) and more sporadically until 1933.  This publication was the world's first scientific journal dealing with sexual variants. It was published until 1923. The studies published by the "Yearbook" range from articles about homosexuality among "primitive" people to literary analyses and case studies.

Reformation attempts.

On October 1949, Hans Giese joined with Hermann Weber (1882–1955), head of the Frankfurt local group from 1921 to 1933, to re-establish the group in Kronberg. Kurt Hiller worked with them briefly, but stopped due to personal differences after a few months. The group was dissolved in late 1949 or early 1950 and instead formed the Committee for Reform of the Sexual Criminal Laws ("Gesellschaft für Reform des Sexualstrafrechts e. V."), which existed until 1960.  In 1962 in Hamburg, Hiller, who had survived Nazi concentration camps and continued to fight against anti-gay repression, tried unsuccessfully to re-establish the WhK.

New WhK.

In 1998, a new group was formed with the same name. Growing out of a group against politician Volker Beck in that year's election, it is similar in name and general subject matter only, and takes more radical positions than the conservative LSVD. In 2001, "its magazine Gigi" was given a special award by "".

The Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (German: "Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee", WhK) was founded in Berlin on 14 or 15 May 1897, to campaign for social recognition of gay, bisexual and transgender men and women, and against their legal persecution. It was the first LGBT rights organization in history.

Das Wissenschaftlich-humanitäre Komitee (WhK) war der erste Versuch in der Geschichte, sich gegen antihomosexuelle Strafgesetze zu organisieren und die Öffentlichkeit über das „Wesen der mann-männlichen Liebe“ aufzuklären.


Etymology.

""Śūnyatā"" (Sanskrit) is usually translated as "devoidness," "emptiness," "hollow,

Development of the concept.

The concept of "Sunyata" as "emptiness", states Sue Hamilton, is related to the concept of "anatta" in early Buddhism. Over time, many different philosophical schools or tenet-systems (Sanskrit: "siddhānta") have developed within Buddhism in an effort to

Early Buddhism.

Pāli Nikāyas.

The Pali canon uses the term emptiness in three ways: "(1) as a meditative dwelling, (2) as an attribute of objects, and (3) as a type of awareness-release."  According to Bhikkhu Analayo, in the Pali canon "the adjective suñña occurs with a much higher frequency than the corresponding noun suññatā" and emphasizes seeing phenomena as 'being empty' instead of an abstract idea of "emptiness."  One example of this usage is in the "Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta" (SN 22:95), which states that on close inspection, each of the five aggregates are seen as being void ("rittaka"), hollow ("tucchaka"), coreless ("asāraka"). In the text a series of contemplations is given for each aggregate: form is like

Meditative state.

Emptiness as a meditative state is said to be reached when "not attending to any themes, he [the bhikku] enters & remains in internal emptiness" (MN 122). This meditative dwelling is developed through the "four formless states" of meditation or Arūpajhānas and then through "themeless concentration of awareness."  The Cūlasuññata-sutta (MN III 104) and the Mahāsuññata-sutta (MN III 109) outline how a monk can "dwell in emptiness" through a gradual step by step mental cultivation process, they both stress the importance of the impermanence of

Chinese Āgamas.

The Chinese Agamas contain various parallels to the "Pheṇapiṇḍūpama Sutta." One partial parallel from the Ekottara Agama describes the body with different metaphors: “a ball of snow”, “a heap of dirt”, “a mirage”, “an illusion” ("māyā"), or “an empty fist used to fool a child”. In a similar vein, the Mūla-Sarvāstivādin "Māyājāla Sūtra," gives two sets of metaphors for each of the sensory consciousnesses to illustrate their vain illusory character.  Other Sarvāstivādin Agama sutras (extant in Chinese) which have emptiness as a theme include Samyukta Agama

Early Buddhist schools and Abhidharma.

Many of the early Buddhist schools featured "śūnyatā" as an important part of their teachings.  The Sarvastivadin school's Abhidharma texts like the "Dharmaskandhapāda Śāstra", and the later "Mahāvibhāṣa" also take up the theme of emptiness vis a vis dependent origination as found in the Agamas.  Schools such as the Mahāsāṃghika Prajñaptivādins as well as many of the Sthavira schools (except the Pudgalavada) held

Theravāda.

Theravāda Buddhists generally take the view that emptiness is merely the not-self nature of the five aggregates. Emptiness is an important door to liberation in the Theravāda tradition just as it is in Mahayana, according to Insight meditation teacher Gil Fronsdal. The classic Theravāda text known as the "Patisambhidamagga" (c. 3rd century BCE) describes the five aggregates as being empty ("suññam") of essence or intrinsic nature ("sabhava"). The "Patisambhidamagga" also equates not-self with the emptiness liberation in a passage also cited by Buddhaghosa in the "Visuddhimagga" (Vism XXI 70):"When one who has great wisdom brings [volitional formations] to mind as not-self, he acquires the emptiness liberation" -Patis. II 58.The "Visuddhimagga" (c. 5th century CE)"," the most influential classical Theravāda treatise, states that not-self does not become apparent because it is concealed by "compactness" when one does not give attention to the various elements which make up the person. The "Paramatthamañjusa Visuddhimaggatika" of Acariya Dhammapala, a 5th-century Theravāda commentary on the "Visuddhimagga", comments on this passage by referring to the fact that we often assume unity and compactness regarding phenomena or functions which are instead made up of various elements, but when one sees that these are merely empty dhammas, one can understand the not-self characteristic:"when they are seen after resolving them by means of knowledge into these elements, they disintegrate like froth subjected to compression by the hand. They are mere states ("dhamma") occurring due to conditions and void. In this way the characteristic of not-self becomes more evident."The modern Thai teacher Buddhadasa referred to emptiness as the "innermost heart" of the Buddhist teachings and the cure for the disease of suffering. He stated that emptiness, as it relates to the practice of Dhamma, can be seen both "as the absence of Dukkha and the defilements that are the cause of Dukkha and as the absence of the feeling that there is a self or that there are things which are the possessions

Mahayana Buddhism.

There are two main sources of Indian Buddhist discussions of emptiness, the Mahayana sutra literature, which is traditionally believed to be the word of the Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism and the shastra literature, which was composed by Buddhist scholars and philosophers.

Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.

The Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutras taught that all entities, including "dharmas", are empty of self, essential core, or intrinsic nature ("svabhava"), being only conceptual existents or constructs. The notion of prajña (wisdom, knowledge) presented in these sutras is a deep non-conceptual understanding of emptiness. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also use various metaphors to explain the nature of things as emptiness, stating that things are like “illusions” ("māyā") and “dreams” ("svapna"). The "Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita," possibly the earliest of these sutras"," states:If he knows the five aggregates as like an illusion, But makes not illusion one thing, and the aggregates another; If, freed from the notion of multiple things, he courses in peace— Then that is his practice of wisdom, the highest perfection.Perceiving dharmas and beings like an illusion ("māyādharmatām") is termed the "great armor" ("mahāsaṃnaha") of the Bodhisattva, who is also termed the 'illusory man' ("māyāpuruṣa"). The "Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra" adds the following similes to describe how all conditioned things

Mādhyamaka school.

Mādhyamaka is a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of philosophy which focuses on the analysis of emptiness, and was thus also known as "Śūnyatavāda". The school is traditionally seen as being founded by the Indian Buddhist philosopher Nāgārjuna.  Nāgārjuna's goal was to refute the essentialism of certain Abhidharma schools and the Hindu Nyaya school. His best-known work is the "Mūlamadhyamakakārikā" (MMK), in which he used "reductio" arguments (Skt: "prasanga") to show the non-substantiality of everything. Nāgārjuna equated the emptiness of dharmas with their dependent origination, and thus with their being devoid any permanent substance or primary, substantial existence ("svabhava"). Nāgārjuna writes in the MMK:We state that conditioned origination is emptiness. It is mere designation depending on something, and it is the middle path. (24.18) Since nothing has arisen without depending

Yogācāra school.

The central text of the Yogācāra school, the "Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra", explains emptiness in terms of the three natures theory, stating that its purpose is to "establish the doctrine of the three-own-beings ("trisvabhāva") in terms of their lack of own-nature ("niḥsvabhāvatā")." According to Andrew Skilton, in Yogācāra, emptiness is the "absence of duality between perceiving subject (lit. "grasper", Skt: "grāhaka," Tib: "'dzin-pa") and the perceived object ("grasped", Skt: "grāhya," Tib: "bzhung-ba")." This is seen in the following quote from the "Madhyāntavibhāga:" There exists the imagination of the unreal,

Buddha-nature.

An influential division of 1st-millennium CE Buddhist texts develop the notion of "Tathāgatagarbha" or Buddha-nature. The "Tathāgatagarbha" doctrine, at its earliest probably appeared about the later part of the 3rd century CE, and is verifiable in Chinese translations of 1st millennium CE.  The "Tathāgatagarbha" is the topic of the "Tathāgatagarbha sūtras", where the title itself means a "garbha" (womb, matrix, seed) containing "Tathāgata" (Buddha). In the "Tathāgatagarbha sūtras' the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self. The ultimate goal of the path is characterized using a

Tibetan Buddhism.

In Tibetan Buddhism, emptiness (Wylie: "stong-pa nyid") is mainly interpreted through the lens of Mādhyamaka philosophy, though the Yogacara and Tathāgatagarbha influenced interpretations are also influential. The interpretations of the Indian Mādhyamaka philosopher Candrakīrti are the dominant views on emptiness in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.  In Tibet, a distinction also began to be made between the Autonomist ("Svātantrika, rang rgyud pa") and Consequentialist ("Prāsaṅgika, thal ’gyur pa") approaches to Mādhyamaka reasoning about emptiness. The distinction was invented by Tibetan scholarship, and not one made by classical Indian Madhyamikas.  Further Tibetan philosophical developments began in response to the works of the influential scholar Dolpopa (1292–1361) and led to two distinctly opposed Tibetan Mādhyamaka views on the nature of emptiness and ultimate reality.  One of these is the view termed "shentong" (Wylie: "gzhan stong," other empty), which is a further development of Indian Yogacara-Madhyamaka and the Buddha-nature teachings by Dolpopa, and is primarily promoted in the Jonang school but also by some Kagyu figures like Jamgon Kongtrul. This view states that ultimate reality is empty of the conventional, but it is itself

Chinese Buddhism.

Sānlùn school.

When Buddhism was introduced in China it was initially understood in terms of indigenous Chinese philosophical culture. Because of this, emptiness (Ch., "kong", 空;) was at first understood as pointing to a kind of transcendental reality similar to the Tao. It took several centuries to realize that "śūnyatā" does not refer to an essential transcendental reality underneath or behind the world of appearances.  Chinese Mādhyamaka (known as "Sānlùn," or the "three treatise school") began with the work of Kumārajīva (344–413 CE) who translated the works of Nāgārjuna into Chinese. "Sānlùn" figures like Kumārajīva's

Tiantai and Huayan.

Later Chinese philosophers developed their own unique interpretations of emptiness. One of these was Zhiyi, the intellectual founder of the Tiantai school who was strongly influenced by the Lotus sutra. The Tiantai view of emptiness and dependent origination is inseparable from their view of the "interfusion of phenomena" and the idea that the ultimate reality is an absolute totality of all particular things which are "Neither-Same-Nor-Different" from

Chán.

Chan Buddhism was influenced by all the previous Chinese Buddhist currents. The Mādhyamaka of Sengzhao for example, influenced the views of the Chan patriarch Shen Hui (670-762), a critical figure in the development of Chan, as can be seen by his "Illuminating the Essential Doctrine" ("Hsie Tsung Chi"). This text emphasizes that true emptiness or Suchness cannot be known through thought since it is free from thought ("wu-nien"). Shen Hui also states that true emptiness is not nothing, but it is a "Subtle Existence" ("miao-yu"), which is just "Great Prajña."  The Chinese Chan presentation of emptiness, influenced by Yogacara and the Tathāgatagarbha sutras, also used more positive language and poetic metaphors to describe the nature of emptiness. For example, Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157), the founder of the Caodong lineage, wrote:"The field of boundless

Western Buddhism.

Various western Buddhists note that "Śūnyatā" refers to the emptiness of inherent existence, as in Madhyamaka; but also

Hinduism.

Influence on Advaita Vedanta.

Gaudapada has developed his concept of "ajāta", which uses the term "anutpāda":  Taken together "anutpāda" means "having no origin", "not coming into existence", "not taking effect", "non-production".  According to Gaudapada, the Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death. The Absolute is "aja", the unborn eternal. The empirical world of appearances is considered Maya (unreal as it is transitory), and not absolutely existent. Thus, Gaudapada's concept of "ajativada" is similar to Buddhist term "anutpāda" for the absence of an origin or śūnyatā.  But Gaudapada's perspective is quite different from Nagarjuna. Gaudapada's perspective found in "Mandukya Karika" is based on the "Mandukya Upanishad". According to Gaudapada, the metaphysical absolute called

In Shaivism.

"Sunya" and "Sunyatisunya" are concepts which appear in some Shaiva texts, such as the Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra, which contains several verses mentioning voidness as a feature of ultimate reality - Shiva:  "The Absolute void is Bhairava who is beyond the senses and the mind, beyond all the categories of these instruments. From the point of view of the human mins, He is most void. from the point of view of Reality, He is most full, for He is the source

In Vaishnavism.

"Shunya Brahma" is a concept found in certain texts of Vaishnavism, particularly in Odiya, such as the poetic "Panchasakhas". It explains the "Nirguna Brahman" idea of Vedanta, that is the eternal unchanging metaphysical reality as "personified void". Alternate names for this concept of Hinduism, include "shunya purusha" and "Jagannatha" (Vishnu) in certain text. However, both in Lingayatism and various flavors of Vaishnavism such as "Mahima Dharma", the idea of "Shunya" is closer to the Hindu concept of metaphysical "Brahman", rather

Śūnyatā (; ) – pronounced in English as (shoon-ya-ta), translated most often as "emptiness" and sometimes "voidness" – is a Buddhist concept which has multiple meanings depending on its doctrinal context. It is either an ontological feature of reality, a meditative state, or a phenomenological analysis of experience.

Shunyata bzw. Śūnyatā (Sanskrit, f., शून्यता; Pali: suññatā; ; koreanisch "공"; japanisch, "kū", tibetisch: "stong pa nyid") ist ein zentraler buddhistischer Begriff und bedeutet, dass alles leer und frei von Dauerhaftigkeit ist und sich alles gegenseitig bedingt.


Background.

Alfred Nobel stipulated in his last will and testament that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million Swedish "kronor" (US$198 million, €176 million in 2016), to establish and endow the five Nobel Prizes. Due to the level of scepticism surrounding

Nomination and award procedure.

Each year, the Swedish Academy sends out requests for nominations of candidates for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Members of the Academy, members of literature academies and societies, professors of literature and language, former Nobel literature laureates, and the presidents of writers' organizations are all allowed to nominate a candidate. It is not permitted to nominate oneself.  Thousands of requests are sent out each year, and about 220 proposals were returned. These proposals must be received by the Academy by 1 February, after which they are examined by the Nobel Committee. By April, the Academy narrows the field to around twenty candidates. By May, a short list of five names is approved by the Committee. The next four months are spent in reading and reviewing the works of the five candidates. In October, members of the Academy vote and the candidate who receives more than

Prizes.

A Literature Nobel Prize laureate earns a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money. The amount of money awarded depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation that year. If a prize is awarded to more than one laureate, the money is either split evenly among them or, for three laureates, it may be divided into a half and two quarters. If a prize is awarded jointly to two or more laureates, the money is split among them.  The prize money of the Nobel Prize has been fluctuating since its inauguration but it stood at (about ), previously it was. This was not the first time the prize-amount was decreased—beginning with a nominal value of in 1901 (worth 8,123,951 in 2011 SEK) the nominal value has been as low as (2,370,660 in 2011 SEK) in 1945—but it has been uphill or stable since then, peaking at an SEK-2011 value of 11,659,016 in 2001.  The laureate is also invited to give a lecture during "Nobel Week" in Stockholm; the highlight is the prize-giving ceremony and banquet on 10 December. It is the second richest literary prize in the world.

Medals.

The Nobel Prize medals, minted by Myntverket in Sweden and the Mint of Norway since 1902, are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse (front side of the medal). The Nobel Prize medals for Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature have identical obverses, showing

Diplomas.

Nobel laureates receive a Diploma directly from the King of Sweden. Each Diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions

Laureates.

The Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to acclaimed writers such as Rabindranath Tagore, Rudyard Kipling, Anatole France, William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Luigi Pirandello, Eugene O'Neill, André Gide, T. S. Eliot, William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Boris Pasternak, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Samuel Beckett, Yasunari Kawabata, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Saul Bellow, Czeslaw Milosz, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Wole Soyinka and Toni Morrison.  112 Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded between 1901 and 2019 to 116 individuals: 101 men and 15 women. The prize has been shared between two individuals on four occasions. It was not awarded on seven occasions. The laureates have included writers in 25 different languages. The youngest laureate was Rudyard Kipling, who was 41 years old when he was awarded in 1907. The oldest laureate to receive the prize was Doris Lessing, who was 88 when she was awarded in 2007. It has been awarded posthumously once, to Erik Axel Karlfeldt in 1931. Two writers have declined the prize, Boris Pasternak in 1958 ("Accepted first, later caused by the authorities of his country (Soviet Union) to decline the Prize", according to the Nobel Foundation) and Jean-Paul Sartre in 1964.

Interpretations of Nobel's guidelines.

Alfred Nobel's guidelines for the prize that the candidate should have bestowed "the greatest benefit on mankind", and writing "in an ideal direction" have caused much discussion. In the early history of the prize Nobel's "ideal" was read as "a lofty and sound idealism". The set of criteria, characterized by its conservative idealism, holding church, state and family sacred, resulted in Prizes to Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Rudyard Kipling and Paul Heyse. During World War I there was a policy of neutrality, which partly explains the number of awards to Scandinavian writers. In the 1920s "ideal direction" was interpreted more generously as "wide-hearted humanity", and writers like Anatole France, George Bernard Shaw and Thomas Mann were awarded. In the 1930s "the greatest benefit on mankind" was interpreted as writers within everybody’s reach, with authors like Sinclair Lewis and Pearl Buck being

Shared prize.

The Nobel Prize in Literature can be shared between two individuals. However, the Academy has been reluctant to award shared prizes, mainly because divisions are liable to be interpreted as a result of a compromise. The shared prizes awarded to Frederic Mistral and José Echegaray in 1904 and to Karl Gjellerup

Recognition of a specific work.

Nobel Prize Laureates in Literature are awarded for the author's life work, but on some occasions the Academy have singled out a specific work for particular recognition. For example Knut Hamsun was awarded in 1920 "for his monumental work, "Growth of the Soil"", Thomas Mann in 1929 "principally

Potential candidates.

Nominations are kept secret for fifty years until they are publicly available at The

Criticism.

Although the Nobel Prize in Literature has become the world's most prestigious literature prize, the Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism for its handling of the award. Many authors who have won the prize have fallen into obscurity, while others rejected by the jury remain widely studied and read. The prize has "become widely seen as a political one – a peace prize in literary disguise", whose judges are prejudiced against authors with political tastes different from theirs. Tim Parks has expressed skepticism that it is possible for "Swedish professors... [to] compar[e] a poet from Indonesia, perhaps translated into English with a novelist from Cameroon, perhaps available only in French, and another who writes in Afrikaans but is published in German and Dutch...". As of 2016, 16 of the 113 recipients have been of Scandinavian origin. The Academy has often been alleged to be biased towards European, and in particular Swedish, authors.  Nobel's "vague" wording for the criteria for the prize has led to recurrent controversy. In the original Swedish, the word "idealisk" translates as "ideal". The Nobel Committee's interpretation has varied over the years. In recent years, this means a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale.

Controversies about Nobel Laureate selections.

From 1901 to 1912, the committee, headed by the conservative Carl David af Wirsén, weighed the literary quality of a work against its contribution towards humanity's struggle 'toward the ideal'. Leo Tolstoy, Henrik Ibsen, Émile Zola, and Mark Twain were rejected in favor of authors little read today.  The first prize in 1901, awarded to the French poet Sully Prudhomme, was heavily criticised. Many believed that the acclaimed Russian author Tolstoy should have been awarded the first Nobel prize in literature.  The choice of philosopher Rudolf Eucken as Nobel Laureate in 1908 is widely considered to be one of the worst mistakes in the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature. Main candidates for the prize this year was the poet Algernon Swinburne and Selma Lagerlöf, but the Academy were divided between the candidates and, as a compromise, Eucken, representative of the Academy's interpretation of Nobel's "ideal direction", was launched as an alternative candidate that could be agreed upon.  The choice of Selma Lagerlöf (Sweden 1858–1940) as Nobel Laureate in 1909 (for the 'lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterizes her writings') followed fierce debate because of her writing style and subject matter, which broke literary decorums of the time.  During World War I and its immediate aftermath, the committee adopted a policy of neutrality, favouring writers from non-combatant countries. The pacifistic author Romain Rolland was awarded the prize for 1915. Other years during the war Scandinavian writers were favoured, or the award was postponed.  In 1931 the prize

Nationality-based criticism.

The prize's focus on European men, and Swedes in particular, has been the subject of criticism, even from Swedish newspapers. The majority of laureates have been European, with Sweden itself receiving more prizes (8) than all of Asia (7, if Turkish Orhan Pamuk is included), as well as all of Latin America (7, if Saint Lucian Derek Walcott is included). In 2009, Horace Engdahl, then the permanent secretary of the Academy, declared that "Europe still is the centre of the literary world" and that "the US is too isolated, too insular. They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature."  In 2009, Engdahl's replacement, Peter Englund, rejected this sentiment ("In most language areas... there are authors that really deserve and could get the Nobel Prize and that goes for the United States and the Americas, as well") and acknowledged the Eurocentric nature of the award, saying that, "I think

Overlooked literary achievements.

In the history of the Nobel Prize in Literature, many literary achievements were overlooked. The literary historian Kjell Espmark admitted that "as to the early prizes, the censure of bad choices and blatant omissions is often justified. Tolstoy, Ibsen, and Henry James should have been rewarded instead of, for instance, Sully Prudhomme, Eucken, and Heyse". There are omissions which are beyond the control of the Nobel Committee such as the early death of an author as was the case with Marcel Proust, Italo Calvino, and Roberto Bolaño. According to Kjell Espmark "the main works of Kafka, Cavafy, and Pessoa were not published until after their deaths and the true dimensions

Controversies about Swedish Academy board members.

Membership in the 18-member committee, who select the recipients, is technically for life. Members are not allowed to leave, although they might refuse to participate. For members who do not participate

2018 controversy and award cancellation.

In April 2018, three members of the academy board resigned in response to a sexual-misconduct investigation involving author Jean-Claude Arnault, who is married to board member Katarina Frostenson. Arnault was accused by at least 18 women of sexual assault and harassment. He and his wife were also accused of leaking the names of prize recipients on at least seven occasions so friends could profit from bets. He denied all accusations, although he was later convicted of rape and sentenced to two years and six months in prison. The three members resigned in protest over the decision by Sara Danius, the board secretary, not to take what they felt was appropriate legal action against Arnault. Two former permanent secretaries, Sture Allén and Horace Engdahl, called Danius a weak leader.  On 10 April, Danius was asked to resign from her position by the Academy, bringing the number of empty seats to four. Although the Academy voted against removing Katarina Frostenson from the committee, she voluntarily agreed to withdraw from participating in the academy, bringing the

Similar international prizes.

The Nobel Prize in Literature is not the only literary prize for which all nationalities are eligible. Other notable international literary prizes include the Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the Franz Kafka Prize, the International Booker Prize when it was previously awarded for a writer's entire body of work, and in the 1960s the Formentor Prix International. In contrast to the other prizes mentioned, the Neustadt International Prize is awarded biennially. The journalist Hephzibah Anderson has noted that the International Booker Prize "is fast becoming the more significant award, appearing an ever more competent alternative to the Nobel". However since 2016 the International Booker Prize now awards an annual book of fiction translated into English. Previous winners of the International Booker Prize who have gone on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature includes Alice Munro and Olga Tokarczuk. The Neustadt International Prize for Literature is regarded as one of the most prestigious international literary prizes, often referred to as the American equivalent to the Nobel Prize. Like the Nobel Prize, it is awarded not for any one work, but for an entire body of work. It is frequently seen as an indicator of who may be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Gabriel García Márquez (1972 Neustadt, 1982 Nobel), Czesław Miłosz (1978 Neustadt, 1980 Nobel), Octavio Paz (1982 Neustadt, 1990 Nobel), Tomas Tranströmer (1990 Neustadt, 2011 Nobel) were first awarded the Neustadt International Prize for Literature before being awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.  Another award of note is the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award (formerly Prince of Asturias Award) in Letters. During the first years of its existence it was almost exclusively awarded to writers in the Spanish language, but in more recent times writers in other languages have been awarded as well. Writers who have won both the Asturias Award in Letters and the Nobel Prize in Literature include Camilo José Cela, Günter Grass, Doris Lessing and Mario Vargas Llosa.  The America Award in Literature, which does not include a monetary prize, presents itself as an alternative to the Nobel Prize in Literature. To date, Harold Pinter and José Saramago are the only writers to have received both the America Award and the Nobel Prize in Literature.  There are also prizes for honouring the lifetime achievement of writers in specific languages, like the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (for Spanish language, established in 1976) and the Camões Prize (for Portuguese language, established in 1989). Nobel laureates who were also awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize include Octavio Paz (1981 Cervantes, 1990 Nobel); Mario Vargas Llosa (1994 Cervantes, 2010 Nobel); and Camilo José Cela (1995 Cervantes, 1989 Nobel). José Saramago is the only author to receive both the Camões Prize (1995) and the Nobel Prize (1998) to date.  The Hans Christian Andersen Award is sometimes referred to as "the Little Nobel". The award has earned this appellation since, in a similar manner to the Nobel Prize in Literature, it recognizes the lifetime achievement of writers, though the Andersen Award focuses on a single category of literary works (children's literature).

The Nobel Prize in Literature is a Swedish literature prize that is awarded annually, since 1901, to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel, produced "in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction" (original Swedish: "den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning"). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, the award is based on an author's body of work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize. The academy announces the name of the laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. On some occasions the award has been postponed to the following year, most recently in 2018.

Der Nobelpreis für Literatur ist einer der fünf von Alfred Nobel gestifteten Preise, die „denen zugeteilt werden, die [...] der Menschheit den größten Nutzen geleistet haben“. Im Auftrag der 1900 gegründeten Nobel-Stiftung wird er alljährlich von der Schwedischen Akademie in Stockholm vergeben und ist seit 2017 mit neun Millionen Schwedischen Kronen (nach damaligem Wechselkurs etwa 905.040 Euro, derzeit etwa Euro) dotiert.


Early life and beginning of political career.

Karzai was born on 24 December 1957 in the Karz area of Kandahar City in southern Afghanistan. He is an ethnic Pashtun of the Popalzai tribe. His father, Abdul Ahad Karzai, served as the Deputy Speaker of the Parliament during the 1960s. His grandfather, Khair Mohammad Khan, had fought in the 1919 Third Anglo-Afghan War and was the Deputy Speaker of the Senate. Karzai's family were strong supporters of Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan. His uncle, Habibullah Karzai, served as the Afghan representative at the UN and is said to have accompanied King Zahir Shah in the early 1960s to the United States for a special meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy.  Hamid Karzai attended Mahmood Hotaki Primary School in Kandahar and Sayed Jamaluddin Afghani School in Kabul. He graduated from Habibia High School in 1976. After graduating from high school, he traveled to India as an exchange student in 1976, and was accepted to study for his master's degree in international relations and political science from Himachal Pradesh University. He obtained his master's degree in 1983.  Karzai moved to neighbor Pakistan to work as a fundraiser for the anti-communist mujahideen during the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War. The mujahideen were backed by the United States, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia.  Following the withdrawal of Soviet forces, Hamid Karzai returned to Afghanistan in early October 1988 to assist in the mujahideen victory in Tarinkot. He assisted in rallying Popalzai and other Durrani tribes to oust the regime from the city as well as helped negotiate the defection of five hundred of Mohammad Najibullah's forces. When Najibullah's Soviet-backed government collapsed in 1992, the Peshawar Accords agreed upon by the Afghan political parties established the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government to be

President and Chairman of a transitional administration.

After the 7 October 2001 launch of Operation Enduring Freedom, the United Front (Northern Alliance) worked with teams of U.S. special forces. Together, they overthrew the Taliban regime and mustered support for a new government in Afghanistan. Karzai and his group were in Quetta (Pakistan) at the time, where they began their covert operation. Before entering Afghanistan, he warned his fighters:  On 5 December 2001, Hamid Karzai and his group of fighters survived a friendly fire missile attack by U.S. Air Force pilots in southern Afghanistan. The group suffered injuries and was treated in the United States; Karzai received injuries to his facial nerves, as can sometimes be noticed during his speeches. On 4 November 2001, American special operation forces flew Karzai out of Afghanistan for protection.  In December 2001, political leaders gathered in Germany to agree on new leadership structures. Under 5 December Bonn Agreement, they formed an Interim Administration and named Karzai Chairman of a 29-member governing committee. He was sworn in as the leader on 22 December. The loya jirga of 13 June 2002 appointed Karzai as Interim President of the new position as President of the Afghan Transitional Administration. Former members of the Northern Alliance remained extremely influential, most notably Vice President Mohammed Fahim, who also served as the Defense Minister.  Karzai re-enacted the original coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani at

2004 Afghan presidential election.

When Karzai was a candidate in the October 2004 presidential election, he won 21 of the 34 provinces, defeating his 22 opponents and becoming the first democratically elected leader of Afghanistan.  Although his campaigning was limited due to fears of violence, elections passed without significant incident. Following an investigation by the United Nations of alleged voting irregularities, the national election commission in early

Presidency.

First term (2004–2009).

After winning a democratic mandate in the 2004 election, it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005. However, Karzai has proved to be more cautious than was expected. After his new administration took over in 2004, the economy of Afghanistan began growing rapidly for the first time in many years. Government revenue began increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid.  During the first term in Karzai's Presidency, public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001–14. In May 2006, an anti-American and anti-Karzai riot took place in Kabul which left at least seven people dead and 40 injured. In May 2007, after as many as 51 Afghan civilians were killed in a bombing, Karzai asserted that his government "can no longer accept" casualties caused by U.S. and NATO operations.

2009 re-election and second term.

On the eve of 20 August presidential election, Karzai seemed at once deeply unpopular but also likely to win the majority of the votes. He was blamed by many for the failures that plagued the reconstruction of Afghanistan after the toppling of the Taliban government in 2001, from the widespread corruption and the resurgence of the (neo-)Taliban to the explosion of the poppy trade. His unpopularity and the likelihood of his victory formed an atmosphere with a kind of national demoralization, which could discourage many Afghans from voting and dash hopes for substantial progress after the election.  In this second presidential election, Karzai was announced to have received over 50% of the votes. The election was tainted by lack of security,

Foreign relations.

Karzai's relations with NATO countries was strong, especially with the United States, due to the fact that it was the leading nation helping to rebuild war-torn Afghanistan. Karzai enjoyed a very friendly and strong strategic partnership with the United States, despite various disagreements. The U.S. had supported him since late 2001 to lead his nation. He has made many important diplomatic trips to the United States and other NATO countries. In August 2007, Karzai was invited to Camp David in Maryland, USA, for a special meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush. The United States has set up a special envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan, which is headed by Marc Grossman. His task is to serve as a mediator and solve issues between the three nations.  However, in later years the relations between U.S. and Karzai had become strained, particularly Karzai had been very critical of U.S. military because of their high-level of civilian casualties. In 2019 he described a "major fight" he had with American military officials back in 2007, when Karzai repeatedly told them: "If you want to fight terrorism

Assassination attempts.

Many people have plotted to assassinate Karzai in the last decade, especially the Taliban's Quetta Shura and the Taliban-allied Haqqani network which allegedly receives support and guidance from Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) spy network. As recent as October 2011, while Karzai was visiting India to sign an important strategic partnership agreement with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, Afghan agents of the National Directorate of Security (NDS) arrested 6 people

Relations with Talibans.

In an interview with Al Jazeera Hamid Karzai called Talibans his 'brothers'. He claimed that Afghan government and Afghan people don't want to eliminate Talibans, rather they want to reintegrate Talibans into society. This is not the first time he called Talibans his brothers. Previously he called them brothers during his victory speech in 2009, a day after he was declared president.

Attack on Taliban training camp.

On 14 September 2015, provincial police chief Gen. Daud Ahmadi claimed that Hamid Karzai had stopped an attack on Taliban training camp in Logar province of Afghanistan. The camp

Post-presidency.

After the 2017 Nangarhar airstrike, Karzai called the current president Ashraf Ghani a traitor. In October 2017 Karzai stated that the U.S.

Personal life and tribal lineage.

In 1999, Hamid Karzai married Zeenat Quraishi, a gynaecologist by profession who was working as a doctor with Afghan refugees living in Pakistan. They have a son, Mirwais, who was born in January 2007, a daughter, Malalai, born in 2012 and another daughter, Howsi, born in March 2014 in Gurgaon, India. He became father once again at the age of 58 when another daughter was born in September 2016 in Apollo Hospital, New Delhi. According to a declaration of his assets by an anti-graft body, Karzai earns $525 monthly and has less than $20,000 in bank accounts. Karzai does not own any land or property.  Karzai has six brothers, including Mahmood Karzai and Qayum Karzai, as well as Ahmed Wali Karzai, deceased, who was the representative for the southern Afghanistan region. Qayum is also the founder of the "Afghans for a Civil Society". Karzai has one sister, Fauzia Karzai.

Honorary degrees and awards.

Over the years Hamid Karzai has become a well recognized figure. He has received a number

Controversies.

In August 2011, Karzai pardoned dozens of child would-be suicide bombers, and in February 2012 some of the pardoned children were re-arrested attempting to commit suicide bombings in Kandahar Province.  The other main areas of criticism surrounding President Karzai involve nepotism, corruption, electoral fraud, and the involvement of his late half brother Ahmed Wali Karzai in the drug trade.

Electoral fraud.

Under Karzai's administration, electoral fraud was so apparent that Afghanistan's status as a democratic state came into question. Furthermore, a special

Financial ties with CIA and the government of Iran.

On 28 April 2013, "The New York Times" revealed that from December 2002 up to the publication date, Karzai's presidential office was funded with "tens of millions of dollars" of black cash from the CIA in order to buy influence within the Afghan government. The article stated that "the cash that does not appear to be subject to the oversight and restrictions." An unnamed American official was quoted by "The New York Times"

Corruption.

According to "The New York Times", many members of the Karzai family have mixed their personal interests with that of the state, and become hugely influential and wealthy by murky means. In 2012 Afghanistan was tied with Somalia and North Korea at the bottom of Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index, and it ranked 172/175 in 2014.  Mahmoud Karzai, the brother of President Karzai, was implicated in the 2010 Kabul Bank crisis. Mahmud Karzai was the 3rd largest shareholder in the bank with a 7% stake.

Unocal connection.

There has been much debate over Karzai's alleged consultant work with Unocal (Union Oil Company of California since acquired by Chevron in 2005). In 2002, when Karzai became the subject of heavy media coverage as one of the front runners to lead Afghanistan, it was reported that he was a former consultant for them. Spokesmen for both Unocal and Karzai have

Taliban connection.

In October 2013, Karzai's administration and the Afghanistan Intelligence agency were found to be communicating with the Pakistani Taliban about the shifting of power that may occur when the U.S. Forces withdraw

View on ISIS in Afghanistan.

Hamid Karzai, during an interview with Voice of America, claimed that the ISIS in Afghanistan is a tool of United States. He further claimed that he does not differentiate at all between the ISIS and the United States. During an interview with Fox News, Hamid Karzai claimed that ISIS in Afghanistan is a product of the United States. Karzai claimed that he routinely receive

Hamid Karzai (Pashto/; born 24 December 1957) is an Afghan politician who was the President of Afghanistan from 22 December 2001 to 29 September 2014, originally as an interim leader and then as President for almost ten years, from 7 December 2004 to 2014. He comes from a politically active family; Karzai's father, uncle and grandfather were all active in Afghan politics and government. Karzai and his father before him, Abdul Ahad Karzai, were each head of the Popalzai tribe of the Durrani tribal confederation.

Hamid Karzai (* 24. Dezember 1957 in Karz nahe Kandahar; alternative Schreibweise "Hamid Karsai", auf Paschtu und Dari (Persisch) ) ist ein afghanischer Politiker. Er war von 2001 bis 2014 Präsident von Afghanistan.


Group names.

In history, several sets of group names have been used:  Some other names have been proposed and used without gaining wide acceptance: "volatile metals" for group 12; "icosagens" for group 13; "crystallogens", "adamantogens", and "merylides" for group 14; and "aerogens" for group 18.

CAS and old IUPAC numbering (A/B).

Two earlier group number systems exist: "CAS" (Chemical Abstracts Service) and "old IUPAC". Both use numerals (Arabic or Roman) and letters "A" and "B". Both systems agree on the numbers. The numbers indicate approximately the highest oxidation number of the elements in that group, and so indicate similar chemistry with other elements with the same numeral. The number proceeds in a linearly increasing fashion for the most part, once on the left of the table, and once on the right (see List of oxidation states of the elements), with some irregularities in the transition metals. However, the two systems use the letters differently. For example, potassium (K) has one valence electron. Therefore, it is located in group 1. Calcium (Ca) is in group 2, for it contains two valence electrons.  In the old IUPAC system the letters A and B were designated to the left (A) and right (B) part of the table, while in the CAS system the letters A and B are designated to main group elements (A) and transition elements (B). The old IUPAC system was frequently used in Europe, while the CAS is most common in America. The new IUPAC scheme was developed to replace both systems as they confusingly used the same names to mean different things. The new system simply numbers the groups increasingly from left to right on the standard periodic table. The IUPAC proposal was first circulated in 1985 for public comments, and was later included as part of the 1990 edition of the "Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry".

In chemistry, a group (also known as a family) is a column of elements in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 numbered groups in the periodic table; the f-block columns (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered. The elements in a group have similar physical or chemical characteristics of the outermost electron shells of their atoms (i.e., the same core charge), because most chemical properties are dominated by the orbital location of the outermost electron.

Unter einer Gruppe des Periodensystems versteht man in der Chemie jede Spalte des Periodensystems. Alle Elemente einer Gruppe besitzen die gleiche Anzahl an Valenzelektronen und haben daher ähnliche chemische Eigenschaften. Gruppen mit besonders ähnlichen Eigenschaften werden auch als Elementfamilien bezeichnet; dies betrifft hauptsächlich die Alkali- und Erdalkalimetalle sowie die Halogene.


History.

From 1973 until the KSK's formation in 1996, the West German (and later German) government assigned all counter-terrorist and special operations activities to the GSG 9, a highly trained police force created shortly after the hostage-taking that transpired during the 1972 Munich Olympic Games. Prior to 1973, the army's "Fernspäher" (Long-Distance Reconnaissance), the navy's "Kampfschwimmer" (Combat Swimmers/"Frogmen"), and (until 1989) the "Special Weapons Escort Companies—Sonderwaffenbegleitkompanien" were the only military units comparable to anything that other nations may have seen as dedicated special forces units.  One politcial concrete reason for the establishment of the KSK was the fact that in 1994, during the genocide in Rwanda, German citizens had to be evacuated by Belgian para-commandos. The decision that this task was carried out by special operations forces of the former colonial power Belgium had been made in advance by mutual agreement between the NATO partners. The Federal Government of Germany also refused to intervene on its own, as in its view neither the GSG 9 nor the Bundeswehr "Bravo Companies" were trained to operate in a guerrilla situations and there was also a lack of the necessary transport capability. Several belgish para-soldies died at this operation. Due to the polictical pressure to have own forces ready for special operation within NATO became obvers.  Following the KSK's activation on April 1, 1997, all but one of the "Fernspähkompanie" have been either disbanded or merged into the newly constituted unit.  Like those of all German military units, KSK deployments require authorization from the German Bundestag (Federal Assembly). The unit has engaged in numerous anti-terror campaigns both in Europe and abroad; known engagements include operations inside Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and most recently in Afghanistan.  During the War in Afghanistan, although nominally under OEF command, the KSK worked under ISAF command since 2005, carrying out numerous operations in the vicinity of the German deployment in Kabul, including a successful raid on an al-Qaeda safehouse for suicide bombers in October 2006. KSK operators have commented in the German media about the restrictions placed on them by their national caveats and stated a preference for working directly for the Americans as part of OEF-A as they had done as part of Task Force K-Bar.  As is to be expected with such units, specific operational details such as success and casualty rates are considered to be top secret and withheld even from the highest-ranking members of the Bundestag. This practice has elicited some serious concerns, resulting in agreement to increase both transparency and accountability, by disclosing mission details to selected members of the Bundestag, in relation to the future deployments of KSK forces.  On May 4, 2013 the KSK reported its first casualty. First Sergeant Daniel Wirth was fatally shot in Baghlan Province - Afghanistan during operation "Maiwand". US Army forces were part of the attempted rescue mission. Daniel Wirth was honored by his sister Kathrin Wirth-Torrente in a book titled "Brothers in Bravery". It not only tells her brother's story, but also reflects on 40 additional military members who lost their lives while fighting The Global War on Terror in the Greater Middle East. The book was published by the Travis Manion Foundation in September 2017.

Commanders.

There have been eight commanders in the 20-year period since KSK was formed in 1996. They are as follows:  <nowiki>*</nowiki>Brigadier general Dag Baehr has previously served twice as a field officer in the KSK: First, under the command of Brigadier General Schulz, when it was founded from 1996 until 1999 and then again between 2004 until 2007 under the command of Brigadier General Hartbrod.

Structure.

The KSK is a regular army unit at brigade level and (apart from the HQ and the Development Group) divided into two battalion-sized departments: "Operational Forces" and "Support Forces".

Operational Forces.

Combat-ready units are divided into four Commando companies of approximately one hundred men. The "Special Commando Company" is normally staffed with veteran members, taking on various supporting roles. Each of the four Commando Companies has five specialized platoons, each with a unique specialty and ability that can be adapted to both the terrain and situation, depending on type action(s) required:  There are four commando squads in every platoon. Each of these squads consists of four equally skilled members that have been hand-picked from the German Army into the platoon that best suits their abilities. Each squad member is specially trained as a weapons expert, medic, combat engineer or communications expert, respectively. Additionally, some groups may contain other specialists, such as a heavy weapons or language expert.

Support Forces.

The "HQ & Support Company" is responsible for supply duties in Germany. For that, the unit is made up of:  The "Signal Company" consists of three signal platoons.  While the "HQ & Support Company" supports the KSK in Germany the "Support Company" takes supply duties during operations. Herefor, the company is organized in:

Selection and training.

Initially, only officers and non-commissioned officers of the Bundeswehr could apply for service with the KSK and the subsequent evaluation period. As a prerequisite for entry, the Bundeswehr Commando Course ("Einzelkämpferlehrgang") must have been completed by the applicant. Since 2005, however, applications have also been opened to civilians and enlisted personnel who must complete an 18-month Long Range Surveillance training cycle before the intense KSK selection process begins.  The selection process for the combat positions is divided into two phases: a three-week-long physical and psychological training regimen (normally having a 40% pass rate), and later a three-month-long physical endurance phase (normally with an 8–10% pass rate). During latter phase, the KSK use the Black Forest as their proving grounds for prospective operators. In this time, candidates must undergo a grueling 90-hour cross-country run, followed by a three-week international "Combat Survival Course" at the German-led multinational "Special Operations Training Center" (formerly the "International Long Range Reconnaissance School") in Pfullendorf.  Upon successful completion of the selection process, candidates may be allowed to start their 2–3-year training cycle with the KSK. This training includes roughly twenty courses at over seventeen schools worldwide: in Norway for Arctic terrain, Austria for mountainous terrain; El Paso, Texas, or Israel for desert and/or bush training; San Diego for amphibious operations; and Belize for jungle experience.  According to press releases from May 2008, the Bundeswehr aims to advance the attractiveness of service in the KSK to women. This is partially because the KSK was previously unable to reach its targeted number of troops. The KSK was no longer restricted to male troops after the Bundeswehr opened all units to women in 2001. As of 2020 in KSK, women occupied auxiliary positions.

Insignia.

Beret and badge.

Members of the KSK wear maroon berets as a symbol of their roots in airborne units. A metal badge is worn which consists of a sword surrounded by oak leaves. The flag of the Federal Republic of Germany is depicted on the bottom of the sword.

Kommandoabzeichen.

The "Kommandoabzeichen" (commando badge) is a cloth patch worn on the right pouch of the uniform. The commando badge's design is similar to the metal badge worn on the beret. It depicts a silver sword on light green background surrounded by oak leaves. The badge was permitted to be worn in 2000 by Federal President Johannes Rau.

Waffenfarbe.

KSK units wear green as their "Waffenfarbe", similar to infantry units. Before becoming an independent military force, the KSK was a part of infantry units.

Controversy.

In 2018, the German Federal Criminal Police Office uncovered a plot involving unknown KSK soldiers to murder prominent German politicians such as Claudia Roth, Heiko Maas and Joachim Gauck among others, and carry out attacks against immigrants living in Germany. Also, earlier that same year in a separate investigation, the State prosecutors in the city of Tübingen investigated whether neo-Nazi symbols were used at a "farewell" event involving members of KSK.

Kommando Spezialkräfte ("Special Forces Command, KSK") is an elite special forces military command composed of special operations soldiers selected from the ranks of Germany's Bundeswehr and organized under the Rapid Forces Division. KSK has received many decorations and awards from NATO, the United States and its affiliates. KSK operatives are frequently requested for joint anti-terror operations, notably in the Balkans and Middle East.

Das Kommando Spezialkräfte (KSK) ist eine militärische Spezialeinheit und Großverband auf Brigadeebene der Bundeswehr mit den Einsatzschwerpunkten Sondereinsätze und Kommandokriegsführung, Aufklärung, Terrorismusbekämpfung, Rettung, Evakuierung und Bergung sowie Militärberatung. Das KSK untersteht truppendienstlich der Division Schnelle Kräfte (DSK) und ist in der Graf-Zeppelin-Kaserne im württembergischen Calw stationiert.