Gameplay.

Like "Pokémon Red", "Blue" and "Yellow", "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" are played from a top-down perspective, or third-person, with players directly navigating the protagonist around the fictional universe, interacting with objects and people. As the player explores this world, they will encounter different terrains, such as grassy fields, forests, caves, and seas in which different Pokémon species reside. As the player randomly encounters one of these creatures, the field switches to a turn-based "battle scene", where the Pokémon will fight.  There are two main goals within the games: following through the main storyline and defeating the Elite Four and Pokémon Master Lance to become the new Champion, and completing the Pokédex by capturing, evolving, and trading to obtain all 251 creatures. A major aspect of this is developing and raising the player's Pokémon by battling other Pokémon, which can be found in the wild or owned by other Trainers. This system of accumulating experience points (EXP) and leveling up, characteristic and integral to all "Pokémon" video games, controls the physical properties of the Pokémon, such as the battle statistics acquired, and the moves learned.

New features.

While "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" retain the basic mechanics of capturing, battling, and evolving introduced in "Pokémon Red" and "Blue", new features were added. A time system was introduced using a real-time internal clock that keeps track of the current time and day of the week. Certain events, including Pokémon appearances, are influenced by this feature. New items were added, with some designed to exploit a new mechanic: Pokémon being able to hold items. A new type of item able to be held was the berry, which comes in varieties and can restore health or cure status effects. Other held items can give boosts to the Pokémon during battle. More specialized Poké Balls were introduced, which make Pokémon catching easier in certain situations. A new item called the Pokégear was introduced, functioning as a watch, map, radio, and phone, allowing the player to call other characters who offer their phone number. Trainers will call for a rematch and others will call about rare Pokémon that can be caught in a certain area.  The games introduce Raikou, Entei, and Suicune, some new types of legendary Pokémon that wander around Johto, changing locations frequently. They can be tracked by the Pokédex once encountered, and will always attempt to flee, but will retain HP loss. In addition there is the possibility of encountering a shiny Pokémon, which have a different coloration than normal Pokémon of their species, and appear very rarely. Two new Pokémon types were added, the Steel-type and the Dark-type. Steel-type Pokémon are immune to Poison-type moves, and they have very high defense and resistance to other types, while Dark-type Pokémon are immune to Psychic-type moves and are strong against Psychic-type Pokémon (which provides an offensive strategy, formerly absent against Psychic-types), as well as having few weaknesses. In "Gold" and "Silver", new moves were added, but Pokémon knowing these moves are not allowed to be traded to the first generation games. To solve this, a move deleter was introduced, capable of erasing moves known by the Pokémon. Another major change was the splitting of the "Special" stat into "Special Attack" and "Special Defense", which increased aspects of strategy.  With the introduction of Pokémon breeding, Pokémon are assigned to one or two breeding groups. When a male and female Pokémon that share at least one breeding group are left at a Pokémon Daycare, they may produce an egg, which will hatch into a young Pokémon. The young Pokémon will inherit the species of its mother, and moves from its father. However, legendary and mythical Pokémon, among certain other species, cannot breed.

Plot.

Setting.

"Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" are set in the region of Johto, situated to the west of the Kanto region from the previous "Red" and "Blue" games, and three years after the conclusion of the previous games. The design of Johto was inspired by Japan's Kansai and Tōkai regions, with many of the region's temples and more traditional Japanese aesthetics finding their way into Johto. The locations in the game within Johto include New Bark Town, Cherrygrove City, Violet City (キキョウシティ Kikyō City), Azalea Town (ヒワダタウン Hiwada Town), Goldenrod City (コガネシティ Kogane City), Ecruteak City (エンジュシティ Enju City), Olivine City (アサギシティ Asagi City), Cianwood City (タンバシティ Tanba City), Mahogany Town (チョウジタウン Chōji Town), and Blackthorn City (フスベシティ Fusube City). Most of the cities have one gym leader each, which serves as a boss, as do some of the towns.

Story.

As with the previous games, the player character receives his first Pokémon, a choice between Chikorita, Cyndaquil, and Totodile, from the region's local Pokémon scientist, Professor Elm, and then begins his journey to win the eight Gym Badges of the Johto region and then challenge the Elite Four and Champion to become the region's new Pokémon Master. Opposing him is his mysterious rival, a boy who stole one of the other Pokémon from Professor Elm and regularly challenges the player to test his strengths. The player also encounters the villainous Team Rocket, having reunited to seek out their previous leader Giovanni to return the group to their former glory. Eventually, the player thwarts Team Rocket once and for all and defeats the Elite Four and Champion of the Pokémon League on Indigo Plateau. The player can then travel to the Kanto region from the previous games and challenge the Gym Leaders there, discovering how much has changed in the three years following the events of "Red" and "Blue". After defeating the Kanto region's Gym Leaders, the player is allowed to enter the treacherous Mt. Silver area, home to very powerful Pokémon. Deep within Mt. Silver's caves is Red, the protagonist of "Red" and "Blue", whom the player can challenge for the most difficult battle in the game.

Development.

"Gold" and "Silver" were first publicly showcased at the 1997 Nintendo Space World Expo in Japan, becoming the most popular exhibit at the program. Unlike the previous game in the series, "Pokémon Yellow", the new titles were announced to be more than a small upgrade to "Pokémon Red" and "Blue". Instead, they would feature a new storyline, a new world, and new species of Pokémon. "Gold" and "Silver" were designed for the Game Boy Color, allowing them full color support and more detailed sprites. Other additions that were shown included Pokémon breeding, held items, an in-game gadget known as the PokéGear, a real-time internal clock, and backward compatibility with the previous games in the series.  During an "ABC News" interview, president of Creatures Inc. Tsunekazu Ishihara gave insight into the brainstorming process for developing new Pokémon species. He explained, "The ideas for each of these monsters came from the imagination of the software developers at Game Freak who get these ideas from their childhood experiences, including from reading manga, the name for Japanese comic books. Ideas come from scary experiences they had as kids, catching insects, and so forth. So from these experiences in childhood, these ideas for Pokemon came out". In the same vein as the Pokémon Mew of "Red" and "Blue", the exclusive Pokémon Celebi was included in the "Gold" and "Silver" games but is only accessible after attending a Nintendo promotional event. The first official event offering Celebi was Nintendo Space World 2000 in Japan, in which 100,000 attendees would be awarded the rare Pokémon. In order to be selected, players had to send in a postcard to enter a lottery for one of 100,000 certificates of Celebi, allowing them to enter the event and obtain it.  Ishihara stated that "Gold" and "Silver" started development right after "Pokémon Red" and "Green" were released in Japan. The original intention was to release the game in 1998, even synchronizing with the supposed end of the anime's. Development issues, worsened by Game Freak being sidetracked with "Pokémon Stadium" and the localization of the first generation, led the game to be postponed, and the original release slate was taken over by "Pokémon Yellow". Programmer Shigeki Morimoto stated that part of why development took three and a half years was due to being a small team of only four programmers. Satoru Iwata, then the president of HAL Laboratory who would later become Nintendo's CEO, helped the team by developing the tools for compressing the Pokémon graphic code, which even allowed to include the whole Kanto region of the original games.

Audio.

Junichi Masuda composed his music on an Amiga computer, presumably in a music tracker format, converted to MIDI data and converted again to the Game Boy Color.

Release.

The games were announced for release in Japan in November 1999 and at the same time a North American release date was estimated for September 2000. Nintendo announced the release of the Pocket Pikachu Color, a full-color portable digital pet similar to the one released the year before. The unit was made compatible with "Gold" and "Silver", allowing the transfer of in-game currency known as "watt points". Pocket Pikachu Color was slated for release in Japan on November 21, 1999, the same day as the release of "Gold" and "Silver". In addition, an officially licensed Pikachu-themed Game Link Cable developed by Kemco was set for release in Japan on November 18, 1999. The product functions like a normal Game Link Cable and consists of a yellow cable with a figure of Pikachu on one end, and a Poké Ball on the other.  Anticipating high sales, Nintendo set its first production shipment for the games in Japan at three million, predicting that eventually more than eight million copies would be sold in the country alone. However, they were soon forced to cut the first shipment number in half following an earthquake in Taiwan, which Nintendo claimed had damaged their cartridge manufacturing facilities. Regardless, speculation arose that Nintendo was instead using the event as an excuse to limit shipment and keep the demand high.  As a precursor to the North American release, "Gold" and "Silver" were displayed for audiences to interact with at the 2000 American International Toy Fair in New York City. To further promote the games, Nintendo modified five Chrysler PT Cruisers to resemble the new Pokémon Lugia and had them driven around the United States. The vehicles had fins and tails attached to them and were painted with logos and images of the Pokémon franchise. In addition, they were equipped with a television set hooked up to game consoles which allowed spectators to play "Pokémon Puzzle League", "Hey You, Pikachu!", and "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver". The television series "Pokémon GS", based on the games, was announced to be a part of the fall lineup on Kids' WB. The show would feature the same protagonist Ash Ketchum in a new region with different Pokémon species from the games. The localized American names of the 100 new Pokémon were kept confidential by Nintendo, with the company releasing names periodically. The domain names 'pokemongold.com' and 'pokemonsilver.com' were registered for this very purpose, and such names released included Chikorita, Lugia, Ho-Oh, Togepi, Hoothoot, and Marill.  In May 2000 Nintendo announced the official North American release date of "Gold" and "Silver" to be on October 16 of that year. Nintendo started accepting pre-orders for the games in August, and announced that consumers who pre-ordered one of the games would receive a free CD-ROM with a Pokémon-themed web browser developed by MediaBrowser which featured floating Pokémon species and links to "Pokémon" sites. The application was available for download on the official "Pokémon" website. The games broke record sales as approximately 600,000 copies of them were pre-ordered in just two months, compared to "Pokémon Yellow"s number of 150,000. As the release date neared, retailers such as Electronics Boutique reported receiving shipments of the games earlier than October 16, and opted to sell them immediately; first giving them to pre-orderers and then selling the leftover copies. The games were obtainable as early as October 11.  Pokémon Gold and Silver were released in Korea in 2002. These releases are only compatible with the Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance.

Reception.

"Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" was met with critical acclaim, with many saying that the extended length of gameplay and the new features were valued additions that kept the sequels as interesting as the original games. Craig Harris of "IGN" gave the games a "masterful" 10 out of 10 rating, stating that: "As awesome as the original Pokémon edition was, "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" blow it away in gameplay elements, features, and goodies. There are so many little additions to the design it's impossible to list them all". There was particular praise given to the innovative internal clock feature, with Frank Povo of "GameSpot", noting: "The first major addition to Pokémon GS is the presence of a time element... Although it may sound like a gimmick, the addition of a clock adds quite a bit of variety to the game". Povo went on to give the games an 8.8 rating of "great". "Nintendo Power" listed the "Gold" and "Silver" versions of it combined as the sixth best Game Boy / Game Boy Color game, praising it for its new Pokémon, features, and full-color graphics.  Overall, "Gold" and "Silver" were stated to be solid gaming additions that would please a large audience. "After playing the game dozens of hours, I really can't think of a bad point to make about "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver". Nintendo and Game Freak have tweaked the original and built a sequel that's long, challenging and tremendous fun to play. There's a reason why Pokémon is so popular, and "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" is going to help the series move further into the 21st century", said Harris.

Sales.

"Pokémon Gold" and "Silver" continued the enormous success of "Pokémon Red" and "Blue", beginning the formation of "Pokémon" into a multi-billion dollar franchise. As of April 2000 roughly 6.5 million copies of the games had been sold in Japan. "Silver" proved to be the slightly more popular version, edging out "Gold" by approximately 100,000 copies. By the first week of their release in the United States the games had eclipsed "Pokémon Yellow"s previous record sales of a little over 600,000 copies; selling a combined total of 1.4 million copies to become the fastest selling games ever. The commercial success was expected, as Peter Main, the executive vice president of sales and marketing, stated "There's no question about it; kids love to play Pokémon. So far in 2000 the best-selling game in America for any home console is Pokémon Stadium for Nintendo 64, and the best-selling game for any handheld video game system is Pokémon Yellow for Game Boy Color, but Pokémon Gold and Silver will eclipse even those impressive sales totals. We project sales of 10 million units total of these two games in less than six months time". By 2010, the recorded sales of "Gold" and "Silver" were at 23 million units sold.

Related games.

"Pokémon Crystal".

is an enhanced version of "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver", developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Color. It was released in Japan on December 14, 2000, North America on July 29, 2001 and in Europe on November 2, 2001.  The plot and gameplay of "Pokémon Crystal" is largely the same as in "Gold" and "Silver", although it holds several new features. It is the first game to allow players to choose the sex of their character, while previously the character was always male. Pokémon have animated sprites; for example, when a Cyndaquil enters battle, the flames on its back flicker. This feature was absent in "Pokémon Ruby" and "Sapphire" and "Pokémon FireRed" and "LeafGreen", before reappearing in "Pokémon Emerald" and all subsequent games. In addition, a couple of subplots were added, one involving the legendary Pokémon Suicune, featured on the front cover of the game, and the other involving the Unown. The game's biggest addition is the Battle Tower, a new building which allows players to participate in "Pokémon Stadium"-like fights. The Japanese edition of the game was exclusively bundled with the a device that allowed for connecting with other players via mobile phone.  "Pokémon Crystal" was received well by critics, although many commented that there were just not enough new additions and features to significantly set it apart from "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver". Craig Harris of "IGN" gave the game an "outstanding" 9 out of 10 stating, "The final (hopefully) Game Boy Color edition is definitely the version to get if you aren't already one of the upteenth billion owners of the previous games, with "Crystal"s slight updates to the design and graphics. But there's not much in this edition that makes it a "must buy" for folks who already own a copy or two of the previous editions". In Japan, "Famitsu" magazine scored the game a 34 out of 40.  On January 26, 2018, "Pokémon Crystal" was released worldwide for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console.

"Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver".

and are enhanced remakes of "Pokémon Gold" and "Silver", developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo DS. First released in Japan on September 12, 2009, the games were later released in North America, Australia, and Europe during March 2010.  Game director Shigeki Morimoto aimed to respect the feelings of those who played the previous games, while also ensuring that it felt like a new game to those that were introduced to the series in more recent years. Reception to the games was positive, the two being amongst the highest rated DS games of all time on Metacritic. Commercially, they are among the best-selling Nintendo DS games of all time, with combined sales of 10 million units as of July 29, 2010.

The games introduce 100 new species of Pokémon, and follow the progress of the central character, whose name the player may choose, in his quest to master Pokémon battling. Both games are independent of each other but feature largely the same plot and, while both can be played separately, it is necessary to trade between these games and their predecessors in order to fully complete the games' Pokédex. The Johto Saga of the "Pokémon" anime is based on the new region introduced in the games.

Pokémon Goldene Edition und Pokémon Silberne Edition, in Japan bekannt als Pocket Monsters Gold und Pocket Monsters Silber ( "Poketto Monsutā Kin"/"Gin"), sind der Beginn der zweiten Pokémon-Generation und die Nachfolger der Roten Edition und Blauen Edition. Sie wurden von Game Freak entwickelt und von Nintendo für den Game Boy veröffentlicht. Die Spiele erschienen 1999 zuerst in Japan, bevor sie 2000 auch in Nordamerika und 2001 in Europa erschienen. Die "Kristall-Edition" ist eine Spezial-Edition, die für den Game Boy Color etwa ein Jahr nach dem Erscheinen der "Goldenen Edition" und der "Silbernen Edition" in jeder Region erschien. Diese drei Spiele (die "Goldene Edition", die "Silberne Edition" und die "Kristall-Edition") bilden bezogen auf die Hauptspiele der Pokémon-Reihe die zweite Generation von Pokémon-Spielen.


Biography.

Yehuda Pen was born on May 24 (June 5 Old Style) 1854 in the city of Novoalexandrovsk, known as Ezhereni in Yiddish (now called Zarasai). He was orphaned at the age of thirteen and became an apprentice to a decorative painter in Dvinsk (now called Daugavpils, in Latvia). In 1879 he went to Saint Petersburg and took the entrance exam at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, but failed due to his lack of fluency in Russian. Despite lacking the necessary internal passport, he remained there and, in 1881, obtained permission to audit classes. His teachers included Pavel Chistyakov, Valentin Serov and Mikhail Vrubel. He was eventually admitted as a student and graduated in 1886.  He returned to Dvinsk for a time, then moved to Riga, where he became involved in the local artistic circles and met Ilya Repin, who had an estate along the Dvina that was a meeting place for the Peredvizhniki. In 1891, on his friends' advice, he settled in Vitebsk and, a year later, opened a private art school that was the first Jewish art school in Belarus. He catered to many poor students who were unable to gain admission to the larger academies; all they needed was a sponsor. Pen's pupils included Ilya Mazel, Yefim Minin, Oskar Meshchaninov, Marc Chagall, Ossip Zadkine, Leon Gaspard, and El Lissitzky. The school was in operation until 1919. At that time, thanks to the efforts of Chagall, he became a teacher at the Vitebsk Art School.  Pen was killed at his home in Vitebsk on the night of 28 February/1 March 1937. The exact circumstances of his death have never been clarified. He was buried in the Jewish cemetery there. The bronze bust on his grave has been stolen twice.  The vast majority of Pen's major works are located in Belarusian museums and not in museums and collections in the West. A gallery devoted to his works has been created in Vitebsk. His works are also kept at the Vitebsk Museum of Modern Art and the Belarusian National Arts Museum.

Yehuda Pen, also known as Yuri Pen ( – "Yudl Pen"; 5 June 1854 in Zarasai, Lithuania – 1 March 1937 in Vitebsk, Belarus), was a Lithuanian Jewish painter and art teacher. He was a major figure of the Jewish Renaissance in Russian and Belarusian art at the beginning of 20th century. Pen's most famous student in Vitebsk was the great Jewish painter Marc Chagall.

Jehuda Pen (; * in Nowoaleksandrowsk (heute wieder Zarasai, Litauen); † 28. Februar oder 1. März 1937 in Witebsk) war ein jüdisch-litauischer Maler und Lehrer und dabei eine der wichtigsten Figuren der Jüdischen Renaissance in der weißrussischen Kunst zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts.


Biography.

Daniel Webster Turner, named after the famed antebellum senator and orator, was born on a farm near Corning, Iowa. As a boy, he did farm chores and clerked at the general store owned by his father, a civil war veteran. Graduating from the Corning Academy in 1898, he enlisted in the Army and served in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War. He boxed in the division championship fights and won, but suffered a broken nose that became a permanent facial feature. Returning from the war, he joined the National Guard and rose to the rank of major. In 1903, at age 26, he was elected to the Iowa Senate. His political activism and boxer’s nose led the press to dub him, “Fighting Dan Turner.”  As a representative of the progressive wing of the Republican Party during the era of “prairie populism,” when the Midwest was a font of radicalism, Turner advocated for many reforms. In a 1912 address to the Republican State Convention, he defended the anti-trust law and called for direct election of U. S. senators, income and corporate taxes as more equitable than property taxes, and an end to corrupt leadership, saying, “We must cleanse our party of complacent plutocrats and corpulent freebooters, masquerading as Republicans.” Elected to the Governorship in 1931, he attacked lobbyists in his inaugural address and demanded fair congressional districts, measures to promote child welfare, and establishing a state conservation commission:  “The professional lobbyist... should be ejected from the presence of honest men.... He is not interested in the well being of the people we represent.”  “Our streams are rapidly degenerating into open sewers, receiving the waste drainage of private industry and municipalities. We must terminate this practice.”  In a prelude to the Great Depression, the farming economy collapsed during the 1920s, with many related bank failures. Turner, as a "Son of the Wild Jackass" and one of four speakers at the Republican National Convention of 1928, urged the party to support farm relief. He traveled twice to Washington to unsuccessfully plead the same cause with President Hoover during the 1930s.

Governorship and Cow War.

Turner played a decisive role in the Iowa Cow War of 1931. To keep people from contracting bovine tuberculosis, a State law mandated testing of dairy cows and destroying diseased animals. Farmers across Iowa responded with suspicion and hostility. When some banded together near Tipton, Iowa to prevent the tests from taking place and violence broke out, Turner as governor restored peace by calling out the Iowa National Guard. This act earned him the enmity of many farmers and may have contributed to his re-election defeat in 1932 by Democrat Clyde L. Herring, though this was the year of the Roosevelt-led Democratic sweep, when Republicans were removed from office nationwide.

Later years.

Returning to the race for governor of Iowa in 1934, Turner was defeated a second time by Herring. He did not run for office again but remained active in politics. He supported fellow Republican Dwight Eisenhower in the presidential race of 1952, but turned against Eisenhower after a meeting with the President yielded disappointment on farm-related matters. In the election of 1956, he crossed party lines and supported Democrat Adlai Stevenson for president. Still advocating for farmers’ interests at age 78, he was active in founding the National Farmers Organization, recalling Thomas Jefferson when he cited the “yeoman farmer, who has been the bulwark of our nation.”  At the end of his life, remembering his part in the Spanish–American War, Turner was heard to say, “They gave us the Springfield rifle. I wish I had never learned to shoot it. They said we were fighting for liberty, but it was cruel, it was cruel.” He died in Corning at age 92 and is buried there in Walnut Grove Cemetery.

Notable Relatives.

Singer-songwriter Glen Phillips of Toad The Wet Sprocket is a great-great-nephew of Gov. Turner.

Daniel Webster "Dan" Turner (March 17, 1877April 15, 1969) was an American Republican politician who served as the 25th Governor of Iowa from 1931 until 1933.

Daniel Webster Turner (* 17. März 1877 in Corning, Adams County, Iowa; † 15. April 1969) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Republikanische Partei) und von 1931 bis 1933 der 25. Gouverneur des Bundesstaates Iowa.


Dating and authorship.

Scholarly opinion on when the testament was written varies widely. Despite the text's claim to have been a first-hand account of King Solomon's construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, suggested dates for its composition range between the end of the 1st century CE and the high medieval period. Also disputed is whether it had a Christian or Jewish origin. Mid-twentieth century scholarship tended to agree that much of its content "reflects the first-century Judaism in Palestine" and includes material much earlier than its composition. However, scholars both before (e.g., Istrin) and after (e.g., Schwarz) proposed other solutions based upon the varied manuscript evidence. Because of the text's various forms, produced over centuries by distinct scribes, the author or authors of the text remain unknown. The text was originally written in Greek and contains numerous theological and magical themes ranging from Christianity and Judaism to Greek mythology and astrology that possibly hint at a Christian writer with a Greek background.

Contents.

When a demon named Ornias harasses a young lad (who is favored by Solomon) by stealing half of his pay and sucking out his vitality through the thumb on his right hand, Solomon prays in the temple and receives from the archangel Michael a ring with the seal of God (in the shape of a Pentagram) on it which will enable him to command the demons. Solomon lends the ring to the lad who, by throwing the ring at the demon Ornias, stamps him with the seal and brings him under control. Then Solomon orders the demon Ornias to take the ring and similarly imprint the prince of demons, Beelzebul.  With Beelzebul under his command, Solomon now has all of the demons at his bidding to build the temple. Beelzebul reveals that he was formerly the highest ranking angel in Heaven.  In chapter 18, the demons of the 36 decans appear, with names that sometimes seem to be conscious distortions of the traditional names for the decans. The decan demons claim responsibility mostly for various ailments and pains, and they provide the magical formulae by which they may be banished. For example, the thirty-third demon is Rhyx Achoneoth who causes sore throat and tonsilitis and can be driven off by writing the word "Leikourgos" on ivy leaves and heaping them into a pile.  Solomon's final demon encounter involves sending a servant boy with his ring to take captive a wind demon who is harassing the land of Arabia. The boy is to hold a wineskin against the wind with the ring in front of it, and then tie up the bag when it is full. The boy succeeds in his task and returns with the wineskin. The imprisoned demon calls himself Ephippas, and it is by his power that a cornerstone, thought to be too large to lift, is raised into the entrance of the temple.  Then Ephippas and another demon from the Red Sea bring a miraculous column made of something purple (translation obscure) from out of the Red Sea. This Red Sea demon reveals himself as Abizithibod, and claims to be the demon who supported the Egyptian magicians against Moses, and who hardened the pharaoh's heart, but had been caught with the Egyptian host when the sea returned and held down by this pillar until Ephippas came and together they could lift it.  There follows a short conclusion in which Solomon describes how he fell in love with a Shunammite woman, and agreed to worship Remphan and Moloch in exchange for sex. Solomon agrees to sacrifice to them, but at first only sacrifices five locusts by simply crushing them in his hand. Immediately, the spirit of God departs from him, and he is made foolish and his name becomes a joke to both humans and demons. Solomon concludes his text with a warning to the readers; he tells them to not abandon their beliefs for sex like he did.

Christian themes.

The most explicit and notable Christian theme found in the text was during King Solomon's encounter with the demon Ephippas. While working on the temple, Ephippas is asked by Solomon by what angel he is thwarted. The demon replied that the only thing that can truly take away his powers and defeat him is a man that will be born of a virgin and then be crucified on a cross by the Jews.

Greek influence.

The most obvious Greek influence is Solomon's encounter with seven demons who are sisters. They introduce themselves to the king and describe their home among the stars and Mount Olympus. The seven demon-sisters represent the Pleiades of Greek mythology and their astrological relationship.  Solomon also encounters a female demon called Obizuth, who has no limbs and a head full of disheveled hair. It is argued that she actually represents Medusa or a gorgon-like creature from Greek mythology.  The demon Enepsigos recounts to King Solomon at one point during the temple's construction that he can take three different physical forms, one of which being the Greek Titan Kronos. Enepsigos is also represented as a triple-faced woman akin to Hecate and is likewise astrologically associated with the sphere of the moon.

Similarity to Jewish tradition.

The Babylonian Talmud (in Gittin 68) mentions a similar story where Solomon enslaves Ashmodai, King of the Demons, to build the Temple, and he was disposed temporarily by him.

Demons.

Many of the demons in Solomon's encounters are of Greek, Egyptian, Jewish, Christian, Arabic, and other traditions. The majority of the testament consists of Solomon's interviews with the demons, some of which are grotesque, including one which has no head. Two demons associated strongly with sexuality appear among them- Asmodeus from the Book of Tobit, and a female demon named Obyzouth, who is identical to Lilith in all but name, including the strangling of newborn children. Most of the other demons are otherwise unknown by name from other works. The demon Abezethibou is said to have hardened the pharaoh's heart, rather than Yahweh.  The demons, listed in order of appearance, are Ornias, Beelzeboul, Onoskelis, Asmodeus, Tephras, the 7 star sisters (a reference to the Pleiades), Envy, Rabdos, Rath, Tribolaios, Obizuth, the wingdragon, Enepsigos, Kunopaston, an unnamed "lustful spirit", the 36 spirits of the decans, Ephippas, Abizithibod.

The Testament of Solomon is a pseudepigraphical composite text ascribed to King Solomon and so associated with the Old Testament, but not regarded as canonical scripture by Jews or Christian groups. It was written in the Greek language, based on precedents dating back to the early 1st millennium CE, but was likely not completed in any meaningful textual sense until sometime in the medieval period. In its most noteworthy recensions, the text describes how Solomon was enabled to build his temple by commanding demons by means of a magical ring that was entrusted to him by the archangel Michael.

Das Testament Salomos (abgekürzt mit "TestSal" oder "TSal") ist eine christlich-gnostische apokryphe Schrift, die auf das 4. Jahrhundert datiert wird.


Biography.

Cervera was born on 23 April 1943 in Barcelona, the daughter of Enrique Cervera Manent and his wife, María del Carmen Fernández de la Guerra Álvarez (d. Madrid, 22 February 1992).  She was Miss Spain in 1961. She married firstly, as his fifth wife, on 6 March 1965 to Lex Barker, secondly in 1975 to, divorcing in 1978, and thirdly as his fifth wife at Daylesford, Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire, on 16 August 1985, to Baron Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza.  None of her marriages had issue, but she had a son born out of wedlock, Alejandro (b. Madrid, 24 July 1980), with Manuel Segura. Hans Heinrich adopted her son, known as Alejandro Borja Thyssen-Bornemisza de Kászon et Impérfalva. As a widow, Carmen Cervera has also adopted two twin baby girls (born in 2007 in United States), called María del Carmen and Guadalupe Sabina in July 2007.

Art collection.

She has been an art collector since the 1980s. Items from her collection can be seen at:  Loans to other museums have been proposed, including a projected arts centre at Nuevo Baztan near Madrid.  In 2012, she decided to sell a valuable painting by English artist John Constable, "The Lock". The painting made a world record price for this artist, as it had done when acquired in 1990.

Criticism.

Carmen Cervera was in 2013 and 2016 exposed by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists for using complex offshore structures to gain tax advantages. Her spokesman stressed that she uses tax havens primarily because they give her "maximum flexibility" when she moves art from country to country.

María del Carmen Rosario Soledad Cervera y Fernández de la Guerra, Dowager Baroness Thyssen-Bornemisza de Kászon et Impérfalva (; born Barcelona, 23 April 1943), popularly known as Carmen "Tita" Cervera or Carmen "Tita" Thyssen, is a Spanish philanthropist, socialite, and art dealer and collector.

Carmen Cervera (eigtl. "María del Carmen Rosario Soledad Cervera Fernández"), auch genannt Tita Cervera, Freifrau von Thyssen-Bornemisza oder Baroness Thyssen-Bornemisza (* 23. April 1943 in Sitges als Cervera Fernández), ist eine spanische Kunstsammlerin, die zuvor als Model und Filmschauspielerin bekannt wurde.


Taxonomy.

The taxonomy of the brown woolly monkey is still debated. Fooden classified it is as one of two species under the genus "Lagothrix" with four sub-species ("L. l. lagotricha", "L. l. lugens", "L. l. cana", and "L. l. poeppgigii". Later, an analysis of craniodental morphology suggested a move of all sub-species to the species level and also led to the yellow-tailed woolly monkey (formerly "Lagothrix flavicauda") being moved to a monotypic genus "Oreonax". Genetic analyses also identify distinct groups, but different groupings from morphological and molecular data continue to make this a difficult issue that might be addressed with larger data sets.  Many published sources use the specific name "lagothricha" rather than the etymologically correct "lagotricha", since Fooden adopted this spelling when he revised the genus. Von Humboldt used both spellings in his original description of the species.

Description.

Brown woolly monkeys are large compared to most other tree-dwelling primates, with a head-body length of, a tail length of, and a weight of. Contrary to their name, they may also be a shade of grey or black as well as brown, and are darker on the head and underparts. The face is naked of any fur and is typically black. Most male woolly monkeys are larger than the females, also having larger canines. Brown woolly monkeys are also diurnal.

Distribution and habitat.

The species occurs in bordering areas of four different countries. It is found in the north-western region of Brazil and south of Venezuela, the northern region of Peru, the north-eastern region of Ecuador, and the south-eastern region of Colombia. In Ecuador, the range of inhabited altitudes is 200 - 1,400 m above sea level.

Diet.

Like all species of woolly monkey, brown woolly monkeys are omnivorous, but mainly frugivorous. Their diet consists primarily of fruits containing 1 or 2 large seeds and fruits that are lower in fat and higher in sugar and water. Although they prefer certain fruits such as fruits from the Fabaceae (Legume), Moraceae (fig), Convolvulaceae, and Sapotaceae families, which represent roughly 50% of consumption time, fruit abundance and production influence their diet more than preference. As such, during periods of scarcity, fruit consumption tends to decrease and leaf and insect consumption increases. Females with dependents tend to eat more leaves, most likely because the leaves contain more protein, which helps the female produce more milk, whereas juvenile woolly monkeys have been observed to eat more arthropods then other members of the group.

Foraging behavior.

The brown woolly monkey exhibits generalist and opportunistic foraging behavior, spending a large amount of time eating and moving in the pursuit of food, covering roughly 2 km per day. They tend to prefer fruit species with a clumped fruit distribution and fruits produced by large trees because these tend to produce a larger crop size and reduce the energy spent traveling between fruit patches. Females with offspring were observed to be more efficient foragers than juveniles and adult males. Inter-group competition during feeding times causes the juveniles to be displaced by the adult males and females with offspring resulting in an increase in feeding on arthropods and leaves.

Habitat and groups.

The brown woolly monkey is present in the upper Amazon basin in South America, ranging from the Rio Tapajos in Brazil, to eastern Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. They also used to be found in Bolivia, however it is likely they have been extirpated by hunters. They are found in the rainforest, usually in the canopy of the tallest trees, though they may also be found at shrub layer. In certain seasons it is also common for groups to enter flooded forests, due to a higher concentration of berries.

Social behavior.

Inter-group interactions.

Females drive the relationships that develop between opposite sexes within communities. They do not mingle with other females, whereas males will engage with either sex. Females are possessive of males and may harass others that try to interact with a male. Although they are dominant within their group, females are accepting to outsiders of both genders if there are no offspring-producing females present.

Movement and seed dispersal.

Woolly monkeys have been observed using all four legs when walking/running and climbing, and efficiently making use of intermediate branches rather than just terminal branches when climbing. They act as more effective seed dispersers than the morphologically spider monkey due to longer seed retention time in the digestive tract and the higher variety of seeds eaten. Another influence on seed dispersal rate may be that insects constitute part of their diet.

Conservation.

The brown woolly monkey is classified as a vulnerable species by the IUCN. It occurs both inside and outside of areas that are protected by national park laws.

Threats.

Although the brown woolly monkey has the healthiest and most extensive populations of species in the genus "Lagothrix", it is regarded as vulnerable because of predicted future pressures. Human activity is the biggest threat for this species, particularly the building of new highways through parts of the Amazon and the attendant deforestation and increase in human activity. This leads to displacement and provides new access into the forests, creating the opportunity for more hunting to occur. Hunting is mostly carried out by the indigenous communities of this region of the Amazon. Its large size makes the brown woolly monkey highly susceptible to being hunted by locals. Individuals may also be sold locally as pets. After the mothers are hunted, the babies can be sold for up to approximately $80 USD. Declining populations of woolly monkeys may have wider ecosystem impacts due to their function as seed dispersers and their role as both predator and prey.

Conservation projects.

Many South American national parks have specific laws that prevent both deforestation and the hunting of animals, whereas some do not forbid hunting. Parks and reserves that fully protect the brown woolly monkey include Sumaco-Napo Galeras National Park, Cayambe-Coca and Cofán-Bermejo Ecological Reserve and Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in Ecuador; Nevado de Huila, Puracé, Cueva de los Guacharos and Picachos Natural National Parks in Colombia; and Majuna-Kichwa and Yaguas Reserved Zone in Peru. Algodón Medio Putumayo and Bajo Putumayo-Yagua in Peru offer partial protection. It has been suggested that the local extirpation of the species in some parts of its former range in Brazil was caused by the lack of hunting laws enforced upon indigenous groups.

The brown woolly monkey, common woolly monkey, or Humboldt's woolly monkey ("Lagothrix lagothricha") is a woolly monkey from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. It lives in groups of two to 70 individuals, usually splitting the group into smaller subgroups when active.

Der Braune Wollaffe ("Lagothrix lagotricha") ist eine in Südamerika lebende Primatenart aus der Familie der Klammerschwanzaffen (Atelidae). Ehemals wurden alle Wollaffen zu einer Art zusammengefasst, die ebenfalls den wissenschaftlichen Namen "Lagothrix lagotricha" trug, heute werden vier Arten unterschieden.


History.

Warrenton was founded in 1797 as seat of Warren County (est. 1793). It was incorporated as a town in 1810 and as a city in 1908. The community was named for American Revolutionary War general Joseph Warren.  On May 2, 1919 a crowd of three hundred white farmers shot to death and burned the corpse of a black farmer, Benny Richards, who was accused of murdering his own ex-wife.

Geography.

Warrenton is located at (33.407596, -82.662914).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, of it is land and 0.52% is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,013 people, 816 households, and 527 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,056.9 people per square mile (409.1/km2). There were 909 housing units at an average density of 477.3 per square mile (184.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 29.41% White, 69.40% African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.15% Asian, 0.25% from other races, and 0.55% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.70% of the population.  There were 816 households out of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.1% were married couples living together, 28.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.4% were non-families. 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.09.  In the city, the population was spread out with 29.0% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 24.0% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 80.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 71.7 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $18,750, and the median income for a family was $25,898. Males had a median income of $26,818 versus $20,625 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,778. About 30.7% of families and 36.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 55.0% of those under age 18 and 26.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Warren County School District.

The Warren County School District holds pre-school to grade twelve, and consists of one elementary school, a middle school, and a high school. (The district has only 2 physical buildings, one for Pre-K and K, the other for 1-12.)The district has 70 full-time teachers and over 894 students.

Warrenton is a city in Warren County, Georgia, United States. The population was 1,937 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Warren County.

Warrenton ist eine Stadt mit 2013 Einwohnern (Stand: 2000) im US-Bundesstaat Georgia. Sie befindet sich im Warren County und ist dessen Verwaltungssitz.


History.

1379–1816.

The University of Erfurt was founded in 1379 in the Holy Roman Empire, in territory which is now modern day Germany. When the town of Erfurt became part of Prussia in 1816, the government closed the university after more than 400 years of operation.

1994–present.

Erfurt was in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from 1949 to 1990. In December 1993, the State Government of Thuringia, Landtag of Thuringia, voted to re-establish the university. The university was re-founded on January 1, 1994. Lectures began in the winter term of 1999/2000. Shortly afterwards, the Rector who had overseen the founding, Peter Glotz, a politician in the Social Democratic Party, left the university. The position was taken over by Wolfgang Bergsdorf.  In 2001, the Erfurt Teachers' Training College ("Pädagogische Hochschule Erfurt"), founded in 1953, became part of the university. On January 1, 2003, a fourth faculty was added to the university: the Roman Catholic Theological Faculty, which had belonged to Erfurt's Philosophical and Theological Centre ("Philosophisch-Theologisches Studium Erfurt").  The University of Erfurt is a liberal arts university with reform and socio-cultural profile. The close integration of the Philosophical, Educational Research, Governmental Studies, the Catholic Theological Faculty, and the Max Weber Center, promotes interdisciplinary alongside innovative approaches to research and teaching through a mentoring program.  The University of Erfurt has no tuition fees and represents the first institution of higher education to receive the family-friendly certificate for employers.

Faculties and institutions.

The University of Erfurt has five faculties and three academic institutes:  The academic institutes are:

University research groups and projects.

Current research groups.

Currently following colleges and research teams are part of the Erfurt doctoral and postdoctoral program (EPPP):

University projects.

In the summer semester of 2003, a project group was formed at the university to take part in the National Model United Nations (NMUN) in New York City in April 2004. The pilot project has become a regular, student-organized seminar at the university. The various groups received several awards for their participation at the conference in 2006, 2007, and 2008.

The University of Erfurt () is a public university located in Erfurt, the capital city of the German state of Thuringia. It was founded in 1379, and closed in 1816. It was re-established in 1994, three years after German reunification. Therefore it claims to be both the oldest and youngest university in Germany. The institution identifies itself as a reform university, due to its most famous alumnus Martin Luther, the instigator of the Reformation, who studied there from 1501 to 1505. Today, the main foci centre on multidisciplinarity, internationality, and mentoring.

Die alte Universität Erfurt ("Alma mater Erfordensis" oder "Hierana") wurde aufgrund einer Stiftungsurkunde von Papst Clemens VII. im Jahr 1379 und in darauffolgender Bestätigung durch Papst Urban VI. vom 4. Mai 1389 errichtet. Sie wurde in der zweiten Woche nach Ostern 1392 offiziell eröffnet. Nimmt man die auf Antrag der Erfurter Bürgerschaft erteilte Gründungsurkunde als Referenz, so ist die Universität Erfurt die älteste Universität Deutschlands, jedoch war sie später für fast zwei Jahrhunderte geschlossen. Darüber hinaus nahm bereits zuvor die Universität Heidelberg im Jahre 1386 den regulären Lehrbetrieb auf. Mit ihrem bis ins 13. Jahrhundert zurückreichenden Generalstudium weist die Hierana bis zu ihrer Schließung 1816 zudem die längste Hochschultradition in Deutschland auf. Nach der deutschen Wiedervereinigung erfolgte 1994 die Neugründung als Universität. Die zu DDR-Zeiten begründete Pädagogische Hochschule Erfurt sowie weitere Einrichtungen gingen in der wiedererrichteten Universität auf. Ausgeschlossen davon wurde die bis 1993 existierende Medizinische Hochschule Erfurt. Heute ist die Universität Erfurt eine von vier Universitäten im Freistaat Thüringen.


Early years.

Dill was born in Fredericktown, Ohio, and attended Ohio Wesleyan University, where he was a member of the social fraternity Phi Kappa Psi. He completed his undergraduate work at the University of Delaware in 1907.  As a young man, Dill was a teacher, and moved west to Spokane, Washington, in 1908. He taught English at South Central High School and was a newspaper reporter at "The Spokesman-Review" in the summer.

Political career.

Dill became a lawyer in 1910, and soon entered politics. He was elected to the U.S. House in 1914 and 1916 from the newly created fifth district. On April 5, 1917, Dill was one of 50 representatives who voted against declaring war on Germany. His vote was controversial among his constituents, including members of his own party. The Spokane County Democratic Committee debated censuring Dill, but ultimately voted against doing so. Dill was narrowly defeated for re-election in 1918 by state supreme court justice J. Stanley Webster.  Dill was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1922, beating two-term incumbent Republican Miles Poindexter. Dill campaigned as a supporter of Progressive reform and pledged to repeal the Esch–Cummins Act and push for the Columbia Basin Project. Poindexter, who was supported by major newspapers such as "The Spokesman-Review" and "The Seattle Times", attempted to portray Dill as a radical for his war record and his support of the Plumb Plan. Dill carried Spokane County, much of Eastern Washington, and the urban counties of the Puget Sound region. Dill was re-elected in 1928, but did not seek a third term in 1934. His election in 1928 marked the last time a candidate from Eastern Washington was elected U.S. Senator.  In the Senate, he was the chief sponsor of both the 1927 Radio Act and the 1934 Communications Act, and was a staunch proponent of the Grand Coulee Dam.  In June 1934, Congress amended the Watson-Parker Railway Labor Act so it explicitly included non-operating train personnel and sleeping car companies. Senator Dill sponsored the new act since he thought Pullman porters and maids should be black. A jurisdictional dispute between the Order of Sleeping Car Conductors and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters had to be first settled in the American Federation of Labor, but the effect was to quadruple membership in the Brotherhood. Black workers could now join the union without fear of losing their jobs.  Dill ran for governor in 1940 but was narrowly defeated by Republican Arthur B. Langlie. His last attempt at elective office was for the open seat in Congress from Spokane's fifth district in 1942, but was easily defeated by Walt Horan, the first Republican to win that district in twenty years. Horan had lost to Charles Leavy by eleven points in the previous race in 1940.  Dill then served as a member of the Columbia Basin Commission from 1945 to 1948, and as a special assistant to the U.S. Attorney General from 1946 to 1953. In between all of these jobs, he usually practiced law. He died in 1978 in Spokane at the age of 93, the last living U.S. Senator elected before the Great Depression.

Personal.

After he left the Senate, Dill sought a divorce from his wife in 1936, the feminist suffragist and author Rosalie Gardiner Jones of New York. Dill claimed that Jones told his friends that he was "a political coward" for not seeking re-election in 1934, and that she buried dogs and garbage in the backyard. Separated while he was still in office, the well-publicized divorce proceedings began in late June 1936 in Spokane. The court found in his favor, he kept the house, she got the furniture.  Dill met home economics educator Mabel Aileen Dickson (1905–1969) in November 1936 in Washington, DC, and they were married in May 1939. Born in Crystal, North Dakota, she was raised in Canada; Dickson graduated from the University of Alberta in Edmonton and earned a master's degree at Washington State College in Pullman. They were married for thirty years, until her death from a heart ailment. Their home, "Cliff Aerie", built in 1941 at 708 W. Cliff Drive, is a Spokane landmark.

Clarence Cleveland Dill (September 21, 1884January 14, 1978) was an American politician from the state of Washington. A Democrat, he was elected to two terms each in both houses of Congress.

Clarence Cleveland Dill (* 21. September 1884 im Knox County, Ohio; † 14. Januar 1978 in Spokane, Washington) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker der Demokratischen Partei. Er vertrat den Bundesstaat Washington in beiden Kammern des US-Kongresses.


History.

Background.

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sent the Polar Bear Expedition to Russia in response to requests from the governments of Great Britain and France to join the Allied Intervention in North Russia (also known as the North Russia Campaign). The British and French had two objectives for this intervention:  On July 14, 1918, the U.S. Army's 85th Division left their training camp at Camp Custer, Michigan for the Western Front in France. Three days later, President Wilson agreed to limited participation by American troops in the Allied Intervention with the stipulation that they would only be used for guarding the stockpiled war material. When U.S. Army General John J. Pershing received the directive from President Wilson, he changed the orders for the 339th Infantry Regiment, along with the First Battalion of the 310th Engineers plus a few other ancillary units from the 85th Division. Instead of heading for France, these units were trained and re-outfitted in England with Russian guns and then sent to North Russia. They arrived in Arkhangelsk on September 4, 1918, coming under British command. (Allied expeditionary forces had occupied Arkhangelsk on August 2, 1918.)  See American Expeditionary Force, Siberia for information on the 7,950 American soldiers and officers sent to Vladivostok, Russia at the same time.

Expedition.

When the British commanders of the Allied Intervention arrived in Arkhangelsk on August 2, 1918, they discovered that the Allied war material had already been moved up the Dvina River by the retreating Bolshevik forces. Therefore, when the American troops arrived one month later, they were immediately used in offensive operations to aid in the rescue of the Czech Legion. The British commanders sent the First Battalion of the 339th Infantry up the Dvina River and the Third Battalion of the 339th up the Vologda Railroad where they engaged and pushed back the Bolshevik forces for the next six weeks.  However, these two fronts each became hundreds of miles (kilometers) long and were extremely narrow and difficult to supply, maintain, and protect. By the end of October 1918, they were no longer able to maintain the offensive and acknowledging their fragile situation and the rapid onset of winter, the Allies began to adopt a defensive posture.  The Allied commanders also soon realized they would be unable to raise an effective local force of anti-Bolshevik soldiers. Thus they gave up the goal of linking up with the Czech Legion and settled in to hold their gains over the coming winter. During that winter, the Bolshevik army went on the offensive, especially along the Vaga River portion of the Dvina River Front, where they inflicted numerous casualties and caused the Allies to retreat a considerable distance.  During their time in North Russia, the American forces suffered more than 210 casualties, including at least 110 deaths from battle, about 30 missing in action, and 70 deaths from disease, 90% of which were caused by the Spanish flu. An October 1919 report gives the casualties as 553: 109 killed in battle; 35 died of wounds; 81 from disease; 19 from accidents/other causes; 305 wounded and 4 POWS (released).

Withdrawal.

Following the Allied Armistice with Germany on November 11, 1918, family members and friends of soldiers in the AEF began writing letters to newspapers and circulating petitions to their representatives in the U.S. Congress, asking for the immediate return of the force from North Russia. In turn, the newspapers editorialized for their withdrawal and their congressmen raised the issue in Washington, D.C. Meanwhile, aware of not only the change in their mission, but also of the Armistice on the Western Front and the fact that the port of Arkhangelsk was now frozen and closed to shipping, the morale of the American soldiers plummeted. They asked their officers why they were fighting Bolshevik soldiers in Russia and did not receive a clear answer, other than that they had to fight to survive and avoid the Bolshevik army pushing them into the Arctic Ocean. Early in 1919, instances of rumored and actual mutinies in the Allied ranks became frequent. On July 15, 1919, it was reported by the Alaska Daily Empire that rumors of mutiny were "bunk" and that commander Major Nichols reported “What gave rise to the story that Company I, of the regiment, had mutinied was an Incident (sic.) to which an order was misunderstood by a soldier who could not understand English well.” President Wilson directed the War Department on February 16, 1919, to begin planning the withdrawal of AEF in North Russia from Northern Russia. In March 1919, four American soldiers in Company B of the 339th Infantry drew up a petition protesting their continued presence in Russia and were threatened with court-martial proceedings.  U.S. Army Brigadier General Wilds P. Richardson arrived in Arkhangelsk aboard the icebreaker "Canada" on April 17, 1919, with orders from General Pershing to organize a coordinated withdrawal of American troops "...at the earliest possible moment." On May 26, 1919, the first half of 8,000 volunteer members of the British North Russian Relief Force arrived in Arkhangelsk to relieve the American troops. In early June, the bulk of the AEF in North Russia sailed for Brest, France and then for New York City and home—which for two-thirds of them was in the state of Michigan. During the withdrawal, the men of the AEF in North Russia decided to call themselves "Polar Bears" and were authorized to wear the Polar Bear insignia on their left sleeve. On July 15, 1919, it was reported by the Alaska Daily Empire that forty-six officers and 1,495 men of the Polar Bear Expedition, were the first American troops to return home from service in Northern Russia, arrived in Hoboken, New Jersey aboard the Von Steuben. The AEF in North Russia officially disbanded on August 5, 1919.  Several years after the American troops were withdrawn from Russia, President Warren G. Harding called the expedition a mistake and blamed the previous administration.

Aftermath.

A year after all of the expedition members had returned home, in 1920 Polar Bear veterans began lobbying their state and Federal governments to obtain funds and the necessary approvals to retrieve the bodies of at least 125 of their fellow American soldiers which were then believed to have been buried in Russia and left behind. By that time, 112 sets of remains had already been transferred to the United States. By 1929, additional research found that 226 fallen "polar bears" had originally been buried in North Russia, with a total of approximately 130 sets of U.S. soldier remains then estimated to still be buried in North Russia. Hampered by the lack of diplomatic recognition between the United States and the Soviet Union, it took many years before they finally received permission. An expedition under the auspices of the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) was successful in organizing and conducting a recovery mission in the autumn of 1929 that found, identified and brought out the remains of 86 U.S. soldiers. Fourteen remains of AEF in North Russia soldiers were shipped by the Soviet Union to the U.S. in 1934, which reduced the number of U.S soldiers still buried in North Russia to about 30.  The remains of 56 AEF soldiers were eventually re-buried in plots surrounding the Polar Bear Memorial by sculptor Leon Hermant in White Chapel Memorial Cemetery, Troy, Michigan in a ceremony on May 30, 1930.  Harold Gunnes, who was born in 1899, died on March 11, 2003. Gunnes was believed to have been the last living American to have fought in the Allied Intervention near the port of Arkhangelsk on the White Sea.

The American Expeditionary Force, North Russia (AEF in North Russia) (also known as the Polar Bear Expedition) was a contingent of about 5,000 United States Army troops that landed in Arkhangelsk, Russia as part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War and fought the Red Army in the surrounding region during the period of September 1918 through to July 1919.

Die Polar Bear Expedition (auch als Northern Russian Expedition, American North Russia Expeditionary Force – ANREF oder American Expeditionary Force North Russia – AEFNR bekannt; in deutscher Übersetzung: "Expeditionskorps Eisbär" bzw. "Amerikanische Expeditionsstreitkräfte (in) Nordrussland") war ein Kontingent von etwa 5.000 Soldaten der Vereinigten Staaten, welches als Teil der alliierten Intervention in den Russischen Bürgerkrieg in der russischen Stadt Archangelsk landete, um zwischen September 1918 und Juli 1919 dort und in den umgebenden Regionen gegen die Rote Armee zu kämpfen.


Background.

Qualifying.

In early 2006, FIDE announced that the World Chess Championship 2007 for the title of FIDE World Chess Champion would be an eight-player tournament. At the time there were two rival World Champions, 2005 FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, and "Classical" World Champion Vladimir Kramnik. The list of the eight players for the tournament included Topalov, but not Kramnik. To unify the two World Champion titles, FIDE later organised a match between Kramnik and Topalov (the World Chess Championship 2006). Kramnik was to take Topalov's place in the World Chess Championship 2007 if he won the match, which he did. Topalov was hence excluded from the 2007 World Chess Championship, a tournament eventually won by Indian GM Viswanathan Anand to become the World Champion. Anand subsequently defended his title in a one-off match against Kramnik, the World Chess Championship 2008.  The World Chess Championship format then returned to its original form, wherein a match between the current champion and a challenger would decide the World Champion. To choose the challenger, FIDE organized the Chess World Cup 2007. Topalov was compensated for missing the 2007 tournament by getting direct entry to a Challenger Match against the winner of the Chess World Cup. The winner of the Challenger Match would then be the official challenger to Anand.  Gata Kamsky earned the right to play in the Challenger Match by winning the Chess World Cup 2007.

Challenger Match.

The Challenger Match was an eight-game match between Topalov and Kamsky. It was played in Sofia, Bulgaria, between 16 and 28 February 2009.  After Kamsky won the World Cup, there was ongoing uncertainty about the location for the Challenger match. Topalov preferred his home country of Bulgaria, while Kamsky wanted to play in a neutral country, and his manager organised a bid from Lviv, Ukraine. FIDE awarded the match to Bulgaria in February 2008, to Ukraine in June 2008, then back to Bulgaria in November 2008 because of problems with finances from Ukraine. Kamsky got a new manager, and met with FIDE and Topalov representatives during the Chess Olympiad, and on 19 November 2008, FIDE announced that the players had agreed to play in Bulgaria, despite Kamsky's preference to play elsewhere. The match was originally scheduled for November 2008, but the late change to Bulgaria forced the match to be rescheduled for 16–28 February 2009.  On 26 February 2009, Topalov defeated Kamsky in game 7 to win the match 41⁄2–21⁄2, earning the right to challenge Anand for the World Chess Championship. The championship match was moved from September 2009 to April 2010 after Anand requested a postponement.

The match.

Match conditions.

The match format was the best of 12 games. Players scored one point for a win and half a point for a draw. The match ended once either player scored 61⁄2 points. Time control was 120 minutes, with 60 minutes added after move 40, 15 minutes added after move 60, and 30 additional seconds per move starting from move 61.  The match regulations specify a series of tie breaks.  Topalov demanded that the match be played in silence, which would occur if the players followed the Sofia Rules, which were introduced to curb draw offers in some tournaments from 2005. Anand replied that he would not comply, prompting Silvio Danailov, Topalov's manager, to say "If Vishy doesn't agree to the rules he will be forced to, because Topalov will not offer him a draw and he will not speak to him."

Seconds and help.

Anand had the same group of seconds who helped his preparation in World Chess Championship 2008: Peter Heine Nielsen, Rustam Kasimdzhanov, Surya Ganguly and Radosław Wojtaszek. In a post-match interview Anand mentioned that Magnus Carlsen and Garry Kasparov had also helped him in preparation and that Vladimir Kramnik helped during the match.  Topalov's seconds were Jan Smeets, Erwin l'Ami, Ivan Cheparinov and Jiri Dufek. For preparation, Topalov also used a state-owned IBM Blue Gene/P supercomputer with 8192 processors, running the latest version of Rybka.

Previous head-to-head record.

Before the 2010 match Anand and Topalov played 67 games against each other at classical time control with the following statistics:

Schedule and results.

The start of the match was delayed one day due to air travel disruptions caused by the volcanic ash emissions from Eyjafjallajökull. Anand was to fly from Frankfurt to Sofia on 16 April and was stranded because of the eruption. He asked for a three-day postponement, which was refused by the organisers on 19 April. Anand finally reached Sofia on 20 April, after a 40-hour road journey. The first game was consequently delayed by one day.  All games started at 3.00 pm EEST (UTC+3), except Game 1, which began at EEST.  Former FIDE World Chess Champion Alexander Khalifman, who analysed the 2010 Anand–Topalov World Championship match for the Russian chess magazine "64", stated in a subsequent interview that "The chess was very good, and in sporting terms it was always a heated struggle with no short draws. While the result was fair. Despite the fact that Topalov had prepared superbly, it has to be admitted that in terms of talent he is still inferior to Anand. And even the age difference didn’t tell. Anand is a genius. He emanates light."

Games.

Game 1, Topalov–Anand, 1–0.

Grünfeld Defence, Exchange Variation, D86 <br>  Anand admitted he forgot his preparation (23...Bd7 prior to Kf7) while considering his 23rd move, leading to his blunder 23...Kf7?

Game 2, Anand–Topalov, 1–0.

Catalan Opening, Open Defense, E03  The move 16...Nc5 removing White's blockading knight was much better for Topalov, with Black doing well after 17. Nd6 b6. Anand noted that Black started to lose his grip on the position after 25...Ne3?

Game 3, Topalov–Anand, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Slav Defense, Wiesbaden variation, D17  14...Rg8! Black plans Bd6, Ke7, f6, Rgc8, Bg8, etc. White actually has to hurry up and do something against it, which is not easy, since his knight on c3 is misplaced.  20. b4! Topalov actives quickly before Black manages to get all his pieces into play.  32...Bb5! Anand manages to neutralize his only weakness, the pawn on a6.  There was no handshake at the end of the third game. At the press conference both players admitted that they simply forgot to shake hands.

Game 4, Anand–Topalov, 1–0.

Catalan Opening, Open, 5. Nf3, E04  10. Na3! is a strong novelty, developing without winning back the pawn. In order to protect the pawn, Black is forced to place his pieces in awkward positions. The day before the fourth game, the 10.Na3! novelty was independently found by Levon Aronian, who was at that time carrying out a training camp in Armenia. Anand won "Yearbook Novelty Award of 2010" for this move.  With 15. d5! Anand is finally ready and starts his breakthrough attack.  21...Qa7? A decisive mistake. Now the queen is saved, but the king is not. 21...Qg5! was already the only way to stay in the game. Anand quickly found the proper reply with 22. Ng4! starting the final attack on Black's king.

Game 5, Topalov–Anand, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Slav Defense, D17  Anand repeated the Slav line with which he defended in game three. He deviated with 15...h5 to avoid having his light-squared bishop boxed in. The event suffered a power outage for thirteen minutes while Anand contemplated his 17th move; the organizers later apologized for this mishap, which was caused by an electrical system failure in central Sofia.

Game 6, Anand–Topalov, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Catalan Opening, Open Defense, E03  22. Nd7 Anand begins the longest string of knight moves ever seen in a World Championship match.  With 39...Bh3! Topalov successfully neutralizes all of Anand's winning chances.

Game 7, Anand–Topalov, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Bogo-Indian Defence, E11  11...Bd7 is a novelty, as in Gelfand-Ivanchuk, Amber (blindfold) 2010, Ivanchuk had played 11...Ba6.  At move 21. Kh1 Anand finally managed to push Topalov out of his prepared line, having spent over an hour on his clock compared to Topalov having spent only 3 minutes.  25...Bb4! 26.Ra1! Topalov played a poisoned move and Anand finds the only response. Other moves such as 26.Ne4 would fail to 26...Bxc3 27.bxc3 f5 28.Nd6 Qc5 29.Rxg7+ Kxg7 30.Nxe8+ Kf7

Game 8, Topalov–Anand, 1–0.

Slav Defense: Czech. Wiesbaden Variation, D17  Black's 54...Bc6?? was a blunder that removed the possibility of Black protecting the h7 pawn with his bishop. The move 54...Bd3 would have been an easy draw.  Though the game appeared to finish early, it might have concluded: 56.g4 Bd7 57.g5 Be8 58.Bg7 Bd7 59.g6 hxg6 60.Kxg6 and Black is helpless to prevent White from penetrating, for example: 60...Be8+ 61.Kf6 Bd7 62.Ke7 Bc6 63.d7 Bxd7 64.Kxd7 Kxg7 65.Kxe6 1–0.

Game 9, Anand–Topalov, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Nimzo-Indian, 4.e3, Gligoric System, E54  Anand moved 40. Rh8+?, hoping to repeat moves in order to make time control. However, this a mistake that lets the Black king escape. It was better to play 40. Re4 b4 41. Rxa7 b3 42. Rb7 b2 43. Kh2 Qc1 44. Ra4 Nd7 45. Rab4.  Anand missed a chance to win when he played 64. Kg3?. A winning move was 64. Rdd7 a3 65. Kg3 Qa1 (65...b2 66. Rc7+ Kd8 67. Ra7 Qd5 68. Ra8+ Qxa8 69. Rg8+ Kd7 70. Rxa8) 66. Rc7+ Kb8 67. Rb7+ Ka8 68. Nxb3.

Game 10, Topalov–Anand, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

Grünfeld Defence: Exchange. Classical Variation, D86  To avoid unnecessary complications, Anand played 25...Nd4?! but the best chance was in 25...Bxa6 likely followed by 26.Qxc6 Qa1+ 27.Kf2 Qxa2+ 28.Kg3 Qa3! 29.Qa8+ Qf8 30.Qxa7 Be5+ 31.Kh4 Qf1 32.g3 Bc8 33.g4 Bf6+ 34.Nxf6+ Qxf6+=.  Anand subsequently equalised the game with 45...Nc4! It was likely that Topalov missed this move.

Game 11, Anand–Topalov, 1⁄2–1⁄2.

English Opening: King's English Variation, Four Knights Variation Fianchetto Lines A29  With 15...Nde7! Black regroups. The d5 square is now open for the bishop and White's bishop pair is not important yet. 46. g4?! Nd6?! White weakens his kingside in an attempt to gain activity and Topalov misses the best reply in 46...Ne7! winning a pawn.  In the final moves of the game 60...b3! 61.Rc3 Rd4! Anand makes a last attempt to win, setting a trap if Topalov attempts to push his b-pawn to promotion (61...b2?? 62.Rxc5! b1=Q?? 63.Ne6+ Kg8 [or Kh8] 64.Rc8+ Rd8 65.Rxd8#) but Topalov did not blunder into it.  The position after move 11 had only been played once before.  Prior to the game, Topalov asked for one minute of silence in memory of Andor Lilienthal, who had died the day before.

Game 12, Topalov–Anand, 0–1.

Queen's Gambit Declined: Lasker Defense, D56  This was the only win for Black in the match. Anand's choice of Lasker's Defense in the Queen's Gambit Declined appeared to signal his willingness to accept a draw, which would have tied the match at 6–6 and forced a rapid chess playoff. Most people believed that such a playoff would have greatly favoured Anand, due to his superior rapid chess resume, and Topalov in the postgame press conference noted his desire to avoid a rapid playoff, given his loss in the World Chess Championship 2006 playoff to Vladimir Kramnik.  Consequently, Topalov chose to play for complications, but Anand's 16...Nf6!? allowed Anand active piece play in return for his weak pawn on c5.  After Topalov responded to 30...f5! with 31.exf5? e4! 32.fxe4??, Anand decisively seized the initiative. Topalov admitted he had overlooked Anand's strong reply 34...Qe8!  Thus, Anand retained his World Champion title once again.

The World Chess Championship 2010 match pitted the defending world champion, Viswanathan Anand, against challenger Veselin Topalov, for the title of World Chess Champion. The match took place in Sofia, Bulgaria from 24 April to 13 May 2010, with a prize fund of million euros (60% to the winner). Anand won the final game to win the match 61⁄2–51⁄2 and retain the title.

Die Schachweltmeisterschaft 2010 wurde als Zweikampf zwischen dem amtierenden Schachweltmeister Viswanathan Anand und dem früheren FIDE-Weltmeister Wesselin Topalow ausgetragen. Sie fand vom 24. April bis 11. Mai 2010 in der bulgarischen Hauptstadt Sofia statt. Es handelte sich (sofern Alexander Aljechin durchgängig als Russe gezählt wird) um die erste Schachweltmeisterschaft ohne Beteiligung eines russischen Spielers seit der WM 1921, als der Deutsche Emanuel Lasker seinen Titel an den Kubaner José Raúl Capablanca verlor.


History.

Beginnings to 1910.

The reason for its creation.

Vienna's water supply originally came from private wells. In the absence of a functioning sewer system, the quality of the groundwater went from bad to worse, triggering disease and epidemics. Reinforced water pipes were built, but these primarily benefitted the wealthy and large institutions. Most of the population had to rely on spouts or fountains attached to wells.  The first water pipe that provided greater coverage was built in 1803-1804, bringing water from Hütteldorf. Vienna was growing too fast for the supply to be sufficient so, in 1836, the Emperor Ferdinand Aqueduct was built. It provided artificially filtered water from the Danube Canal. Initially, the water quality was acceptable, but the effects of the filtering gradually diminished and the health risk returned. Demand also continued to exceed supply.  During the late 1850s, several projects to divert water from other sources were proposed, and studies were made to calculate the amount of water that would be required. These studies considered not only drinking water, but industry, irrigation, road sprinkling, fountains and bathing facilities as well.

Search for a source.

A primary consideration was that the water should originate at a high altitude, so that gravity, rather than pumps, would be sufficient to the task. The Traisen was considered first, and rejected, because of high water temperatures during the summer and concerns about its purity. The Pitten, Schwarza and the Leitha were subsequently rejected for similar reasons. The Fischa was rejected because of concerns about the companies that used the river as a power source and the possibility of contamination from ammonia-based fertilizers. Attention finally turned to the area between Rax, Schneeberg and Würflach.  The data collected from these studies were summarized by the City Planning Authority and presented to the City Council on 31 July 1861. Later, on 1 December 1861, foreign and domestic engineering companies were invited to submit plans and bids for the proposed project. Twelve offers were presented and various sources were suggested; two of which focused on the Rax-Schneeberg area.

Establishment of the Water Supply Commission.

On 21 November 1862, the City Council established a twelve-member commission to carry out the necessary surveys and paperwork. Among the commission's members were Cajetan Felder (an entomologist), Ludwig Förster (an architect) and August Zang (a publisher). Eduard Suess (a geologist) was appointed to replace Förster upon the latter's death in 1863. In the spring of that year, the commission began a detailed examination of the proposed sites and projects. Their studies extended higher and higher, finally examining the area around Höllental, which they declared to be suitable for the project's purposes.  The final "Report on the surveys of the Water Supply Commission of the Municipal Council of the City of Vienna" was written by Suess in 1864 and published by the Council. The report concluded that the three sources of Kaiserbrunnen, Stixenstein and Alta would supply high quality water and, even though it was longer than the route to Fischa, would be more cost-effective because no pump station would be necessary. The report was submitted to a group of experts and verified on 6 July 1864. The Imperial Society of Physicians gave their support to the final proposal and it was ratified by the Council on 12 July by a vote of 94 to 2.

The beginning of detailed planning.

Those involved in the planning were divided in two groups. The First Department was responsible for the source of the pipeline and the reservoir. The Second Department oversaw the pipeline route and work within the Vienna city limits. The work was done under the direction of Carl Junker, a civil engineer, and Karl Gabriel, the City Engineer.  The plans were completed near the end of October in 1865 and put on public display at the Palais Augarten in December. Another panel of experts examined the plans and gave their approval in February, 1866. On May 25 that year, the plans were presented to the City Council for final approval and after a long debate, the project was authorized to proceed on 19 June. Having fulfilled the tasks assigned to it, the original Water Supply Commission was dissolved on 3 July and replaced by a new twenty-one member commission to oversee the actual construction. Most of the original commissioners were retained.  The first construction permits were issued in July 1868. Objections were raised by local land owners and factory operators near the Schwarza, but were rejected by the Ministry of the Interior on 22 March 1869.

Acquisition of sources.

Stixenstein.

The Stixenstein source, near the Schloss Stixenstein at Sieding was owned by Count Ernst Karl von Hoyos-Sprinzenstein (1830–1903). The city of Vienna had notified him that they intended to acquire the property by right of public domain as early as 27 July 1864. Although he presented several conditions, none were considered onerous and the contract was approved by the Regional Court on 11 August 1868. In return for his "donation" he was made an Honorary Citizen of Vienna in 1873.

Kaiserbrunnen.

On 12 July 1864, a Delegation requested an audience with Emperor Franz Joseph I to request that he graciously transfer his interests in the Kaiserbrunnen to the City of Vienna.  On 1 May 1865, at the opening ceremonies for the Ringstraße, the Emperor declared that he would present the Kaiserbrunnen to the city as a gift. The Ministry of Finance, however, made demands for indemnification and negotiations ensued. A decision on 29 November 1867 was followed by another audience with the Emperor, followed by more negotiations, which led to a contract being signed on 6 March 1868.

Construction of the first tunnel.

After the issuance of construction permits, the bids were examined and the contract awarded to Antonio Gabrielli, a contractor from London, on 12 October 1869.  The construction officially began on 21 April 1870. The Emperor himself turned over the first spadeful of dirt at Rosenhügel. In fact, construction had started on 6 December 1869, with blasting for the tunnel at Höllental. Due to some initial difficulties, the proposed completion date was re-estimated to be July, 1874. Gabrielli had awarded individual segments of the project to sub-contractor. The tunnel work had been given to Franz Schlögl, a Viennese architect, who was not up to the task and was removed from the project in August, 1870.  Falling further behind from delays in deliveries, Gabrielli turned to the Minister of War to help with the tunnel but, instead of the 250 men he requested, he was assigned only 70 sappers. After an intervention by the City of Vienna, the War Ministry sent more men and the last tunnel section was completed on 8 December 1872.

Construction in Vienna.

On 5 April 1870, the City Council approved a proposal by the Water Supply Commission and designated three companies to supply the pipes needed in urban areas. These were: the Prager Eisenindustrie-Gesellschaft (located in Kladno), Gambier et Cie. (from La Louvière, Belgium) and the Neuberg-Mariazeller Gewerkschaft. However, Gambier encountered difficulties in delivering their pipes due to the Franco-Prussian War, so most of their contract was transferred to nearby factories in Moravia. Many of the pipes were tested after being laid and were not up to standards, so the thickness of the pipe walls was increased and the general plan was revised to prevent water pressure from being too high in the low-lying areas.  Due to a lack of water in 1873, Gabrielli was asked to accelerate his work so the supplies could be increased by no later than October. The City Council approved a special payment for this purpose. Construction was largely completed by August. The highlight of the opening ceremony on 24 October 1873 was the dedication of a jet fountain on the Schwarzenbergplatz by the Emperor.  The entire pipe network, however, was not completed until July 1874. Private wells were examined for potential health hazards and, if any were found, the residences they served had to be connected to the new system and the old wells closed. By 1883, 80% of the homes in Vienna were receiving their water from the new pipes. By 1888, this had increased to 91%. Due to an increase in population, a pumping station had to be added at Breitensee in 1896. By 1899, another pumping station had been added on the Wienerbergstraße. In 1908 and 1909, the city found itself facing shortages again and, despite some opposition from industrial interests, took stop-gap measures to insure an adequate drinking water supply until the Second Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline could be completed.

From 1910 to 1938.

After the opening of the second pipeline in 1910, further investment in the first pipeline no longer seemed necessary.  On 25 July 1914, during the First World War, both pipelines became state-protected companies by Imperial Decree. As a result, monitoring of the lines, which was normally undertaken by city employees and volunteers, became the responsibility of the Landsturm.  After the war, the population of Vienna decreased by almost 326,000 and the ensuing economic depression reduced economic activity so the city found itself with a surplus of water that was delivered to adjacent communities such as Klosterneuburg, Schwechat, Brunn am Gebirge and others. But, during the summers of 1928 and 1929, the area experienced a drought, once again forcing a search for new sources of water. A temporary pumping station was established on the Naßbach, near its confluence with the Preinbach, but this water had to be chlorinated. That pump was eventually replaced by an electrically powered pump at the pipeline's headwaters. In 1930, improvements were made to the source at Kaiserbrunnen, including a "metering chamber" that would provide precise measurements of water flow.

1938 to 1945.

Water consumption in Vienna rose sharply after 1939, slowing down only towards the end of 1944. By 1942, demand had exceeded supply. In the event that one of the lines might become disabled, groundwater stations and locks were built in the urban area. Water saving measures were, of course, already in effect as a result of the war.  On 12 April 1944 an attack on the nearby airbase at Kottingbrunn caused collateral damage to the first pipeline. Far more serious were the results of an attack at Wöllersdorf in May, which damaged the line in several places. Bombing near Vienna caused damage to the aqueduct. Temporary repairs were attempted, often by local fire brigades. On 29 March 1945, a bombing raid by Russian aircraft caused severe damage at Neunkirchen. This remained unrepaired until after the war.

1945 until today.

The bomb craters near Neunkirchen had allowed large quantities of gravel to enter the system, causing erosion to the pipes. Cleaning and repair required several years, during which the canal had to be closed.  The first major project after the pipeline was recommissioned was the construction of a major water storage facility at Neusiedl am Steinfeld. The foundation stone was laid on 21 November 1953 and the four-chambered water tank was fully operational by 25 April 1959. It can hold 150,000 cubic metres of water, making it the largest in Europe at that time.  A few years later, another problem was posed by the construction of the Süd Autobahn (1961-1963), which crosses the first pipeline four times between Bad Vöslau and Bad Fischau. Precautions had to be taken to protect the pipeline from the potential effects of traffic accidents.  With the establishment of the Schneealpenstollen (Alpine Snow Tunnel) in 1968, water from Styria was introduced into the pipeline system. The tunnel was then the largest in Europe and increased supplies by 20%. Two more such tunnels, the Scheiblingstollen and the Lärchsteinstollen, have been built, bringing water from the Hochschwab range.

Waterpipe Museum, Kaiserbrunnen.

A former forest warden's house in Kaiserbrunnen has served since 1973 as a museum, consisting of two buildings with seven rooms documenting the construction of the First Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline. The museum was expanded in 1998 and has 950 objects, several informational displays and video presentations.

The First Vienna Mountain Spring Pipeline (I. Wiener Hochquellenwasserleitung) is a major part of Vienna's water supply and was the first source of safe drinking water for that city. The 95 km long line was opened on 24 October 1873, after four years of construction. Today, it delivers 62 million cubic meters of water per year (53% of Vienna's total supply in 2007). The water comes from high springs in the Rax and Schneeberg areas in Southern Lower Austria and Styria.

Die I. Wiener Hochquellenleitung, zu ihrer Zeit "Kaiser-Franz-Josef-Hochquellenleitung" genannt, ist ein Teil der Wiener Wasserversorgung und war die erste Versorgung von Wien mit einwandfreiem Trinkwasser. Nach vierjähriger Bauzeit wurde die 95 Kilometer lange Leitung am 24. Oktober 1873 eröffnet. Heute liefert sie rund 62 Millionen Kubikmeter pro Jahr (53 Prozent der Gesamtmenge des Wiener Trinkwassers, Stand 2007).


Biography.

Sancho Garcés was an illegitimate son of King García Sánchez III and a concubine, born around 1038 and before his father married Stephanie. He was appointed tenant-in-chief of Uncastillo and Sangüesa and could have also been the Sancho Garcés who appears governing Ruesta (1058), Surta (1065), Autol (1071), and Anguiano and Tobía in 1073. He had several siblings from his father's legitimate marriage, including King Sancho Garcés IV and Ramiro Garcés. He was also the brother of Mencía Garcés, wife of Fortún Ochoiz, another illegitimate daughter of the king, though it is not known if Sancho and Mencía shared the same mother.  He died on 6 January 1083 with his brother Ramiro who led the army sent by Alfonso VI in what was to be known as the disaster or the treachery of Rueda, where many other nobles lost their lives, including count Gonzalo Salvadórez.

Marriage, descendants, and legend.

He married Constanza before 25 November 1057 as indicated in a document from the Monasterio of San Prudencio de Monte Laturce when both confirm a sale made by his brother the king. They appear together, two weeks later, on 7 December 1057 confirming as "domno Santio testis et uxor eius domna Constanza" in the Monastery of Albelda. Constanza was previously considered to be a daughter of a Gonzalo Marañón. Nevertheless, medievalist Jaime de Salazar y Acha, based on the "Chronica Naierensis", believes that Constanza could have been a daughter of a previous marriage of Stephanie, wife of King García Sánchez III, Sancho's father:  Although this episode has been considered an unfounded legend, all the characters mentioned are documented and these events could have a basis of truth. In a charter dated 29 November 1074 recorded in the cartulary of the Monastery of Santa María de Otero de las Dueñas, King Sancho Garcés IV gives his brother some houses and land in Calahorra, declaring: "vobis germano meo domno Sancio et uxori vestra vel germana mea domna Constancia", that is, "to you, my brother Sancho, and to your wife and my sister, doña Constanza".  Sancho and Constanza had two children:  Some historians have identified Sancho Garcés with Sancho Macerátiz, tenant-in-chief in Oca. Sancho Macerátiz married Andregoto, a kinswoman of Andregoto Galíndez, queen of Navarre, and she appears as his widow in 1075 at San Millán de la Cogolla, accompanied by her children: Sancho Sánchez de Erro, Andregoto, Sancha, Jimena, and Velasquita. However, Sancho Garcés is attested with his wife Constanza in 1074, leaving no time for a remarriage to Andregoto and the birth of her five children within just a year, and furthermore Sancho Garcés was still living seven years after Andregoto appears as widow of Sancho Macerátiz, indicating that the two men were distinct. He has also on occasion been confused with his like-named half-brother, King Sancho Garcés IV.

Sancho Garcés (c. 1038 – 6 January 1083) was an illegitimate son of King García Sánchez III of Pamplona and first cousin of King Alfonso VI of León. Lord of Uncastillo and Sangüesa, he was the father of Ramiro Sánchez whose son García Ramírez was the first of a new dynasty of Navarrese monarchs.

Sancho Garcés († nach dem 29. November 1074) war ein Angehöriger des Hauses Jiménez. Er war ein unehelicher Sohn des Königs García III. von Navarra und damit ein Halbbruder des Königs Sancho IV. von Navarra.


Immigration and Mining.

Born near Woodstock, Ontario (now in Canada, but a British colony at the time of his birth), he moved with his parents to O'Neill in Holt County, Nebraska, where he attended the public schools until he was 17, worked on his family farm, and engaged in the freighting business. He moved to Park City, Utah, in 1883, and worked in mining, prospected, and operated several mines. In 1889 and his partner David Keith discovered the rich ore that became the famous Silver King Coalition Mine in Park City. They would eventually own several mines throughout Utah, Nevada, Colorado and California. In Park City, Kearns, a Catholic, married Jennie Judge in 1890 in Salt Lake City. They had four children: Margaret Ann (1892-1893), Edmund Judge (1893-1936), Thomas Francis (1897-1967), and Helen Marie (1899-1943).

Politics.

Kearns served in the City Council of Park City in 1895. He was a member of the Utah constitutional convention of 1895, where he worked for an eight-hour work day.  He was elected as a Republican to the U.S. Senate to fill the vacancy in the term commencing March 4, 1899. At the time, U.S. Senators were still selected by state legislatures. Utah's state legislators had already indicated they would not support the incumbent, Republican Frank J. Cannon, for reelection. Alfred W. McCune, one of Salt Lake City's most prominent businessmen, sought and won the backing of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in his bid for the seat. But the legislature quickly deadlocked over the election. One-hundred and twenty-one ballots were cast, and no winner emerged. On February 18, a state representative accused McCune of trying to buy his vote. A seven-member legislative voted 7-to-2 to absolve McCune of the charge, and although balloting resumed on March 8 McCune still lacked enough votes to win office (he had only 25 votes). The legislature adjourned without having chosen a senator.  Utah's U.S. Senate seat remained vacant until January 1901. The Republicans regained their majority in the state legislature in the election of 1900, and elected Thomas Kearns to fill the seat. The election was still hotly disputed. Kearns received only 8 votes on the first ballot, and balloting continued for four more days. On January 22, Kearns won the election by a unanimous Republican vote of 37-to-25 (Democrats voting for McCune).  He served from January 23, 1901, to March 4, 1905. Kearns was the first Utahn to establish a national and international political reputation, partly because of his personal and political friendship with Presidents William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft. Through Kearns' efforts as Utah's U.S. Senator, Fort Douglas became a regimental post.  Supporters of Kearns formed the American Party. Though not publicly among the party's organizers, Kearns was influential in the party. The party was endorsed by the "Salt Lake Tribune"—which Kearns and his partner David Keith purchased in October 1901—and was successful in Utah politics from 1904 to 1911.

Business and later life.

After finishing his term in 1905, Kearns resumed his work in the mining, railroad, newspaper and banking businesses. Kearns and his partner David Keith purchased "The Salt Lake Tribune" newspaper in 1901 through a surrogate. He was one of the original incorporators of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad and helped to ensure its success in completion from Salt Lake City to Las Vegas and on to Los Angeles. He resided in Salt Lake City, Utah, until his death in 1918. He died of a stroke eight days after he was hit by a reckless driver on the corner of Main and South Temple. Interment was in Mount Calvary Cemetery.  Kearns and his wife, Jennie Judge Kearns, provided all the necessary funds to build the Kearns-Saint Ann's Orphanage, now Kearns-St. Ann's Catholic elementary school. They built a grand chateauesque marble, granite and sandstone palace residence on Brigham Street, now South Temple. Mrs. Kearns donated it to the state in 1937 to be used as the official Governor's residence; it is still being used as the Utah Governor's Mansion.

Thomas Kearns (April 11, 1862 – October 18, 1918) was an American mining, banking, railroad and newspaper magnate. He was a United States Senator from Utah from 1901 to 1905.

Thomas Kearns (* 11. April 1862 bei Woodstock, Ontario; † 18. Oktober 1918 in Salt Lake City) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker kanadischer Herkunft, der als Republikaner den Bundesstaat Utah im US-Senat vertrat.


Geography.

Gujiao is located in central Shanxi. It's a county-level city, part of the prefecture-level city of Taiyuan, the capital of Shanxi province. Its geographical area are in between latitude of 37° 40'-38° 8' N, and longitude of 111° 43'-112° 21' E. It's connected to the Wanbailin district of Taiyuan to the east, Loufan county to the west, Yangqu county and Jingle county to the north and Qingxu county and Jiaocheng county to the south. Its east-west width is about 50 kilometers, and north-south length is about 53 kilometers. The total area of Gujiao is about 1551 square kilometres.

Demography.

The population of Gujiao in 1999 stood at 192,458. Its estimated population in 2017 is about 222,000.

Economy.

The economy of Gujiao is largely based on coal-related industries, with major companies in coal, coal-chemistry, electricity, metallic parts casting, construction materials, etc. Gujiao is the largest production cite of coking coal (metallurgical coal) in China.

History.

Gujiao was part of the State of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period, and part of Zhao in the Warring States period. It was the western part of Jinyang throughout the following dynasties of Han, Wei, Jin and Northern Dynasties.  During the Sui and Tang dynasties, the part of Gujiao to the south of Fen River, the majority part of nowadays Gujiao, was part of Jiaocheng County and the minor part to the north of Fen River was part of Yangqu County. In the year 596 AD in Sui dynasty, the western part of Jinyang was separated to set up the county of Jiaocheng, and the county seat was in Gujiao. In 691 AD, the county seat of Jiaocheng was moved to Dalingzhuang, part of today's Jiaocheng County, in order to get easier access of the national roads of Sui dynasty. In 713 AD, the northern part of Jiaocheng County is separated to set up Luchuan County, with the county seat at Luyukou at today's Gujiao. In 714, the Luchuan county was removed, and divided by the Fen River, Gujiao was split between Jiaocheng County and Yangqu County ever after, for more than one thousand years.  In 1958, Gujiao industrial and mining district (古交工矿区) of Taiyuan was established. In 1988, the district was replaced with a county-level city, and it has remained so ever since.

Natural resources.

Gujiao is abundant with many minerals, especially coal. The coal mine is about 754 square kilometres, with the coal reserve of about 8.04 billion tons. The iron core reserve is about 30 million tons. The bauxite reserve is about 65.9 million tons. The limestone reserve is about 5.6 million tons. The dolomite reserve is about 2.65 billion tons. The coalbed methane reserve is about 5.66 billion cubic meters.

Gujiao () is a county-level city of Shanxi Province, North China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Taiyuan. The estimated population of Gujiao in 2017 is about 222,000.

Gujiao () ist eine chinesische kreisfreie Stadt, die zum Verwaltungsgebiet der bezirksfreien Stadt Taiyuan, der Hauptstadt der Provinz Shanxi, gehört. Sie hat eine Fläche von 1.551 km2 und zählt 210.000 Einwohner (2004). Die Stadt liegt im Westen des Taiyuan-Beckens.