Evidence for a cataclysm.

The main piece of evidence for a lunar cataclysm comes from the radiometric ages of impact melt rocks that were collected during the Apollo missions. The majority of these impact melts are believed to have formed during the collision of asteroids or comets tens of kilometres across, forming impact craters hundreds of kilometres in diameter. The Apollo 15, 16, and 17 landing sites were chosen as a result of their proximity to the Imbrium, Nectaris, and Serenitatis basins, respectively.  The apparent clustering of ages of these impact melts, between about 3.8 and 4.1 Ga, led to postulation that the ages record an intense bombardment of the Moon. They called it the "lunar cataclysm" and proposed that it represented a dramatic increase in the rate of bombardment of the Moon around 3.9 Ga. If these impact melts were derived from these three basins, then not only did these three prominent impact basins form within a short interval of time, but so did many others based on stratigraphic grounds. At the time, the conclusion was considered controversial.  As more data has become available, particularly from lunar meteorites, this theory, while still controversial, has gained in popularity. The lunar meteorites are believed to randomly sample the lunar surface, and at least some of these should have originated from regions far from the Apollo landing sites. Many of the feldspathic lunar meteorites probably originated from the lunar far side, and impact melts within these have recently been dated. Consistent with the cataclysm hypothesis, none of their ages was found to be older than about 3.9 Ga. Nevertheless, the ages do not "cluster" at this date, but span between 2.5 and 3.9 Ga.  Dating of howardite, eucrite and diogenite (HED) meteorites and H chondrite meteorites originating from the asteroid belt reveal numerous ages from 3.4–4.1 Ga and an earlier peak at 4.5 Ga. The 3.4–4.1 Ga ages has been interpreted as representing an increase in impact velocities as computer simulations using hydrocode reveal that the volume of impact melt increases 100–1,000 times as the impact velocity increases from the current asteroid belt average of 5 km/s to 10 km/s. Impact velocities above 10 km/s require very high inclinations or the large eccentricities of asteroids on planet crossing orbits. Such objects are rare in the current asteroid belt but the population would be significantly increased by the sweeping of resonances due to giant planet migration.  Studies of the highland crater size distributions suggest that the same family of projectiles struck Mercury and the Moon during the Late Heavy Bombardment. If the history of decay of late heavy bombardment on Mercury also followed the history of late heavy bombardment on the Moon, the youngest large basin discovered, Caloris, is comparable in age to the youngest large lunar basins, Orientale and Imbrium, and all of the plains units are older than 3 billion years.

Criticisms of the cataclysm hypothesis.

While the cataclysm hypothesis has recently gained in popularity, particularly among dynamicists who have identified possible causes for such a phenomenon, the cataclysm hypothesis is still controversial and based on debatable assumptions. Two criticisms are that (1) the "cluster" of impact ages could be an artifact of sampling a single basin's ejecta, and (2) that the lack of impact melt rocks older than about 4.1 Ga is related to all such samples having been pulverized, or their ages being reset.  The first criticism concerns the origin of the impact melt rocks that were sampled at the Apollo landing sites. While these impact melts have been commonly attributed to having been derived from the "closest basin", it has been argued that a large portion of these might instead be derived from the Imbrium basin. The Imbrium impact basin is the youngest and largest of the multi-ring basins found on the central nearside of the Moon, and quantitative modeling shows that significant amounts of ejecta from this event should be present at all of the Apollo landing sites. According to this alternative hypothesis, the cluster of impact melt ages near 3.9 Ga simply reflects material being collected from a single impact event, Imbrium, and not several. Additional criticism also argues that the age spike at 3.9 Ga identified in 40Ar/39Ar dating could also be produced by an episodic early crust formation followed by partial 40Ar losses as the impact rate declined.  A second criticism concerns the significance of the lack of impact melt rocks older than about 4.1 Ga. One hypothesis for this observation that does not involve a cataclysm is that old melt rocks did exist, but that their radiometric ages have all been reset by the continuous effects of impact cratering over the past 4 billion years. Furthermore, it is possible that these putative samples could all have been pulverized to such small sizes that it is impossible to obtain age determinations using standard radiometric methods. Latest reinterpretation of crater statistics suggests that the flux on the Moon and on Mars may have been lower in general. Thus, the recorded crater population can be explained without any peak in the earliest bombardment of the inner Solar System.

Geological consequences on Earth.

If a cataclysmic cratering event truly occurred on the Moon, the Earth would have been affected as well. Extrapolating lunar cratering rates to Earth at this time suggests that the following number of craters would have formed:  Before the formulation of the LHB theory, geologists generally assumed that the Earth remained molten until about 3.8 Ga. This date could be found in many of the oldest-known rocks from around the world, and appeared to represent a strong "cutoff point" beyond which older rocks could not be found. These dates remained fairly constant even across various dating methods, including the system considered the most accurate and least affected by environment, uranium–lead dating of zircons. As no older rocks could be found, it was generally assumed that the Earth had remained molten until this date, which defined the boundary between the earlier Hadean and later Archean eons. Nonetheless, in 1999, the oldest known rock on Earth was dated to be 4.031 ± 0.003 billion years old, and is part of the Acasta Gneiss of the Slave Craton in northwestern Canada.  Older rocks could be found, however, in the form of asteroid fragments that fall to Earth as meteorites. Like the rocks on Earth, asteroids also show a strong cutoff point, at about 4.6 Ga, which is assumed to be the time when the first solids formed in the protoplanetary disk around the then-young Sun. The Hadean, then, was the period of time between the formation of these early rocks in space, and the eventual solidification of the Earth's crust, some 700 million years later. This time would include the accretion of the planets from the disk and the slow cooling of the Earth into a solid body as the gravitational potential energy of accretion was released.  Later calculations showed that the rate of collapse and cooling depends on the size of the rocky body. Scaling this rate to an object of Earth mass suggested very rapid cooling, requiring only 100 million years. The difference between measurement and theory presented a conundrum at the time.  The LHB offers a potential explanation for this anomaly. Under this model, the rocks dating to 3.8 Ga solidified only after much of the crust was destroyed by the LHB. Collectively, the Acasta Gneiss in the North American cratonic shield and the gneisses within the Jack Hills portion of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia are the oldest continental fragments on Earth, yet they appear to post-date the LHB. The oldest mineral yet dated on Earth, a 4.404 Ga zircon from Jack Hills, predates this event, but it is likely a fragment of crust left over from before the LHB, contained within a much younger (~3.8 Ga old) rock.  The Jack Hills zircon led to something of a revolution in our understanding of the Hadean eon. Older references generally show that Hadean Earth had a molten surface with prominent volcanos. The name "Hadean" itself refers to the "hellish" conditions assumed on Earth for the time, from the Greek Hades. Zircon dating suggested, albeit controversially, that the Hadean surface was solid, temperate, and covered by acidic oceans. This picture derives from the presence of particular isotopic ratios that suggest the action of water-based chemistry at some time before the formation of the oldest rocks (see Cool early Earth).  Of particular interest, Manfred Schidlowski argued in 1979 that the carbon isotopic ratios of some sedimentary rocks found in Greenland were a relic of organic matter. There was much debate over the precise dating of the rocks, with Schidlowski suggesting they were about 3.8 Ga old, and others suggesting a more "modest" 3.6 Ga. In either case it was a very short time for abiogenesis to have taken place, and if Schidlowski was correct, arguably too short a time. The Late Heavy Bombardment and the "re-melting" of the crust that it suggests provides a timeline under which this would be possible; life either formed immediately after the Late Heavy Bombardment, or more likely survived it, having arisen earlier during the Hadean. Recent studies suggest that the rocks Schidlowski found are indeed from the older end of the possible age range at about 3.85 Ga, suggesting the latter possibility is the most likely answer. More recent studies have found no evidence for the isotopically light carbon ratios that were the basis for the original claims.  More recently, a similar study of Jack Hills rocks shows traces of the same sort of potential organic indicators. Thorsten Geisler of the Institute for Mineralogy at the University of Münster studied traces of carbon trapped in small pieces of diamond and graphite within zircons dating to 4.25 Ga. The ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 was unusually high, normally a sign of "processing" by life.  Three-dimensional computer models developed in May 2009 by a team at the University of Colorado at Boulder postulate that much of Earth's crust, and the microbes living in it, could have survived the bombardment. Their models suggest that although the surface of the Earth would have been sterilized, hydrothermal vents below the Earth's surface could have incubated life by providing a sanctuary for heat-loving microbes.  In April 2014, scientists reported finding evidence of the largest terrestrial meteor impact event to date near the Barberton Greenstone Belt. They estimated the impact occurred about 3.26 billion years ago and that the impactor was approximately wide. The crater from this event, if it still exists, has not yet been found.

Possible causes.

Giant-planet migration.

In the Nice model the Late Heavy Bombardment is the result of a dynamical instability in the outer Solar System. The original Nice model simulations by Gomes "et al." began with the Solar System's giant planets in a tight orbital configuration surrounded by a rich trans-Neptunian belt. Objects from this belt stray into planet crossing orbits causing the orbits of the planets to migrate over several hundred million years. Jupiter and Saturn's orbits drift apart slowly until they cross a 2:1 orbital resonance causing the eccentricities of their orbits to increase. The orbits of the planets become unstable and Uranus and Neptune are scattered onto wider orbits that disrupt the outer belt, causing a bombardment of comets as they enter planet-crossing orbits. Interactions between the objects and the planets also drive a faster migration of Jupiter and Saturn's orbits. This migration causes resonances to sweep through the asteroid belt, increasing the eccentricities of many asteroids until they enter the inner Solar System and impact the terrestrial planets.  The Nice model has undergone some modification since its initial publication. The giant planets now begin in a multi-resonant configuration due an early gas-driven migration through the protoplanetary disk. Interactions with the trans-Neptunian belt allow their escape from the resonances after several hundred million years. The encounters between planets that follow include one between an ice giant and Saturn that propels the ice giant onto a Jupiter-crossing orbit followed by an encounter with Jupiter that drives the ice giant outward. This jumping-Jupiter scenario quickly increases the separation of Jupiter and Saturn, limiting the effects of resonance sweeping on the asteroids and the terrestrial planets. While this is required to preserve the low eccentricities of the terrestrial planets and avoid leaving the asteroid belt with too many high eccentricity asteroids, it also reduces the fraction of asteroids removed from the main asteroid belt, leaving a now nearly depleted inner band of asteroids as the primary source of the impactors of the LHB. The ice giant is often ejected following its encounter with Jupiter leading some to propose that the Solar System began with five giant planets. Recent works, however, have found that impacts from this inner asteroid belt would be insufficient to explain the formation of ancient impact spherule beds and the lunar basins, and that the asteroid belt was probably not the source of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

Late Uranus/Neptune formation.

According to one planetesimal simulation of the establishment of the planetary system, the outermost planets Uranus and Neptune formed very slowly, over a period of several billion years. Harold Levison and his team have also suggested that the relatively low density of material in the outer Solar System during planet formation would have greatly slowed their accretion. This "late appearance" of these planets has therefore been suggested as a different reason for the LHB. However, recent calculations of gas-flows combined with planetesimal runaway growth in the outer Solar System imply that Jovian planets formed extremely rapidly, on the order of 10 My, which does not support this explanation for the LHB.

Planet V hypothesis.

The Planet V hypothesis posits that a fifth terrestrial planet created the Late Heavy Bombardment when its meta-stable orbit entered the inner asteroid belt. The hypothetical fifth terrestrial planet, Planet V, had a mass less than half of Mars and originally orbited between Mars and the asteroid belt. Planet V's orbit became unstable due to perturbations from the other inner planets causing it to intersect the inner asteroid belt. After close encounters with Planet V, many asteroids entered Earth-crossing orbits producing the Late Heavy Bombardment. Planet V was ultimately lost, likely plunging into the Sun. In numerical simulations, an uneven distribution of asteroids, with the asteroids heavily concentrated toward the inner asteroid belt, has been shown to be necessary to produce the LHB via this mechanism. An alternate version of this hypothesis in which the lunar impactors are debris resulting from Planet V impacting Mars, forming the Borealis Basin, has been proposed to explain a low number of giant lunar basins relative to craters and a lack of evidence of cometary impactors.

Disruption of Mars-crossing asteroid.

A hypothesis proposed by Matija Ćuk posits that the last few basin-forming impacts were the result of the collisional disruption of a large Mars-crossing asteroid. This Vesta-sized asteroid was a remnant of a population which initially was much larger than the current main asteroid belt. Most of the pre-Imbrium impacts would have been due to these Mars-crossing objects, with the early bombardment extending until 4.1 billion years ago. A lull in basin-forming impacts then followed during which the lunar magnetic field decayed. Then roughly 3.9 billion years ago a catastrophic impact disrupted the Vesta-sized asteroid radically increasing the population of Mars-crossing objects. Many of these objects then evolved onto Earth-crossing orbits producing a spike in the lunar impact rate during which the last few lunar impact basins are formed. Ćuk points to the weak or absent residual magnetism of the last few basins and a change in the size-frequency distribution of craters which formed during this late bombardment as evidence supporting this hypothesis. The timing and the cause of the change in the size-frequency distribution of craters is controversial.

Other potential sources.

A number of other possible sources of the Late Heavy Bombardment have been investigated. Among these are additional Earth satellites orbiting independently or as lunar trojans, planetesimals left over from the formations of the terrestrial planets, Earth or Venus co-orbitals, and the breakup of a large main belt asteroid. Additional Earth satellites on independent orbits were shown to be quickly captured into resonances during the Moon's early tidally-driven orbital expansion and were lost or destroyed within in a few million years Lunar trojans were found to be destabilized within 100 million years by a solar resonance when the Moon reached 27 Earth radii. Planetesimals left over from the formation of the terrestrial planets were shown to be depleted too rapidly due to collisions and ejections to form the last lunar basins. The long-term stability of primordial Earth or Venus co-orbitals (trojans or objects with horseshoe orbits) in conjunction with the lack of current observations indicate that they were unlikely to have been common enough to contribute to the LHB. Producing the LHB from the collisional disruption of a main belt asteroid was found to require at minimum a 1,000–1,500 km parent body with the most favorable initial conditions. Debris produced by collisions among inner planets, now lost, has also been proposed as a source of the LHB.

Exosystem with possible Late Heavy Bombardment.

Evidence has been found for Late Heavy Bombardment-like conditions around the star Eta Corvi.

The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), or lunar cataclysm, is a hypothesized event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years (Ga) ago, at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth. During this interval, a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorized to have collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Since 2018, the existence of the Late Heavy Bombardment has been questioned.

Nach der Hypothese vom Großen Bombardement () gab es, als das Sonnensystem etwa 600 Millionen Jahre alt war, eine relativ kurze Phase mit häufigen Einschlägen teils sehr großer Asteroiden. Während die Spuren auf der Erde durch die Plattentektonik längst getilgt sind, ergab die Datierung von Mondgestein überraschend ein einheitliches Alter von 3,95 Milliarden Jahren. Das LHB könnte die Entstehung von Leben auf der Erde wesentlich verzögert haben. In jüngerer Zeit wird die LHB-Hypothese zunehmend bezweifelt.


Early life.

Born in Los Angeles to insurance company executive John Henry Russell and his wife, Amy Requa, John Lawrence Russell was the eldest of three children. He attended the University of California, Los Angeles as a student athlete.  Following the start of World War II, he joined the United States Marine Corps, though he was initially rejected because of his height (). He was commissioned as second lieutenant on November 11, 1942, and was assigned to the 6th Marine Regiment. His division was sent to Guadalcanal, where he served as an assistant intelligence officer. He contracted malaria and returned home with a medical discharge.

Acting career.

Russell signed a contract with 20th Century Fox in 1945 and made his first film appearance as a guard in "A Royal Scandal". (Russell is not the John "Johnny" Russell who appeared as one of the children in "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington", despite many sources crediting that film as his debut.) He played several supporting parts while at Fox, acting the role of a junior law partner in the Clifton Webb comedy "Sitting Pretty" (1948) as well as a navy pilot in "Slattery's Hurricane" (1949). He primarily played secondary roles, often in western films, including William A. Wellman's 1948 "Yellow Sky." Later, however, he signed with Republic Pictures, where he was cast in a starring role opposite Judy Canova in "Oklahoma Annie" (1952).  In 1955, Russell landed the lead role in a television drama series called "Soldiers of Fortune". This half-hour syndicated adventure show placed him and his sidekick (played by Chick Chandler) in a dangerous setting each week. While the show proved popular with young boys, it did not draw enough adult viewers to its prime slot and was canceled in 1957. That same year, he returned to films briefly to appear as a corrupt agricultural magnate in the Warner Brothers low-budget exploitation film "Untamed Youth". However, a year later he returned to the small screen as gunslinger Matt Reardon, in "The Empty Gun" episode of the ABC/Warners western series, "Cheyenne", starring Clint Walker. In 1958 Russell appeared as Saylor Hornbook on "Cheyenne" in the episode titled "Dead to Rights." In 1958, Russell was cast in his best-known role: the stolid, taciturn Marshal Dan Troop, the lead character in "Lawman", an ABC/Warners hit western series that ran for four years. Co-starring alongside Peter Brown, who played Deputy Johnny McKay, and Peggie Castle as Birdcage Saloon owner Lily Merrill, Russell portrayed a US frontier peace officer mentoring his younger compatriot. At the same time that "Lawman" premiered, Russell played an outlaw, along with Edd Byrnes and Rodolfo Hoyos Jr., in the 1958 season premiere episode of "Sugarfoot", another ABC/WB hit western, with Will Hutchins in the title role.  Russell also appeared in other motion pictures for Warner Bros., notably as a Sioux chieftain in "Yellowstone Kelly" (1959), as well as a rich corrupt cattle-rancher, Nathan Burdette, in the highly successful Howard Hawks western "Rio Bravo" (1959), starring John Wayne.  At the same time, Russell guest-starred in an episode of NBC's adventure series "Northwest Passage", a fictionalized account of the exploits of Major Robert Rogers in the French and Indian War. In 1969, Russell appeared in five episodes of the Robert Wagner series, "It Takes a Thief": "Guess Who's Coming To Rio?" (January 9, 1969), "Saturday Night In Venice" (September 25, 1969), "The Blue, Blue Danube" (October 30, 1969), "Payoff In The Piazza" (November 13, 1969) and "A Friend In Deed" (November 27, 1969).  Throughout the remainder of his movie career, he played secondary roles in more than 20 films, including several A.C. Lyles westerns and three films directed by his friend Clint Eastwood, most notably as Marshal Stockburn, the chief villain in Eastwood's 1985 film "Pale Rider".  Russell also appeared in the second season of the Filmation children's science-fiction series "Jason of Star Command". He played Commander Stone, a blue-skinned alien from Alpha Centauri. He replaced James Doohan, who had played the commander in the previous season, but left to start working on "" (1979).

Death.

Russell died of complications from emphysema in 1991, sixteen days after his 70th birthday, and was interred in the Los Angeles National Cemetery, a U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs cemetery in Los Angeles.  According to NNDB, he married twice. He married Renata Titus in 1943. They had three children, and divorced in 1965. He married again in 1970, but was divorced the following year.

John Lawrence Russell (January 3, 1921 – January 19, 1991) was an American motion picture film and television actor, most noted for his starring role as Marshal Dan Troop in the ABC western television series "Lawman" from 1958 to 1962 and his lead role as international adventurer Tim Kelly in the syndicated TV series "Soldiers of Fortune" from 1955 to 1957.

John Lawrence Russell (* 3. Januar 1921 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien; † 19. Januar 1991 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler in Film und Fernsehen.


Genome.

The genome is not segmented and contains a single molecule of circular double-stranded DNA. The genome has a guanine + cytosine content of 42-60%.  The genome of Spodoptera frugiperda ascovirus 1a has been sequenced. It is 156,922 bases in length and encodes 123 putative open reading frames. The G+C ratio is 49.2%. Among the encoded proteins are a caspase, a cathepsin B, several kinases, E3 ubiquitin ligases, a fatty acid elongase, a sphingomyelinase, a phosphate acyltransferase and a patatin-like phospholipase.

Virology.

The virions consist of an envelope, a core, and an internal lipid membrane associated with the inner particle. The virus capsid is enveloped and measures 130 nm in diameter, and 200-240 nm in length. Virions are bacilliform, ovoid, and allantoid.  These viruses infect immature stages of the order "Lepidoptera", in which they cause a chronic, fatal disease. They are transmissed by endoparasitic wasps and the host develops a unique cytopathology that resembles apoptosis. Cell infection induces apoptosis and in some species is associated with synthesis of a virus-encoded executioner caspase and several lipid-metabolizing enzymes. After infection the host cell DNA is degraded, the nucleus fragments and the cell then cleaves into large virion-containing vesicles. Synthesis of viral proteins results in the rescue of developing apoptotic bodies that are converted into large vesicles in which virions accumulate and continue to assemble. In infected larvae, millions of these virion-containing vesicles begin to disperse from infected tissues 48–72 hours after infection into the haemolymph, making it milky white, a characteristic of this disease. The circulation of virions and vesicles in the blood facilitates mechanical transmission by parasitic wasps.

Evolution.

Ascoviruses evolved from iridoviruses (family "Iridoviridae") that also attack lepidopteran larvae and are likely the evolutionary source of ichnoviruses (family "Polydnaviridae").

Ascoviridae is a family of double strand DNA viruses that infect primarily invertebrates, mainly noctuids and spodoptera species; it contains two genera, Ascovirus, which contains three species, and Toursvirus with a single species "Diadromus pulchellus toursvirus". The type species of "Ascovirus" is "Spodoptera frugiperda ascovirus 1a", which infects the army worm ("Spodoptera frugiperda").

Die Ascoviridae (Ascoviren) sind eine Familie von Viren mit der Typusgattung "Ascovirus", die dem Phylum der "Nucleocytoviricota" (veraltet "Nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses", NCLDV; frühere Vorschläge hatten auf „"Nucleocytoplasmaviricota"“ bzw. – im Rang einer Ordnung – „"Megavirales"“ gelautet) zugerechnet wird. Es handelt sich um behüllte Viren mit einer doppelsträngigen, zirkulären DNA als Genom, die bislang ausschließlich bei Insekten der Ordnung Schmetterlinge ("Lepidoptera") zu finden sind. Der Name der Familie leitet sich ab von, was auf die für die Ascoviren typische Abschnürung von virushaltigen Membranbläschen bei infizierten Zellen hindeutet. Die erste Virusspezies der Familie wurde 1983 entdeckt.


Characteristics.

The key symptom of RCVS is recurrent thunderclap headaches, which over 95% of patients experience. In two-thirds of cases, it is the only symptom. These headaches are typically bilateral, very severe and peak in intensity within a minute. They may last from minutes to days, and may be accompanied by nausea, photophobia, phonophobia or vomiting. Some patients experience only one headache, but on average there are four attacks over a period of one to four weeks. A milder, residual headache persists between severe attacks for half of patients.  1–17% of patients experience seizures. 8–43% of patients show neurologic problems, especially visual disturbances, but also hemiplegia, ataxia, dysarthria, aphasia, and numbness. These neurologic issues typically disappear within minutes or a few hours; more persistent symptoms may indicate a stroke. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome is present in a small minority of patients.  This condition features the unique property that the patient's cerebral arteries can spontaneously constrict and relax back and forth over a period of time without intervention and without clinical findings. Vasospasm is common post subarachnoid hemorrhage and cerebral aneurysm, but in RCVS only 25% of patients have symptoms post subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Causes.

The direct cause of the symptoms is believed to be either constriction or dilation of blood vessels in the brain. The pathogenesis is not known definitively, and the condition is likely to result from multiple different disease processes.  Up to two-thirds of RCVS cases are associated with an underlying condition or exposure, particularly vasoactive or recreational drug use, complications of pregnancy (eclampsia and pre-eclampsia), and the adjustment period following childbirth called "puerperium". Vasoactive drug use is found in about 50% of cases. Implicated drugs include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, weight-loss pills such as Hydroxycut, alpha-sympathomimetic decongestants, acute migraine medications, pseudoephedrine, epinephrine, cocaine, and cannabis, among many others. It sometimes follows blood transfusions, certain surgical procedures, swimming, bathing, high altitude experiences, sexual activity, exercise, or coughing. Symptoms can take days or a few months to manifest after a trigger.  Following a study and publication in 2007, it is also thought SSRIs, uncontrolled hypertension, endocrine abnormality, and neurosurgical trauma are indicated to potentially cause vasospasm.

Diagnosis.

The clinician should first rule out conditions with similar symptoms, such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, pituitary apoplexy, cerebral artery dissection, meningitis, and spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak. This may involve a CT scan, lumbar puncture, MRI, and other tests. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome has a similar presentation, and is found in 10–38% of RCVS patients.  RCVS is diagnosed by detecting diffuse reversible cerebral vasoconstriction. Catheter angiography is ideal, but computed tomography angiography and magnetic resonance angiography can identify about 70% of cases. Multiple angiographies may be necessary. Because other diseases (such as atherosclerosis) have similar angiographic presentations, it can only be conclusively diagnosed if vasoconstriction resolves within 12 weeks.

Prognosis.

All symptoms normally resolve within three weeks, and may only last days. Permanent deficits are seen in a minority of patients, ranging from under 10% to 20% in various studies. Less than 5% of patients experience progressive vasoconstriction, which can lead to stroke, progressive cerebral edema, or even death. Severe complications appear to be more common in postpartum mothers.

Epidemiology.

The incidence of RCVS is unknown, but it is believed to be "not uncommon", and likely under-diagnosed. One small, possibly biased study found that the condition was eventually diagnosed in 45% of outpatients with sudden headache, and 46% of outpatients with thunderclap headache.  The average age of onset is 42, but RCVS has been observed in patients aged from 19 months to 70 years. Children are rarely affected. It is more common in females, with a female-to-male ratio of 2.4:1.

Treatment.

As of 2014, no treatment strategy has yet been investigated in a randomized clinical trial. Verapamil, nimodipine, and other calcium channel blockers may help reduce the intensity and frequency of the headaches. A clinician may recommend rest and the avoidance of activities or vasoactive drugs which trigger symptoms (see § Causes). Analgesics and anticonvulsants can help manage pain and seizures, respectively.

History.

Case studies of the condition first appeared in the 1960s, but it was not then recognized as a distinct entity. In 1983, French researchers published a case series of 11 patients, terming the condition "acute benign cerebral angiopathy". Gregory Call and Marie Fleming were the first two authors of a report in which doctors from Massachusetts General Hospital, led by C. Miller Fisher, described 4 patients, alongside 12 previous case studies, with the characteristic symptoms and abnormal cerebral angiogram findings. The name "Call-Fleming syndrome" refers to these researchers.  A 2007 review by Leonard Calabrese and colleagues proposed the name "reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome", which has since gained widespread acceptance. This name merges various conditions that were previously treated as distinct entities, including Call-Fleming syndrome, postpartum angiopathy, and drug-induced angiopathy. Other names may still be used for particular forms of the condition.

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS, sometimes called Call-Fleming syndrome) is a disease characterized by a weeks-long course of thunderclap headaches, sometimes focal neurologic signs, and occasionally seizures. Symptoms are thought to arise from transient abnormalities in the blood vessels of the brain. In some cases, it may be associated with childbirth, vasoactive or illicit drug use, or complications of pregnancy. If it occurs after delivery it may be referred to as postpartum cerebral angiopathy.

Beim reversiblen zerebralen Vasokonstriktionssyndrom (RCVS, auch Call-Fleming-Syndrom) kommt es durch Konstriktion (Zusammenziehen der Muskulatur) von Hirngefäßen zu schweren Kopfschmerzen (Vernichtungskopfschmerzen) mit oder ohne weiteren neurologischen Auffälligkeiten, wie zum Beispiel Krampfanfall, Schlaganfall oder Subarachnoidalblutung. Die Symptome vergehen aber innerhalb von drei Monaten.


Club career.

Rubén was born in Santiago de Compostela, Galicia. A youth product of La Liga powerhouse Real Madrid, who signed him from local SD Compostela, he would only amass four first-team league appearances in three seasons, his debut coming on 10 May 2002 in a 0–3 away loss against Deportivo de La Coruña. On 9 November 2003 he was taken out after just 25 minutes and an own goal, in an eventual 1–4 defeat at Sevilla FC; he finished 2003–04 on loan to German club Borussia Mönchengladbach, appearing rarely due to a shoulder injury.  After a loan period with Albacete Balompié in 2004–05, with the Castile-La Mancha side finishing dead last in the top flight, Rubén returned to Real Madrid, spending the following campaign with the reserves in Segunda División. In 2006–07 he finally developed as a top-level player with Racing de Santander, helping the Cantabrians finish tenth while scoring his first goals in the competition in consecutive 2–1 wins, against RCD Mallorca and Villarreal CF; however, he returned the next year to division two, joining RC Celta de Vigo.  In late August 2009, Rubén signed with Mallorca, arriving for free in a 2+1 deal. In his first season he played mostly as a backup to José Nunes and Iván Ramis, but still managed to net twice, which resulted in four points away from home (2–1 win defeat of Real Valladolid, 1–1 draw to Real Zaragoza); he added his third on 19 April 2010 – all came through headers from corner kicks – in a 2–0 home victory over CA Osasuna, as the Balearic Islands team finished fifth and qualified for the UEFA Europa League.  After one season with Baku FC in the Azerbaijan Premier League, Rubén agreed to a two-year contract at Zaragoza on 12 August 2014, arriving from the same club as compatriot Mario. On 3 September 2016, the 34-year-old moved to the Indian Super League after joining Delhi Dynamos FC.  Rubén returned to his homeland in the 2017 January transfer window, signing with Coruxo FC from Segunda División B.

Honours.

Club.

Real Madrid

International.

Spain U16

Rubén González Rocha (born 29 January 1982), known simply as Rubén, is a Spanish former professional footballer who played as a central defender.

Rubén González Rocha, genannt Rubén (* 29. Januar 1982 in Santiago de Compostela) ist ein spanischer Fußballspieler. Rubén González begann seine Profikarriere bei Real Madrid Castilla. Dort erhoffte der gebürtige Galicier sich für die erste Mannschaft zu empfehlen, doch in den Jahren 2002 bis 2004 kam er nur auf drei Einsätze für "Los Blancos". Nachdem er die Rückrunde der Saison 2003/04 auf Leihbasis bei Borussia Mönchengladbach verbracht hatte, wurde er 2004/05 an den Zweitligisten Albacete Balompié verliehen. Nach einer weiteren Saison in der 2. Mannschaft von Real wechselte er schließlich in der Saison 2006/07 zum Erstligisten Racing Santander. Nach einer sehr starken Saison in der Startelf zog er jedoch das Angebot vom Zweitligisten Celta Vigo vor.


Flat maps.

Xplanet can be used to produce projected maps of any planet (but typically Earth), for example mollweide projections which show the whole earth at once, or mercator projections with a rectangular appearance suitable for filling the screen.  It is possible to overlay clouds or text (such as the location of recent events) onto these maps; a popular option is shading areas currently experiencing night.

Planetary images.

Xplanet can also be used to render more general views of objects in the solar system, such as a view of the Earth from the moon. In more recent versions, Xplanet depicts eclipses, and some of its images show Jupiter's moons casting an eclipse onto the planet.

Technical.

Xplanet runs on Linux, Mac OS X and other Unix operating systems and also on Microsoft Windows, and was derived from an older Unix application called "xearth".  It can either generate wallpaper, save the resulting image, or produce textual output detailing the locations of various objects.  Configuration is done by modifying a text file. The Windows version comes with a simple editor called winXPlanetBG to assist in updating the configurations and helps to download the cloud maps automatically. OSXplanet is an interactive wallpaper derivative for the Mac OS X.

XplanetFX.

XplanetFX is a GTK-frontend for Xplanet under Linux. It provides a simple to use GUI to configure Xplanet and schedule renderings. It also claims to produce higher quality renderings. XplanetFX is free software released under a permissive vanity license.

Xplanet is a renderer for planetary and solar system images, capable of producing various types of graphics depicting the solar system. It is normally used to create computer wallpapers, which may be updated with the latest cloud maps or the regions of Earth which are in sunlight. Xplanet is free software released under the GNU GPL.

Xplanet ist ein freies Rendering-Programm, um verschiedenste Ansichten der Planeten wie auch des Sonnensystems zu erzeugen. Es ist aus einer älteren Unix-Anwendung namens xearth hervorgegangen. Ursprünglich war es dazu gedacht, verschiedene Ansichten der Erde, inklusive Tag-/Nacht-Seite ergänzt mit aktuellen Wolken, als Hintergrundbild des Desktop (bei X-Systemen (Unix, Linux) des X Window-Rootfensters) darzustellen. Es ist unter der Lizenz GNU GPL lizenziert.


Finland women's national ice hockey team

Finnische Eishockeynationalmannschaft der Frauen

History.

Finland has finished third or fourth in almost every World Championships and Olympics, with one exception being a fifth place finish at the 2014 Winter Olympics and second place at the 2019 World Championship. They are ranked behind Canada (#2) and the United States (#1). Finland's main rival is Sweden, which finished second to Canada at the 2006 Winter Olympics. Finland finished fourth, losing the game for the bronze medal to the United States. Finland defeated the United States for the first time, at the 2008 World Championship in China, 1–0 in overtime. Finland defeated Canada 4–3 for the first time at the 2017 World Championship in the United States. However, they lost the semi-final game against Canada in the same tournament, so the Finns were relegated to the bronze medal game.  At the 2019 World Championship, Finland reached the championship final for the first time in tournament history after beating Canada 4–2 in the semi-final. During the gold medal game, it appeared Finland had won 2–1 in overtime, after a game-winning goal by Petra Nieminen, to win their first World Championship. However, Finland's celebrations erupted on the ice but were quickly terminated when the United States requested video review for goalie interference. The goal was reviewed for over ten minutes and eventually overturned. The call sparked such immense controversy that the IIHF was compelled to release a press statement the next day addressing the reasons for overturning the goal. Finland finished as runners-up and won a silver medal after losing to the United States 2–1 in a shootout.

Tournament record.

Women's Nations Cup.

Formerly known as the Air Canada Cup, the MLP Nations Cup and the Meco Cup.

Current roster.

Roster for the 2020 IIHF Women's World Championship in Halifax and Truro, Nova Scotia.  Head Coach: Pasi Mustonen

The Finnish women's national ice hockey team represents Finland at the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) World Women's Championships, the Olympic Games, the Four Nations Cup, and other international-level women's ice hockey competitions. The women's national team is overseen by the Finnish Ice Hockey Association. Finland's national women's program is ranked third in the world by the IIHF and has 5,858 active players as of 2019.

Die finnische Eishockeynationalmannschaft der Frauen ist eine der führenden Nationalmannschaften im Welt-Fraueneishockey und befindet sich (2017) auf Platz 3 der IIHF-Weltrangliste. Geführt wird sie durch den Finnischen Eishockeyverband. Derzeitiger Trainer ist Pasi Mustonen, davor waren Pekka Hämäläinen und Hannu Saintula Nationaltrainer.


Design.

During World War II, the "Wehrmacht" used three remotely operated demolition tanks: the light Goliath ("Sd.Kfz. 302/303a/303b"), the medium Springer ("Sd.Kfz. 304") and the heavy Borgward IV ("Sd.Kfz. 301"). The Borgward IV was the largest of the vehicles and the only one capable of releasing its explosives before detonating; the two smaller vehicles were destroyed when their explosive charges detonated.  Borgward originally developed the B IV as an ammunition carrier, but it was found unsuitable. It was also tested as a remote minesweeper, but was too vulnerable to mines and too expensive. During the Battle of France, German engineers from the 1st Panzer Division converted 10 Panzer I Ausf Bs into demolition and mine clearing vehicles, using them to place timed charges on bunkers or minefields without losing the vehicle. The "Waffenamt" found the idea valuable, and ordered the B IV's development as a remote-controlled demolition vehicle. The first vehicles were delivered in 1942.  The Borgward IV was much heavier than the Goliath, and carried a much larger payload. The Borgward IV was operated by radio and the Goliath was wire guided, due to the Borgward IV's much longer range a driver in the vehicle would bring it independently to its destination before dismounting and conducting it to its target by radio. When it reached the target, the vehicle would drop the charge and leave the danger area. This put Borgward IV operators in great danger. While the Borgward IV was armored, its armor was inadequate by 1942-43, and its larger size than the Goliath made it much easier to spot.

Variants.

Three models of the Borgward were produced, "Ausführung" (abbreviated to "Ausf.") A, Ausf. B and Ausf. C, primarily differing in armor, weight and radio equipment.  The Borgward IV Ausf. A, the first model to enter serial production, was equipped with a 49-horsepower 4-cylinder water-cooled gasoline engine. Ausf. A was the most produced model, with approximately 616 produced between May 1942 and June 1943.  In June 1943, production shifted to the similar Borgward IV Ausf. B. The Ausf. B weighed more, the radio antenna was moved and better radio equipment was used. From June to November 1943, 260 of this model were produced.  The final Borgward IV to see production, the Ausf. C, saw greater changes. The chassis was lengthened to and the weight further increased. The armor on the Ausf. C was thicker than the previous variants, new tracks were used, the driver's seat was moved to the left of the vehicle and a new 78 horsepower six-cylinder engine was used. The Ausf. C was produced from December 1943 to September 1944 when production ended, with 305 examples built.  Near the end of World War II, approximately 56 Ausf. Bs and Cs were converted to the "Panzerjäger Wanze", armed with six RPzB 54/1 anti-tank rockets. In the last days of the war, these vehicles fought some minor skirmishes against Soviet armor and saw some action at the Battle of Berlin.  At least one Ausf. B was rebuilt as an amphibious vehicle, and in 1943 one Borgward IV was equipped with a television camera for observation.  Borgward IV production was relatively small: only 1,181 were produced, as compared to the 7,564 of the much smaller Goliath. Like Germany's other remote-controlled demolition vehicles, the Borgward IV was not considered a success; it was unreliable and expensive, although unlike the Goliath and Springer it could be used multiple times.

Survivors.

Surviving examples of the Borgward IV are displayed in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna, the Kubinka Tank Museum, the American Heritage Museum in Greater Boston, USA, and the German Tank Museum in Munster.  On 31 March 2010, demolition work and excavation at Wien Südbahnhof uncovered a relatively well-preserved Borgward IV along with other relics from the Vienna Offensive. The Heeresgeschichtliches Museum salvaged and restored it for display there. Another unit was excavated near the Euskirchen train station in February 2014.  A full-scale, driveable replica was built in Poland for the shooting of Warsaw 44.

The Borgward IV, officially designated "Schwerer Ladungsträger Borgward B IV" (heavy explosive carrier Borgward B IV), was a German remote-controlled demolition vehicle used in World War II.

Der Borgward IV (vollständige Bezeichnung: Schwerer Ladungsträger Borgward B IV; militärische Bezeichnung bei der Wehrmacht: Sonderkraftfahrzeug 301 (Sd.Kfz. 301)) war ein Kettenfahrzeug der Wehrmacht, das ferngesteuert eine Sprengladung an einem Ziel absetzen konnte. Es entstanden 1193 Exemplare des Borgward IV.


Biography.

Anna Elisabet Weirauch was born in Romania on August 7, 1887. Anna's father was a Berlin writer and the founder of the Romanian State Bank. She lived in Romania until her father's death when she then moved to Germany. After moving and attending school in Berlin, Weirauch worked for the German State Theatre where she acted for Max Reinhardt's company until she found her love for writing. She then moved onto writing plays, and finally, to novels. After living in Berlin, she moved to Munich and spent the rest of her days with her partner Helena Geisenhainer, whom she had been with since her mid twenties. Weirauch died in Berlin on December 21, 1970.

The Scorpion (Der Skorpion).

One of Weirauch's most well-known works is her three-volume German novel "The Scorpion" ("Der Skorpion"), which dealt with lesbian life and love. The first volume of "The Scorpion" was published in 1919. Two continuation volumes were later published, one in 1921 and one in 1931. The book was acclaimed for being ahead of its time in the depiction of same sex people and relationships, as it did not establish a cause of lesbianism, rather it was seen as innate. It was also written in such a way as to not depict lesbianism as a negative trait, rather as just an aspect of the main character, Mette's, life. Rather than writing a standard plot, possibly involving a boarding school romance or naughty maid scenario, Weirauch writes a modern story with more mature themes. This work, as opposed to many others within the lesbian fiction genre released in the same timeframe, takes on an original perspective on the independence and freedom as well as the anxieties experienced by lesbian women in postwar Berlin society. Typically, 20th-century lesbian fiction is more serious and does not end happily; "The Scorpion" varies slightly here. The piece does not end in the death of the protagonist, as was common in similar works, but leaves Mette single. It does not preclude, however, the possibility of a future relationship. It also strays from the norm in the main romance, as the love interest of Mette in the first volume, Olga, is more masculine in her presentation.

Plot.

Melitta Rudloff, known as Mette, (some scholars know refer to her as Myra, likely due to translation) is a lesbian raised by a strict, upper-class family from Berlin. The first sign of Mette's sexuality is when she is attracted to her nanny, but that infatuation does not have any outcome. She first pursues a true lesbian relationship with a woman 10 years older than her named Olga, who Mette is attracted to for her knowledge and charm. Their relationship is initially platonic, but takes a turn for the romantic following a passionate evening. Mette's family actively tries to dissuade her from following this path, initially hiring a private detective to shadow them, and possibly convict Olga of "the seduction of minors." They also send Mette to a psychiatrist, in an attempt to steer her away from the lesbian lifestyle. Following the romantic development of their relationship, Mette's family follows through with accusing Olga of the seduction of minors. Olga denies this when confronted at her home by the police and Mette's family, and sends Mette away. Having been already accused of this crime in Austria, which can result in prosecution, Olga commits suicide over pressure from this as well as her treatment of Mette.  Mette comes of age at 21, and inherits a sizable fortune from her family. As a result, she breaks off her heterosexual engagement, which she took only to avoid discrimination, and travels to Munich. While there, she meets other homosexual people, and has a romantic affair. However, Mette is dissatisfied without mental stimulation, and leaves yet again, this time to Hamburg. After residing there for some time, Mette decides that she would like to live a rural life, for which she would have to return to Berlin. Once there, she enters a relationship with Cora von Gjellerström, a previous lover of Olga. This relationship is not long-lasting, but allows Mette to come to terms with herself. The series ends with Mette living by herself in the countryside, but at the same time does not exclude the possibility of a future relationship.

Terminology.

A main theme in the novel is the complexity of lesbian identity, and rejection of the fetishization of female sexuality. This is conveyed through the main romance between Mette and Olga, the latter of whom is more masculine in their presentation. Mette is smitten by the older and mysterious Olga, who is a "scorpion". In German, a "Skorpion" ('scorpion'), is a more masculine-presenting lesbian; scorpions communicate their complex identities through their appearances, such as through masculine haircut or fashion. Scorpions are also more sophisticated, frequently being well-educated in various fields and disciplines.

Response and Translated Publishings.

"The Scorpion" faced criticism and was censored in Germany during 1926, as it was seen as a corrupting influence on youth. Prior to this the occupational government blocked publication of the book as it was seen as too "nihilistic" and the block persisted despite attempts to republish the book via another publisher. As a result the book was not widely distributed.  Viewed as ahead of its time and at the same level as later lesbian fiction and feminist classics such as "The Well of Loneliness" and "," a translated English version that combined volumes one and two was published in 1932 by Whittaker Chambers, an American writer and spy for the Communist underground. The English translated version of the third volume, "The Outcast," was translated by American novelist and screenwriter Guy Endore and was released in 1948. This same year, "The Scorpion" rose to be a classic of more intellectual lesbian novels.

Anna Elisabet Weirauch (7 August 1887, Galaţi – 21 December 1970, West Berlin) was a German author. Weirauch was an important figure for lesbians in Germany in the early 1900s, as well as for lesbians in the 1970s-1980s following an English translation. Her most well-known work is "Der Skorpion," which was a significant piece of lesbian literature which broke from traditional peers in the genre.

Anna Elisabet Weirauch (* 7. August 1887 in Galatz, Königreich Rumänien; † 21. Dezember 1970 in West-Berlin) war eine deutsche Schauspielerin und Schriftstellerin.


History.

Formation, lineup changes, and "Allegiance" (2003–2007).

As Blood Runs Black was created in 2003 in Los Angeles from an existing band known as Broken Stems by co-vocalists Louie Ruvalcaba and Enrique "Ricky" Martin, bassist Richard Reyes, and guitarists Bijon Roybal and Kyle Hasenstab. Brian "Animal" Matute, the drummer of Broken Stems, left and was replaced by Hector "Lech" De Santiago. After some practices and writing, the band decided to name itself As Blood Runs Black and played its first show at Toberman in San Pedro, Los Angeles, performing 3 original songs and 3 cover songs. Vocalists Louie Ruvalcaba and Ricky Martin wrote lyrics for their first track, "Before the Break of Dawn", while bassist Richard Reyes wrote the lyrics to "Hester Prynne" and "In Dying Days", both of which would be featured on their debut album. Two demos were released in 2004 and 2005, both containing "Hester Prynne" and "In Dying Days".  In 2005, the band was preparing to enter the studio to record their debut album. However, Ruvalcaba, Martin, Reyes, Roybal and Hasenstaab all departed from the band, leaving De Santiago as the only member. De Santiago recruited Nick Stewart as the new bassist, Ernie Flores as the new guitarist, and, in place of the two former vocalists, the band brought in Chris Blair as the sole vocalist. As Blood Runs Black got back to the studio and recorded their debut album, "Allegiance", which was released on June 6, 2006. Shortly after the release of the album, Sal Mendez was recruited as the band's second guitarist. For the next two years, As Blood Runs Black toured in support of Allegiance, including as part of the 2007 Summer Slaughter tour.

Departure of Chris Blair Allegiance vocalists & Sal Roldan (2009).

In late 2008, Christopher Blair and Sal Roldan left the band before the Australian tour in 2008. Sean Murphy from hardcore band Endwell filled in on vocals for the rest of the tour and the remainder of the year.  In 2009, As Blood Runs Black brought in Danny Leal as a temporary vocalist, as Leal was vocalist for the up-and-coming deathcore band Upon a Burning Body. Leal would tour with As Blood Runs Black for the first half of the year before leaving to return to Upon A Burning Body. Jonny McBee, vocalist of deathcore act The Browning, was brought in as a temporary vocalist, and would tour for the remainder of the year before quitting due to conflicting personalities.  During 2009 Chris Blair recorded what's known as "Instinct" in UnderCity Recording Inc.

Lineup instability and "Instinct" (2010–2012).

At the beginning of 2010, As Blood Runs Black revealed Ken Maxwell as their permanent new vocalist. Maxwell was previously the vocalist for deathcore act Behead the Tyrant. Soon after guitarist Flores departed from the band, Greg Kirkpatrick and Dan Sugarman were recruited as the new guitarists. The band soon after revealed a new song entitled "Resist". This is the first song recorded with Maxwell. During a tour in Anaheim, Sonik Garcia, vocalist from deathcore act Fallen Figure, joined As Blood Runs Black on the stage to perform "In Dying Days" with Maxwell. It was unsure if Garcia was joining As Blood Runs Black as a co-vocalist, but it was revealed to just be a friendly guest appearance.  However, several months later, Maxwell departed due to a fight with one of the other members of the band, and As Blood Runs Black soon turned to Sonik Garcia to be the new vocalist. The song "Resist" was re-recorded with Garcia on vocals. The band then entered the studio to record their second album, "Instinct", which was released on March 15, 2011. As Blood Runs Black toured heavily for the next two years in support of the album.  Near the end of 2012, on a tour date in San Diego, former vocalist Chris Blair made a guest appearance for the original song "In Dying Days". This would be the last tour for vocalist Sonik Garcia, as he would leave the band due to a family emergency. After his departure, Garcia recommended As Blood Runs Black to recruit Christopher Bartholomew, which would eventually be the sixth vocalist in the band's existence.

"Ground Zero" and inactivity (2013–2017).

As Blood Runs Black spent most of 2013 touring, but also began recording their third album, "Ground Zero". This would be their first album without Mediaskare Records, as they recently left the label due to a conflict. They announced they would be releasing "Ground Zero" with support of crowd funding by IndieGoGo. In early 2014, a song entitled "Vision" was released, the first recording with Bartholomew on vocals. Later on the year, rumors began to surface that the band was breaking up.  On August 12, 2014, drummer Hector "Lech" De Santiago released a statement which alluded to the band breaking up, saying: Despite the announcement, the band released a single from the upcoming album, titled "Insomniac", on August 18, 2014, and announced a final North America farewell tour to support the album beginning in fall 2014. The band intends to part ways upon conclusion of the tour. The album itself was released on October 27, 2014.

New material (2018–present).

On November 28, 2018, the band released a teaser of a new song.

As Blood Runs Black is an American deathcore band from Los Angeles, California. They have released three albums. Their first album, "Allegiance", was released on June 6, 2006. Their second album, "Instinct", was released on March 15, 2011. "Instinct" reached number 1 on the Billboard Heatseakers Albums chart and number 111 on the Billboard 200 for the week of April 2, 2011. On June 30, 2013, As Blood Runs Black announced that they will be self-releasing their newest album, "Ground Zero", with the help of crowdfunding via IndieGoGo; this was successful and the album was released on October 27, 2014.

As Blood Runs Black war eine US-amerikanische Deathcore-Band aus Los Angeles, Kalifornien, die im Jahr 2003 gegründet wurde. Bis zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt hat die Band mit "Allegience" und "Instinct" zwei Alben veröffentlicht, wobei Letzteres Platz 111 der Billboard 200 erreichte. Zwischen Juni und September 2013 begann die Band damit mittels Crowdfunding über die Plattform Indiegogo Geld für ein drittes Studioalbum zu sammeln, welches den Titel "Ground Zero" tragen soll. Am 11. August 2014 wurde die Auflösung der Band bekanntgegeben.


History.

Some Snoqualmies settled onto the Tulalip Reservation after signing the Point Elliott Treaty with the Washington Territory in 1855, but many remained in their ancestral homelands around the Snoqualmie Valley and Lake Sammamish. At that time they were one of the largest tribes in the Puget Sound region numbering around 4,000. They have tried and failed on several occasions to secure a reservation on their ancestral lands along the Tolt River (a tributary of the Snoqualmie River). Instead, they purchased land for and were granted a reservation near Snoqualmie, Washington, on which the tribe opened the Snoqualmie Casino in 2008.

Law enforcement.

In 2008, the Snoqualmie Tribe Police Services was established to enforce tribal laws at the new Snoqualmie Casino near Snoqualmie, Washington. In the summer of 2008, the department hired a Chief who was supposed to hire a force of up to six officers to patrol the Casino and the Reservation property. However, in the spring of 2009 the tribe did not receive the funding they anticipated from the BIA, and disbanded the department. The tribe now contracts law enforcement out to the King County Sheriff's Office on a "calls for service" only basis. The Sheriff's Office does not actively patrol the casino—no one is assigned there—but the Sheriff's Office will respond to calls when needed and the tribe is billed per call for service.

Recognition by the United States.

The tribe lost federal recognition in 1953. In October 1999, the Bureau of Indian Affairs once again granted recognition to the Snoqualmie.

Membership and government.

According to one source, the Snoqualmie Tribe currently has approximately 597 members. Another source puts the membership at approximately 650 members.  The government consists of a tribal constitution and elected council.

The Snoqualmie Indian Tribe ("S·dukwalbixw"), is a federally recognized tribe of Snoqualmie people. They are Coast Salish Native American peoples from the Snoqualmie Valley in east King and Snohomish Counties in Washington state.

Die Snoqualmie (S·dukalbix) sind ein im US-Bundesstaat Washington lebender indianischer Stamm. Sie leben im Snoqualmie-Tal im östlichen King County und im Snohomish County. Ihr traditionelles Gebiet umfasste Monroe, Carnation, Fall City, Snoqualmie, North Bend, Mercer Island und Issaquah. Seit 1999 sind sie als Stamm (tribe) anerkannt.


Early years.

Sinclair was the son of Arthur Hould and Amy Beatrice Hould.

Early career.

Sinclair was a juvenile player turned film editor who retained his celebrity in his native New Zealand long after the end of his Hollywood acting career. Sinclair's feature credits include William Wellman's "The Light That Failed," "Tower of London", Alexander Korda's "That Hamilton Woman", Raoul Walsh's "Desperate Journey", and "Thoroughbreds Don't Cry" with Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland. He also appeared in a series of children's adventure films featuring the "Five Little Peppers". Sinclair also starred in the 1938 adaptation of Charles Dickens' "A Christmas Carol", starring Reginald Owen. He played young Scrooge.

Late career.

He served as a soldier during World War II. After that, he resumed work in 1955, and began a long, fruitful collaboration with producer-director Roger Corman, which led to a busy career in low-budget independent filmmaking. Sinclair edited Corman's directorial debut, "Swamp Women", and went on to work on at least a dozen of Corman's other films including "Day the World Ended", "The Intruder", "Thunder Alley", "The Raven" and "The Trip". He also edited a number of films by another low-rent auteur with big ideas, Bert I. Gordon: "The Amazing Colossal Man", "Invasion of the Saucer Men", "War of the Colossal Beast", "Attack of the Puppet People", and "The Spider".  He was also the President of the California Branch of the Humane Society of the United States. Sinclair passed away from respiratory failure at the Motion Picture & Television County Home on November 22, 1992. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered. He was survived by his wife, Carol, and son, Richard.

Ronald Sinclair (21 January 1924 – 22 November 1992), born Richard Arthur Hould and sometimes credited as Ra Hould or Ron Sinclair, was a child actor from New Zealand, turned film editor.

Ronald Sinclair (* 21. Januar 1924 in Dunedin, Neuseeland; † 22. November 1992 in Woodland Hills, USA) war ein neuseeländischer Kinderdarsteller und späterer Filmeditor sowie Tontechniker. Während seiner Schauspielkarriere trat er auch unter den Künstlernamen "Ra Hould" und "Ron Sinclair" auf.


Life.

The three earliest appointments Blassianus received, which comprise the steps of the "tres militiae" that "equites" followed in their military career, are recorded in several inscriptions from Trieste. First was prefect of the Cohors II Asturum equitata, then stationed in Roman Britain; followed by military tribune in Legio VII, either Claudia or Gemina; and lastly prefect of the "ala" II Gallorum stationed in Cappadocia. Anthony Birley notes that "it would fit the chronology of his career if he obtained a commission from A. Platorius Nepos, governor of Britain 122-4, who was patron of Aquileia, a city close to Blassianus' home".  The remainder of his career in the imperial service is documented in a fragmentary inscription recovered from Ostia Antica honoring him as prefect by the "collegium fabrum tignariorum". Blassianus received three civil appointments. The first was procurator of one of the gladiator training schools, the "ludus matutinus". The second was procurator "ad census accipiendos" in Cappadocia. Third was procurator of the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis and Aquitania. After these came the signal appointment as "praefectus" of the Classis Britannica, which Birley dates to c. 140.  Blassianus returned to Rome to hold the next two appointments. First was "praefectus vigilum", commander of the "vigiles" or nightwatch of Rome; he may have preceded Gaius Tettius Maximus in this post. Next was an appointment as "praefectus annonae"; which may have fallen between the tenures of Lucius Volusius Maecianus and Titus Furius Victorinus. His last appointment was as governor of Egypt, one of the most prestigious offices an "eques" could hold; his tenure in Egypt is dated as extending from 167 to the following year.  The last known event in his life is his prefecture of the "collegium" honored the inscription mentioned above. This office has been dated to have fallen between the year 164 and 169. His life after this is not yet known.

Quintus Baienus Blassianus was a Roman "eques" who held a number of military and civilian positions during the reign of the Emperors Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius, including "praefectus" of the Classis Britannica, and of Roman Egypt.

Quintus Baienus Blassianus war ein römischer Ritter aus Tergeste (dem heutigen Triest) im 2. Jahrhundert n. Chr. Blassianus ist aus mehreren inschriftlichen und papyrologischen Quellen bekannt: 1. sechs Basen von Ehrenstatuen aus der Forumsbasilika von Tergeste;; 2. ein Architrav von einem unbekannten Bau aus Aquileia;; 3. fragmentarisch erhaltene Marmortafel von einer Statuenbasis aus Ostia, gesetzt von der Vereinigung der Bauhandwerker ("fabri tignuarii"), die Baienus als ihren Patron ehrten (166/7 n. Chr.); ein ägyptischer Papyrus vom 21. Februar 168 n. Chr. sowie weitere Papyri.


Plot.

Henry Petosa and Freddy Ace are identical twins living in the fictional city of Empire with no knowledge of each other, separated at birth and given up for adoption.  Henry is a shy garage mechanic. He lives in a slum and loves Beverly Franks, his best friend's sister. He also baby-sits for his neighbor Rosie, a prostitute.  Freddy is a driver for Mr. Paris, a gangster. He is slick and self-confident, married to a materialistic woman named Sharon.  One day, a young woman named Sonya Kirk who works in a morgue accidentally comes across a letter indicating that the twins are actually the offspring of European nobility and owed a large sum of inheritance money. Sonya decides to play amateur detective and track them down.  It all leads to a confrontation between the surprised twins in a restaurant, a shootout and a final scene high above the Grand Canyon.

Principal cast.

Twin child actors Jasen and Jereme Kane play the young version of Modine's characters, as well as appearing as the twin children in the restaurant at the end of the film.

Production.

Parts of the film were shot in Crescent Junction and Moab, Utah as well as St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Critical reception.

"The New York Times" movie reviewer Stephen Holden had praise for the actors, saying Modine "does a fine job of differentiating between the two without resorting to caricature. He is especially good at showing how the repressed qualities of each twin peek through their surfaces. As Henry's sweetheart, Ms. Boyle exudes the right mixture of warm-blooded ardor and strait-laced defensiveness."

Equinox is a 1992 film written and directed by Alan Rudolph. It stars Matthew Modine in dual roles, along with Lara Flynn Boyle, Marisa Tomei and Fred Ward. The film was shot in Minnesota and Utah and is set in the fictional urban city of Empire. It was nominated for four Independent Spirit Awards.

Equinox (Alternativtitel: "Equinox – Zwischen Tag und Nacht") ist ein US-amerikanischer Thriller aus dem Jahr 1992. Regie führte Alan Rudolph, der auch das Drehbuch schrieb.


History.

In the nineteenth century the Sudwala Caves were used by Somquba, the brother of the Swazi heir apparent, as a fortress. In a power struggle for the Swazi throne, many bloody battles were fought at the cave entrance. The story begins as follows: When King Sobhuza I of Swaziland died in 1836, his heir was Mswati II, who was still a minor and too young to ascend the vacant throne. A cousin, Paramount Chief Usutfu, was installed as regent, which proved to be a flawed choice. Usutfu was too weak to prevent Mswati's brother Somquba from making an effective bid for the throne by calling an Incwala, or Festival of the First Fruit. The significance of this is that it is high treason, not to mention sacrilege, for any other person other than the Swazi king to hold an Incwala. After a skirmish with Mswati's army near the Mgwenyana River, 9 km west of Barberton, Somquba and his followers fled the area, with some 500 head of Mswati's cattle. They crossed the Crocodile River and settled near the Mankelexele Mountains, between Elandshoek and Schagen, about 10 km from what are now the Sudwala Caves. Their settlement was known as M’selezie.  Somquba sought and received protection from the newly established Boer settlement of Lydenburg. He made a formal alliance with the (1856–57) Lydenburg Republic.  There was continuous conflict between Mswati's and Somquba's followers in the form of raids and cattle theft. The Boers continued to side with Somquba, in return for labour to dig the first water canal at Lydenburg. Another benefit for the Boers was that Somquba acted as a buffer for them, against Mswati.  During the early 1860s Somquba came to know of the Caves, and subsequently, in times of conflict, he and his followers would take refuge there, with their cattle. They stock-piled food and there was plenty of water, so it made a strong refuge. Somquba maintained observation posts, and always kept the cave entrance clear, so that he could retreat there in a hurry. At that time stage the cave mouth was much smaller, and could barely accommodate the long horns of his small herd of prized Nguni cattle, as they were led in by hand, in single file. The principal guardian of the Caves’ entrance was Sudwala, Somquba's chief inDuna (councillor/captain), whose name is thus commemorated to this day, and whose spirit is legendarily said to linger in the Caves. Today nobody knows how many times Somquba took refuge inside the Caves, but many bloody battles were fought at the site. At one time, the ever-persistent regiments of Mswati built a massive bonfire at the entrance, while Somquba and his followers were inside, in an attempt to suffocate them, but the natural airflow in the Caves foiled this attack. Help was sent for and received from a Lydenburg Boer commando, led by one Abel Erasmus. The commando drove off Mswati's regiments, and freed Somquba. Traces of the fire are still visible to this day. Somquba and his followers used the caves as refuge, until Somquba was killed in an unexpected attack. Survivors stayed on under the leadership of Sudwala, and that is how the caves got their name.  During the Second Boer War, in 1900, the caves were used by the Boers to store ammunition for their 94-pounder Long Tom guns. It was thought that the caves may have been used by President Paul Kruger to store the legendary "Kruger Millions", gold bullion which reputedly disappeared somewhere between Waterval Onder and Nelspruit during Paul Kruger's flight from Pretoria to Lourenço Marques (now Maputo) in Mozambique.  In 1914 a company was formed to excavate huge amounts of bat guano; this was sold as fertilizer to farmers.

Tourism.

The Sudwalaskraal farm that is home to the caves was purchased in 1965 by Philippus Rudolf Owen, and he opened the caves as a tourist attraction. The caves are now owned by the African Heritage Foundation and are open 365 days a year including public holidays.  The major chamber in the Sudwala Caves is a large amphitheatre. It is 70 metres in diameter and 37 metres high, with a constant temperature of 17 °C. This chamber was used as a concert hall on a number of occasions, including July 1970, when the Russian singer Ivan Rebroff gave a concert. Concerts were stopped due to vandalism in the caves in 2002, but were started again in 2006. Chris Chameleon performed in the caves with the Drakensberg Boys' Choir as part of the InniBos Arts Festival in 2012. The local Stevenson-Hamilton Pipe Band also performed in the caves on 10-03-2013 as part of World Bagpipe Day celebrations,  The Sudwala Caves are a popular tourist attraction in Mpumalanga. One-hour tours of the cave are run during the day, and a monthly five-hour-long "Crystal Tour" takes visitors 2000 metres through the cave, with the tour culminating at a chamber that bears aragonite crystals and the "Sudwala Star". A documentary film called the "Cave Diaries" was made about the "Crystal Tour".

The Sudwala Caves in Mpumalanga, South Africa, are set in Precambrian dolomite rock, which was first laid down about 2800 million years ago, when Africa was still part of Gondwana. The caves themselves formed about 240 million years ago. They are the oldest caves in the world.

Die Sudwala Caves sind ein Höhlensystem in Südafrika, Provinz Mpumalanga, in den nördlichen Ausläufern der Drakensberge am Übergang des Highveld in das Lowveld.


History.

The race originates from races held at the Daytona Beach Road Course during the 1948 NASCAR Modified series season, the first sanctioned races held by the organization. Between 1950 and 1958, the race was held as part of the Modified/Sportsman Series, at the Daytona Beach Road Course. It was held the Friday or Saturday before the track's Grand National Series race.  In 1956–1959, a race in the short-lived NASCAR Convertible Division was also held.  The race moved to the new 2.5-mile Daytona International Speedway for 1959. It was scheduled the day before the Daytona 500, and ran a distance of either 200 or 250 miles. In 1966, the race became known as the Permatex 300, making it only the second race on the NASCAR schedule to be named for a corporate sponsor (the Motor Trend 500 at Riverside being the first). In 1968 the Permatex 300 was shifted from the Modifieds division to the newly organized NASCAR Late Model Sportsman Division. In 1982, the Late Model Sportsman Division was reorganized into the modern day NASCAR Xfinity Series, and the race was sponsored by Goody's for several years.

Incidents.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, the race was often ridiculed and exploited by local media for its frequent crashes and massive pileups. Several major accidents and fires over the years were blamed on the low level of experience by several of the drivers, and the older equipment used. The level of prestige held by the event, along with the relatively large purses, attracted numerous independent and one-off entries, contributing to the inexperience of drivers in the field.  By the time the race had become part of a NASCAR touring series race, NASCAR tightened driver eligibility requirements, and the number of incidents has drastically been reduced. Under current NASCAR rules, drivers must be cleared to race at Daytona and Talladega (added to the second tier series in 1992), requiring enough experience at intermediate tracks to be cleared by NASCAR to participate at Daytona. Drivers who intend to run the 300 or the Truck Series NextEra Energy 250 will enter other lower-tier shorter support races, whether it was the former Dash Series race (which ended after 2004 -- it used less powerful cars) or in recent years, the ARCA race the week prior to gain NASCAR clearance, especially if a driver has turned 18 after the preceding October Talladega Camping World Truck Series race. NASCAR will also require the driver first test in the January ARCA test at Daytona if they will turn 18 prior to the ARCA race before they are allowed to participate in the ARCA race. (Drivers must be 18 to participate in any NASCAR national series race on a track 1.366 miles or longer; 16 and 17 year old drivers may enter a Truck race on shorter tracks.)  Inclement weather also plagued many early runnings.  The 1960 race is notable for having the largest pileup in NASCAR history. On the first lap, 37 cars crashed in turn four (out of a starting field of 68).  In 1981 and 2004, the race started on Saturday, but was halted by rain, and finished Monday, the day after the Daytona 500. The 1969 race was red flagged three times for rain and also saw the fatal crash involving Don MacTavish, which his whole front of the car ripped off.  The 1979 running was shortened by rain and won by Darrell Waltrip. A brutal crash erupted off Turn Two where fire exploded from the Preacher Cox Mercury of Joe Frasson; driver Don Williams was gravely injured in the crash and would die ten years later from the incident.  The 2013 race featured two large accidents. With five laps remaining, Michael Annett and Austin Dillon collided and a multi-car crash erupted in the first turn. The race was halted as a red flag was given to clean up the debris. Annett was hospitalized overnight after sustaining bruises on his chest, but was released the following day in time for the Daytona 500, but was ruled out for the following race at Phoenix because of a sternum injury. Following the red flag the race had two laps remaining. Regan Smith and Brad Keselowski moved into the lead on the final lap, but off the fourth turn, Keselowski turned Smith into the wall head on, causing the field to pile in. Kyle Larson had the most significant impact, as his No.32 Chevrolet flew into the tri-oval catch fence, causing its nose to snag a crossover gate, which tore open. The force of the collision dug the engine in, ripping it out of the car. The car's entire front half disintegrated and one front wheel lodged onto the engine and another flew approximately ten rows into the grandstand, injuring 30 spectators (two in critical condition). A total of twelve cars were involved in the crash, but all were unharmed. The two spectators that were seriously injured by the debris from Larson's crash were treated at the nearby Halifax Medical Center and were later released.  In 2015, two cautions in the final forty laps were caused by separate collisions that included eleven cars. In the first collision, Regan Smith's car flipped over once in the tri-oval, while in the second collision, Kyle Busch collided into a concrete wall head on, suffering a fracture in his leg and foot. As a result of his injuries, Busch was forced to miss the first 11 races of the Sprint Cup Series season however he would still manage to win the season championship.  The 2018 race produced the closest finish in any of NASCAR's top three series, when Tyler Reddick edged Elliott Sadler by 0.0004 seconds, making it the closest finish in NASCAR history. Since NASCAR scoring and timing does not measure beyond thousands of a second, the margin of victory was officially listed as 0.000 seconds (with video review which declared Reddick the winner by less than three inches). Analysis after the race by NASCAR timing and scoring officials placed Reddick's margin of victory at 0.0004 seconds.

Participation by Cup Series drivers.

Since its inception, due to its prestige and prominent position on the Speedweeks calendar, the race has long attracted Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series regulars. Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series regulars have dominated the race since 1981, winning all but nine runnings. Notable Cup regulars who have won the race multiple times include Dale Earnhardt (7 wins), Tony Stewart (7), Darrell Waltrip (5), and Dale Earnhardt Jr. (3).  On four occasions, the driver of the race has gone on to win the Daytona 500, which is typically run on the following day: Bobby Allison (1988), Darrell Waltrip (1989), Dale Earnhardt Jr. (2004), Kevin Harvick (2007).

Television.

In the early-1990s, ESPN began airing the race same-day tape delay. From 1997 to 2000, the race was shown live on CBS, which also held broadcast rights to the Daytona 500 at the time. From 2001 to 2006, the live television rights to the race were held by Fox (odd years) and NBC/TNT (even years). The race was shown on ESPN or ESPN2 and was the only event of Speedweeks not shown on the Fox family of networks between 2007 and 2014. Fox Sports 1 started broadcasting the race in 2015 under the current NASCAR television contract.

The NASCAR Racing Experience 300 is the first race of the NASCAR Xfinity Series season, held at Daytona International Speedway. It is held the day before the Daytona 500, and is considered the most prestigious event of the Xfinity Series. Until 2002, it was the only event of the Xfinity Series to be annually held at Daytona International Speedway. Noah Gragson won the most recent race, in 2020.

Das DRIVEFORCOPD 300 ist traditionell das erste Saisonrennen der NASCAR Nationwide Series und wird auf dem Daytona International Speedway ausgetragen. Es findet einen Tag vor dem Daytona 500 statt und gilt als das prestigeträchtigste Rennen im gesamten Rennkalender der Nationwide Series. Bis zur Saison 2002 war es das einzige Rennen der Serie, welches auf dem Daytona International Speedway ausgetragen wurde.


Function.

Testosterone and estradiol circulate in the bloodstream, loosely bound mostly to serum albumin (~54%), and to a lesser extent bound tightly to SHBG (~44%). Only a very small fraction of about 1 to 2% is unbound, or "free," and thus biologically active and able to enter a cell and activate its receptor. SHBG inhibits the function of these hormones. Thus, bioavailability of sex hormones is influenced by the level of SHBG. The relative binding affinity of various sex steroids for SHBG is dihydrotestosterone (DHT) > testosterone > androstenediol > estradiol > estrone. DHT binds to SHBG with about 5 times the affinity of testosterone and about 20 times the affinity of estradiol. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is weakly bound to SHBG, but dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is not bound to SHBG. Androstenedione is not bound to SHBG either, and is instead bound solely to albumin. Estrone sulfate and estriol are also poorly bound by SHBG. Less than 1% of progesterone is bound to SHBG.  SHBG levels are usually about twice as high in women than in men. In women, SHBG serves to limit exposure to both androgens and estrogens. Low SHBG levels in women have been associated with hyperandrogenism and endometrial cancer due to heightened exposure to androgens and estrogens, respectively. During pregnancy, due to activation of SHBG production in the liver by high estrogen levels, SHBG levels increase by five-fold to ten-fold. The high SHBG levels during pregnancy may serve to protect the mother from exposure to fetal androgens that escape metabolism by the placenta. A case report of severe hyperandrogenism in a pregnant woman due to a rare instance of genetic SHBG deficiency illustrates this.

Biochemistry.

Biosynthesis.

SHBG is produced mostly by the liver and is released into the bloodstream. Other sites that produce SHBG include the brain, uterus, testes, and placenta. Testes-produced SHBG is called androgen-binding protein.

Gene.

The gene for SHBG is called "Shbg" located on chromosome 17 on the short arm between the bands 17p12→p13. Overlapping on the complementary DNA strand is the gene for spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase family member 2 (SAT2). Nearby are the genes for p53 and ATP1B2, and fragile X mental retardation, autosomal homolog 2 (FXR2) on the complementary strand. There are eight exons, of which exon 1 has three variations called 1L, 1T and 1N which are triggered by three promoters: P, P and P respectively. SHBG comes with the 1L, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 exons connected together. A variation includes SHBG-T which is missing exon 7 but with exon 1T promoted by promoter P on the opposite strand, which shared with that for SAT2.

Polymorphisms.

There are variations in the genetic material for this protein that have different effects. In humans common polymorphisms include the following:  Rs6259, also called Asp327Asn location 7633209 on Chromosome 17, results in there being an extra N-glycosilation site, and so an extra sugar can be attached. This results in a longer circulation half-life for the protein, and raised levels. A health effect is a lowered risk of endometrial cancer, and another is an increased risk of systemic lupus erythematosus.  Rs6258 also called Ser156Pro is at position 7631360 on the Chromosome 17.  Rs727428 position 7634474 is in several percent of humans.  (TAAAA)(n) is five base pairs that repeats a variable number of times on the opposite DNA strand.

Promoter activation.

The mechanism of activating the promoter for SHBG in the liver involves hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4A) binding to a DR1 like cis element which then stimulate production. Competing with HNF4A at a third site on the promoter is PPARG-2 which reduces copying the gene to RNA. If HNF4A level is low then COUP-TF binds to the first site and turns off production of SHBG.

Protein.

Sex hormone-binding globulin is homodimeric, meaning it has two identical peptide chains making up its structure. The amino acid sequence is the same as for androgen-binding protein but that has different oligosaccharides attached and is produced in testes.  SHBG has two laminin G-like domains which form pockets that bind hydrophobic molecules. The steroids are bound by the LG domain at the amino end of the protein. Inside the pocket of the domain is a serine residue that attracts the two different types of steroids at different points, thus changing their orientation. Androgens bind at the C3 functional groups on the A ring, and estrogens bind via a hydroxyl attached to C17 on the D ring. The two different orientations change a loop over the entrance to the pocket and the position of trp84 (in humans). Thus the whole protein signals what hormone it carries on its own surface. The steroid binding LG domain is coded by exons 2 to 5. A linker region joins the two LG domains together.  When first produced the SHBG precursor has a leading signal peptide attached with 29 amino acids. The remaining peptide has 373 amino acids. There are two sulfur bridges.  The sugars are attached at two different N-glycosylation points on asparagine (351 and 367) and one O-glycosylation (7) point on threonine.

Metals.

A calcium ion is needed to link the two elements of the dimer together. Also a zinc ion is used to orient an otherwise disorganised part of the peptide chain.

Regulation.

SHBG has both enhancing and inhibiting hormonal influences. It decreases with high levels of insulin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), androgens, prolactin and transcortin. High estrogen and thyroxine levels cause it to increase.  In an effort to explain obesity-related reductions in SHBG, recent evidence suggests sugar or monosaccharide-induced hepatic lipogenesis, hepatic lipids in general, and cytokines like TNF-alpha and Interleukin reduce SHBG, whereas insulin does not. As an example anti-psoriatic drugs that inhibit TNF-alpha cause an increase in SHBG. The common downstream mechanism for all of these, including the effect of thyroid hormones was downregulation of HNF4, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4.

Blood values.

Reference ranges for blood tests for SHBG have been developed:

Clinical significance.

High or low levels.

SHBG levels are "decreased" by androgens, administration of anabolic steroids, polycystic ovary syndrome, hypothyroidism, obesity, Cushing's syndrome, and acromegaly. Low SHBG levels increase the probability of Type 2 Diabetes. SHBG levels "increase" with estrogenic states (oral contraceptives), pregnancy, hyperthyroidism, cirrhosis, anorexia nervosa, and certain drugs. Long-term calorie restriction of more than 50 percent increases SHBG, while lowering free and total testosterone and estradiol. DHEA-S, which lacks affinity for SHBG, is not affected by calorie restriction. Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome is associated with insulin resistance and excess insulin lowers SHBG, which increases free testosterone levels.  In the womb the human fetus has a low level of SHBG allowing increased activity of sex hormones. After birth, the SHBG level rises and remains at a high level throughout childhood. At puberty the SHBG level halves in girls and goes down to a quarter in boys. The change at puberty is triggered by growth hormone, and its pulsatility differs in boys and girls. In pregnant women in the third trimester of pregnancy the SHBG level escalates to five to ten times the usual level for a woman. A hypothesis is that this protects against the effect of hormone produced by the fetus.  Obese girls are more likely to have an early menarche due to lower levels of SHBG. Anorexia or a lean physique in women leads to higher SHBG levels, which in turn can lead to amenorrhea.

Type 2 diabetes.

Reduced levels of SHBG and also certain polymorphisms of the SHBG gene are implicated in the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Such effects apparently involve direct action at the cellular level where it became apparent that cell membranes of certain tissues contain specific high-affinity SHBG receptors.

Medications.

Oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol can increase SHBG levels by 2- to 4-fold and decrease free testosterone concentrations by 40 to 80% in women. They can be used to treat symptoms of hyperandrogenism like acne and hirsutism. Some oral contraceptives, namely those containing high doses of ethinylestradiol (which have been discontinued and are no longer marketed), can increase SHBG levels by as much as 5- to 10-fold.  Some medications, such as certain anabolic steroids like mesterolone and danazol and certain progestins like levonorgestrel and norethisterone, have high affinity for SHBG and can bind to it and displace endogenous steroids from it, thereby increasing free concentrations of these endogenous steroids. It has been estimated that therapeutic levels of danazol, methyltestosterone, fluoxymesterone, levonorgestrel, and norethisterone would respectively occupy or displace from testosterone 83–97%, 48–69%, 42–64%, 16–47%, and 4–39% of SHBG binding sites, while others with low affinity for SHBG such as ethinylestradiol, cyproterone acetate, and medroxyprogesterone acetate would occupy or displace from testosterone 1% or fewer SHBG binding sites.

Endogenous steroids.

Measurement.

When checking serum estradiol or testosterone, a total level that includes free and bound fractions can be assayed, or the free portion may be measured alone. A free androgen index expresses the ratio of testosterone to SHBG and can be used to summarize the activity of free testosterone. The best test for testosterone is the bioavailable testosterone. Sex hormone-binding globulin can be measured separately from the total fraction of testosterone.

Synonyms.

SHBG has been known under a variety of different names including:

Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) or sex steroid-binding globulin (SSBG) is a glycoprotein that binds to androgens and estrogens. Other steroid hormones such as progesterone, cortisol, and other corticosteroids are bound by transcortin. SHBG is found in all vertebrates apart from birds.

Sexualhormon-bindendes Globulin (SHBG) ist ein spezifisches Transportprotein für Sexualhormone, insbesondere Testosteron und Estradiol. Diese Hormone binden im Blut der Wirbeltiere an SHBG, und in geringerem Maße an Albumin. Nur ein geringer Prozentsatz ist ungebunden. Nur dieser ungebundene Anteil kann in den Zielorganen aktiv werden, SHBG hat einen hemmenden Einfluss auf deren Wirkung und ist Libido-senkend.


Description.

The two species are physically very similar. They have a white head and body, grey back, grey wings tipped solid black and a yellow bill. Black-legged kittiwake adults are somewhat larger (roughly in length with a wingspan of ) than red-legged kittiwakes ( in length with a wingspan around ). Other differences include a shorter bill, larger eyes, a larger, rounder head and darker grey wings in the red-legged kittiwake. While most black-legged kittiwakes do, indeed, have dark-grey legs, some have pinkish-grey to reddish legs, making colouration a somewhat unreliable identifying marker.  In contrast to the dappled chicks of other gull species, kittiwake chicks are downy and white since they are under relatively little threat of predation, as the nests are on extremely steep cliffs. Unlike other gull chicks which wander around as soon as they can walk, kittiwake chicks instinctively sit still in the nest to avoid falling off. Juveniles take three years to reach maturity. When in winter plumage, both birds have a dark grey smudge behind the eye and a grey hind-neck collar. The sexes are visually indistinguishable.

Distribution and habitat.

Kittiwakes are coastal breeding birds ranging in the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and Arctic oceans. They form large, dense, noisy colonies during the summer reproductive period, often sharing habitat with murres. They are the only gull species that are exclusively cliff-nesting. A colony of kittiwakes living in Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead in the north east of England has made homes on both the Tyne Bridge and Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art. This colony is notable because it is the furthest inland colony of kittiwakes in the world.

The kittiwakes (genus Rissa) are two closely related seabird species in the gull family Laridae, the black-legged kittiwake ("Rissa tridactyla") and the red-legged kittiwake ("Rissa brevirostris"). The epithets "black-legged" and "red-legged" are used to distinguish the two species in North America, but in Europe, where "Rissa brevirostris" is not found, the black-legged kittiwake is often known simply as kittiwake, or more colloquially in some areas as tickleass or tickleace. The name is derived from its call, a shrill 'kittee-wa-aaake, kitte-wa-aaake'. The genus name "Rissa" is from the Icelandic name "Rita" for the black-legged kittiwake.

Rissa ist eine Vogelgattung innerhalb der Möwen (Larinae). Die Gattung umfasst nur zwei Arten, die Dreizehenmöwe ("Rissa tridactyla") und die Klippenmöwe ("Rissa brevirostris"). Es sind kleine Möwen mit einem kurzen, kräftigen Schnabel, sehr kurzen Beinen und weitgehend reduzierter Hinterzehe. Während die Dreizehenmöwe holarktisch verbreitet ist, kommt die Klippenmöwe nur an den Küsten des nördlichen Pazifik vor. Beide Arten brüten in Kolonien an Klippen der Meeresküsten und sind außerhalb der Brutzeit ausschließlich auf dem offenen Meer zu finden.


Government.

Waikato-Tainui's governing parliamentary body is Te Kauhanganui, a governing body of 204 tribal members – 3 members from each of the 68 marae. The marae are spread over a large area from Te Kuiti and Cambridge in the south to Auckland in the north.  The executive board is Te Arataura, which has 10 representatives elected from Te Kauhanganui and an 11th member appointed by the Māori king. The Waikato-Tainui tribal administration (or iwi authority) is the Waikato Raupatu Trustee Company Ltd, which replaced the Tainui Māori Trust Board, and is situated at Hopuhopu, Ngāruawāhia.  The Waikato iwi has been using the name "Tainui" to describe itself for some time, through the establishment of the Tainui Māori Trust Board by the Waikato-Maniapoto Maori Claims Settlement Act 1946, with many people now referring to the Waikato iwi as "Tainui" or "Waikato-Tainui".  There have traditionally been strong links between Tainui and the University of Waikato, which has strengths in Māori language and modern local history. The university also holds documents and objects related to the tribe.

Hapū and marae.

Waikato Tainui is made up of several "iwi" (tribes) and "hapū (sub-tribes).  Each tribal group has "marae" (meeting grounds), which usually includes a "wharenui" (meeting house).

Ngāti Mahuta.

The iwi of Ngāti Mahuta is associated with 19 marae:

Ngāti Te Wehi.

The iwi of Ngāti Te Wehi is associated with 9 marae:

Ngāti Kuiaarangi, Ngāti Tai and Ngāti Whāwhākia.

The hapū of Ngāti Tai, Ngāti Kuiaarangi and Ngāti Whāwhākia are associated with 8 marae:

Tainui.

The hapū of Tainui is associated with 7 marae:

Ngāti Tāhinga.

The hapū of Ngāti Tāhinga is associated with 6 marae:

Ngāti Apakura.

The hapū of Ngāti Apakura is associated with 6 marae:

Ngāti Tiipa and Ngāti Āmaru.

The hāpu of Ngāti Tiipa and Ngāti Āmaru are associated with 6 marae:

Ngāti Hauā.

The hāpu of Ngāti Hauā is associated with 5 marae:

Ngāti Korokī and Ngāti Raukawa.

The hapū of Ngāti Korokī and Ngāti Raukawa are associated with 5 marae:

Ngāti Māhanga and Ngāti Tamainupo.

The hapū of Ngāti Māhanga and Ngāti Tamainupo are associated with 4 marae:

Ngāi Tai, Ngāti Koheriki, and Ngāti Tamaoho.

The hapū of Ngāi Tai, Ngāti Koheriki, and Ngāti Tamaoho are associated with 4 marae:

Ngāti Hine, Ngāti Naho and Ngāti Pou.

The hapū of Ngāti Hine, Ngāti Naho and Ngāti Pou are associated with 4 marae:

Ngāti Te Ata and Ngāti Paretaua.

The hapū of Ngāti Te Ata and Ngāti Paretaua are associated with 4 marae:

Ngāti Taratikitiki.

Ngāti Makirangi.

The hapū of Ngāti Makirangi has no marae of its own, but is associated with 4 marae:

Ngāti Wairere.

The hapū of Ngāti Wairere is associated with 2 marae:

Waikato Tainui, Waikato or Tainui is a group of Māori people "iwi" (tribal confederation) based in Waikato Region, in the western central region of New Zealand's North Island. It is part of the larger Tainui confederation of Polynesian settlers who arrived to New Zealand on the Tainui "waka" (migration canoe). The tribe is named after the Waikato River, which plays a large part in its history and culture.

', auch'oder ist ein (Stamm, Klan) der indigenen in Neuseeland. Er gehört dem (wörtlich: Boot, Kanu; hier in der Bedeutung Stammesvereinigung) an, dem außerdem die Hauraki, und angehören.