Plot.

Set in medieval England, the plot concerns the struggle to restore to the throne the rightful heir, a baby with a distinguishing birthmark—the purple pimpernel on his posterior. Danny Kaye plays Hubert Hawkins, an ex-carnival entertainer who becomes minstrel to the Black Fox, a Robin Hood-type character who leads a band of rebels in the forest in support of the true infant-king.  The usurping King Roderick (Cecil Parker) wishes his daughter, Princess Gwendolyn (Angela Lansbury), to marry his neighbour, Sir Griswold of MacElwain (Robert Middleton), in order to enlist Griswold's aid against the band of forest rebels. Princess Gwendolyn refuses. She dreams of a more handsome, gallant lover, and her personal maid Griselda (Mildred Natwick), who is a witch, predicts that her true love will arrive at the castle to court her. The Griswold marriage plan also displeases Lord Ravenhurst (Basil Rathbone), who fears that Griswold's presence may cost him his privileged position with the king.  When the rebels' forest hideout is discovered by the king's men, the Black Fox orders Hawkins to carry the infant-king across the country to safety, accompanied by the Fox's captain, the maid Jean (Glynis Johns). On the journey, a romance blossoms between Hawkins and Jean. They encounter the king's new jester, "Giacomo, 'King of Jesters and Jester of Kings' " (John Carradine) on his way to the castle. They knock him out and Hawkins impersonates him, hoping to gain entry to the king's castle. He is assigned to steal the key to a secret passage into the castle, through which the Black Fox could then attack. However, Hawkins is unaware that the jester Giacomo is also a skilled assassin whom Lord Ravenhurst plans to employ to murder his rivals at court, Brockhurst, Finsdale, and Pertwee.  Upon Hawkins' arrival, Griselda hypnotizes him and changes his personality to that of a gallant, dashing lover, who sneaks into the Princess Gwendolyn's chambers and wins her affections; throughout the scene, Hawkins rapidly switches in and out of this new personality whenever anyone (including himself) snaps their fingers. He then visits Ravenhurst and confirms the plan to murder Ravenhurst's three rivals. Meanwhile, Maid Jean is captured on the road by the king's men, who have been sent to round up pretty young girls to decorate the upcoming tournament. The king meets her and takes a fancy to her. She obtains the key to the secret passage from his room and passes it along to Hawkins. However, while in his hypnotized state, Hawkins does not remember Jean or his original mission, and he accidentally loses the key back to the king. In order to prevent Princess Gwendolyn from being forced to marry Griswold, Griselda poisons Ravenhurst's competitors Brockhurst, Finsdale, and Pertwee, who had supported the proposed match. Ravenhurst mistakenly credits "Giacomo" for these murders. Later, however, Ravenhurst learns that Hawkins is not the real Giacomo, but an impostor. Since preventing the alliance would also benefit the band of rebels, Ravenhurst concludes that "Giacomo" is the Black Fox.  During the evening banquet, Sir Griswold arrives to solidify his alliance with the king. Gwendolyn defiantly declares her love for the jester, and the enraged king orders Hawkins' death. Griswold announces that, if "Giacomo" were a knight rather than a common clown, he would challenge him to mortal combat. With the intent of having the "Black Fox" dispose of Griswold, Ravenhurst counsels the king to get rid of the jester by making him a knight. As a knight, the jester would have to fight Sir Griswold and would surely be killed, thus forcing Gwendolyn to marry the victorious Sir Griswold. A series of comic scenes show the king's men helping Hawkins to rapidly pass through the various trials required to become a knight.  Jean uses her confidence with the king to steal back the key and send it to the forest rebels by carrier pigeon. She also tries to save Hawkins by asking the Black Fox to substitute for him in the joust. But just before the rebels can use the secret passage, it collapses, leaving only a small crawlspace. The Black Fox decides to summon Hawkins's friends, a troupe of acrobatic dwarfs from Hawkins' carnival days, and sends them through the passage for a diversionary attack.  Meanwhile, in the castle, Hawkins is hastily knighted, and Griswold immediately challenges him to a joust to the death. Griselda tries to save him by poisoning one of the drinks to be used for the toast immediately before the joust, but Griswold also learns of the poison, and after a quarrel between the two combatants over who gets which drink, the toast is cancelled. Against all odds (partly due to a lightning bolt which magnetizes his armor), Hawkins wins the joust, but spares Griswold's life. Griswold leaves humiliated.  Ravenhurst denounces Hawkins and Maid Jean as impostors. Hawkins's dwarf friends, who have entered the castle through the secret passage, rescue him and capture the castle from the king's soldiers. During the fight, Ravenhurst attacks Hawkins with a sword. Griselda hastily enchants Hawkins again, giving him expert prowess in fencing (again switching between novice and expert at a finger-snap). Hawkins and Ravenhurst fight, and a triumphant Hawkins finally hurls Ravenhurst into the sea with a catapult.  Griswold returns to defend the king, but Hawkins reveals the infant-king's birthmark to him, as well as to the usurper Roderick and his few surviving soldiers. Overcome with remorse, everyone in the castle pledges allegiance to the true infant-king, and Hawkins leads everyone in one last chorus of "Life could not better be".

Musical score.

Hollywood arranger and composer Vic Schoen was asked to provide the musical score for the film. Film composer Elmer Bernstein was hired as the assistant musical director to Schoen. "The Court Jester" was an enormous challenge for Schoen at the time because it was his first feature film. He was not officially trained on the mechanisms of how music was synchronized to film – he learned on the job. The film also required 100 minutes of music for Schoen to compose and arrange. Some pieces in the film (also known as "cues") were very long, and required many hours for Schoen to finesse. One piece that Schoen was most proud of in his career was the chase music he wrote toward the end of the movie when Danny Kaye's character engages in a sword fight. Schoen wrote a mini piano concerto for this scene.  A pleasant surprise happened during the recording session of "The Court Jester". The red "recording in progress" light was illuminated to ensure no interruptions, so Schoen started to conduct a cue but noticed that the entire orchestra had turned to look at Igor Stravinsky, who had just walked into the studio. Schoen said, "The entire room was astonished to see this short little man with a big chest walk in and listen to our session. I later talked with him after we were done recording. We went and got a cup of coffee together. After listening to my music Stravinsky told me 'You have broken all the rules'. At the time I didn't understand his comment because I had been self-taught. It took me years to figure out what he had meant."  The film's opening song, "Life Could Not Better Be" breaks the fourth wall by having Kaye make direct references to the cast and crew, at one point also joking about which of the credited songwriters actually wrote the songs. Although not an uncommon trope in musical film comedies of the era (such as Bob Hope and Bing Crosby's "Road" films (several of which were also written by Panama & Frank)), in the context of the film these references also hark back to medieval theatrical performances that often began with an actor explaining the plot and how the play came to be made.

Audio version.

In September 1955, Kaye recorded a nine-minute-long, condensed version of "The Court Jester" for 1956 release by Decca Records on the two-part single K 166. The simplified version of the storyline features excerpts from several songs from the film, but eliminates the character of Hubert; in the 45 single version, The Fox impersonates Giacomo throughout. Lord Ravenhurst is replaced by an unnamed evil king, and Jean is also dropped from the tale. Songs featured (often no more than a few lines): "Outfox the Fox", "I'll Take You Dreaming", "My Heart Knows a Lovely Song", and the finale version of "Life Could Not Better Be."

Reception.

Critical reception.

Made for a cost of $4 million in the fall of 1955, "The Court Jester" was the most expensive comedy film produced up to that time. The motion picture bombed at the box office upon its release, bringing in only $2.2 million in receipts the following winter and spring of 1956. However, since then it has become a classic and a television favorite. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 96% based on, with a weighted average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A witty spoof of medieval swashbuckler movies, "The Court Jester" showcases Danny Kaye at his nimble, tongue-twisting best." Author and film critic Leonard Maltin awarded the film four out of a possible four stars, calling it "one of the best comedies ever made".

Awards and honors.

In 1957, Danny Kaye received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Motion Picture Actor – Comedy/Musical, and in 2000, the American Film Institute placed the film on its 100 Years...100 Laughs list, where it was ranked #98. In 2004, the United States National Film Registry elected to preserve "The Court Jester" for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

The Court Jester is a 1956 musical-comedy film starring Danny Kaye, Glynis Johns, Basil Rathbone, Angela Lansbury and Cecil Parker. The movie was co-written, co-directed, and co-produced by Melvin Frank and Norman Panama. Paramount Pictures released the film in Technicolor and the VistaVision widescreen format.

Die α-Carboanhydrasen (Abkürzung α-CA) sind Enzyme, die die Hydratisierung von Kohlenstoffdioxid (CO) zu Kohlensäure (HCO) und umgekehrt katalysieren. Sie kommen in Tieren, Pflanzen, Bakterien und Grünalgen vor. Kohlenstoffdioxid lässt sich im Körper leichter in Form von Hydrogencarbonat transportieren, daher ist eine reversible Umwandlung sinnvoll. Außerdem wird über die Reaktion der pH-Wert des Blutplasmas und der Magensäure geregelt. Bei Tieren sind elf paraloge Isoformen des Enzyms bekannt, sowie vier weitere ohne Enzymaktivität.


Background.

Deep Purple MkII were formed in June 1969, after founding members Ritchie Blackmore, Jon Lord and Ian Paice decided to replace original lead singer Rod Evans with someone who could tackle a hard rock style. Lord and Blackmore had initially met with Paice, with Blackmore recalling wanting to "have a go at being really heavy" after hearing Led Zeppelin's debut album. The three went to see a gig by local band Episode Six on 4 June, and after Blackmore sat in with the band, they offered vocalist Ian Gillan the job.  While the original lineup of Deep Purple included experienced musicians, none of the five were accomplished songwriters. Thus, Deep Purple's earlier work ranged from psychedelic hard rock built around Blackmore riffs, to classical-influenced tracks developed and arranged by Lord, to cover songs that ranged from The Beatles to Joe South to Neil Diamond, among others. Gillan and Episode Six bassist Roger Glover had a good amount of songwriting experience, and consequently Glover was also recruited into the band. The group initially met and developed song ideas in secrecy, not telling Evans or founding bassist Nick Simper because the MkI lineup still had tour dates to complete, with their final show happening on 4 July. The Mark II Deep Purple lineup debuted live at The Speakeasy Club in London on 10 July 1969, even though Gillan and Glover did not play their final show with Episode Six until 26 July.  The MkII lineup began to tour extensively, and found they had good musical chemistry together. Hanwell Community Centre was booked for the band to rehearse and write new material. The basic structure of "Child in Time" was worked out at these sessions. "Flight of the Rat" evolved during rehearsals from a humorous re-arrangement of "Flight of the Bumble Bee" by Glover.  Though "In Rock" was this lineup's first studio album, two other MkII recordings preceded it: the Greenaway-Cook penned single "Hallelujah" and the ambitious "Concerto for Group and Orchestra", a Jon Lord composition that was recorded live on 24 September 1969 by the band with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.  "In Rock" was recorded at IBC Studios in London, with the first sessions in October, 1969. Recording was spaced out between gigs, which were needed to provide the band with income, and continued intermittently until April the following year. The band's US record company, Tetragrammaton declared bankruptcy in early 1970, meaning an uncertainty of the album being released in the US. Warner Bros subsequently bought out the Tetragrammaton contract.  The cover depicts the band in a rock sculpture inspired by Mount Rushmore.

Critical reception.

According to Tony Dolan in "Deep Purple: a Critical Retrospective", the first MkII album "Concerto for Group and Orchestra" had given Deep Purple much needed publicity in the UK, but the band – Ritchie Blackmore in particular – were determined that they "would not be labelled as a novelty act. He was adamant that the next studio album should be an all-out assault on the eardrums. As Blackmore said to others, 'if it’s not dramatic or exciting, it has no place on this album.' "In Rock" was everything Blackmore had envisaged and more. It would remain in the UK charts for over a year. Deep Purple had finally found its niche with its hard-driving, heavy, thunderous, powerful rock."  Rock journalist Malcolm Dome stated that ""In Rock" is one of the great albums...not just by Purple, by anybody." On new members Gillan and Glover, he added: "How Ian Gillan remains completely in control of his voice whilst going completely insane is remarkable. And Roger Glover was unfussy, but very good technically...also contributing nicely and impressively to songwriting."

Songs.

Unlike the three Mark I albums, which all included some cover songs, every song on "In Rock" is credited to the five Deep Purple band members. Ian Gillan stated in a 2005 interview that the song development was very much a result of seeing what worked in the band's live shows. "If you’re going to write about "In Rock"," he stated, "you’ve got to combine the making of the album with the live performances. We had developed the songs in our rehearsal rooms in Hanwell [West London], and one by one they started creeping into the stage show. You could see the look on everyone’s face in the band; this was something which we were all excited about." Added Jon Lord in 1971, "The first three [Mk. I] albums were pleasant, but directionless. Nobody knew quite what on earth the group was doing. Then we made a conscious effort to stop and think about writing material we all understood. And the result was "In Rock", which was really our stage act. That was the turning point."  Among the album's songs, "Child in Time", "Into the Fire" and "Speed King" were regularly played at concerts during the Mark II era. "Speed King" started as an opener, but later would be more frequently performed as an encore, along with the non-album single "Black Night".  "Child in Time" is considered one of the most prominent songs of the Mark II era, especially before the release of "Smoke on the Water" in 1972. Jon Lord developed the main riff's chord structure, which is based around the song "Bombay Calling" from American band It's a Beautiful Day. ("We made no attempt to hide it," said Gillan. In return, It's a Beautiful Day recorded the Deep Purple instrumental "Wring that Neck" almost note-for-note, and called it "Don and Dewey".) "Child in Time" would be a concert staple for every version of Deep Purple that included Gillan, up until the singer's voice could no longer support it. Ian Gillan tells on his homepage: Lord used both the Leslie speaker and a Marshall amplifier with his Hammond organ, therefore the organ sound varies throughout the album's songs. (Example: "Living Wreck" – Leslie speaker, "Hard Lovin' Man" – Marshall amplifier.)  The song "Bloodsucker" would be re-recorded 28 years later, with Steve Morse on guitar, and retitled "Bludsucker" for Deep Purple's 1998 album "Abandon".

Later editions.

In some countries, including Mexico, "Deep Purple in Rock" also included "Black Night", a single recorded during the sessions.  The U.S. release of the album cut the intro to "Speed King", which lasts just over a minute. It remains edited on the standard Warner Bros. U.S. release, but was restored to full length on the 25th Anniversary package.  In 1995 a remastered and revised 25th anniversary edition of the album was released by EMI. The remastering and remixing job was overseen by Roger Glover. The album adds "Black Night", some remixes, plus two bonus songs ("Cry Free" and "Jam Stew") that were recorded during the "In Rock" sessions but not included on the original album. In 2013, this particular edition of the album turned Gold in the UK.  On 21 July 2009 audiophile label Audio Fidelity released a remastered version of "Deep Purple in Rock" on a limited edition 24 karat gold CD. Mastering for the CD was performed by Steve Hoffman. This release follows the original 7-track format with no bonus tracks.

Awards.

In 2005, the album won the Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards (given by the British monthly magazine "Classic Rock") in the category Classic Album. The award was presented to Ian Gillan, Ian Paice, Jon Lord and Ritchie Blackmore.

Personnel.

Deep Purple  Additional personnel

References.

Citations Sources

Deep Purple in Rock is the fourth studio album by English rock band Deep Purple, released on June 5 1970. It was the first studio album recorded by the Mark II line-up of Ian Gillan, Ritchie Blackmore, Roger Glover, Jon Lord and Ian Paice.

Deep Purple in Rock, auch bekannt als "In Rock," ist das vierte Studioalbum der britischen Rockband Deep Purple, das im September 1970 veröffentlicht wurde. Es war das erste Album in der „klassischen“ Mk-II-Besetzung. Das Album zählt zu den ersten und richtungsweisenden Alben des Heavy Metal und des Hard Rock und beinhaltet mit Child in Time und Speed King zwei der bekanntesten Songs der Rockmusik.


Family.

Barbara of Brandenburg was born in the Hohenzollern residence of Ansbach as the tenth of the nineteen children of Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg; she was the fourth child born from his second marriage to Anna of Saxony, daughter of the Wettin elector Frederick II of Saxony. At the time of her birth, her father ruled the Franconian margraviate of Brandenburg-Ansbach and also inherited the neighbouring Principality of Kulmbach, upon the death of his elder brother Margrave John the Alchemist. In 1471, he succeeded his brother Frederick Irontooth as Elector of Brandenburg.

First marriage.

In Berlin on 11 October 1472, eight-year-old Barbara was married to the Silesian Piast Duke Henry XI of Głogów, around thirty years her senior. The marriage contract stipulated that, in case of the duke's death without issue, his Duchy of Głogów was to be passed to his wife, with reversion to her Hohenzollern family. Four years later, on 22 February 1476, Duke Henry XI died suddenly, possibly poisoned by Brandenburg agents. This death left Duchess Barbara of Głogów, with the Duchy of Crossen and Kożuchów, but a long succession war erupted: The Silesian duchy had been a Bohemian fief since 1331, therefore, not only did Henry XI's closest male relative, his cousin Jan II the Mad, former Duke of Żagań, claim the whole inheritance, but also King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and the Anti-King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. To further complicate the matter, half of the duchy was held by Margareta of Celje, widow of Władysław of Głogów. Immediately after the death of Duke Henry XI, Barbara's father, Elector Albrecht Achilles, had the Duchy of Głogów occupied by Brandenburg troops under the command of his son John Cicero of Brandenburg.

Second marriage.

In the name of his daughter, Elector Albrecht Achilles appointed Otto von Schenk as provincial administrator. Nine months later, Barbara of Brandenburg was married again, this time to King Vladislaus II, who wanted to seize the fief of Głogów to his domains. The wedding, performed by proxy with the Silesian duke Henry I of Münsterberg-Oels acting, took place in the Brandenburg city of Frankfurt (Oder) on 20 August 1476. His furious rival, King Matthias Corvinus, supplied Duke Jan II the Mad with an army to occupy the Głogów lands; however, he was defeated by John Cicero's troops near Crossen in October 1478.  At the end of the succession dispute, Barbara, who counted on the support of the Głogów states, after the violent fights with Duke Jan II, finally obtained the Duchy of Crossen, with the towns of Bobrowice, Sulechów, and Lubsko, pledged to the Electorate of Brandenburg against Barbara's dowry, a sum of 50,000 florins.  Due to war, Barbara couldn't travel to Bohemia for her marriage and coronation in person. Shortly after, King Vladislaus II determined that his unconsummated and only juridical marriage with the Brandenburg princess was useless and began to seek legal separation. This enraged Elector Albert Achilles, who in 1481, obtained a compensation payment; however, with the mediation of the Bishops of Bamberg and Würzburg, he still wanted to continue the marital bond, and even offered his ten-year-old daughter Dorothea of Brandenburg as a replacement to her older sister, if the King did not want Barbara any more. King Vladislaus II refused any other agreement with the House of Hohenzollern, but remained legally married to Barbara although he never saw her.  At the death of King Matthias Corvinus on 6 May 1490, the Bohemian King pursued the Hungarian crown too, and in order to obtain more support for this, he secretly married Corvinus' widow, Beatrice of Naples, on 4 October. After the union became public, this caused a scandal because King Vladislaus II was bigamous. This situation lasted for the next ten years, where he became increasingly desperate for an heir, because his Neapolitan wife was unable to bear him children.

Last years.

In the meanwhile, Barbara fought against her family for a divorce from King Vladislaus II; also, she became secretly engaged with the Franconian knight, Conrad of Heideck, in 1493. As a punishment for her independent behavior, Barbara was imprisoned at Plassenburg Castle until Conrad broke off the engagement. Five years later, on 7 April 1500, Pope Alexander VI finally dissolved both marriages of King Vladislaus II. Beatrice of Naples retired to Ischia, where she died eight years later. In 1502, the Bohemian-Hungarian King married Anne of Foix-Candale, relative of the kings of France and Navarre, with whom he finally had children.  Barbara probably remained in Plassenburg without domains or incomes. Without a doubt, she died in her birthplace, Ansbach, on 4 September 1515, aged fifty-one. She was buried in Heilsbronn.

Barbara of Brandenburg (30 May 1464 – 4 September 1515), a member of the German House of Hohenzollern, was by birth Margravine of Brandenburg, and by her two marriages, Duchess of Głogów from 1472 to 1476, and Queen of Bohemia from 1476 to 1490/1500.

Barbara von Brandenburg (* 30. Mai 1464 in Ansbach; † 4. September 1515 ebenda) war eine Markgräfin von Brandenburg und durch Heirat nacheinander Herzogin von Glogau und Königin von Böhmen.


Plot.

The film's plot revolves around the coming of the Apocalypse, heralded by the imminent liberation of the Antichrist from the depths of Hell through a certain gateway at the close of one full millennium. This gate can only be opened by a special key, which has been kept guarded by the order of the Templars (who in this version existed since the last days of Jesus). The key in turn is sought out by the servant of the Antichrist, simply known as "the Minion", a demonic spirit that transfers itself into the next available host body when his previous one is killed off. His first attempt to gain the key at the close of the year 999 is foiled; the sole surviving Templar of the company charged with hiding the key eventually takes off with a ship to the west, to what was at that time known as the "end of the world", to keep it from the Minion's grasp.  A thousand years later, near Christmas of 1999, two city engineer workers accidentally find a hidden Templar burial chamber beneath New York City. A Mohawk archeologist, Karen Goodleaf, is tasked with the examining the chamber and its contents, when the Minion attacks. Before he can claim the key, however, he is stopped by a man wearing a priest's outfit. He kills the Minion's host body with a blow from a spiked gauntlet to the neck and then takes the key for himself. Confused, Karen chases after the man, who eventually introduces himself as "Lukas". Lukas Sadorov is a Templar and a former Speznas who deserted the Soviet army after witnessing a massacre of civilians in Afghanistan. He was sent by the head of his order to recover the key. Karen insistently tags along with Lukas and eventually gains his trust. After having seen the Minion in action, she proposes they hide the key in a nuclear waste depository built on the grounds of her childhood reservation home, whose lingering radioactivity would theoretically prevent the Minion's host bodies from claiming it. She enlists the help of her grandfather, Michael Bear, a Mohawk shaman who works as a foreman at the depository plant, in order to gain access to the facility.  However, the Minion repeatedly takes over people who unwittingly come into contact with his previous host bodies, enabling him to continue his relentless pursuit. He finally takes over Karen's former archeology tutor Professor Schulman, who is assisting the NYPD in the investigation of the apparent serial murder case, and tricks the police into opening a manhunt on Lukas. After killing Karen's grandfather and donning his radiation suit as a disguise, he tricks Lukas into giving him the key and escapes with it to Jerusalem, the location of the Templar's sanctuary and the gate to Hell hidden within its crypts.  The Minion arrives at the Templars' headquarters just before Lukas and Karen do, taking the Templars by surprise and killing most of them. Bernhard, one of the Templar Knights, manages to kill the Minion's host, but in his eagerness to prove himself better than Lukas, he accidentally allows the Minion to take possession of him and thus insert the key into the gate. Lukas and Karen arrive shortly after, and while Karen tries to remove the key from the lock, Lukas battles the possessed Bernhard and kills him. Together, he and Karen, although tempted by the Antichrist himself, manage to prevent the gate's unlocking just before the final seal on the door is burst. With the Templars decimated, Lukas decides to rebuild the order, and Karen decides to join him, marking the dawn of a new generation of Templars to guard the gate and the key.

Release.

Critical reception.

Robert Pardi of "TV Guide" stated in his positive review that "Despite its bible-bending flights of fancy, this nail-biter builds interest in its supernatural fiend. The story itself isn't much, but the film's personnel have studied the scripture of how to craft rock 'em, sock 'em action sequences."

The Minion is a 1998 Canadian-American action supernatural horror film directed by Jean-Marc Piché and starring Dolph Lundgren and Françoise Robertson. It was released to television and video in various countries.

Knight of the Apocalypse ("The Minion") ist ein US-amerikanisch-kanadischer Horrorfilm aus dem Jahr 1998. Die Hauptrolle verkörperte Dolph Lundgren. Der deutsche Alternativfernsehtitel lautet "Der Ritter der Apokalypse", außerdem wird er als "Der Mönch und der Dämon" vertrieben.


Background.

The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban reform that arose as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city in the mid-19th century. Urban planning exists in various forms and it addresses many different issues. Urban planning can include urban renewal, by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from decline. Alternatively, it can concern the massive challenges associated with urban growth, particularly in the Global South.  In the late 20th century, the term sustainable development has come to represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all planning goals.Sustainable architecture involves renewable materials and energy sources and is increasing in importance as an environmentally friendly solution

Blueprint planning.

Following the rise of Empiricism during the Industrial Revolution, the Rational Planning movement (1890–1960) emphasized the improvement of the built environment based on key spatial factors. Examples of these factors include: exposure to direct sunlight, movement of vehicular traffic, standardized housing units, and proximity to green space. To identify and design for these spatial factors, rational planning relied on a small group of highly specialized technicians, including architects, urban designers, and engineers. Other, less common, but nonetheless influential groups included governmental officials, private developers, and landscape architects. Through the strategies associated with these professions, the rational planning movement developed a collection of techniques for quantitative assessment, predictive modeling, and design. Due to the high level of training required to grasp these methods, however, rational planning fails to provide an avenue for public participation. In both theory and practice, this shortcoming opened rational planning to claims of elitism and social insensitivity.  Although it can be seen as an extension of the sort of civic pragmatism seen in Oglethorpe's plan for Savannah or William Penn's plan for Philadelphia, the roots of the rational planning movement lie in Britain's Sanitary Movement (1800–1890). During this period, advocates such as Charles Booth and Ebenezer Howard argued for central organized, top-down solutions to the problems of industrializing cities. In keeping with the rising power of industry, the source of the planning authority in the Sanitary Movement included both traditional governmental offices and private development corporations. In London and its surrounding suburbs, cooperation between these two entities created a network of new communities clustered around the expanding rail system. Two of the best examples of these communities are Letchworth in Hertfordshire and Hampstead Garden Suburb in Greater London. In both communities, architects Raymond Unwin and Richard Barry Parker exemplify the elite, top-down approach associated with the rational planning movement by using the planning process to establish a uniform landscape and architectural style based on an idealized medieval village.  From Britain, the rational planning movement spread out across the world. In areas undergoing industrialization themselves, British influences combined with local movements to create unique reinterpretations of the rational planning process. In Paris, architect Le Corbusier adopted rational planning's centralized approach and added to it a dedication to quantitative assessment and a love for the automobile. Together, these two factors yielded the influential planning aesthetic known as "Towers in the park". In the United States, Frank Lloyd Wright similarly identified vehicular mobility as a principal planning metric. However, where Le Corbusier emphasized design through quantitative assessment of spatial processes, Wright identified the insights of local public technicians as the key design criteria. Wright's Broadacre City provides a vivid expression of what this landscape might look like.  Throughout both the United States and Europe, the rational planning movement declined in the latter half of the 20th century. The reason for the movement's decline was also its strength. By focusing so much on a design by technical elites, rational planning lost touch with the public it hoped to serve. Key events in this decline in the United States include the demolition of the Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis and the national backlash against urban renewal projects, particularly urban expressway projects.

Synoptic planning.

After the “fall” of blueprint planning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the synoptic model began to emerge as a dominant force in planning. Lane (2005) describes synoptic planning as having four central elements:  Public participation was first introduced into this model and it was generally integrated into the system process described above. However, the problem was that the idea of a single public interest still dominated attitudes, effectively devaluing the importance of participation because it suggests the idea that the public interest is relatively easy to find and only requires the most minimal form of participation.  Blueprint and synoptic planning both employ what is called the rational paradigm of planning. The rational model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among planning practitioners and scholars and is considered by many to be the orthodox view of planning. As its name clearly suggests, the goal of the rational model is to make planning as rational and systematic as possible. Proponents of this paradigm would generally come up with a list of steps that the planning process can be at least relatively neatly sorted out into and that planning practitioners should go through in order when setting out to plan in virtually any area. As noted above, this paradigm has clear implications for public involvement in planning decisions.

Participatory planning.

Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm that emphasizes involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural. It is often considered as part of community development. Participatory planning aims to harmonize views among all of its participants as well as prevent conflict between opposing parties. In addition, marginalized groups have an opportunity to participate in the planning process.

Incrementalism.

Beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, critiques of the rational paradigm began to emerge and formed into several different schools of planning thought. The first of these schools is Lindblom's incrementalism. Lindblom describes planning as “muddling through” and thought that practical planning required decisions to be made incrementally. This incremental approach meant choosing from small number of policy approaches that can only have a small number consequences and are firmly bounded by reality, constantly adjusting the objectives of the planning process and using multiple analyses and evaluations. Lane (2005) explains the public involvement implications of this philosophy.

Mixed scanning model.

The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes a similar, but slightly different approach. Etzioni (1968) suggested that organizations plan on two different levels: the tactical and the strategic. He posited that organizations could accomplish this by essentially scanning the environment on multiple levels and then choose different strategies and tactics to address what they found there. While Lindblom's approach only operated on the functional level Etzioni argued, the mixed scanning approach would allow planning organizations to work on both the functional and more big-picture oriented levels. Lane explains though, that this model does not do much more at improving public involvement since the planner or planning organization is still at its focus and since its goal is not necessarily to achieve consensus or reconcile differing points of view on a particular subject.  By the late 1960s and early 1970s, planners began to look for new approaches because as happened nearly a decade before, it was realized that the current models were not necessarily sufficient. As had happened before, a number of different models emerged. Lane (2005) notes that it is most useful to think of these model as emerging from a social transformation planning tradition as opposed to a social guidance one, so the emphasis is more bottom-up in nature than it is top-down.

Transactive planning.

Transactive planning was a radical break from previous models. Instead of considering public participation as a method that would be used in addition to the normal training planning process, participation was a central goal. For the first time, the public was encouraged to take on an active role in the policy-setting process, while the planner took on the role of a distributor of information and a feedback source. Transactive planning focuses on interpersonal dialogue that develops ideas, which will be turned into action. One of the central goals is mutual learning where the planner gets more information on the community and citizens to become more educated about planning issues.

Advocacy planning.

Formulated in the 1960s by lawyer and planning scholar Paul Davidoff, the advocacy planning model takes the perspective that there are large inequalities in the political system and in the bargaining process between groups that result in large numbers of people unorganized and unrepresented in the process. It concerns itself with ensuring that all people are equally represented in the planning process by advocating for the interests of the underprivileged and seeking social change. Again, public participation is a central tenet of this model. A plurality of public interests is assumed, and the role of the planner is essentially the one as a facilitator who either advocates directly for underrepresented groups directly or encourages them to become part of the process.

Radical planning.

Radical planning is a stream of urban planning which seeks to manage development in an equitable and community-based manner. The seminal text to the radical planning movement is "Foundations for a Radical Concept in Planning" (1973), by Stephen Grabow and Allen Heskin. Grabow and Heskin provided a critique of planning as elitist, centralizing and change-resistant, and proposed a new paradigm based upon systems change, decentralization, communal society, facilitation of human development and consideration of ecology. Grabow and Heskin were joined by "Head of Department of Town Planning" from the Polytechnic of the South Bank Shean McConnell, and his 1981 work "Theories for Planning".  In 1987 John Friedmann entered the fray with "Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action", promoting a radical planning model based on “decolonization”, “democratization”, “self-empowerment” and “reaching out”. Friedmann described this model as an “Agropolitan development” paradigm, emphasizing the re-localization of primary production and manufacture. In “Toward a Non-Euclidian Mode of Planning" (1993) Friedmann further promoted the urgency of decentralizing planning, advocating a planning paradigm that is normative, innovative, political, transactive and based on a social learning approach to knowledge and policy.

Bargaining model.

The bargaining model views planning as the result of giving and take on the part of a number of interests who are all involved in the process. It argues that this bargaining is the best way to conduct planning within the bounds of legal and political institutions. The most interesting part of this theory of planning is that it makes public participation the central dynamic in the decision-making process. Decisions are made first and foremost by the public, and the planner plays a more minor role.

Communicative approach.

The communicative approach to planning is perhaps the most difficult to explain. It focuses on using communication to help different interests in the process to understand each other. The idea is that each individual will approach a conversation with his or her own subjective experience in mind and that from that conversation shared goals and possibilities will emerge. Again, participation plays a central role in this model. The model seeks to include a broad range of voice to enhance the debate and negotiation that is supposed to form the core of actual plan making. In this model, participation is actually fundamental to the planning process happening. Without the involvement of concerned interests, there is no planning. Bent Flyvbjerg and Tim Richardson have developed a critique of the communicative approach and an alternative theory based on an understanding of power and how it works in planning. Looking at each of these models it becomes clear that participation is not only shaped by the public in a given area or by the attitude of the planning organization or planners that work for it. In fact, public participation is largely influenced by how planning is defined, how planning problems are defined, the kinds of knowledge that planners choose to employ and how the planning context is set. Though some might argue that is too difficult to involve the public through transactive, advocacy, bargaining and communicative models because transportation is some ways more technical than other fields, it is important to note that transportation is perhaps unique among planning fields in that its systems depend on the interaction of a number of individuals and organizations.

Process.

Prior to 1950, urban planning was seldom considered a unique profession in Canada. There were, and are, of course, differences from country to country. For example, the UK's Royal Town Planning Institute was created as a professional organization in 1914 and given a Royal Charter in 1959. Town planning focused on top-down processes by which the urban planner created the plans. The planner would know architecture, surveying, or engineering, bringing to the town planning process ideals based on these disciplines. They typically worked for national or local governments. Urban planners were seen as generalists, capable of integrating the work of other disciplines into a coherent plan for whole cities or parts of cities. A good example of this kind of planner was Lewis Keeble and his standard textbook, "Principles and Practice of Town and Country Planning", published in 1951.

Changes to the planning process.

Strategic Urban Planning over past decades have witnessed the metamorphosis of the role of the urban planner in the planning process. More citizens calling for democratic planning & development processes have played a huge role in allowing the public to make important decisions as part of the planning process. Community organizers and social workers are now very involved in planning from the grassroots level. The term advocacy planning was coined by Paul Davidoff in his influential 1965 paper, "Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning" which acknowledged the political nature of planning and urged planners to acknowledge that their actions are not value-neutral and encouraged minority and underrepresented voices to be part of planning decisions. Benveniste argued that planners had a political role to play and had to bend some truth to power if their plans were to be implemented.  Developers have also played huge roles in development, particularly by planning projects. Many recent developments were results of large and small-scale developers who purchased land, designed the district and constructed the development from scratch. The Melbourne Docklands, for example, was largely an initiative pushed by private developers to redevelop the waterfront into a high-end residential and commercial district.  Recent theories of urban planning, espoused, for example by Salingaros see the city as an adaptive system that grows according to process similar to those of plants. They say that urban planning should thus take its cues from such natural processes. Such theories also advocate participation by inhabitants in the design of the urban environment, as opposed to simply leaving all development to large-scale construction firms.  In the process of creating an urban plan or urban design, carrier-infill is one mechanism of spatial organization in which the city's figure and ground components are considered separately. The urban figure, namely buildings, is represented as total possible building volumes, which are left to be designed by architects in the following stages. The urban ground, namely in-between spaces and open areas, are designed to a higher level of detail. The carrier-infill approach is defined by an urban design performing as the carrying structure that creates the shape and scale of the spaces, including future building volumes that are then infilled by architects' designs. The contents of the carrier structure may include street pattern, landscape architecture, open space, waterways, and other infrastructure. The infill structure may contain zoning, building codes, quality guidelines, and Solar Access based upon a solar envelope. Carrier-Infill urban design is differentiated from complete urban design, such as in the monumental axis of Brasília, in which the urban design and architecture were created together.  In carrier-infill urban design or urban planning, the negative space of the city, including landscape, open space, and infrastructure is designed in detail. The positive space, typically building a site for future construction, is only represented in unresolved volumes. The volumes are representative of the total possible building envelope, which can then be infilled by individual architects.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Planning theory is the body of scientific concepts, definitions, behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning. There are nine procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today: the Rational-Comprehensive approach, the Incremental approach, the Transformative Incremental (TI) approach, the Transactive approach, the Communicative approach, the Advocacy approach, the Equity approach, the Radical approach, and the Humanist or Phenomenological approach.

Planungstheorie beschäftigt sich mit der Theorie und Praxis der räumlichen (Stadt- und Regional-) Planung und Stadtentwicklung in Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft. Als eigenständiges Lehrfach wurde die Planungstheorie zu Beginn der 70er Jahre an einigen Hochschulen mit Fakultäten für Architektur und Stadtplanung etabliert, so zum Beispiel der Lehrstuhl für Planungstheorie und Stadtentwicklung an der RWTH Aachen, Fakultät für Architektur. Die zweite Universität, an der Planungstheorie unterrichtet wurde, war die TU Kaiserslautern. Auch an der Universität Kassel und der HafenCity Universität Hamburg wird die Theorie der Planung gelehrt.


Life.

From 1968 to 1970, Sagel spent time at a German school in Rourkela, a city in the Indian state of Orissa, but by 1975, he had completed his Abitur in Lünen. Following this, he had a yearlong internship with a focus on the mining industry at the Clausthal University of Technology, before finishing his Diplom in engineering at RWTH Aachen University in 1983.  During the next two years, he was head of the "Hambach-Gruppe" in Aachen, which was a citizen initiative against the Hambach surface mine. Until 1987 he worked for the German Project Union in Essen. In 1988 Sagel lived in Nicaragua, where he worked on cultural projects, including a literacy campaign in Rama. He then traveled to several Central and South American countries, especially through the Amazon region of Brazil.  After his return to Germany, Sagel was project leader of the Social Work Project Group ("Arbeitsgemeinschaft Betriebssozialarbeit"), and from 1995 until 1998 he worked in the district office of the Bundestag member Winfried Nachtwei, who was a member of the Greens.

Politics.

Rüdiger Sagel has been active in politics since the 1970s. Since 1976 and the Kalkar-demonstrations against a nuclear reactor, he has been involved in anti-nuclear activism. He was also active in the summer of 1980 in the Free Republic of Wendland protest camp, until the government shut it down. Also during this time, he founded the Hambach-Gruppe with friends and colleagues, which was an initiative against the social and ecological consequences of surface mining. He was also active in the squatter scene around Templergraben and the Johannes-Höver House. He was a founding member of the Ecology-Center Aachen Group in 1982. Since the founding of the Green Party in 1980, he supported the political work of the party. In particular, he helped during the 1980 federal campaign of the former NRW-lead candidate Joseph Beuys. After the Greens entered the Bundestag in 1983, he created a study concerning surface mining and a new energy policy in Deutschland. He returned to Latin American from 1987–1989, and after he returned to Germany in 1989, he ran for office as a member of the Green party. In the following two years, he was a board member for the GAL/Greens in the city of Münster, and from 1994, in the district of Münster. From 1993 Sagel was a member of the state party council for the Alliance ‘90/the Greens party. Between 1994 and 1999 he was a member of the city council for Münster. Since 2003 he was also a member of the state council for the Greens, though in 2006, his candidacy for the party council was not successful. From 1998 Sagel was a member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, where he was a spokesperson for the Greens regarding budgetary and financial issues.  On 15 June 2007 Sagel left the parliamentary group of the Greens, and the following day, he left the party entirely. On 16 June 2007 he was a guest of the founding congress of the Left Party in Berlin and was welcomed by party leader Oskar Lafontaine and with applause from delegates. On 23 October 2007, he joined the Left Party. During the federal election of 2009, Sagel ran in the electoral district of Hochsauerland and received 6.2% of the vote. In the state parliamentary election in 2010, he ran as a direct candidate in Münster. Because of his position on the state party list, and the Left’s relative success in garnering more than 5% of the vote (which is a requirement for parties to enter the Landtag, or state parliament), he became a member of the state parliament in 2010. On May 11, 2010, during the inaugural meeting of the Left state parliamentary group, Sagel and Carolin Butterwegge were elected as Deputy Chairpersons. During the state election of 2012, he again ran as a direct candidate in Münster, but was not listed on the party list for the state. The party, however, did not surpass the minimum requirement of 5% to enter the state parliament, and Sagel himself garnered only 2.3 percent of the votes in his district, so he and the rest of his party left the state parliament in May 2012.  In 2009, Sagel presented a historiographical study on the suppressed Nazi-past of certain CDU and FDP members of state parliament who served after 1945. Sagel is also a member of the Vereinte Dienstleistungsgewerkschaft (a German trade organization), as well as the Charitable Society in Support of Asylum Seekers (GGUA).

Rüdiger Sagel (born 9 August 1955 in Lünen) is a German politician currently with the Left Party and previously with the Alliance '90/The Greens. From 1998 until 2012 he was a member of the state parliament ("Landtag") for North Rhine-Westphalia. On 30 June 2012 he and Gunhild Böth were elected in Münster as state spokespersons for the Left in North Rhine-Westphalia.

Rüdiger Sagel (* 9. August 1955 in Lünen) ist ein deutscher Politiker. Von 1998 bis 2012 war er, bis Juni 2007 als Mitglied von Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, Abgeordneter im Landtag Nordrhein-Westfalen. 2007 zu Die Linke gewechselt, war er nach dem verfehlten Einzug der Partei in den Landtag von Juni 2012 bis Juni 2014 neben Gunhild Böth Landessprecher der Linken in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Bei den Kommunalwahlen am 25. Mai 2014 ist Sagel als Spitzenkandidat der Linkspartei für den Rat der kreisfreien Stadt Münster angetreten. Er wurde zum Vorsitzenden der vierköpfigen Ratsfraktion gewählt.


History.

Establishment of the college.

Montana became a state on November 8, 1889. Several cities competed intensely to be the state capital, the city of Bozeman among them. In time, the city of Helena was named the state capital. As a consolation, the state legislature agreed to put the state's land-grant college in Bozeman. Gallatin County donated half of its 160-acre poor farm for the campus, and money for an additional 40 acres, which had been planned to hold a state capital, was raised by the community, including a $1,500 donation from rancher and businessman Nelson Story, Sr. This land, as well as additional property and monetary contributions, was now turned over to the state for the new college.  MSU was founded in 1893 as the Agricultural College of the State of Montana. It opened on February 16 with five male and three female students. The first classes were held in rooms in the county high school, and later that year in the shuttered Bozeman Academy (a private preparatory school). The first students were from Bozeman Academy, and were forced to transfer to the college. Only two faculty existed on opening day: Luther Foster,

Expansion and growth under Hamilton and Atkinson.

Reid resigned for health reasons in 1905, and was succeeded by Dr. James M. Hamilton, an economist. Determined to make the college into a school of technology, he rapidly expanded the curriculum areas such as biology, chemistry, engineering, geology, and physics. Hamilton also devised the university motto, "Education for Efficiency", which the college continued to use until the 1990s. Further marking this change in direction, the school was officially renamed the Montana College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts in 1913 (although that name was in widespread use as early as 1894). The college's

Depression and World War II.

The college suffered greatly during the Great Depression. The price of agricultural products (Montana's economic mainstay) soared during World War I, as European and Russian farms were devastated by military campaigns and American and European armies demanded food. For a few years after the war, these prices stayed high. But as European agriculture got back on its feet, an agricultural depression swamped the United States beginning about 1923. State tax revenues plunged, and fewer buildings were constructed on campus after 1923. The United States entered the Great Depression in 1929. President Franklin D. Roosevelt established the Public Works Administration (PWA) in 1933 to provide federal funding for public works construction as a means of economic stimulus. But President Atkinson was strongly opposed to Roosevelt's New Deal, and refused to accept PWA funds to expand the college. With the state unable to assist, Montana State College

The Renne years.

In 1943, the state board of higher education appointed MSC economist Roland "Rollie" Renne to be the new acting president of the college. Renne was a protege of nationally known liberal economists Richard T. Ely and John R. Commons and a strong proponent of the New Deal. He'd taught at MSC since 1930, although he'd taken a leave of absence in 1942 to become the director of Montana's Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply (a federal wartime agency). Renne was named the permanent president of the college on July 1, 1944.  Renne was president of the college for 21 years, the third-longest of any individual (as of 2013). With the passage of the

University status and campus conservatism.

In February 1964, Dr. Leon H. Johnson was appointed president of MSC. A research chemist who joined the college in 1943, he had most recently been the Executive Director of school's Endowed and Research Foundation (at the time, MSC's largest research unit) and Dean of the Graduate Division. Deeply committed to the college's research function, he pushed for MSC to be named a university — a change Renne had since the early 1950s, and which the Montana state legislature approved on July 1, 1965. At that time, the school received its new name, Montana State University (MSU). Bachelor's degree programs in economics, English, history, music, political science, and other disciplines were quickly

Tough fiscal times of the 1970s.

Dr. Carl W. McIntosh was named MSU's eighth president in June 1970. Previously the president of 28,000-student California State University, Long Beach, McIntosh brought a consultative and deliberate style of decision-making to the university. He faced a poor fiscal climate: The state was entering a decade-long depression brought about by a steep drop in commodity prices, the state's higher education system had grown too large and unwieldy, and Governor Thomas L. Judge had established a blue-ribbon committee to close several of the state's colleges. In 1974, women faculty at MSU sued, alleging gender discrimination. They won their suit in 1976, leading to a $400,000 damages award, a back-pay award, and extensive promotions (which also increased salaries). To accommodate these fiscal realities, McIntosh ordered several doctoral and master's degree programs terminated, and all advanced degree programs in the social sciences and liberal arts canceled.  But McIntosh also scored a number of successes. In 1972, he persuaded the legislature to allow MSU to participate in the Washington, Wyoming, Alaska, Montana, and Idaho (WWAMI) medical education program, which allowed 20 (now 30) Montana citizens per year to begin medical school at MSU before completing studies at the University of

Resurgence and retrenchment under Tietz.

Dr. William Tietz, MSU's ninth president, arrived in August 1977 just as economic conditions in the state were improving. With three of the four vice presidencies at the university open, Tietz imposed his stamp on the administration almost immediately. This included a strong emphasis on research, faculty development, better teaching, and diversity (particularly for Native Americans, the handicapped, and women). His aggressiveness, energy, and immediate rebudgeting of funds into faculty sabbaticals helped win over professors, who voted against unionization in 1978. Tietz's major goal, increasing research funding, was greatly helped by a 1981 decision of the legislature to refund indirect cost payments back to the university. This led to an immediate 15 percent recovery of in federal funds, and in time private foundation funding rose significantly as well.  Only two buildings were constructed during Tietz's presidency — the Visual Communications Building in 1983 and the Plant Growth Center in 1987. Most of his focus as president was on raising salaries. A third building, the modern home of the Museum

Centennial and expansion.

Michael P. Malone was named MSU's Acting President on January 1, 1991, and permanently appointed to the position in March 1991, Malone was named MSU's 10th president. He had served as MSU's Dean of Graduate Studies from 1979 to 1988, and then three one-year temporary appointments as Vice President for Academic Affairs while a fruitless nation search occurred for a permanent replacement. As Dean of Graduate Studies, he'd been critical of what he perceived as the state's unwillingnes to invest in high technology education.  Malone's governance style was democratic, friendly, and personal. His friendly style

Twenty-first century stability.

Malone's successor, Geoffrey Gamble, was named the 11th president of Montana State University on October 5, 2000. His governance style was open and consultative. In addition to making the president's executive council more representative and reaching out to the Faculty Senate, he established a new 25-member University Planning, Budget and Analysis Committee to establish the university budget. Legislatively, Gamble promoted MSU's accomplishments, praised legislators for their financial support (even when it was not forthcoming), and spoke of state funding for the university in terms of investment that

Record growth.

Waded Cruzado succeeded Gamble as president, taking office on Jan. 4, 2010. Since her arrival, the university's headcount enrollment has grown from 13,559 in the fall of 2010 to a record 16,902 in the fall of 2018 – a 24.66 percent increase – making MSU the largest university in the state of Montana.  In addition to enrollment increases, the campus has seen the completion of numerous major construction and renovation projects since Cruzado's arrival. In the fall of 2010, the university reopened one of its most heavily used classroom buildings on campus, Gaines Hall, after a $32 million renovation

Presidents.

(Acting president) Luther Foster - February 16, 1893, to April 17, 1893 1. Augustus M. Ryon - April 17, 1893, to 1895 2. James R. Reid - 1895 to 1904 3. James M. Hamilton - 1904 to 1919 4. Alfred Atkinson - 1920 to 1937 5. A. L. Strand - 1937 to 1942 (Acting president) William Cobleigh - 1942 to 1943 6. Roland Renne

Academics.

MSU offers baccalaureate degrees in 60 fields, master's degrees in 68 fields, and doctoral degrees in 35 fields through its nine colleges.  MSU is the national leader for Phi Kappa Phi Graduate Fellowships and is among the top ten institutions in the country for recipients of Goldwater Scholarships, having produced 74 of the scholars as of May 2019. The university counts among its graduates several recipients of the Rhodes and Truman scholarships, and MSU has consistently produced winners of "USA Today" Academic All-America honors. Montana State University offers the world's only Master of Fine Arts degree in Science and Natural History Filmmaking, and MSU's Museum of the Rockies is home to the largest T. Rex skull ever found—bigger, even, than "Sue" at the Chicago Field Museum.  Montana State University refers to itself as "the University of the Yellowstone," for its extensive research and scholarly activities concerning the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Montana State University has received more than five times the number of National Science Foundation grants for Yellowstone studies than its nearest competition, Stanford and UCLA, according to David Roberts, head of MSU's ecology department.  Academic programs, procedures and policies are overseen by the Office of the Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs and Provost. This office handles all teaching-related issues and is responsible for faculty hiring, establishing academic programs and curricula, course scheduling and accreditation. The position has been held since April 2017 by Robert Mokwa. He succeeded Martha Potvin, who in 2010 became the university's first female provost.

Research.

Montana State University maintains extensive research programs, providing opportunities for undergraduates, graduates, and advanced graduate students. The university is in the top 3 percent of colleges and universities in the United States in research expenditures and regularly reports annual research expenditures in excess of $100 million, including a record $138.8 million in the fiscal year that ended in June 2019. In that same year the university said its faculty wrote 1,100 grant proposals, which led to grant awards worth about $485 million which will be spent over several years.  MSU's Office of Research and Economic Development coordinates programs that encourage faculty to pursue externally funded research. Its Office of Research Compliance oversees programs that promotes ethical and responsible research and ensures compliance with local, state, and federal regulations for research. The Office of Sponsored programs manages financial, reporting, compliance, auditing and related tasks for externally funded research.  The university maintains a technology transfer office to commercialize MSU faculty inventions, spur businesses based on those technologies and network with businesses looking to license MSU technologies. The office manages more than 500 technologies and 375 patents, trademarks and copyrights.

Research and Education Centers, Institutes, and Programs.

Montana's State's Office of Research and Economic Development maintains a listing of the university's research and educational centers, institutes and programs.

Gallatin College.

Gallatin College is a two-year college for degree-seeking students and is housed on MSU campus to provide access to MSU campus student services including: dormitories, library facilities, and health services. As of May 2018, Gallatin College offers six Associate

Campus.

MSU houses approximately 4,200 students in its residence halls, approximately

Athletics.

The MSU athletic teams are nicknamed the Bobcats, and they participate in NCAA Division I (I-FCS for football) in the Big Sky Conference, of which Montana State University is a charter member. They field 13 varsity sports. Originally playing as the "Aggies," men's teams compete in football, basketball, track, cross-country, skiing, rodeo and tennis. Women's teams include volleyball, basketball, track, cross-country, tennis, golf, rodeo and skiing.  Montana State University has won several national championships in men's rodeo, three national championships in football and one national championship in men's basketball. Non-varsity (club) sports include rugby, men's hockey, men's lacrosse, baseball, fencing and ultimate frisbee. Montana State University has an ongoing rivalry with the University of Montana, most notably the cross-state football matchups, known as the "Brawl of the Wild."

Basketball.

The school's basketball teams achieved fame throughout the 1920s by playing "racehorse basketball" and becoming one of the first schools in the nation to employ what is known as the fast break. Montana State College coach Ott Romney, who graduated with a Masters from MSC prior to World War I, pioneered the style of play, and by 1926 had assembled a team suited to

Football.

In 1956 the Bobcats football team took a share of the NAIA championship in the Aluminum Bowl in Little Rock, Arkansas playing to a 0–0 tie with the Pumas of St. Joseph's College from Rensselaer, Indiana. In 1976 the Bobcats of Montana State won a national football title in NCAA Division II at

Rodeo.

For almost 30 years MSU hosted the College National Finals Rodeo. Bobcat Rodeo teams have won 8 national team titles,

Skiing.

Montana State Bobcats Alpine and Nordic Ski team compete in the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Skiing Association and the NCAA

Student organizations.

Student government.

The Associated Students of Montana State University is the student government of MSU. It consists of an executive branch, senate, and judicial council. The executive branch is led by the student body president and vice president. In elections held in April 2018, students chose Taylor Blossom as

Student groups.

MSU's Office of Student Engagement organizes programs, events, and services for students. Its mission statement says the office "fosters meaningful engagement

Fraternities and sororities.

As of 2020, 7 fraternities and 5 sororities are active. The fraternities and govern themselves via a body known

Montana State University (MSU) is a public land-grant research university in Bozeman, Montana. It is the state's largest university. MSU offers baccalaureate degrees in 60 fields, master's degrees in 68 fields, and doctoral degrees in 35 fields through its nine colleges. The university regularly reports annual research expenditures in excess of $100 million, including a record $138.8 million in 2019.

Die Montana State University – Bozeman (auch MSU genannt) ist eine staatliche Universität in Bozeman im Südwesten des US-Bundesstaates Montana. Die Universität ist mit 12.250 Studenten nach der University of Montana die zweitgrößte Hochschule in Montana. Sie ist der wichtigste Standort des Montana State University System. Als einzige Universität weltweit bietet die MSU einen Masterstudiengang in "Science and Natural History Filmmaking" an.


History.

The first building to serve as the Chancellery of the Federal Republic was the Palais Schaumburg in Bonn from 1949 onwards. In 1954/55, "supplementary buildings" ("Old Chancellery") were built as "Houses 2 and 3". In 1969, the social-liberal coalition under Willy Brandt and his chancellor Horst Ehmke was expanded to include various aspects of education, social and technology policy. In order to meet the growing requirements, for which the extended grounds of the palace had become too small, the Federal Government decided in December 1969, to build a new chancellery building immediately south of the old one on the so-called 'Görreswiese' in the immediate vicinity of the Press and Information Office of the Federal Government. Planning was the task of the Planning Group Stieldorf, which was the winner of a contest open to the public as a winner. A separate competition took place for the artistic design of the buildings and the outdoor area. Construction began in 1973 and in July 1976 the architecturally simple new building was inaugurated. The Palais Schaumburg was still used, but primarily for purposes of representation, and the "Old Chancellery" was taken over by the Auswärtiges Amt The park, with a central driveway from Görresstraße, surrounds a third building, the Kanzlerbungalow, which served as the official residence of the Federal Chancellor.  The Federal Chancellery consists of a three-storey complex with two lower floors, which is divided into two parts: the so-called "department building" and the "chancery and cabinet building". The department building is built on a ground raster, which produces almost 100 square meters of supporting surfaces in the interior, and is entered by the main entrance on the Rhine side (in the east). To the north of the department building is the much smaller chancery and cabinet building with separate entrance. The ground floor facades are largely recessed and fully glazed in order to provide the best possible view into the old park landscape behind (at the time of planning, there were still plans to make the site accessible to the public).  The free steel skeleton construction (with only six concrete cores as fixed points) allows the adaptation to all organizational requirements by means of variable walls. The low - rise development (below the crowns of the park and the first of the Palais Schaumburg) - with a new volume of more than 200,000 cubic meters, 30,000 m2 of floor space and 13,000 m2 of façade - justified the decision of the Jury for price and execution.  The architectural quality of the building was controversial. Critics criticized against this "indecisive and reserved" urban development. Federal Chancellor Helmut Schmidt is attributed the quotation that the building has the "charm of a Rhineland savings bank". But the "urban redevelopment", certain purism aesthetic qualities demanded in the competition tender of the Federal Building Administration and also the functional analysis of the internal structure (fully flexible ground plans) highlighted.  In 1979, Helmut Schmidt, the first occupier of the building, transformed the forecourt of the new building, creating a large green area where the sculpture " Large Two Forms" by Henry Moore) was installed. In May 1982 a bust of Konrad Adenauer, who became the symbol of the Bonn Republic, was erected on the nearby " Chancellor's Place ".  In the wake of the capital decision, the Federal Chancellery moved its headquarters to Berlin in 1999. In the Bonn Federal Chancellery building, a secondary seat was left, which was transferred to the Palais Schaumburg in May 2001. At the same time, the building was handed over to the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). In order to enable the Ministry to move into the property, a comprehensive renovation was implemented during the period from 1999 to 2005, with a total of one of the largest asbestos recovery measures implemented in Germany. The BMZ moved from the "Bonn Karree" south of the Museumsmeile to the former Chancellery.

The Federal Chancellery building in Bonn was used from 1976 to 1999 as the seat of the Federal Chancellery of the Federal Republic of Germany, and since 2006 as the seat of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. It is located in the district of Gronau east of Bundesstraße 9 () and west of the Bundeshaus and is part of the Route of Democracy.

Das Bundeskanzleramtsgebäude in Bonn war von 1976 bis 1999 Sitz des Bundeskanzleramtes der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und beherbergt seit 2005 das Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung. Es liegt im Ortsteil Gronau an der Adenauerallee 139 (Bundesstraße 9) im Zentrum des Bundesviertels und ist eine Station des Geschichtsrundwegs "Weg der Demokratie".


Early life and family.

Born the son of, a minor samurai in the service of the Matsudaira (later Tokugawa) clan. He would later earn the nickname because of the fearless tactics he displayed in his operations; this is to distinguish him from Watanabe Hanzo (Watanabe Moritsuna), who is nicknamed.  Though Hanzō was born in Mikawa Province (now Iga-chō, Okazaki, Aichi), he often returned to Iga Province, home of the Hattori family. He fought his first battle, a nighttime attack on Udo Castle 1557, at the age of sixteen; made a successful hostage rescue of Tokugawa's daughters in Kaminogō Castle in 1562; and went on to lay siege to Kakegawa Castle in 1569. He served with distinction at the battles of Anegawa (1570) and Mikatagahara (1572).  According to the "Kansei Chōshū Shokafu", a genealogy of major samurai completed in 1812 by the Tokugawa shogunate, Hattori Hanzō rendered meritorious service during the Battle of Mikatagahara and became commander of an Iga unit consisting of one hundred fifty men. He captured a Takeda spy named Chikuan, and when Takeda's troops invaded Totomi, Hanzō counterattacked with only thirty men at the Tenryū River.

Military career.

Masanari had a great contribution to Tokugawa Ieyasu's rise to power, helping the future Shogun bring down the Imagawa after Imagawa Ujizane had held Ieyasu's wife and son as hostages in 1561. His most valuable contribution came in 1582 following Oda Nobunaga's death, when he led the future "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu to safety in Mikawa Province across Iga territory with the help of remnants of the local Iga ji-zamurai clans as well as the neighboring local samurai families in the nearby Koka region. According to some sources, Hanzō also helped in rescuing the captured family of Ieyasu.  Hattori served during the siege of Odawara and was awarded 8,000 "koku". By the time Ieyasu entered Kantō, he was awarded an additional 8,000 "koku" and had 30 yoriki and 200 public officials for his services. Ieyasu was said to have also begun to employ more Iga ninja with Hanzō as their leader. Hanzō was known as an expert tactician and a master of sword fighting. Historical sources say he lived the last several years of his life as a monk under the name "Sainen" and built the temple Sainenji, which was named after him and mainly built to commemorate Tokugawa Ieyasu's elder son, Nobuyasu. Nobuyasu was accused of treason and conspiracy by Oda Nobunaga and was then ordered to commit seppuku by his father, Ieyasu. Hanzo was called in to act as the official second to end Nobuyasu's suffering, but he refused to take the sword on the blood of his own lord. Ieyasu valued his loyalty after hearing of Hanzo's ordeal and said, "Even a demon can shed tears."  He died at the age of 54.

Legacy.

Tales of Hattori's exploits often attributed various supernatural abilities, such as teleportation, psychokinesis, and precognition, and these attributions contribute to his continued prominence in popular culture.  After his death on 4 November 1596, Hattori Hanzō was succeeded by his son, whose name was also Masanari, though written with different kanji. He was given the title of Iwami no Kami and his Iga men would act as guards of Edo Castle, the headquarters of the government of united Japan. Hanzō is actually a name passed down through the leaders of the Hattori family meaning his father was also called Hanzō and so was his successor. Indeed, there are five people known as Hattori Hanzō throughout history  To this day, artifacts of Hanzō's legacy remain. Tokyo Imperial Palace (formerly the "shōgun"s palace) still has a gate called Hanzō's Gate (Hanzōmon), and the Hanzōmon subway line which runs from Hanzōmon Station in central Tokyo to the southwestern suburbs is named after the gate, where his house was once located. The neighborhood outside Hanzō's Gate is known as Wakaba, but before 1943 was named Iga-chō ("Iga Town"). Hanzō's remains now rest in the Sainen-ji temple cemetery in Yotsuya, Tokyo. The temple also holds his favorite spear and his ceremonial battle helmet. The spear, originally long and given to him by Ieyasu, was donated to the temple by Hanzō as a votive offering, but was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo in 1945.  Hattori Hanzō makes frequent appearance in popular culture, both within Japan and abroad. In modern popular culture he is most often portrayed as involved with the Iga ninja clansmen.

, also known as and nicknamed, was a famous "Samurai" of the Sengoku era, credited with saving the life of Tokugawa Ieyasu and then helping him to become the ruler of united Japan. He is often a subject of varied portrayal in modern popular culture.

Hattori Hanzō (jap. ; * 1541 in der Provinz Mikawa; † 1596), auch bekannt unter dem Vornamen Masanari/Masashige ( "Hattori Masanari/Masashige"), war ein berühmter Samurai und Ninja des feudalen Japan. Er war der Anführer der Ninja aus Iga. Er wurde auch "Oni no Hanzō" ("dt. Der Dämon Hanzō") genannt. Da Hattori Hanzō der Name des Familienoberhaupts war, sollte er nicht mit seinem Vater Hattori Yasunaga (), seinem ältesten Sohn Hattori Masanari (), seinem zweitältesten Sohn Hattori Masashige () und außerdem nicht mit einem anderen Gefolgsmann Tokugawa Ieyasus, Watanabe Hanzō, genannt "Hanzō der Speer", verwechselt werden.


Background.

Erika was one of eight sister ships built in Japan. Despite having 10% less steel than many other tankers of similar size, Erika was very popular amongst shipping companies because of its relative inexpensiveness.

Sinking.

On December 8, 1999, she sailed out of Dunkerque, bound for Livorno and with a cargo of around 31,000 tons of heavy fuel oil.  As she entered the Bay of Biscay, the Erika ran into a heavy storm. On December 12, 1999, she broke in two and sank, releasing thousands of tons of oil into the sea, killing marine life and polluting shores around Brittany, France.  According to the official inquiry by the Dunkerque Tribunal, the Principal Shareholder of Tevere Shipping is Giuseppe Savarese, owner of the Erika since 1996. Savarese lives in London and was personally responsible for finance, administration, legal, commercial, hull and machinery insurance and P&I insurance matters.  The Erika's technical and maritime management company was Panship, a Ravenna-based corporation incorporated in 1997. The Pollara and Vitiello families each own 50 percent. The company did not employ a specialist in naval architecture or vessel strength which is typical for such companies. With regards to maintenance, Panship defined the scope and nature of maintenance work in addition to creating and evaluating calls for bids for such work. All decisions were submitted to Giuseppe Savarese. Erika's was registered under a Maltese flag. The Classification Society for classed the Erika was RINA or the Foundation Registro Italiano Navale ed Aeronautica, based in Genoa. Malta like most Flag States delegates compliance with International Safety Management Code of International Maritime Organization to Classification Societies such as RINA. RINA issued all safety certificates for the Erika. List of Certificates issued for the Erika by RINA:  Total said that the classification society, Registro Italiano Navale had reported that the tanker was in good condition, and that it routinely requires certificates of good condition for vessels more than 20 years old.  The accident triggered new EU-legislation as regard to transport by sea.  On January 16, 2008, Total SA, Giuseppe Savarese (the shipowner), Antonio Pollara (the handler) and RINA (the expert company) were sentenced in solidum to pay indemnities of €192 million (US$280 million), plus individual penalties. The judgement, while recognizing the risks inherent to oceangoing vessels, reckons Total SA was "guilty of imprudence", from the fact that Total SA did not take into account "the age of the ship", (nearly 25 years), and "the discontinuity of its technical handling and maintenance".  On March 30, 2010, Total SA lost their appeal to overturn the court's decision.

Erika was a tanker built in 1975 and last chartered by Total-Fina-Elf. It sank off the coast of France in 1999, causing a major environmental disaster.

Die Erika war ein Öltanker, der im Auftrag des französischen Konzerns TotalFinaElf fuhr und 1999 an der Küste der Bretagne eine Ölpest verursachte.


Description.

This mostly limestone mountain is one of the highest points in Oman and eastern Arabia. Jebel Akhdar lies at the central section of Al Hajar range, located around from Muscat and accessible only by four-wheel drive. The range is mostly desert, but at higher altitudes receives around of precipitation annually — moist enough to allow the growth of shrubs and trees and support agriculture. It is this that gives the mountains their "green" name.  An old stronghold on the inland side of the mountain is Birkat al-Mawz, or Pool of the Plantains, with a layout similar to the nearby Jabrin palace The area is about a 45-minute drive from Nizwa and is known for its traditional rose water extraction and agricultural products including pomegranates, walnuts, apricots, black grapes and peaches. It is also the site of honey bee breeding for much of Oman. Agricultural production is improved by the use of Falaj irrigation channels and their associated terraces system devised by the local farmers, who have lived on this mountain for hundreds of years. Al Sogara is a historic village carved into the mountainside. The Jebel is mostly inhabited by the ancient Arab tribe Bani Riyam (al Riyamy). Most descendants of the tribe are now in the four nearby villages, including Nizwa, Izki and Ibra.

History.

Between 1954 and 1959, the area became a site of the Jebel Akhdar War, a conflict between Omani forces loyal to the sultan of Oman (aided by British soldiers, including the Special Air Service) and Saudi Arabian-backed rebel forces of the inland Imamate of Oman.  In August 2011, Sultan Qaboos designated Jebel Akhdar a nature reserve in a bid to conserve its unique yet fragile biodiversity. A decree issued by Sultan Qaboos established the 'Jebel Akhdar Sanctuary for Natural Sceneries.' The Minister of Environment and Climate Affairs has authority to draft guidelines regulating access and developmental activity within the reserve.  Since 2011, the mountain has featured as the principal climb in the Tour of Oman road bicycle race. In the area, several important rock art sites, with figures dating back to 6000 years ago, have been discovered and studied.

The Jebel Akhdar or Al Jabal Al Akhdar (), is part of Al Hajar Mountains range in Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate of Oman. It rises to a height of and encompasses the Saiq Plateau at 2,000 m above sea level. Jebel Akhdar is famous for its labyrinth of wadis and terraced orchards, where pomegranates, apricots and roses grow in abundance due to its mild Mediterranean climate.

al-Dschabal al-Achdar (; andere Transkriptionen: "Jebel Akhdar", "Jabal Akhdar" und "Djebel Akhdar") ist ein Gebirge im Oman. Es erstreckt sich auf einer Länge von 300 km von Nordwest nach Südost, etwa 50–100 km von der Küste des Golfs von Oman entfernt. Der höchste Gipfel, der Dschabal Schams (‚Sonnenberg‘), erreicht eine Höhe von etwa 3000 m. (Die Angaben sind nicht einheitlich). Er ist der höchste Punkt des Oman und der östlichen arabischen Halbinsel und liegt etwa 150 km von Maskat entfernt. Ebenso liegt der zweithöchste Punkt des Oman, der Dschabal Kawr, in diesem Gebirge.


Overview.

The University of Barcelona is the principal centre of university research in Spain and has become a European benchmark for research activity, both in terms of the number of research programs it conducts and the excellence these have achieved. According to the 2011 CYD Report, it is the highest-placed Spanish university in terms of scientific output, with a total of 15,290 papers published between 2006 and 2010, also leading the ranking of Spanish universities in terms of percentage of papers published in high impact journals. It has 106 departments and more than 5,000 full-time researchers, technicians and research assistants, most of whom work in the 243 research groups as recognized and supported by the Government of Catalonia. In 2010 the UB was awarded 175 national research grants and 17 European grants and participated in over 500 joint research projects with the business sector, generating an overall research income of 70 million euros. The work of these groups is overseen by the UB's research centres and institutes which collaborate with leading research institutions and networks in Spain and abroad. The UB is also home to three large research foundations: the Barcelona Science Park Foundation (PCB), which includes the Institute of Biomedical Research of Barcelona (IRBB); the August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS); and the Bellvitge Institute for Biomedical Research (IDIBELL).  It is a member of the Coimbra Group, LERU, European University Association, Mediterranean Universities Union, International Research Universities Network and Vives Network. Established on 3 November 1450, it is the fifth oldest university in Spain and one of the oldest universities in the world.

History.

The University was founded under the royal prerogative granted by King Alfonso V of Aragon, in Naples, on 3 November 1450. For forty-nine years prior to this, however, the city had a fledgling medical school (or "Estudi General", as the universities were known at that time), founded by King Martin of Aragon, but neither the "Consell de Cent" (Barcelona's Council of One Hundred) nor the city's other leading institutions had given it their official recognition, considering it an intrusion on their respective jurisdictions. Alphonse the Magnanimous’ prerogative, though, was granted at the petition of the "Consell de Cent", and so the council was always to consider the "Estudi General" created in 1450 as the city's true university, since it was very much under its control and patronage.  The process that culminated in the foundation of the "Estudi General" of Barcelona can be traced back to the end of the fourteenth century, with the opening of a number of schools under the patronage of the City Hall, the cathedral schools and the Dominican convent of Santa Caterina, which established itself as a major cultural centre.  It was King Martín the Humane who set in motion the process that would result in the foundation of the University of Barcelona. In his letter written 23 January 1398 and addressed to the councillors of Barcelona, he informed them that he had sought the Pope's permission to found a university in the city by Juan Carlos IX.  Despite the "Consell de Cent's" refusal to accept the concession issued by the King to found an "estudi general", on 10 January 1401, Martín founded the "Estudi General" of Medicine in Barcelona under his royal prerogative, granting it the same privileges as those enjoyed by the University of Montpellier.  In another document, signed in Valencia on 9 May 1402, King Martin sought to promote the "Estudi General" of Medicine with the appointment of a number of teachers of the liberal arts, without which the study of medicine was virtually useless. From that day forth, the "Estudi" was known as the "Estudi" of Medicine and the Arts.  The prerogative granted by King Alphonse the Magnanimous in 1450, authorizing the "Consell de Cent" to found a university in Barcelona, was the culmination of the process initiated in 1398.  The first university in the lands of the Crown of Aragon was founded by king James II of Aragon in Lleida in 1300.  Power and learning have always gone hand in hand. So much so that the discussions concerning the foundation of the first universities were characterized by the clear delimitation of jurisdictional authority. After 1229, and following a series of bloody encounters in Paris that saw grave confrontations between the agents of the university provost and the students, King Philip II of Spain granted full judicial authority to the university chancellor or rector within the university grounds. Henceforth, the authority of the chancellor came to be symbolized in the maces carried by his two beadles on official occasions. The maces were capped with gold or silver and were borne by public servants during official acts before the king or any other civil or military authority with jurisdiction over a territory, municipality or region.  For a number of reasons, in particular the civil war that raged during the reign of John II and the subsequent conflicts involving the peasant farmers, the official "Estudi General" of Barcelona did not begin to develop until the reign of Fernando the Catholic; but it was under Charles I, in 1536, that the foundation stone was laid for the new university building at the top end of La Rambla. From that moment on the university began to carry out its work as normal despite financial difficulties and in-fighting between university teachers, though this was not to stop some illustrious professors from making their mark in their respective fields and creating their own schools of academic followers.  The 1596 Ordinances once more showed the need for reform. These followed hard on the heels of earlier Ordinances passed in 1539 and 1559, in which the competitive examination system for the appointment of professors had been introduced.  This period was brought to a close with the Decree issued on 23 October 1714 by the Royal High Commission for Justice and Government of Catalonia - created by the Duke of Berwick - ordering the immediate transfer of the Faculties of Philosophy, Law and Canon Law to Cervera. Barcelona was to keep its Faculty of Medicine and the Cordelles School of Humanities, governed by the Jesuits. Plans to open the University of Cervera did not get underway until 1715 and it did not start its academic work until 1717, as the successor to the six Catalan universities closed down by Philip V. The first statutes of the new University of Cervera were passed in 1725.  "The University of Barcelona was closed by the Bourbon dynasty after the War of the Spanish Succession from 1714 until 1837". The university was restored to Barcelona during the liberal revolution during the reign of Isabella II. In 1837, the University of Cervera was transferred to Barcelona, the capital of the principality. From that moment forth it was recognized as the cultural home of the four Catalan provinces.  On its return the University was housed initially in the Convent of Carme, which had been disestablished a few years earlier. Here the Faculties of Canon Law, Law and Theology were provisionally installed. The Faculty of Medicine took up residence in the Royal Academy of Medicine, next door to the Hospital of Santa Creu. Thus, all the Faculties were now located in just two streets - Hospital and del Carme.  The inadequate nature of these premises soon gave rise to the need to construct a larger home for the University, and in 1863 work began on Elies Rogent's new building, though it would not be fully completed until 1882. Its construction was to have major repercussions for the city, since it was one of the first buildings to be raised outside the ancient city walls.  Work on the building lasted for more than twenty years, although by 1871 the first lectures were being given there. The clock and the iron bell housed in the tower in the "Pati de Lletres"— the "Patio of the Arts"— were installed in 1881. Complementing the building work, sculptures and paintings were commissioned either directly from artists of repute or awarded in open competition.  The architectural work and the quality of the building's works of art meant that the historic building was declared a national monument of historic and artistic interest in 1970.  On its completion all the university courses could now be taught in the same building, a construction that brought prestige to the city and one that satisfied what had been an essential need.  Medical sciences continued to be taught at the former Hospital of Santa Creu i Sant Pau. In 1879 the Faculty of Medicine was presented with a project for a new hospital, and after many changes in the plans and suggested locations, it was eventually installed in the Hospital Clinic on the eastern side of the city's Eixample district in 1900. Today, Medicine is also taught on the Bellvitge Campus and at the Hospital of Sant Joan de Déu. It is an located in Barcelona  The natural growth of the University of Barcelona has given rise to the need to undertake large-scale building work to meet the growing demands made by student numbers that were unthinkable in the nineteenth century. In response to this growth, the university district of Pedralbes was begun in 1952. The first building to be completed on this new city campus was the Faculty of Pharmacy in 1956 alongside the Sant Raimond de Penyafort and the Verge de Montserrat Halls of Residence.  This was followed by the Faculty of Law in 1958, the University School of Business Studies in 1961, and the Faculty of Economics between 1957 and 1968. Today this district is known as the Pedralbes Campus, while in the nineties the university added the Campus Mundet, housed in some of the buildings of the Llars Mundet. In 2006, the Faculties of History and Geography and the Faculty of Philosophy were moved from the Pedralbes Campus to the historic centre of the city (Ciutat Vella district), in the El Raval neighborhood, and just a short walk from the Historic Building of the University.  The University of Barcelona was the only university in Catalonia until 1971, when the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, comprising the more technical Faculties and University Schools, became an independent entity. In 1968 the Universitat Autònoma of Barcelona became the first of several new universities to be set up in Catalonia.

UB today.

As of 2005, the University of Barcelona comprises 100 departments grouped in 18 faculties and two university schools, one school and eight attached schools.  The UB offers 75 undergraduate programs, 353 graduate programs and 96 doctorate programs to over 90,644 students. It also has 30 research centers.

Library.

The library holds about 2,000,000 volumes.

The University of Barcelona (; ; ) is a public university located in the city of Barcelona, Catalonia in Spain. With 73 undergraduate programs, 273 graduate programs and 48 doctorate programs to over 63,000 students, UB is considered to be the best university in Spain in the QS World University Rankings of 2018, which ranked the university 156th overall in the world. In the 2016-2017 ranking of University Ranking by Academic Performance, UB is considered the best university in Spain and 45th university in the world. Also, according to the yearly ranking made by US News, it is the 81st-best university in the world, and the best university in Spain.

Die Universität Barcelona (katalanisch "Universitat de Barcelona", spanisch "Universidad de Barcelona") ist eine staatliche Universität in der spanischen Stadt Barcelona. Ihre Fakultäten sind über folgende Campus in der Stadt und im Umland verteilt: der Universitätscampus, der Raval-Campus, der Diagonal-Campus, der Bellvitge-Campus, der Torribera-Campus, der Mundet-Campus, der Sants-Campus und der Hospital Clinic-Campus.