Early life.

Surya Varuna Claudine Bonaly was born in Nice, France on 15 December 1973. Initially named Claudine, she was adopted at 8 months old from an orphanage by Suzanne and Georges Bonaly, who gave her the name Surya. A word meaning ""the sun"" in Sanskrit. Suzanne worked as a physical education teacher and Georges as an architect for the government. Journalists, mainly American, began in the late 1980s to claim that Surya Bonaly was born on the Réunion island and was found lying on a coconut-strewn beach. The skater's passport, however, indicates that she was born in Nice. The story spreads as she prepares her first European championships in 1989. Surya Bonaly believes that the media couldn't accept that a young black and adopted woman could have been born in France. For Didier Gailhaguet, first coach of her competitive career, the media attention given to the skater allows her to achieve better results in international competitions. He later admitted fabricating the story in order to draw attention to his skater, adding that he only mentioned the Reunion island because he dreamed of going there on vacation. When Surya approached the age of 18 and began researching her birth history, she discovered that her biological mother is indeed from the island and her biological father from the Ivory Coast.  Two years after her adoption, the Bonalys bought a sheepfold in ruins and began to renovate. Surya therefore grew up in this sheepfold fifty kilometers from Nice, without running water or electricity and populated with twenty-six goats. She takes part in the daily work of the farm, milking the goats in the evening after training and even giving birth to kids with her parents. The sheepfold, located on the heights of Nice, is nicknamed Sannyasa, a Sanskrit term that refers to a stage in a person’s life, or spiritual development, in which one renounces material possessions to concentrate purely on spiritual matters. She has flute lessons at eight in the morning, followed by English lessons, then diving lessons and gymnastics.  Her mother practices many sports and quickly encourages Surya to follow in her footsteps. The first sport she practices is fencing. She continues with ballet, diving and figure skating. In each discipline, she is very gifted. When Suzanne Bonaly takes her students to the ice rink, she takes Surya, still a baby, with her. At around two years of age, she begins to skate on double blades which facilitate balance. She skates to keep busy while her mother finishes her class. In figure skating, Nicole Erdos is the first one to coach her.  At four years old, Surya developed a passion for gymnastics, training with Éric Hagard, the current coach of the multiple European medalist Mélanie de Jesus dos Santos. If the teenager really likes the discipline, it is nevertheless figure skating that really fascinates her. Forced to specialize, she chose figure skating. Nicole Erdos indicates that her gymnastics practice has strengthened her more than other skaters, giving her an advantage on the ice.

Career.

Debut with Didier Gailhaguet.

In 1984, Surya Bonaly watched the Winter Olympic Games and discovered there the skater Katarina Witt: she then decided to do the double axel and broke her ankle. She had to wear a cast for two months, and decided to continue practicing the flute until the summer. When she returned to the ice rink, the French team trained by Didier Gailhaguet took every available space on the ice, preventing Surya from training. Suzanne Bonaly then asked Didier Gailhaguet to give her daughter an hour on the ice, and the coach agreed. She tried again to do a double axel with her broken ankle, which impressed Gailhaguet, who later claimed that ""France had no hard fighters"". He then proposed to Bonaly and her mother to come for each training session, which would last three weeks. At the end of the course, Bonaly has almost reached the level of the members of the French team, already managing to land a double axel and a triple jump despite a short time spent on the ice. Gailhaguet asked her to move to Paris to train with him all year round.  The Bonaly family then moved to Paris. For six months, while training in Champigny-sur-Marne, she was home schooled and lived in a van with her parents. Philippe Candeloro mentions the fact that the family was accompanied by five dogs at that time. He also notices the severity of her mother, who pushes Surya to train hard but also very closely governs the social life and hobbies of her daughter. A year later, she joined the French National Team. She then became the center of the media attention among the French figure skaters, by being constantly put in the spotlight by Gailhaguet. At the age of twelve, under the impulse of Gailhaguet, she learned to do a backflip on the ice: Gailhaguet claims to have only transposed onto the ice what she was doing on a regular basis. She made her first backflip on the ice and in public at a gala in Annecy in 1986. Also in 1986, at the age of thirteen, she became a junior tumbling champion at the World Championships. The same year, again in tumbling, she won a silver medal in team at the World Championships with Sandrine Vacher, Corinne Robert and Isabelle Jagueux at the Palais omnisports of Paris-Bercy.

1987–1988 to 1989–1990.

During the 1987-1988 season, Surya Bonaly became the French junior champion of figure skating in Cherbourg. At the French Senior Championships in Grenoble, she ended up in fourth place and was then sent to her first ISU Championship, the 1988 Junior Worlds in Brisbane, Australia and finished 14th.  During the summer of 1988, she watched the Summer Olympics and noticed the sprinter Florence Griffith-Joyner dressed in a colorful running suit and decided to take inspiration from her for her skating costumes which would later become more original and colorful, something considered unusual back then in figure skating.  Bonaly usually makes eight to nine jumps during her programs, while conventional programs usually contain six.  The following season, Bonaly won the bronze medal at 1989 World Junior Championships and her first senior national title. She also began appearing on the senior level, placing eighth at the 1989 European Championships and tenth at 1989 World Championships.  Bonaly was awarded the silver medal behind Japan's Yuka Sato at the 1990 World Junior Championships in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She finished fourth at the 1990 European Championships and ninth at the 1990 World Championships.

1990–1991 season: World Junior and European titles.

Bonaly began the season with a pair of senior international medals – gold at the 1990 Grand Prix International de Paris and bronze at the 1990 Skate Electric. Making her final junior appearance, she stood on top of the podium at the 1991 World Junior Championships in Budapest, Hungary. After taking her third national title, she competed at the 1991 European Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria. She was awarded the gold medal ahead of two German skaters, Evelyn Großmann and Marina Kielmann. During the invasion of Kuwait, she designed a gala skating program that included a magic trick in which she made a dove appear, a symbol of peace.  Bonaly placed fifth at the 1991 World Championships in Munich, Germany, where she came very close to the first ever ratified quad by a female skater, but had other errors.

1991–1992 season: Second European title and first Olympic appearance.

In January 1992, Bonaly outscored Kielmann and Patricia Neske for the gold medal at the European Championships in Lausanne, Switzerland. In February 1992, she took the athlete's oath at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France. During a practice session, she landed a back flip close to Japan's Midori Ito and was told by officials not to do it again because they believed that other skaters might be intimidated in practice sessions. Her costumes were custom made by Christian Lacroix. She became the first woman to attempt a quadruple toe loop in competition but the jump was not fully rotated in the air and she had to complete the rotation on the ice. Due to the under rotation, the quad would be downgraded under the ISU Judging System. Although the door was open for her to win a medal after Ito and Harding had finished in 4th and 6th in the short program, and Kristi Yamaguchi and Nancy Kerrigan both made major errors in the long skating just before her, she placed 6th in the free skate and 5th overall.  After the Olympics, Bonaly parted ways with Gailhaguet and joined André Brunet, who coached her for one month. She concluded her season at the 1992 World Championships in Oakland, California. Ranked tenth in the short and 12th in the free, she finished 11th overall, making a number of jumping errors in both programs. She was so distraught with her poor performances and how she was marked that she considered turning pro midway through the event.

1992–1993 season: First World silver medal.

Bonaly was coached mainly by her mother from April to September 1992 and also made two month-long visits, in June and September, to Frank Carroll in southern California; although she wanted to stay with Carroll permanently, the French skating federation was opposed to its skaters training abroad. Alain Giletti became her coach, commuting four times a week by train from Tours to Paris, and her mother filled in during his absences. During the summer of 1992, Bonaly signed a contract to join Tom Collins' troop, Champions on Ice, two months a year. It's a way of showing her technical abilities without limitations, by performing somersaults prohibited in competition.  Bonaly won the 1993 European Championships in Helsinki, having placed first in both segments ahead of Ukraine's Oksana Baiul and Germany's Marina Kielmann. At the 1993 World Championships in Prague, she took silver behind Oksana Baiul, who narrowly took the title with higher presentation scores. Bonaly had significantly more technical content than the winner. Bonaly performed seven triples, a triple-triple combination, and two triple lutzes, while Baiul performed five triples but did not attempt a jump combination.

1993–1994 season.

In January 1994, Bonaly placed first in all segments on her way to her fourth consecutive continental title at the Europeans Championships in Copenhagen, Denmark. The other medalists were Baiul and Russia's Olga Markova. A month later, she competed at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. Ranked third in the short program and fourth in the free skate, she finished fourth overall behind Baiul, Nancy Kerrigan, and Chen Lu.  The media began to pay attention to Surya's mother, Suzanne Bonaly. There are many critics from the media against her: Surya being unable to enjoy a social life because of her schedules and her responsibility for Surya's skating style since Suzanne Bonaly is a physical education teacher and would rather tend towards having athletic prowess rather than having the grace of a dancer. Surya goes to bed at nine, is forbidden to eat sugar, runs every morning, but for the young skater, it is a habit and not a constraint. She allows herself to go out and have fun during the summer, where she performs without having to prepare for competitions. Suzanne Bonaly believes that the critics are rooted in jealousy. Bonaly moves with her mother to Pralognan-la-Vanoise, where she trains far away from the public eye.  At the 1994 World Championships in Chiba, Japan – where the three Olympic medalists did not compete – Bonaly's final overall score was equal to home country favorite Yuka Sato, who would be awarded the gold medal after a 5–4 tiebreaker decision.  She expected the judges to reward her for improving her gracefulness, having stopped trying to land quadruple jumps and having improved from the previous championships, where she also finished second. Bonaly even cut her thickly braided ponytail because the judges didn’t like it. She claims to have made concessions to better suit the expectations of the judges, without ever being rewarded for her work, Bonaly told the french podcast ""Surya Bonaly, corps et lames"" : «"I did everything I could, but I didn't paint myself white, that's for sure"». Upset by the result, Bonaly stood beside the medals platform rather than on it. She eventually stepped onto the platform but took off her silver medal after it was presented to her; she was immediately booed by the crowd. After the medals presentation, Bonaly's only statement to reporters was: "I'm just not lucky."  Later, the international judge Anne Hardy-Thomas, absent from this competition, commented on the judges' decision. She stated that the judges are under great pressure, their names being displayed opposite their notes; she herself said that she sometimes put second a French skater to avoid being accused of favoritism. Two main clans stand out, the Anglo-Saxons and the countries of the former Eastern bloc: Surya Bonaly does not belong to either of these two coalitions. American judges look for a graceful skater who meets the beauty standards, while European judges favor athletics and creativity, which benefits Bonaly.  The international federation first thought of punishing her for her behavior, then they changed their mind, believing that the justified disappointment of the skater was a sufficient mitigating circumstance.

1994–1995 season: Fifth European title.

In 1995, Bonaly won the European Championships for the fifth time, overtaking short-program winner Markova. At the 1995 World Championships in Birmingham, England, she placed fourth in the short program but rose to second after the free skate. She was awarded her third World silver medal, behind Chen Lu of China. For the third consecutive year she lost the gold medal by just one judge and one-tenth of a point. Her free skate had the most difficult technical content, with two triple lutzes, two triple-triple combos, and seven triples. For Bonaly to win, another skater would need to place ahead of short program leader Nicole Bobek.

1995–1996 season.

In autumn 1995, Bonaly competed in the inaugural ISU Champions Series. She finished third and fourth at her assignments, which was not enough to qualify to the seven-woman final. Ranked first in the short program and second in the free skate, Bonaly took silver behind Russia's Irina Slutskaya at the 1996 European Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria. She finished fifth at the 1996 World Championships in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, having placed seventh in the short where she fell on a triple lutz, and fifth in the free.

1996–1997 season.

In May 1996, Bonaly ruptured her achilles tendon while doing acrobatics. Due to the injury, she missed much of the following season. The French federation initially decided not to name her to the 1997 European Championships in Paris, believing that she lacked fitness, but Bonaly successfully appealed. She finished 9th overall after placing 6th in qualifying group B, 6th in the short program, and 10th in the free skate. She was not included in France's two-women team to the World Championships, passed over in favor of Vanessa Gusmeroli, the top French finisher at Europeans, and Laetitia Hubert who placed behind Bonaly at the same event.

1997–1998 season: Third Olympics.

During the season, Bonaly was coached by Suzanne Bonaly and Tatiana Tarasova in Marlborough, United States. At the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, Bonaly placed 6th in the short program. Unable to complete her planned routine or a successful triple lutz due to injury, she decided to perform a backflip landing on one blade during the free skate. Backflips had been banned since 1976 from competitions held under ISU rules. Having landed it on one foot, Bonaly hoped to not get a deduction but she ended up having her points deducted. Nonetheless, she was content with her decision to perform the move. Bonaly is the only Olympic figure skater to land a backflip on only one blade. Anne Hardy-Thomas, the French judge of the event, is approached by the technical delegate, who tells her that Surya Bonaly was insolent and had an unacceptable behavior. The judge replied : ""She did well for all the past years"". She finished tenth in Nagano and retired from amateur competition after the event.  Her skating clubs were CSG Pralognan and CSG Champigny.

Later career.

Bonaly toured with the Champions on Ice skating show for several years until it went out of business after 2007. She also performed in shows in Russia with Evgeni Plushenko and was a guest skater at Ice Theatre of New York's December 2008 gala in NYC where she successfully performed her backflip.  Bonaly was an off-screen character on the "Will on Ice" episode of NBC's "Will & Grace" which originally aired on 12 January 1999. In 2010, she was a finalist on "La Ferme Célébrités" season 3. In 2015, she underwent surgery after the discovery of numerous cysts along her spinal cord, ending her performing career.  As of September 2016, Bonaly was coaching in Minnesota. As of 2019, she works with figure skating camps and is a resident guest coach at Shattuck-St. Mary's School.  She appeared in the episode ""Judgement"" of a 2019 Netflix documentary series that explored the lives of heroic individuals who bounced back from loss or perceived failure. In Bonaly's case, the episode focused on her defiance, "longevity" on the ice, and refusal to submit to conventions.

Racism in figure skating.

When asked about her experience as a black figure skater, Bonaly responded that even though she never had a racist encounter in her career, she probably would have been a World Champion if she wasn't black, stated Bonaly in the french podcast ""Surya Bonaly, corps et lames"". During an interview with the BBC when asked if she ever felt that things were harder for her being one of the first black figure skaters, Bonaly clarified her comments stating:"« It was a mix of so many things. First, because I was black for sure and I didn't try to copy anyone.Second, because I came from a small country. Third, because I’ve had a different hairstyle and look and also because my mother made my skating costumes for so many years. All those things together was just too much for some people to handle»"

Activism.

She takes part in numerous conferences and events which aims to encourage the presence of non-white people in sport.  As a vegetarian and sponsor of PETA, she participated in numerous campaigns against Canada's seal hunt and the fur trade.  Bonaly is also against bullfighting, and requested to be received by the then president of France, Nicolas Sarkozy, who received her at the Élysée Palace on 26 September 2007 in order to address the abolition of bullfighting and the prohibition of the entry in the arenas for children under 16.  Bonaly was a member of the federal council of the French Federation of Ice Sports from 2010 to 2014. She was also the cultural attaché of the Monaco consulate in Las Vegas.  She was the ambassador of the association "France of talents and colors", which aims to fight against racism, violence and discrimination in sport.

Personal life.

Bonaly became an American citizen in January 2004. After living in Las Vegas, Nevada, she moved to Minnesota in September 2015. Bonaly became engaged to skating coach Pete Biver on 18 September 2016. She has no children. Bonaly has been a vegetarian since she was born.

Surya Bonaly (born 15 December 1973) is a French former competitive figure skater. She is a three-time World silver medalist (1993–1995), a five-time European champion (1991–1995), the 1991 World Junior Champion, and a nine-time French national champion (1989–1997).

Surya Bonaly (* 15. Dezember 1973 in Nizza) ist eine ehemalige französische Eiskunstläuferin, die im Einzellauf startete. Sie ist die Europameisterin von 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 und 1995.


Early life and education.

Cohen was born in Bangor, Maine. His mother, Clara (née Hartley), was of Protestant Irish ancestry, and his father, Reuben Cohen, was born in New York and was the son of a Russian Jewish immigrant; the two owned the Bangor Rye Bread Co.  Pursuant to his father's wishes, Cohen was raised Jewish and attended Hebrew School in preparation for his bar mitzvah, but he decided not to follow through with his bar mitzvah when he was informed that he would have to convert formally to Judaism, and he began to practice Christianity.  After graduating from Bangor High School in 1958, Cohen attended Bowdoin College, graduating "cum laude" with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Latin in 1962. While a student at Bowdoin, Cohen was initiated as a brother of the Kappa chapter of the Psi Upsilon fraternity.  While in high school and college, Cohen was a basketball player and was named to the Maine all-state high school and college basketball team, and at Bowdoin was inducted into the New England All-Star Hall of Fame. Cohen attended law school at the Boston University School of Law, graduating with a Bachelor of Laws degree "cum laude" in 1965.

Legal, academic, and early political career.

He became an assistant county attorney for Penobscot County (1968–1970). In 1968 he became an instructor at Husson College in Bangor, and later was an instructor in business administration at the University of Maine (1968–1972).  Cohen served as the vice president of the Maine Trial Lawyers Association (1970–1972) and as a member of the Bangor School Board (1971–1972). He became a fellow at the John F. Kennedy Institute of Politics at Harvard University in 1972, and in 1975 was named as one of the U.S. Jaycee's "ten outstanding young men".  Cohen was elected to the Bangor City Council (1969–1972) and served as Bangor Mayor in 1971-72.

House of Representatives and Senate.

In the 1972 election, Cohen won a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, representing Maine's 2nd congressional district, succeeding Democrat William Hathaway, who was elected to the US Senate. Cohen defeated Democratic State Senator Elmer H. Violette of Van Buren. During his first term in Congress, Cohen became deeply involved in the Watergate investigation. As a member of the House Judiciary Committee, he was one of the first Republicans to break with his party, and voted for the impeachment of President Richard Nixon. During this time, "Time" magazine named him one of "America's 200 Future Leaders". In July 1974 he said,  After three terms in the House, Cohen was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1978, defeating incumbent William Hathaway in his first bid for reelection. Cohen was reelected in 1984 and 1990, serving a total of 18 years in the Senate (1979–1997). In 1990, he defeated Democrat Neil Rolde. Cohen developed a reputation as a moderate Republican with liberal views on social issues, and has been described as "a career-long maverick with a reputation for fashioning compromise out of discord."  In 1994 Cohen investigated the federal government's process for acquiring information technology, and his report, "Computer Chaos: Billions Wasted Buying Federal Computer Systems", generated much discussion. He chose not to run for another Senate term in 1996; Susan Collins, who had worked for Cohen, was elected to succeed him.  While in the Senate, Cohen served on both the Senate Armed Services Committee and the Governmental Affairs Committee (1979–1997) and was a member of the Senate Intelligence Committee 1983–1991 and again 1995–1997, serving as Vice Chairman from 1987-1991. He also participated in the drafting of several notable laws related to defense matters, including the Competition in Contracting Act (1984), the Montgomery G.I. Bill Act (1984), the Goldwater-Nichols Act (1986), the Intelligence Oversight Reform Act (1991), the Federal Acquisition Reform Act (1996), the Nunn-Cohen Act Amendment creating the United States Special Operations Command, and the Information Technology Management Reform Act, also known as the Clinger-Cohen Act (1996). Cohen voted in favor of the bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday and the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (as well as to override President Reagan's veto). Cohen voted in favor of the nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Secretary of Defense.

On December 5, 1996, President Bill Clinton announced his selection of Cohen as Secretary of Defense, saying that he was the "right person" to build on the achievements of (retiring defense secretary) William Perry "to secure the bipartisan support America's armed forces must have and clearly deserve." As Secretary of Defense Cohen played a large role in directing the United States military actions in Iraq and Kosovo, including the dismissal of Wesley Clark from his post as the NATO Supreme Allied Commander. Both Operation Desert Fox in Iraq and Operation Allied Force in Kosovo were launched just months after al-Qaeda carried out the United States embassy bombings in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya, in 1998.

Confirmation.

During his confirmation hearings, Cohen said he thought on occasion he might differ with Clinton on specific national security issues. He implicitly criticized the Clinton administration for lacking a clear strategy for leaving Bosnia and stated that he thought U.S. troops should definitely be out by mid-1998. He also asserted that he would resist further budget cuts, retain the two regional conflicts strategy, and support spending increases for advanced weapons, even if it necessitated further cuts in military personnel. Cohen questioned whether savings from base closings and acquisition reform could provide enough money for procurement of new weapons and equipment that the Joint Chiefs of Staff thought necessary in the next few years. He supported the expansion of NATO and looked on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction as the most serious problem the United States faced. After confirmation by a unanimous Senate vote, Cohen was sworn in as the 20th Secretary of Defense on January 24, 1997, becoming the first Republican politician to serve a Democratic president in this capacity. He then settled into a schedule much fuller than he had followed in the Senate. Routinely he arrived at the Pentagon before 7 a.m., received an intelligence briefing, and then met with the Deputy Secretary of Defense (John Hamre 1997–2000, Rudy de Leon 2000–01) and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Gen. Hugh Shelton). The rest of the day he devoted to policy and budget briefings, visits with foreign and other dignitaries, and to what he termed "ABC" meetings at the White House with Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and National Security Advisor Sandy Berger as well as President Bill Clinton. He also traveled abroad several times during his first months in office.

Defense budget.

One of Cohen's first major duties was to present to Congress the Fiscal Year 1998 Defense budget, which had been prepared under Secretary Perry. Cohen requested a budget of $250.7 billion, which represented 3 percent of the nation's estimated gross domestic product for FY 1998. Cohen stressed three top budget priorities: people (recruiting and retaining skilled people through regular military pay raises, new construction or modernization of barracks, and programs for child care, family support, morale, welfare, and recreation), readiness (support for force readiness, training, exercises, maintenance, supplies, and other essential needs), and modernization (development and upgrading of weapon and supporting systems to guarantee the combat superiority of U.S. forces). This meant increasing the funds available for procurement of new systems, with the target set at $60 billion by FY2001.  When he presented the FY1998 budget, Cohen noted that he would involve himself with the Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), which would focus on the challenges to U.S. security and the nation's military needs over the next decade or more. When the QDR became public in May 1997, it did not fundamentally alter the budget, structure, and doctrine of the military. Many defense experts thought it gave insufficient attention to new forms of warfare, such as terrorist attacks, electronic sabotage, and the use of chemical and biological agents. Cohen stated that the Pentagon would retain the "two regional wars" scenario adopted after the end of the Cold War. He decided to scale back purchases of jet fighters, including the Air Force's F-22 Raptor and the Navy's F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, as well as Navy surface ships. The review included cutting another 61,700 active duty service members—15,000 in the Army, 26,900 in the Air Force, 18,000 in the Navy, and 1,800 in the Marine Corps, as well as 54,000 reserve forces, mainly in the Army National Guard, and some 80,000 civilians department-wide. Cohen also recommended two more rounds of base closings in 1999 and 2001. The Pentagon hoped to save $15 billion annually over the next few years to make possible the purchase of new equipment and weapon systems without a substantial budget increase above the current level of $250 billion.

International relations and situations.

As he settled into office, Cohen faced the question of the expansion of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which he supported, and its relationship to Russia. At a summit meeting between President Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin in Helsinki, Finland, in March 1997, Yeltsin acknowledged the inevitability of broader NATO membership. Two months later he agreed, after negotiations with NATO officials, to sign an accord providing for a new permanent council, to include Russia, the NATO secretary general, and a representative of the other NATO nations, to function as a forum in which Russia could air a wide range of security issues that concerned that country. Formal signing of this agreement would pave the way for a July 1997 invitation from NATO to several nations, probably including Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, to join the organization.  The proposed U.S. missile defense system received attention at the Helsinki summit, where Clinton and Yeltsin agreed to an interpretation of the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty allowing the United States to proceed with a limited missile defense system currently under development. Specifically, Clinton and Yeltsin agreed to distinguish between a national missile defense system, aimed against strategic weapons, not allowed by the ABMT, and a theater missile defense system to guard against shorter range missile attacks. Some critics thought that any agreement of this kind would place undesirable limits on the development of both theater and strategic missile defenses. The Helsinki meeting also saw progress in arms control negotiations between the United States and Russia, a matter high on Cohen's agenda. Yeltsin and Clinton agreed on the need for early Russian ratification of the Second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) and negotiation of START III to make further significant cuts in the strategic nuclear arsenals of both nations.  The continuation, at least until mid-1998, of the existing peacekeeping mission involving U.S. forces in Bosnia and the possibility that other such missions would arise worried Cohen, who earlier had expressed reservations about such operations. Humanitarian efforts that did not involve peacekeeping, such as in Rwanda in the recent past, also seemed likely. Other persistent national security problems, including tension with Iraq in the Persian Gulf area, Libya in North Africa, and North Korea in East Asia, could flare up again, as could the Arab–Israeli conflict.  In preparing future budgets, the challenge would be to find the right mix between money for operation and maintenance accounts on the one hand and modernization procurement funds on the other, while facing the prospect of a flat DoD budget of about $250 billion annually for the next decade or so. A relatively new problem that could affect the DoD budget was vertical integration in the defense industry. It occurred on a large scale in the 1990s as mergers of major defense contractors created a few huge dominant companies, particularly in the aerospace industry. They were called vertical because they incorporated most of the elements of the production process, including parts and subcomponents. Cohen and other Pentagon leaders began to worry that vertical integration could reduce competition and in the long run increase the costs of what the Department of Defense had to buy.

Social issues.

In December 1999, Cohen ordered an immediate review of the Clinton administration's controversial "don't ask, don't tell" policy regarding the status and treatment of gays and lesbians in the U.S. military. The order was given shortly after the president said publicly that the policy was not working. During his tenure as Defense Secretary, Cohen also had to address various other social issues, including: the role of women in combat as well as in other military jobs, racism, and sexual harassment.

Recent years.

After leaving the Pentagon in 2001, Cohen founded "The Cohen Group", a business consulting and lobbyist firm, with three Pentagon officials, Bob Tyrer, Jim Bodner, and H.K. Park. Cohen was presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service by the Woodrow Wilson Center of the Smithsonian Institution on March 7, 2002, in New York City.  On January 5, 2006, he participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials.  Cohen has written several books, including mysteries, poetry, and (with George Mitchell) an analysis of the Iran-contra affair. He is a Chairman Emeritus of the US-Taiwan Business Council. "The Washington Post" ran an article entitled "From Public Life to Private Business" about Cohen's abrupt transition to the business of Washington lobbying within "weeks of leaving office." (May 28, 2006). It discussed the affairs of the Cohen Group in greater detail and while alleging no specific impropriety, took a generally negative view of the former Senator and Secretary of Defense.  On August 21, 2006, Cohen's novel, "Dragon Fire", was released. The plot revolves around a secretary of defense who contends with a potential nuclear threat from a foreign country. In December 2006 he released a memoir with his wife, author Janet Langhart, entitled "Love in Black and White", a memoir about race, religion, and the love couple shares over similar life circumstances and backgrounds. He then appeared on The Daily Show (August 22, 2006) and on Fox & Friends First (August 25, 2006), where he said to host Brian Kilmeade, "I think there should be a commitment to universal service. I think that only a few people are really committed to this war against terrorism... We ought to have a real call to national service to commit ourselves to some form of public service...to put us on a war footing mentality." BBC News hired Cohen as a world affairs analyst in May 2016. Cohen appears in this capacity on "BBC World News America" and other broadcasts.  Cohen and Madeleine Albright are co-chairing a new "Genocide Prevention Task Force". Their appointment was criticized by Harut Sassounian and by the Armenian National Committee of America.  Cohen serves as an Advisory Board member for the Partnership for a Secure America and is also a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. In addition, he serves as a board member of the U.S.-China Business Council, having served as vice chairman between 2011-2013, and the U.S.-India Business Council.  During the 2016 United States presidential election, Cohen joined many Republicans in breaking with party ranks to oppose the candidacy of Republican nominee Donald Trump. He endorsed Democratic nominee former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.

Personal life.

Cohen filed for divorce from his first wife, Diana Dunn, on February 15, 1987. On February 14, 1996, Cohen and Janet Langhart were married. Janet had refused multiple proposals due to concerns about potential reactions in Senate reelection campaigns of an interracial marriage. Langhart is a former model, Boston television personality, and BET correspondent. She was known as the "First Lady of the Pentagon" during Cohen's tenure as Secretary.  Cohen served as Best Man in then-Senate Naval Liaison John McCain's second wedding (Gary Hart was a groomsman). McCain later became his Senate colleague.  According to "The New York Times", Cohen was considered a loner in Congress.  He is a Unitarian Universalist.

Attack at Holocaust Museum.

On the afternoon of June 10, 2009, Cohen was present at the U.S. Holocaust Museum, waiting for his wife Janet Langhart, for the world premiere of her one-act play, "Anne and Emmett". The play imagines a conversation between Anne Frank and Emmett Till. While Cohen waited, an elderly man with a long gun attacked the facility, fatally shooting a security guard before being wounded himself by the other guards. Cohen and Langhart were not injured, and appeared on CNN that afternoon to tell what they had seen and respond to the shooter's racist beliefs. The man was identified as James W. von Brunn, 88, of Annapolis, a longtime "hard-core" supremacist whose Internet writings contain extensive criticism against Jews and African Americans. Langhart's play had been promoted in "The Washington Post" the week before, and was being presented in honor of the eightieth anniversary of Anne Frank's birth.

William Sebastian Cohen (born August 28, 1940) is an American politician, lawyer and author from the U.S. state of Maine. A Republican, Cohen served as both a member of the United States House of Representatives (1973–1979) and Senate (1979–1997), and as Secretary of Defense (1997–2001) under Democratic President Bill Clinton.

William Sebastian Cohen (* 28. August 1940 in Bangor, Maine) ist ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Republikanische Partei), der in der Regierung des demokratischen US-Präsidenten Bill Clinton Verteidigungsminister der Vereinigten Staaten war.


Examples.

The postal service delivers letters using a best-effort delivery approach. The delivery of a certain letter is not scheduled in advance – no resources are preallocated in the post office. The service will make their "best effort" to try to deliver a message, but the delivery may be delayed if too many letters suddenly arrive at a postal office. The sender is not informed if a letter has been delivered successfully.  Conventional telephone networks are not based on best-effort communication, but on circuit switching. During the connection phase of a new call, resources are reserved in the telephone exchanges, or a busy signal informs the user that the call is blocked due to lack of free capacity. An ongoing phone call can never be interrupted due to overloading of the network, and is guaranteed constant bandwidth.  The Internet protocol offers a best-effort service of delivering datagrams between hosts. IPv4 is a connectionless internet protocol that depends on the best-effort delivery approach. IPv4 datagrams may be lost, arbitrarily delayed, corrupted, or duplicated. The applications built on top of it implement the additional services they require on an end-to-end basis. Transmission control protocol (TCP) provides a guaranteed delivery of an octet stream between a pair of hosts to the above layer, internally splitting the stream into packets and resending these when lost or corrupted. User datagram protocol (UDP) provides a thinner abstraction layer which only error-checks the datagrams. Both are transport-layer protocols and provide multiplexing between processes on the same host implemented with port numbers.

Best-effort delivery describes a network service in which the does not provide any guarantee that data is delivered or that delivery meets any quality of service. In a best-effort network, all users obtain best-effort service, meaning that they obtain unspecified variable bit rate and latency and packet loss, depending on the current traffic load. This can be contrasted with reliable delivery, which can be built on top of best-effort delivery (possibly without latency and throughput guarantees), or with circuit switching schemes which maintain a defined, continuous quality of service.

Best Effort („größte Bemühung“) bezeichnet eine minimalistische Dienstgüte-Zusicherung in Telekommunikationsnetzen. Der Betreiber des Netzes sagt dessen Benutzern zu, eingehende Übermittlungsanfragen schnellstmöglich und im Rahmen der ihm zur Verfügung stehenden Ressourcen nach besten Möglichkeiten zu bedienen. "Best effort" ist somit eine pauschale Qualitätszusicherung, im Zusammenhang mit abgestuften Formen spricht man von Quality of Service.


Biography.

Henle was born in Fürth, Bavaria, to Simon and Rachel Diesbach Henle (Hähnlein). He was Jewish. After studying medicine at Heidelberg and at Bonn, where he took his doctor's degree in 1832, he became prosector in anatomy to Johannes Müller at Berlin. During the six years he spent in that position he published a large amount of work, including three anatomical monographs on new species of animals and papers on the structure of the lymphatic system, the distribution of epithelium in the human body, the structure and development of the hair, and the formation of mucus and pus.  In 1840, he accepted the chair of anatomy at Zürich and in 1844 he was called to Heidelberg, where he taught anatomy, physiology, and pathology. About this period he was engaged on delineating his complete system of general anatomy, which formed the sixth volume of the new edition of Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's treatise, published at Leipzig between 1841 and 1844. While at Heidelberg he published a zoological monograph on the sharks and rays, in conjunction with his master Müller, and in 1846 his famous "Manual of Rational Pathology" began to appear; this marked the beginning of a new era in pathological study, since in it physiology and pathology were treated, in Henle's own words, as branches of one science, and the facts of disease were systematically considered with reference to their physiological relations.  In 1852, he moved to Göttingen, whence he issued three years later the first instalment of his great "Handbook of Systematic Human Anatomy", the last volume of which was not published until 1873. This work was perhaps the most complete and comprehensive of its kind at that time, and it was remarkable not only for the fullness and minuteness of its anatomical descriptions but also for the number and excellence of the illustrations with which they elucidated minute anatomy of the blood vessels, serous membranes, kidney, eye, nails, central nervous system, etc. He discovered the loop of Henle and Henle's tubules, two anatomical structures in the kidney.  Other anatomical and pathological findings associated with his name are: Henle developed the concepts of contagium vivum and contagium animatum, respectively ("Von den Miasmen und Kontagien", 1840) – thereby following ideas of Girolamo Fracastoro and the work of Agostino Bassi; thus co-founding the theory of microorganisms as the cause of infective diseases. He did not find a special species of bacteria himself – this was achieved by his student Robert Koch. Those two put up the fundamental rules of cleanly defining disease-causing microbes: the Henle Koch postulates.  In 1870, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Göttingen, 13 May 1885.

Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (; 9 July 1809 – 13 May 1885) was a German physician, pathologist, and anatomist. He is credited with the discovery of the loop of Henle in the kidney. His essay, "On Miasma and Contagia," was an early argument for the germ theory of disease. He was an important figure in the development of modern medicine.

Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle (* 19. Juli 1809 in Fürth; † 13. Mai 1885 in Göttingen) war ein deutscher Anatom und Pathologe. Als Könner am Mikroskop entdeckte er die später nach ihm benannten Henleschen Schleifen in der Niere. In seinem "Handbuch der systematischen Anatomie des Menschen" findet sich die erste Darstellung von sich teilenden Zellkernen, allerdings noch ohne deren Deutung.


Rationale.

Like picocells, microcells are usually used to add network capacity in areas with very dense phone usage, such as train stations. Microcells are often deployed temporarily during sporting events and other occasions in which extra capacity is known to be needed at a specific location in advance.  Cell size flexibility is a feature of 2G (and later) networks and is a significant part of how such networks have been able to improve capacity. Power controls implemented on digital networks make it easier to prevent interference from nearby cells using the same frequencies. By subdividing cells, and creating more cells to help serve high density areas, a cellular network operator can optimize the use of spectrum and ensure capacity can grow. By comparison, older analog systems have fixed limits beyond which attempts to subdivide cells simply would result in an unacceptable level of interference.

Microcell/picocell-only networks.

Certain mobile phone systems, notably PHS and DECT, only provide microcellular (and Pico cellular) coverage. Microcellular systems are typically used to provide low cost mobile phone systems in high-density environments such as large cities. PHS is deployed throughout major cities in Japan as an alternative to ordinary cellular service. DECT is used by many businesses to deploy private license-free microcellular networks within large campuses where wireline phone service is less useful. DECT is also used as a private, non-networked, cordless phone system where its low power profile ensures that nearby DECT systems do not interfere with each other.  A forerunner of these types of network was the CT2 cordless phone system, which provided access to a looser network (without handover), again with base stations deployed in areas where large numbers of people might need to make calls. CT2's limitations ensured the concept never took off. CT2's successor, DECT, was provided with an interworking profile, GIP so that GSM networks could make use of it for microcellular access, but in practice the success of GSM within Europe, and the ability of GSM to support microcells without using alternative technologies, meant GIP was rarely used, and DECT's use in general was limited to non-GSM private networks, including use as cordless phone systems.

A microcell is a cell in a mobile phone network served by a low power cellular base station (tower), covering a limited area such as a mall, a hotel, or a transportation hub. A microcell is usually larger than a picocell, though the distinction is not always clear. A microcell uses power control to limit the radius of its coverage area.

Als Mikrozellen werden GSM- oder UMTS-Sendeanlagen mit geringer Leistungsabgabe bezeichnet, die nur einen sehr kleinen Wirkungskreis haben. Sie werden üblicherweise an Verbraucherschwerpunkten wie verkehrsreichen Kreuzungen und stark befahrenen Hauptstraßen installiert und sollen umliegende größere Basisstationen entlasten, oder begrenzte Versorgungslücken abdecken. Mikrozellen finden aber auch Verwendung in historischen Altstädten mit engen Gassen, wo eine flächendeckende Versorgung über die üblichen Antennen auf Gebäudedächern nicht gewährleistet werden kann. Auch kann der Ortsbild- oder Denkmalschutz ein Kriterium zum Aufbau von Mikrozellen sein, da diese mit kleineren Antennen ausgestattet sind, die unauffällig direkt an Gebäudefassaden, Masten der Straßenbeleuchtung u. ä. montiert werden können. Mikrozellen finden aufgrund der räumlichen Beschränkungen auch zur Versorgung von U-Bahnstrecken und -Bahnhöfen intensive Verwendung.


Physical function.

Turbulent mixing produced by winds and waves transfers heat downward from the surface. In low and mid-latitudes, this creates a surface-mixed layer of water of almost uniform temperature which may be a few meters deep to several hundred meters deep. Below this mixed layer, at depths of 200–300 m in the open ocean, the temperature begins to decrease rapidly down to about 1000 m. The water layer within which the temperature gradient is steepest is known as the permanent thermocline. The temperature difference through this layer may be as large as 20°C, depending on latitude. The permanent thermocline coincides with a change in water density between the warmer, low-density surface waters and the underlying cold dense bottom waters. The region of rapid density change is known as the pycnocline, and it acts as a barrier to vertical water circulation; thus it also affects the vertical distribution of certain chemicals which play a role in the biology of the seas. The sharp gradients in temperature and density also may act as a restriction to vertical movements of animals.

Biological function.

Growth rate of phytoplankton is controlled by the nutrient concentration and the regeneration of nutrients in the sea is a very important part of the interaction between higher and lower trophic levels. The separation due to the pycnocline formation prevents the supply of nutrients from the lower layer into the upper layer. Nutrient fluxes through the pycnocline are lower than at other surface layers.

Microbial loop.

The microbial loop is a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web. The term "microbial loop" was coined by Azam et al. (1983) to describe the role played by microbes in the marine ecosystem carbon and nutrient cycles where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via the incorporation into bacterial biomass, and also coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton.  At the end of phytoplankton bloom, when the algae enter a senescent stage, there is an accumulation of phytodetritus and an increased release of dissolved metabolites. It is particularly at this time that the bacteria can utilize these energy sources to multiply and produce a sharp pulse (or bloom) that follows the phytoplankton bloom. The same relationship between phytoplankton and bacteria influences the vertical distribution of bacterioplankton. Maximum numbers of bacteria generally occur at the pycnocline, where phytodetritus accumulates by sinking from the overlying euphotic zone. There, decomposition by bacteria contributes to the formation of oxygen minimum layers in stable waters.

Diel vertical migration.

One of the most characteristic behavioural features of plankton is a vertical migration that occurs with a 24-hour periodicity. This has often been referred to as diurnal or diel vertical migration. The vertical distance travelled over 24 hours varies, generally being greater among larger species and better swimmers. But even small copepods may migrate several hundred meters twice in a 24-hour period, and stronger swimmers like euphausiids and pelagic shrimp may travel 800 m or more. The depth range of migration may be inhibited by the presence of a thermocline or pycnocline. However, phytoplankton and zooplankton capable of diel vertical migration are often concentrated in the pycnocline. Furthermore, those marine organisms with swimming skills through thermocline or pycnocline may experience strong temperature and density gradients, as well as considerable pressure changes during the migration.

Stability.

Pycnoclines become unstable when their Richardson number drops below 0.25. The Richardson number is a dimensionless value expressing the ratio of potential to kinetic energy. This ratio drops below 0.25 when the shear rate exceeds stratification. This can produce Kelvin-Helmholtz instability, resulting in a turbulence which leads to mixing.  The changes in pycnocline depth or properties can be simulated from some computer program models. The simple approach for those models is to examine the Ekman pumping model based on the ocean general circulation model (OCGM).

A pycnocline is the cline or layer where the density gradient () is greatest within a body of water. An ocean current is generated by the forces such as breaking waves, temperature and salinity differences, wind, Coriolis effect, and tides caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. In addition, the physical properties in a pycnocline driven by density gradients also affect the flows and vertical profiles in the ocean. These changes can be connected to the transport of heat, salt, and nutrients through the ocean, and the pycnocline diffusion controls upwelling.

Die Pyknokline (v. griech.: πυκνός "pyknós" = dicht gedrängt) ist ein Übergang zwischen Wasserschichten unterschiedlicher Dichte in Seen und Meeren. Der Dichteunterschied kann durch die unterschiedliche Temperatur (Thermokline) in der Temperaturschichtung, durch verschiedene Salzgehalte (Halokline) oder durch unterschiedliche Gehalte an gelösten Feststoffen (Chemokline) wie z. B. in meromiktischen Seen verursacht werden.


Early life.

Born at Burg Heimerzheim, near Bonn, he was the fifth and the second surviving son of the nine children of Albert Dominikus Hyacinthus Antonius Johannes Hubertus Vitus Joseph Maria "Freiherr" von Boeselager (Bonn 15 june 1883-Heimerzheim, Kr. Euskirchen 20 May 1956), by his wife (they married in Kassel on 22 September 1910), Maria-Theresia Ferdinandine Antonie Alonsia "Freiin" von Salis-Soglio (1890–1968), daughter of Anton Joseph Alonsius Nepomuk Stanislaus Maria "Freiherr" v. Salis-Soglio (1860–1939), of and Mandel, Kreuznach, by Maria Adelheid Theresia "Gräfin" von Bissingen und Nippenburg (daughter of Ernst Maria Ferdinand Adam Johann Nepomuk Joseph "Graf" von Bissingen-Nippenburg). He attended Aloisius Jesuit secondary school Aloisiuskolleg in Godesberg.

Role in conspiracy against Hitler.

When Boeselager was a 25-year-old field lieutenant, he was part of Operation Walküre, a plan developed to take control of Germany once Hitler had been assassinated. Boeselager's role in the plan was to order his troops, who were unaware of the plot, to leave the front lines in Eastern Europe and to head west, where they would be airlifted to Berlin to seize crucial parts of the city in a full-scale coup d'état after Hitler had been killed.  Boeselager's opinion turned against the Nazi government in June 1942, after he received news that five Roma people had been shot in cold blood solely because of their ethnicity. Together with his commanding officer, Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, he joined a conspiracy to assassinate Hitler. The first attempt was in March 1943, when both Hitler and Heinrich Himmler were coming to the front to participate in a strategy meeting with Kluge's troops.  Boeselager was given a Walther PP with which he was to shoot both Hitler and Himmler at a dinner table in the officers' mess. However, nothing ever came of this plan because at the last minute, Himmler left Hitler's company, and the risk of leaving him alive to succeed Hitler was too great.  The second assassination attempt was in summer 1944. No longer caring about Himmler, the conspiracy planned to kill Hitler with a bomb when he was attending another strategy meeting in a wooden barracks. When the assassin's bomb failed to kill the "Führer", Boeselager was informed in time to turn his unexplained cavalry retreat around and return to the front before suspicions could be aroused. Because of Boeselager's fortunate timing, his involvement in the operation went undetected, and he was not executed, unlike for the majority of the other conspirators. Philipp's brother Georg was also a participant in the plot and likewise remained undetected but was later killed in action on the Eastern Front.  Shortly before the end of the war, Boeselager overheard General Wilhelm Burgdorf saying, "When the war is over, we will have to purge, after the Jews, the Catholic officers in the army". The devoutly-Catholic Boeselager noisily objected, citing his own decorations for heroism in combat. Boeselager then left before Burgdorf could respond.

Postwar life.

After the war, Boeselager's part in the failed attempt on Hitler's life became known. He was regarded as a hero by many in Germany and France and received the highest military medals that both countries could provide. He studied economics and became a forestry expert. Even in his old age, Boeselager still had nightmares about the conspiracy and the friends whom he lost during the war. He urged young people to become more involved in politics, as he felt apathy and the political inexperience of the German masses had been two of the key reasons why Hitler was able to come to power. The entrance to his residence in Kreuzberg bears the Latin motto "Et si omnes ego non" ("even if all, not I").  Boeselager was a member of K.D.St.V. Ripuaria Bonn, a Roman Catholic student fraternity at the University of Bonn that now belongs to the "Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen". Until his death on 1 May 2008, he still had the Walther PP pistol he was given to use to shoot Hitler.  On 18 April 2008, just two weeks before his death, Philipp von Boeselager gave his last videotaped interview, which was conducted by Zora Wolter for the feature documentary "The Valkyrie Legacy". It was televised on The History Channel in spring 2009 to coincide with the release of the film "Valkyrie", starring Tom Cruise and directed by Bryan Singer. The documentary was produced by Singer and directed by Kevin Burns.  Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin was the last survivor of the July 20 plot until his death on 8 March 2013.

Marriage.

Boeselager married Rosa Maria, born Gräfin von Westphalen zu Fürstenberg (1924 - 2014). Albrecht von Boeselager (born 4 October 1949, Altenahr), Grand Chancellor of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, is their child.

External links.

Interviews

Philipp von Boeselager (6 September 1917 – 1 May 2008) was the second-last surviving member of the 20 July Plot, a conspiracy of Wehrmacht officers to assassinate the German dictator Adolf Hitler in 1944.

Philipp Freiherr von Boeselager (* 6. September 1917 in Heimerzheim; † 1. Mai 2008 in Altenahr) war ein deutscher Forstverbandsfunktionär, früherer Berufsoffizier der Wehrmacht und Reserveoffizier der Bundeswehr. Er war einer der letzten Überlebenden des innersten Kreises der militärischen Widerstandsgruppe um Generalmajor Henning von Tresckow und Oberst Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, die am 20. Juli 1944 ein Attentat auf Adolf Hitler verübten. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg war er entscheidend an der Entwicklung der deutschen Forstwirtschaft beteiligt, so von 1968 bis 1988 als Vorsitzender der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Waldbesitzerverbände (AGDW).<ref name="AFZ/1997">N.N.: "Professor-Niklas-Medaille für Freiherr von Boeselager". In: "AFZ/DerWald". 52. Jahrgang, Heft 20/1997, S. 1111,.<ref name="AGDW/2007">dvf, el: "Philipp Freiherr von Boeselager wird 90. Unermüdlicher Einsatz für Wald und Waldbesitz." In: AGDW-Pressemitteilung vom 20. August 2007.


Distribution.

The Neapolitan dialects are distributed throughout most of continental southern Italy, historically united during the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, specifically southern Lazio (Gaeta and Sora districts), southern Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Basilicata, Campania (Naples), northern and central Apulia, and northernmost Calabria. The dialects are part of a varied dialect continuum, so the varieties in southern Lazio, Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Apulia, Lucania and Calabria can typically be recognizable as regional groups of dialects. In western Abruzzo and Lazio the dialects give way to Central Italian dialects such as Romanesco. In central Calabria and southern Apulia, the dialects give way to the Sicilian language. Largely due to massive southern Italian migration in the late 19th century and early 20th century, there are also numbers of speakers in Italian diaspora communities in the United States, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela. However, in the United States traditional Neapolitan has had considerable contact with English, and is significantly different from contemporary Neapolitan spoken in Naples. English words are often used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers. On the other hand, the effect on Neapolitan in Italy has been similar due to displacement by Standard Italian.  The following dialects constitute Neapolitan; numbers refer to the map:  The southernmost regions of Italy—most of Calabria and southern Apulia, as well as Sicily—are home to Sicilian rather than Neapolitan.

Classification.

Neapolitan is a Romance language and is generally considered one of the Italo-Romance branch of the Italo-Dalmatian languages. There are notable differences among the various dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible.  Italian and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on factors that are both affective and linguistic. There are notable grammatical differences, such as Neapolitan having nouns in the neuter form and a unique plural formation as well as historical phonological developments, which often obscure the cognacy of lexical items.  Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan substratum, as in the pronunciation of the "d" sound as an "r" sound (rhotacism) at the beginning of a word or between two vowels: e.g. "doje" (feminine) or "duje" (masculine), meaning "two", is pronounced, and often spelled, as "roje"/"ruje"; "vedé" ("to see") as "veré", and often spelled so; also "cadé"/"caré" ("to fall") and "Madonna"/"Maronna"). Another purported Oscan influence is the historical assimilation of the consonant cluster as, pronounced (this is generally reflected in spelling more consistently: vs Italian "world"; vs Italian "when"), along with the development of as ~ ( vs Italian "drum"), also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated, but substratum claims are highly controversial. As in many other languages in the Italian Peninsula, Neapolitan has an adstratum greatly influenced by other Romance languages (Catalan, Spanish and Franco-Provençal above all), Germanic languages, Greek (both ancient and modern) and Arabic. The language had never been standardised, and the word for "tree" has three different spellings:, and.  Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history (notably Giambattista Basile, Eduardo De Filippo, Salvatore Di Giacomo and Totò). Thanks to this heritage and the musical work of Renato Carosone in the 1950s, Neapolitan is still in use in popular music, even gaining national popularity in the songs of Pino Daniele and the Nuova Compagnia di Canto Popolare.  The language has no official status within Italy and is not taught in schools. The University of Naples Federico II offers (from 2003) courses in Campanian Dialectology at the faculty of Sociology, whose actual aim is not teaching students to speak the language, but studying its history, usage, literature and social role. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the national level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is however a recognized ISO 639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the language code of "nap".  Here is the IPA pronunciation of the Neapolitan spoken in the city of Naples:

Alphabet and pronunciation.

Neapolitan orthography consists of 22 Latin letters. Much like Italian orthography, it does not contain "k," "w," "x," or "y" even though these letters might be found in some foreign words; unlike Italian, it does contain the letter "j". The English pronunciation guidelines that follow are based on General American pronunciation and the values used may not be applicable to other dialects. (See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects.)  All Romance languages are closely related. Although Neapolitan shares a high degree of its vocabulary with Italian, the official language of Italy, differences in pronunciation often make the connection unrecognizable to those without knowledge of Neapolitan. The most striking phonological difference is the Neapolitan weakening of unstressed vowels into schwa ("schwa" is pronounced like the "a" in "about" or the "u" in "upon"). However it is also possible (and quite common for some Neapolitans) to speak standard Italian with a "Neapolitan accent"; that is, by pronouncing un-stressed vowels as schwa or by pronouncing the letter s as (like the "sh" in "ship") instead of (like the "s" in "sea" or the "ss" in "pass") when the letter is in initial position followed by a consonant, but not when it is followed by a dental occlusive or (at least in the purest form of the language) but by otherwise using only entirely standard words and grammatical forms. This is not Neapolitan proper, but a mere difference in Italian pronunciation.  Therefore, while pronunciation presents the strongest barrier to comprehension, the grammar of Neapolitan is what sets it apart from Italian. In Neapolitan, for example, the gender and number of a word is expressed by a change in the accented vowel, whereas in Italian it is expressed by a change in the final vowel (e.g. "luongo", "longa" ; Italian "lungo, "lunga; masc. "long", fem. "long"). These and other morpho-syntactic differences distinguish the Neapolitan language from the Italian language and the Neapolitan accent.  Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish, of the Buenos Aires region of Argentina, and the whole of Uruguay.

Vowels.

While there are only five graphic vowels in Neapolitan, phonemically, there are eight. Stressed vowels "e" and "o" can be either "closed" or "open" and the pronunciation is different for the two. The grave accent ("à", "è", "ò") is used to denote open vowels, and the acute accent ("é", "í", "ó", "ú") is used to denote closed vowels, with alternative "ì" and "ù". However, accent marks are not commonly used in the actual spelling of words except when they occur on the final syllable of a word, such as "Totò", "arrivà", or "pecché" and when they appear here in other positions it is only to demonstrate where the stress, or accent, falls in some words. Also, the circumflex is used to mark a long vowel where it wouldn't normally occur (e.g. "sî" "you are").

Digraphs and trigraphs.

The following clusters are always geminated if vowel-following.

Grammar.

Definite articles.

The Neapolitan classical definite articles (corresponding to the English word "the") are "la" (feminine singular), "lo" (masculine singular) and "li" (plural for both), but in reality these forms will probably only be found in older literature (along with "lu" and even "el"), of which there is much to be found. Modern Neapolitan uses, almost entirely, shortened forms of these articles which are:  Before a word beginning with a consonant: These definite articles are always pronounced distinctly.  Before a word beginning with a vowel, "l’" or "ll’" are used for both masculine and feminine, for both singular and plural. Although both forms can be found, the "ll’" form is by far the most common.  It is well to note that in Neapolitan the gender of a noun is not easily determined by the article, so other means must be used. In the case of "’o" which can be either masculine singular or neuter singular (there is no neuter plural in Neapolitan), when it is neuter the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. As an example, the name of a language in Neapolitan is always neuter, so if we see "’o nnapulitano" we know it refers to the Neapolitan language, whereas "’o napulitano" would refer to a Neapolitan man.  Likewise, since "’e" can be either masculine plural or feminine plural, when it is feminine plural, the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. As an example, consider "’a lista" which in Neapolitan is feminine singular for "list." In the plural it becomes "’e lliste".  There can also be problems with nouns whose singular form ends in "e". Since plural nouns usually end in "e" whether masculine or feminine, the masculine plural is often formed by orthographically changing the spelling. As an example, consider the word "guaglione" (which means "boy", or "girl" in the feminine form):  More will be said about these orthographically changing nouns in the section on Neapolitan nouns.  A couple of notes about consonant doubling:

Indefinite articles.

The Neapolitan indefinite articles, corresponding to the English "a" or "an", are presented in the following table:

Verbal conjugation.

In Neapolitan there are four finite moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative, and three non-finite modes: infinitive, gerund and participle. Each mood has an active and a passive form. The only auxiliary verbs used in the active form is (Eng. "to have", It. "avere"), which contrasts with Italian in which the intransitive and reflexive verbs take "èssere" for their auxiliary. For example, we have:

Doubled initial consonants.

In Neapolitan, many times the initial consonant of a word is doubled. This is called "raddoppiamento sintattico" in Italian as it also applies to the Italian phonology. However, when there is a pause after the "trigger" word, the phonological doubling does not occur (e.g. "tu sî (g)guaglione", [You are a boy], where "sî" is a "trigger" word causing doubling of the initial consonant in "guaglione" but in the phrase "’e do sî, guaglió?" [Where are you from, boy?] no doubling occurs). Neither does doubling occur when the initial consonant is followed by another consonant (e.g. "’o ttaliano" [the Italian language], but "’o spagnuolo" [the Spanish language], where "’o" is the neuter definite article). This is what happens phonologically and no orthographic change is required. The same thing happens in Italian, where multiple words trigger first-consonant doubling, e.g. "la casa" but "a (c)casa", "io e (t)te", etc.

Neapolitan (autonym: ("’o n")"napulitano" ; ) is a Romance language of the Italo-Dalmatian group spoken across much of southern Italy, except for southern Calabria, southern Apulia, and Sicily, and spoken in a small part of central Italy (the province of Ascoli Piceno in the Marche). It is not named specifically after the city of Naples, but rather the homonymous Kingdom that once covered most of the area, and of which the city was the capital. On October 14, 2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected.

Neapolitanisch ("Napulitano" [] auf Neapolitanisch und "Napoletano" auf Italienisch) ist eine romanische Sprache, wie sie in der Stadt Neapel gesprochen wird (neapolitanisch: "Napule", italienisch: "Napoli"). Das Neapolitanische ist die Mutter der kampanischen Dialekte, die sich von Stadt zu Stadt unterscheiden. Es bestehen viele Ähnlichkeiten zu den Dialekten der umgebenden Regionen Mittel- und Süditaliens wie des Latiums, der Abruzzen, Molises, Apuliens, der Basilikata und Kalabriens. Mitte der 1970er Jahre gab es ca. sieben Millionen Muttersprachler. Überwiegend wird die neapolitanische Sprache in der Region Kampanien und in den Provinzen Foggia und Bari (Apulien) gesprochen. Per Gesetzesdekret wurde am 14. Oktober 2008 Neapolitanisch durch die Region Kampanien offiziell als Sprache anerkannt.


Early career.

Melanie was born and raised in the Astoria neighborhood of Queens, New York City. Her father, Frederick M. Safka (1924–2009), was of Ukrainian ethnic background, and her mother, jazz singer Pauline "Polly" Altomare (1926–2003), was of Italian heritage. Melanie made her first public singing appearance at age four on the radio show "Live Like A Millionaire", performing the song "Gimme a Little Kiss". She attended Red Bank High School in Red Bank, New Jersey, after transferring from Long Branch High School, graduating in 1964.  In the 1960s, when she began her career, Melanie performed at The Inkwell, a coffee house in the West End section of Long Branch, New Jersey. After school, her parents insisted that she go to college, so she studied acting at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York, where she began singing in the folk clubs of Greenwich Village, such as The Bitter End, and signed her first recording contract.  Initially signed to Columbia Records in the United States, Melanie released two singles on the label. Subsequently, she signed with Buddah Records and first found chart success in Europe in 1969 with "Bobo's Party" which reached No. 1 in France. Melanie's popularity in Europe resulted in performances on European television programs, such as Beat-Club in West Germany. Her debut album received positive reviews from "Billboard", which heralded her voice as "wise beyond her years. Her non-conformist approach to the selections on this LP make her a new talent to be reckoned with."  Later in 1969, Melanie had a hit in the Netherlands with "Beautiful People". She was one of only three solo women who performed at the Woodstock Festival in 1969 and the inspiration for her first hit song, "Lay Down (Candles in the Rain)", apparently arose from the Woodstock audience lighting candles during her set (although most of the "candles" were actually matches or lighters). The recording became a hit in Europe, Australia, Canada, and the United States in 1970. The B-side of the single featured Melanie's spoken-word track "Candles in the Rain". "Lay Down" became Melanie's first top ten hit in America, peaking at No. 6 on the "Billboard" singles chart and achieving worldwide success. Later hits included "Peace Will Come (According To Plan)" and a cover of the Rolling Stones' "Ruby Tuesday". In 1970, Melanie was the only artist to ignore the court injunction banning the Powder Ridge Rock Festival scheduled to be held on July 31, August 1 and August 2, 1970. She played for the crowd on a homemade stage powered by Mister Softee trucks. Shortly following this performance, she played at the Strawberry Fields Festival held from August 7 to 9, 1970, at Mosport Park, Ontario. She also performed at the Isle of Wight Festival held between August 26 and 30, 1970, at Afton Down, where she was introduced by Keith Moon and received four standing ovations (she also appeared at the 2010 Isle of Wight festival). She was also the artist who sang to herald in the summer solstice at Glastonbury Fayre (later the Glastonbury Festival) in England, in June 1971. She performed again at Glastonbury in 2011, the 40th anniversary of the original festival.  Melanie left Buddah Records when they insisted that she produce albums on demand. In 1971, she formed her own label, Neighborhood Records, with Peter Schekeryk, who was also her producer and husband. She had her biggest American hit on the Neighborhood label, the novelty-sounding 1972 number one "Brand New Key" (often referred to as "The Roller Skate Song"). "Brand New Key" sold over three million copies worldwide and was featured in the 1997 movie "Boogie Nights".  When first released, "Brand New Key" was banned by some radio stations because some heard sexual innuendo in the lyrics. Melanie has acknowledged the possibility of reading an unintended sexual innuendo in the song, stating, "I wrote ["Brand New Key"] in about fifteen minutes one night. I thought it was cute; a kind of old thirties tune. I guess a key and a lock have always been Freudian symbols, and pretty obvious ones at that. There was no deep serious expression behind the song, but people read things into it. They made up incredible stories as to what the lyrics said and what the song meant. In some places, it was even banned from the radio [...] My idea about songs is that once you write them, you have very little say in their life afterward [...] People will take it any way they want to take it."  In a 2013 interview with music journalist Ray Shasho, Melanie revealed the true origin of "Brand New Key":  Of course I can see it symbolically with the key, but I just thought of roller skating. I was fasting with a twenty seven day fast on water. I broke the fast and went back to my life living in New Jersey and we were going to a flea market around six in the morning. On the way back...and I had just broken the fast, from the flea market, we passed a McDonalds and the aroma hit me, and I had been a vegetarian before the fast. So we pulled into the McDonalds and I got the whole works... the burger, the shake and the fries... and no sooner after I finished that last bite of my burger...that song was in my head. The aroma brought back memories of roller skating and learning to ride a bike and the vision of my dad holding the back fender of the tire. And me saying to my dad..."You're holding, you're holding, you’re holding, right? Then I'd look back and he wasn't holding and I'd fall. So that whole thing came back to me and came out in this song. So it was not a deliberate or intentional sexual innuendo.  The follow-up single to "Brand New Key" was "Ring the Living Bell". To compete with this release, Melanie's former record company released "The Nickel Song", which she had recorded while still signed to Buddah Records. Both songs were simultaneous top-40 hits while "Brand New Key" was still on the charts – setting a record for the first female performer to have three top-40 hits concurrently.  She was awarded "Billboard"s No. 1 Top Female Vocalist award for 1972. She has been awarded two gold albums (and a gold single for "Brand New Key"), and three of her compositions were hits for The New Seekers. She is also well known for her musical adaptations of children's songs, including "Alexander Beetle" and "Christopher Robin". When she became an official UNICEF ambassador in 1972, she agreed to forego a world tour in favor of raising money for the organization.  Melanie had another top-40 hit single in 1973 with "Bitter Bad", a song that marked a slight departure from the hippie sentiments of earlier hits (with lyrics such as "If you do me wrong I'll put your first and last name in my rock n' roll song"). Other chart hits during this period were the self-penned "Together Alone" and a cover of "Will You Love Me Tomorrow". In 1973, Melanie started to retreat from the spotlight to begin a family.

Later career.

In 1976, Melanie released one album on Atlantic Records, "Photograph", which was overseen by Ahmet Ertegun. The album was praised by "The New York Times" as one of the year's best, although it was largely ignored by the public. It was re-issued on CD in 2005 with an additional disc of unreleased material.  In 1983, Melanie wrote the music and lyrics for a theatrical musical, "Ace of Diamonds", with a book by Ed Kelleher and Seymour Vall, based on a series of letters written by Annie Oakley. Though never fully produced, several staged readings were performed at Lincoln Center starring Melanie as the narrator and pop singer and actress Annie Golden as Oakley.  In 1989, Melanie won an Emmy Award for writing the lyrics to "The First Time I Loved Forever", the theme song for the TV series "Beauty and the Beast". With one exception, her albums were produced by her husband, Peter Schekeryk, who died suddenly in 2010. Her three children – Leilah, Jeordie and Beau-Jarred – are also musicians. Beau-Jarred is a guitarist and accompanies his mother on tour. One of Melanie's most recent albums, "Paled By Dimmer Light" (2004), was co-produced by Peter and Beau-Jarred Schekeryk and includes the songs "To Be The One", "Extraordinary", "Make It Work" and "I Tried To Die Young". In early 2005 most of Melanie's back-catalog was re-released on the internet-only music label ItsAboutMusic.com. After a series of disagreements, the relationship between the artist and the label was severed.  In 2007, Melanie was invited by Jarvis Cocker to perform at the Meltdown Festival at the Royal Festival Hall in London. Her sold-out performance received critical acclaim, with "The Independent" saying, "it was hard to disagree that Melanie has earned her place alongside Joan Baez, Judy Collins, Joni Mitchell and Marianne Faithfull in the pantheon of iconic female singers. Meltdown was all the better for her presence." The concert was filmed for a DVD titled "Melanie: For One Night Only", which was released in October 2007. She recorded "Psychotherapy", sung to the tune of the "Battle Hymn of the Republic", which parodies aspects of Freudian psychoanalysis. It has been played on "The Dr. Demento Show". In 2012, Melanie headlined at the 15th annual Woody Guthrie Folk Festival, along with Arlo Guthrie and Judy Collins. The festival is held annually in mid-July to celebrate the life and music of legendary singer-songwriter and folk musician Woody Guthrie.  In October 2012, Melanie collaborated with John Haldoupis, the artistic and managing director of Blackfriars Theatre in Rochester, New York, to create an original musical about her love story with her late husband, Peter. "Melanie and the Record Man" made its world premiere on October 19, with performances scheduled until October 28. The musical, conceived and designed by Haldoupis, features the music of Melanie and tells the story of her meeting Peter, falling in love, and working together to produce her music. Melanie performed during the musical and was also the narrator. In June 2014, she toured Australia for the first time since 1977.  In April 2015, Melanie was inducted into Red Bank Regional's "Distinguished Alumni Hall of Fame". Melanie received the Sandy Hosey Lifetime Achievement Award at the Artists Music Guild's 2015 AMG Heritage Awards on November 14, 2015, in Monroe, North Carolina.  On New Year's Eve 2019, she performed on the BBC's "Jools' Annual Hootenanny".

Personal life.

Melanie married record producer Peter Schekeryk in 1968. They had three children: daughter Leilah was born on October 3, 1973; daughter Jeordie on March 27, 1975; and son Beau Jarred on September 11, 1980. Leilah and Jeordie, when aged 7 and 6, released a cover of "There's No One Quite Like Grandma" that charted in Canada, reaching No. 27. Peter died in 2010.  Melanie identifies herself politically as a Libertarian, stating: "I'm a total Libertarian, and I am not a Democrat, a Socialist, or a Republican." For a time, at the beginning of her career, Melanie was a follower of Meher Baba and this influenced some of her songs (such as "Love to Lose Again" and "Candles in the Rain"). She has stated that, in 2006, she underwent a life-altering experience with Mata Amritanandamayi or "Amma" ("Mother") as she is also known, or as the "hugging saint" from India, which inspired Melanie to write "Motherhood of Love", one of her more recent songs. Melanie resides in Nashville, Tennessee.

Cover versions.

Many notable artists have covered Melanie's compositions: In 1971, Mott the Hoople released a version of this song on their "Wildlife" album. Vicky Leandros recorded a Greek version in 1972. In 1994, the Philadelphia indie rock band the Strapping Fieldhands recorded a three-track "no-fi" version of the song (as well as a reprise that closes the album) for the EP "In The Pineys". Australian singer Max Sharam's 1995 recording reached the top 40 on the Australian singles charts. Ké included a cover of the song on his 1996 debut album, "I Am". In 1999, Meredith Brooks' released a cover version on her album Deconstruction which included backing vocals by Queen Latifah. In 2010, Emiliana Torrini recorded a rendition on the compilation album "Stone Free". Greta Van Fleet plays a cover of the song during their live shows.  In 1975, Brendan Grace in Ireland covered "Brand New Key" with substantially rewritten lyrics as "The Combine Harvester". The next year, it was covered by Scrumpy and Western band The Wurzels in the UK, where it reached number one on the UK Singles Chart and stayed there for two weeks. Macy Gray, Dolly Parton, and Cher have all performed "Brand New Key" in concert (the last on "The Sonny and Cher Show"). Country singer Deana Carter covered the song on her 1999 top-10 album "Everything's Gonna Be Alright". The cellist band Rasputina had a version on the album "Thanks for the Ether". Todd Rundgren played a cover of "Brand New Key" on his 2018 tour. On August 1, 2018, at Daryl's House Club in Pawling, New York, Melanie joined Rundgren onstage to sing "Brand New Key".  A female-fronted punk trio, the Dollyrots, included a version on their album "Because I'm Awesome". The 2006 "American Idol" runner-up, Katharine McPhee, covered the song as the bonus track on her 2010 "Unbroken" album. Olivia Newton-John covered the song on the soundtrack album for the film "A Few Best Men" in 2012. Jessica Frech covered the song on her 2012 "Reality" album. The New York-based singer Jaymay covered the song in 2013. In 2013, the cover of the song by "The Voice" contestant Kaity Dunstan hit No. 40 on the Australian ARIA Charts. Ray Conniff & The Singers did a cover version on their album "I'd Like To Teach The World (In Perfect Harmony)" album in 1971. Maddie Poppe covered "Brand New Key" in the top-24 stage of "American Idol" season 1 on ABC and later went on to win.  Daliah Lavi recorded a successful German version of the song in 1971, and Ray Charles released a cover (as "Look What They've Done to My Song, Ma") in 1972 which reached No. 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 25 on the R&B charts. The song has also been covered by many other artists, including Nina Simone, the New Seekers, Dalida, and Billie Jo Spears. Czechoslovakian singer Helena Vondráčková recorded it in 1971 as "Kam zmizel ten starý song" with Czech lyrics by Zdeněk Borovec. Yugoslav rock band Bajaga i Instruktori released a cover of it with lyrics in Serbian, called ""Vidi šta sam ti uradio od pesme, mama"", in 1985. It was used in the 1970s as a commercial for Lifebuoy soap ("Look what they've done to my Lifebuoy"), and in the 1980s as a commercial jingle for Ramada Inn (as "Look what they've done to Ramada") and for Oatmeal Crisp cereal (as "Look what they've done to my oatmeal"). In October 2012, Miley Cyrus released a video of her own acoustic version of the song as part of her Backyard Sessions series. In 2015, Melanie joined her to duet on the song in addition to "Peace Will Come (According to Plan)".  The Dutch singer Mathilde Santing had a gold record and the first Top 10 hit version of "Beautiful People" in 1997. Die Goldenen Zitronen covered the song on their 2009 album "Die Entstehung der Nacht". Sandra Bernhard covered the song on her "I Love Being Me, Don't You?" live album.  Emiliana Torrini covered "I Really Loved Harold" on her 1996 "Merman" album. She has also recorded a version of "Lay Down".  The New Seekers covered several Melanie songs, and also charted in the United States with "Beautiful People" (No. 67), "Look What They've Done to My Song Ma" (No. 14) and "Nickel Song" (No. 81). Dion covered "Close To It All" on his 1971 "You're Not Alone" album. Roger Kellaway covered "Centre of the Circle" on the 1972 album of the same name. An 11-year-old Björk sang "Christopher Robin" in Icelandic on her debut album, "Björk". The 2003 Australian hip-hop track "The Nosebleed Section" by the Hilltop Hoods sampled "People in the Front Row"; another hip-hop track, an instrumental titled Kiki & Herb opened their Carnegie Hall concert with "Close To It All" (available on CD as "Kiki & Herb Will Die For You").  Will Oldham and Tortoise covered "(Some Say) I Got Devil" on their 2006 covers album "The Brave and the Bold". Cissy Houston has recorded Melanie's "Any Guy". Morrissey has also covered "(Some Say) I Got Devil" on his May 2019 cover album, California Son. Alison Moyet performed "Momma, Momma" on her 2005 live DVD "One Blue Voice" and as the B-side to her 2007 single "One More Time".  "The Nickel Song" was covered by Nana Mouskouri, in English, released on her "Live at the Albert Hall" double album in the early 1970s. There is also a German version of this by Lena Valaitis called "Ob es so oder so oder anders kommt" which was released in 1971.  Hip-hop producer and co-owner of Don't Sleep Records, Phoniks sampled Melanie's "Do You Believe?" on his Wu-Tang Clan remix "Back in the Game" amassing almost twenty-five million views on YouTube proving more popular than both of the original tracks.  "Again" was covered by Amanda Palmer on her 2016 album You Got Me Singing.

Melanie Anne Safka-Schekeryk (born February 3, 1947) is an American singer-songwriter known professionally as Melanie and sometimes as Melanie Safka. She remains best known for the 1971/72 global hit "Brand New Key", her cover of "Ruby Tuesday", her composition "What Have They Done to My Song Ma", and her 1970 international breakthrough hit "Lay Down (Candles in the Rain)", inspired by her experience of performing at the 1969 Woodstock music festival.

Melanie Anne Safka-Schekeryk (* 3. Februar 1947 in Astoria, New York als "Melanie Anne Safka") ist eine US-amerikanische Sängerin und Songwriterin. Bekannt wurde sie als junge Sängerin unter dem Künstlernamen Melanie besonders durch ihren Auftritt beim Woodstock-Festival 1969.


The early years (1887–1912).

Karl Taylor Compton was born in Wooster, Ohio, on September 14, 1887, the eldest of three brothers (including Arthur Compton and Wilson Martindale Compton) and one sister, Mary. His father, Elias Compton, was from an old American Presbyterian family, and his mother, Otelia Augspurger Compton, was from an Alsatian and Hessian Mennonite family that had recently immigrated to the United States. He came from a remarkably accomplished family in which his brother Arthur became a prominent physicist and sister Mary a missionary.  Beginning in 1897, Compton's summers were spent camping at Otsego Lake, Michigan while attending Wooster public schools in fall, winter and summer. He took hard labor jobs starting at age eleven to help pay for college, working carrying hods for construction projects, as a farm hand, mule skinner, a book canvasser, in tile and brick factories and surveyed the first mile of paved road in Ohio.  In 1902, Compton skipped a grade and went into Wooster University's preparatory department for the last two years of high school. In 1908, he graduated from Wooster "cum laude" with a bachelor of philosophy degree, then in 1909 his master's thesis "A study of the Wehnelt electrolytic interrupter" was published in "Physical Review". During 1909–1910 he was an instructor in Wooster's chemistry department before entering a graduate program at Princeton University. There he received the Porter Ogden Jacobus Fellowship, and worked with Owen Willans Richardson and jointly published several papers on electrons released by ultraviolet light, electron theory and on the photoelectric effect. Richardson went on to receive the Nobel Prize in some of the areas where Compton contributed. In 1912, Compton received his Ph.D. from Princeton summa cum laude.

Reed College and WW I (1913–1918).

In June 1913, Compton married Rowena Raymond. They moved to Reed College in Portland, Oregon, where Compton was an instructor in Physics. In 1915, he returned to Princeton as an associate professor of physics. He also took a consultancy at the General Electric Corporation. He contributed to the war effort at Princeton and with the Signal Corps. In December 1917, Compton was attached to the US Embassy in Paris as an associate science attaché.

Princeton University (1918–1930).

After the Armistice of 1918, the end of World War I Compton returned home to Princeton, his wife and three-year-old daughter Mary Evelyn. In June 1919, Compton was made a full professor, and worked in the Palmer Laboratory where his gift for teaching was legendary. His research was in the area of electronics and spectroscopy in subject areas such as passage of photoelectrons through metals, ionization, the motion of electrons in gases, fluorescence, theory of the electric arc, absorption and emission spectra of mercury vapor, and collisions of electrons and atoms. Unfortunately, Rowena died in the fall of 1919. In 1921, Compton married Margaret Hutchinson, with whom he had a daughter, Jean, and a son, Charles Arthur. In 1927, Compton was named Director of Research at the Palmer Laboratory and Cyrus Fogg Brackett professor. In 1929 he was appointed head of the department. Over one hundred papers were published in his name during his time at Princeton.  In 1923, Compton was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society and in 1924 a member of the National Academy of Sciences for which he was chairman of the Section of Physics (1927–1930). He was named vice-president of the American Physical Society (APS) in 1925 and in 1927 became its president. Compton was also a fellow of the Optical Society of America, a member of the American Chemical Society, the Franklin Institute and other professional engineering societies.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1930–1954).

In 1930, Compton accepted an invitation from the MIT Corporation to be president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), an engineering school that was redefining the relationship between engineering and science. He took office at the beginning of the Great Depression in America, a time of economic turmoil and a time when science was under attack as a source of social ills and national despair. Compton was to strengthen basic scientific research at the Institute while becoming a spokesman for science and technology.  During Compton's service as President, the organization went through a revolutionary change. He developed a new approach to education in science and engineering, the influence of which was felt far beyond MIT. Significantly, he was active in the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, and its president in 1938. He was a leader in establishing new standards for the accreditation of engineering criteria through his role as chairman of the Committee on Engineering Schools of the Engineer's Council for Professional Development. He believed in broad-based education for scientists and engineers that was responsive to the needs of the time, and that science should be an element of industrial progress.  In the early 1930s, Compton joined with members of the APS to form the American Institute of Physics (AIP). While he was chairman of the AIP board during 1931–1936, the organization became a federation of several disparate societies for developing subject areas in physics. It sponsored publication of research results in the rapidly expanding study of physics during that era.  In 1948, Compton resigned his post as President of MIT and was elected president of the MIT Corporation. He held that position until his death on June 22, 1954.

Cooperation with the military (1933–1949).

In 1933, U.S. President Roosevelt asked Compton to chair a new Scientific Advisory Board that lasted two years. This put him into a forefront of scientists that perceived a need for reliable scientific advice at the highest levels of government. The start of World War II motivated the start of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), created in 1940 under the chairmanship of Vannevar Bush. Compton was a member of the NDRC and became head of Division D which was responsible for assembling a group of academic and industrial engineers and scientists that would study primarily radar, fire control and thermal radiation. In 1941, the NDRC was assimilated into the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) where Compton chaired the United States Radar Mission to the United Kingdom. In August 1942, Roosevelt appointed Compton to the Rubber Survey Committee, which investigated and made recommendations to help resolve conflicts on technical direction in the development of synthetic rubber, arising due to the loss of rubber supply during the war. In 1945, Compton was selected as one of eight members of the Interim Committee appointed to advise President Harry S. Truman on the use of the atomic bomb. When Japan surrendered in 1945, World War II came to an end and Compton left the OSRD. In 1946, Compton chaired the President's Advisory Commission on Military Training. From 1946 to 1948, he was a member of the Naval Research Advisory Committee. Compton chaired the Joint Research and Development Board from 1948 to 1949, when he stepped down for health reasons.

Awards and honors.

The lunar crater Compton is named after Compton and his brother Arthur, who was also an influential scientist. Compton was also the recipient of thirty-two honorary degrees.

Karl Taylor Compton (September 14, 1887 – June 22, 1954) was a prominent American physicist and president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from 1930 to 1948.

Karl Taylor Compton (* 14. September 1887 in Wooster, Ohio; † 22. Juni 1954 in New York, N.Y.) war ein US-amerikanischer Physiker. Er war der älteste Bruder des Physikers Arthur Holly Compton. Von 1930 bis 1948 war er Präsident des Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).