Biography.

Early life and education.

Shulman was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of a Russian immigrant father and Jewish mother. His father, who died when Shulman was one and a half, worked as a pharmacist and was a skilled amateur flautist. He had two siblings, Sylvan Shulman, who became a violinist, and Violet Shulman, who became a pianist. When Alan was 8, the sibling formed the Shulman Trio and performed in concerts throughout the Baltimore area. They were some of the earliest musicians to perform in radio commercials. All three children attended the Peabody Conservatory where they studied under Louis Cheslock and Alan, who started his training there at age 10, studied the cello under Bart Wirtz. Shulman wrote his first music composition during his first year studying at the Peabody Conservatory.  At the age of 14, Shulman and his family relocated to Brooklyn, New York. He attended Erasmus Hall High School between 1928–1929 and Brooklyn Vocational High School between 1929-1932. In 1929 he won a scholarship from the New York Philharmonic which enabled him to continue his music studies further with cellist Joseph Emonts and composer Winthrop Sargentat for the next three years. He played with the National Orchestral Association under conductor Leon Barzin from 1929-1932.  Shulman joined Chapter 802 of the American Federation of Musicians in 1931. He entered the Juilliard School in 1932 where he studied for five years, principally under cellist Felix Salmond and composers Albert Stoessel and Bernard Wagenaar. While a student he began performing with a string quartet that played popular music for the NBC network in 1933. He also worked as the group's arranger. He joined the Kreiner String Quartet in 1935, playing with them through 1938. He also started writing his first serious compositions during this time, notably writing music for the American Children's Theatre production of Hans Christian Andersen's "The Chinese Nightingale" in 1934. Upon graduating in 1937, he pursued further studies with cellist Emanuel Feuermann in 1939 and composer Paul Hindemith in 1942.

Early career.

During the 1930s and 1940s Shulman worked actively as an arranger for such people as Leo Reisman, Andre Kostalanetz, Arthur Fiedler, and Wilfred Pelletier. In 1942 he became a member of the American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers. During the mid-1940s, he taught orchestration to Nelson Riddle who later garnered fame as an arranger for singers Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald and Nat King Cole.  In 1937 the Shulman brothers joined the brand new NBC Symphony Orchestra which was established by David Sarnoff of the National Broadcasting Company especially for conductor Arturo Toscanini. The following year Alan and Sylvan were among the founding members of the New Friends of Rhythm, a symphonic jazz group that made many recordings between 1939 and 1947, including several by Shulman. Other members of the group included harpist Laura Newell, jazz clarinetists Buster Bailey and Hank D'Amico, and singer Maxine Sullivan among others. Also in 1938, the two brothers established the Stuyvesant String Quartet, which remained active through 1954. The string quartet excelled in performing and recording contemporary works by such composers as Augustyn Bloch, Sergei Prokofiev, Gian Francesco Malipiero, Hindemith and Fritz Kreisler. They notably played the American premiere of Dmitri Shostakovich's "Piano Quintet" at Carnegie Hall in 1941. Musicologist Tully Potter, a string-specialist, said the following:  The Shulman brothers were among a small group of fabulously gifted New York-based string players whose careers showed a constant tug between earning a living – which often led them into orchestral and session work – and doing something more artistic. It was a nightmare trying to run a string quartet in the United States, where distances were so great and there was not the infrastructure of music societies that existed in Europe. Had the Stuyvesant Quartet been privately sponsored, as some American groups were, or given a residency, it would be remembered today as one of the best of its time. As it was, it left a small but valuable corpus of recordings – and a recent reissue proved that the best of these performances have lost nothing of their power.  In 1941, Shulman's "Theme and Variations for Viola and Orchestra" was premiered by the NBC Symphony Orchestra with violist Emanuel Vardi. The work was Shulman's first major success and it is now considered a standard part of the viola repertoire. The following year he left the NBC Symphony Orchestra when he decided to join the United States Maritime Service with the intent of becoming a United States Merchant Marine. After receiving his training he spent the next several years serving in the USMM at Sheepshead Bay, between 1943-1945. During this time he was still able to pursue musical interests and work during his off hours. In 1944 his "Suite on American Folk Songs" premiered at Carnegie Hall with violinist Eudice Shapiro and pianist Vivian Rivkin. That same year his "Pastorale and Dance" was played for the first time by Sylvan on ABC Radio. The work received its concert premiere three years later with Oscar Shumsky and the Baltimore Symphony. Shulman also worked frequently with soprano Rise Stevens during the mid-1940s, arranging five cross-over albums for her between 1945-1947 in addition to other projects.

Middle life and career.

After the war, Shulman married the pianist Sophie Pratt Bostelmann on 17 September 1946. They had met previously while they were both students at Juilliard. Their first child, Jay, a cellist, was born in 1949, followed by his daughter Laurie, a musicologist, in 1951, his son Marc, a guitarist, in 1953, and his daughter Lisa in 1956. Shulman returned to his position at the NBC Symphony Orchestra in 1948. That same year he became a member of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. The following year the NBC Symphony Orchestra premiered his "Waltzes for Orchestra" under conductor Milton Katims at Carnegie Hall. In 1950 his string quartet "Threnody", written in honor of Israel's fallen soldiers, was premiered by the NBC String Quartet during Jewish Music Week. In 1954 the NBC Symphony Orchestra disbanded when Toscanini retired, and Shulman, along with several other members of the Symphony Orchestra, formed a new ensemble for NBC called the "Symphony of the Air". He remained with the Symphony of the Air for three years.  During the 1950s Shulman wrote numerous popular songs with entertainer Steve Allen and he did several arrangements for Skitch Henderson, Raoul Poliakin and Felix Slatkin. In 1956 he wrote his "Suite Miniature for Octet of Celli" which was commissioned by the Fine Arts Cello Ensemble of Los Angeles. That same year he was one of several musicians to found the Violoncello Society, later serving as the organization's president from 1967 to 1972. In 1959, during the midst of the Cold War, he was asked to join a Soviet-American composers' symposium organised by Nicolas Slonimsky for NBC. In addition to Shulman, the symposium included Americans Roy Harris and Howard Hanson and Russians Shostakovich and Kabalevsky.

Later life and career.

Shulman played actively in chamber music with the Philharmonia Trio from 1962–1969 and the Haydn Quartet from 1972 until his wife's death in 1982. During his career he has also served on the faculties at Sarah Lawrence College, the Juilliard School, the State University of New York at Purchase, Johnson State College, and the University of Maine. Shulman retired in 1987 due to declining health. He died of complications from a stroke in a nursing home in Hudson, New York in 2002.

References.

A compact disc of eight orchestral works of Alan Schulman's was released by Bridge Records in 2002 (BRIDGE 9119) as "The Music of Alan Schulman".

Alan Shulman (4 June 1915 – 10 July 2002) was an American composer and cellist. He wrote a considerable amount of symphonic music, chamber music, and jazz music. Trumpeter Eddie Bailey said, "Alan had the greatest ear of any musician I ever came across. He had better than perfect pitch. I've simply never met anyone like him." Some of his more well known works include his 1940 "Neo-Classical Theme and Variations for Viola and Piano" and his "A Laurentian Overture", which was premiered by the New York Philharmonic in 1952 under the baton of Guido Cantelli. Also of note is his 1948 "Concerto for Cello and Orchestra" which was also premiered by the New York Philharmonic with cellist Leonard Rose and conductor Dmitri Mitropoulos. Many of Shulman's works have been recorded, and the violinist Jascha Heifetz and jazz clarinetist Artie Shaw have been particular exponents of his work both in performance and on recordings.

Alan Shulman (* 4. Juni 1915 in Baltimore; † 10. Juli 2002 in Hudson, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Komponist und Cellist.


Background.

Winter testing had indicated Ferrari would be maintaining the edge that they had gained by winning the final two races of the season despite only having an updated version of their 1987 car, with McLaren-Honda and Williams, now with naturally aspirated Judd V8 engines, also producing cars that looked like potential race winners.  Ferrari had dominated the pre-season tests in Rio with times that were not only faster than everyone else, but faster than had been recorded at the 1987 Brazilian Grand Prix, prompting rumors that the team had either shut off the FIA's mandatory pop-off valve which in 1988 limited turbo boost pressure to just 2.5 Bar, or more likely were running the 1987 valve which had a 4.0 Bar limit (most of the team engineers agreed that in 1988 the turbo engines had lost approximately due to the reduction in boost). The rumors were renewed during qualifying in Brazil when neither Michele Alboreto nor Gerhard Berger could get near their test times from a month earlier and both drivers complained of engines that were down on power, too thirsty and had poor throttle response out of the slower corners. With the 1988 pop-off valve connected, both Ferraris were also significantly slower on the circuits long back straight than either the McLaren or Lotus Hondas which were all timed at over.  During the qualifying session, there was controversy when Nelson Piquet made comments in the local media publicly insulting Ayrton Senna, though he later claimed he did not know he was talking to a journalist and was forced to withdraw his allegation under threat of a lawsuit (over time, these insults by Piquet – with the aid of Prost – also extended to claims that Senna was homosexual, particularly given his failed marriage in 1982; as it transpired in a 1990 interview of Senna by Brazilian edition of Playboy the gay claim may have been motivated by the fact that Senna had apparently had a relationship with Piquet's wife when she was single). The World Champion had also been insulting about Nigel Mansell's wife Roxanne (calling her an "unattractive boxhead"), and both drivers' families.  BMS Dallara's Alex Caffi had to use a modified Formula 3000 chassis because the Formula One chassis was not ready. This was also the last time Ford-Cosworth DFV engine was used in a Formula One Grand Prix.  Drivers making their debut in Rio were: Brazilian Maurício Gugelmin (March-Judd), Spanish driver Luis Pérez-Sala (Minardi-Ford), Argentinian Sportscar driver Oscar Larrauri (EuroBrun-Ford) making his F1 debut at the age of 33, Briton Julian Bailey (Tyrrell-Ford) who had sold just about everything he owned in order to pay for his drive with Ken Tyrrell's team, and young German Formula 3 Champion Bernd Schneider signed with Zakspeed. Of the new drivers, only Bailey and Schneider failed to qualify.  EuroBrun (with Larrauri and 1987 International Formula 3000 champion Stefano Modena) and Rial Racing, with veteran Andrea de Cesaris as its sole driver, were making their F1 debuts as constructors. The EuroRacing side of the EuroBrun team had formerly run the Alfa Romeo team in 1982–85, while Rial, run by German Günter Schmid, was virtually a born-again ATS which had competed in F1 in 1977–84. Both teams would use the 3.5L Ford DFZ V8 engine.

Qualifying.

Just five months after his crash at the 1987 Japanese Grand Prix, Mansell produced a sensational performance to qualify his naturally aspirated Williams second, 1.5 seconds faster than the next 'atmo' car, the Benetton-Ford of Thierry Boutsen in 7th. On the pole was Senna in his first drive for McLaren with a time almost two seconds slower than Mansell's 1987 pole time. The second row was occupied by Gerhard Berger's Ferrari and Alain Prost's McLaren. After only a small amount of testing at Imola before joining in the Rio tests due to the late finish of the car, neither Senna or Prost were happy with the balance of their McLaren MP4/4s in qualifying.  By qualifying on the front row, Mansell became the first driver of a naturally aspirated (atmo) car to start on the front row of a Grand Prix since his former Williams teammate Keke Rosberg had put his Williams-Ford on pole position for the 1983 Brazilian Grand Prix at the same circuit.  The four non-qualifiers were the Tyrrell-Ford of Julian Bailey, the turbo Zakspeeds of Piercarlo Ghinzani and Schneider, and the turbo Osella of Nicola Larini. Alex Caffi failed to pre-qualify his converted F3000 Dallara.

Race summary.

On the parade lap, Senna's gear selector mechanism broke and he had to complete the lap jammed in first gear. The first start was aborted and Senna started in the spare car from the pits. At the second start, Alain Prost with no one in front of him due to Senna's absence, won the start and put in one of his famous first laps that saw him lead by almost 2 seconds, with Mansell in 2nd place, though he was soon passed by Berger's Ferrari. After running in the hot air behind the turbocharged Ferrari, on lap 19 Mansell's temperature gauge showed that the Williams was overheating (at the first aborted start Mansell had been forced to drive off around the track, thankfully without penalty, due to his Judd V8 already overheating on the grid). He entered the pits to investigate, handing third to Nelson Piquet in his Lotus; during the process, Mansell stalled his engine.  Senna was making a remarkable drive from the rear of the grid, climbing to 21st on lap 1 (after almost colliding with the March of his former flatmate Maurício Gugelmin who suffered gearbox failure less than 50 metres after the start of his debut race and pulled to the inside of the track as Senna was leaving the pits), 15th on lap 4, 8th on lap 10, into the points on lap 13 and by lap 20 was in second place after passing Piquet on the back straight following a pit stop to Berger.  In previous years with high horsepower, the Rio circuit had proved savage on tyres and drivers were forced to stop two or three times a race for new rubber. With the reduction of turbo boost in 1988, tyre wear was reduced and McLaren figured on only one stop for their drivers. Prost pitted on lap 26 without losing the lead, and Senna pitted a lap later. During his stop Senna stalled his Honda engine and dropped to sixth place. Shortly afterwards he was shown the black flag and disqualified for changing cars after the green flag had been shown following the parade lap, a move that was not allowed. Over the last 10 laps of the race Berger closed to within 10 seconds of leader Prost, but the Frenchman was merely pacing himself to make sure he finished on the now lower fuel limit and Berger was unable to catch him.  Piquet, the reigning World Champion, came home third in his first drive for Lotus ahead of Derek Warwick in the Arrows-Megatron. Michele Alboreto in the second Ferrari and Satoru Nakajima in the second Lotus rounded out the points with 5th and 6th places. The first atmospheric car to finish was the Benetton-Ford of Thierry Boutsen. Nakajima and Boutsen both finished a lap down on Prost in 7th place. The first race of FISA's new equivalency formula in a bid to make the 'atmos' competitive had seen turbos still take all the points on offer.

The 1988 Brazilian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on April 3, 1988, at the renamed Autódromo Internacional Nelson Piquet in Rio de Janeiro. Following his 3rd World Drivers' Championship in the Jacarepaguá Circuit was named after local hero Nelson Piquet. It was the first race of the Formula One season.

Der Große Preis von Brasilien 1988 fand am 3. April in Rio de Janeiro statt und war das erste Rennen der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft 1988.


Description.

The Greek Sheepdog is a medium to large size dog, with a solid body and great physical strength capable of escorting the flock and also fighting with the enemy while maintaining its physical superiority. Its head is massive with its muzzle-skull. The skull is normally curved, with obvious hyper eyebrow arches and it is nearly as wide as it is long. The muzzle and cheeks are wide and deep. It has a scissors or plane bite and is covered by fat and slightly loose lips. The skin is thick and is covered by dense fur. Cropping the ears is not permitted, and dogs with cropped ears cannot be shown. The brown eyes are of average size, egg-shaped, placed symmetrically in parallel lines with the oblong axon of the skull, with enough distance between them. From the oblique side of the head their position is a little under the muzzle level, as if there were an imaginary line extended toward the skull. Darker tints are preferred. The eyelids must be tight without revealing their mucous membrane. This dog has a serious penetrating, calm look about him. The chest must be wide and deep up to the height of the elbows. The thorax consists of arched ribs with medium curvature ; they are extended backwards enough to leave enough space for the heart and the lungs. The tail is thick at the base. Some have long tails while others have short or no tails. The double coat is dense and abundant. Coat colours include black, greyish-brown and white. The breed has never been bred for colour, but rather for a heavy skeleton, good muscle, and a dense, semi-long to long coat.

Temperament.

A Greek Shepherd might not be suitable for first-time dog owners. Like all livestock guardian dogs, they tend to be independent thinkers. They are considered brave, decisive, loyal, working dogs with a highly developed sense of duty and a strong protective instinct towards flock animals and their environment. Naturally wary, loyal only to the flock leader-shepherd, the Greek Sheepdog can be characterized as the Big Mountain shepherd's dog of Greece. Greek Shepherds do not tolerate violent behaviour or training. These independent dogs need consistent training and intelligent guidance. They need owners who understand their flock guarding ways. When placed in a pack situation, these dogs have been known to assert their top dog position aggressively. Suspicious but tactful in the presence of strangers, they do not make friends easily. They may appear calm, but are ready to protect at all costs at any time. When protecting their flock they move along the border, selecting places from where they will be able to see a wide area. They are aggressive towards the wild animals and able to drive them back with their deep bark. If their deep bark does not drive the animal away they will pursue the intruder and attack. Early socialization is vital if the dog is to be a trustworthy companion. They can be well trained but have a tendency to judge a situation before taking any action.

Greek Shepherd today.

The decline of livestock farming and an increase in uncontrolled interbreeding with other dogs have altered the Greek Shepherd's distinctive characteristics and it has been estimated that currently, fewer than 3,000 pure Greek Shepherd dogs remain in Greece. In an attempt to rescue the breed, ARCTUROS (ΑΡΚΤΟΥΡΟΣ) has been implementing the Greek Shepherd Dog Breeding Program since 1998.

The Greek Shepherd or Greek Sheepdog (Greek: Ελληνικός Ποιμενικός, "Ellinikós Pimenikós") is a Greek livestock guardian dog that has been bred for centuries for guarding livestock in the mountainous regions of the country.

Der Griechische Schäferhund (gr. "Ελληνικός Ποιμενικός", "Ellenikós Poimenikós") ist eine nicht von der FCI anerkannte Hunderasse aus Griechenland. Die Rasse wird vom griechischen Kennel Club (KOE) auf nationaler Ebene anerkannt.


Orbit and classification.

"Lindgren" is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the outer asteroid belt at a distance of 2.3–4.0 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,051 days; semi-major axis of 3.16 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.28 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Nauchnij in 1978.

Physical characteristics.

"Lindgren" has been characterized as a "bright" carbonaceous B-type asteroid in both the Tholen-like and SMASS-like taxonomy of the Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2). It is also an assumed C-type asteroid.

Rotation period.

In August 2012, two rotational lightcurves of "Lindgren" were obtained from photometric observations by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in California. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 5.614 and 5.618 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.15 magnitude in the S- and R-band, respectively ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Lindgren" measures between 19 and 21 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.05 and 0.065.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for a carbonaceous asteroid of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 20.21 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.2.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after Swedish writer Astrid Lindgren (1907–2002), a recipient of the Hans Christian Andersen Award and known for her children's books such as "Pippi Longstocking". The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 2 April 1988 ().

3204 Lindgren, provisional designation, is a carbonaceous background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 1 September 1978, by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in Nauchnij, on the Crimean peninsula. The B-type asteroid has a rotation period of 5.6 hours. It was named after Swedish writer Astrid Lindgren.

(3204) Lindgren ist ein Asteroid des äußeren Hauptgürtels, der von dem sowjetischen Astronomen Nikolai Tschernych am 1. September 1978 am Krim-Observatorium in Nautschnyj (IAU-Code 095) entdeckt wurde.


Early life.

Eriksen was born on 20 November 1957 in Assens. In 1964 he moved with his family from Assens to Svendborg, where he and his brother started playing football in Svendborg fB. Here he won the Funen boy Championship in 1968. He debuted for the club in June 1975, aged 17.

Club career.

After two season with Svendborg, Eriksen switched to the largest club on Funen, OB, scoring 22 goals in each of his two seasons with the club. In January 1980, he moved to Roda in the Netherlands, never netting less than 16 goals in each of his four Eredivisie seasons.  In 1984–85, Eriksen joined FC Mulhouse in the French Ligue 2, finishing second in the goal scoring charts as the club narrowly missed on promotion, falling short in the playoffs. In the summer, he returned to the Netherlands and joined Feyenoord, again surpassing the 20-goal mark as the Rotterdam outfit ranked in third position.  Aged almost 29, Eriksen moved to Switzerland where he continued to display solid scoring form, for both Servette FC (having played alongside Karl-Heinz Rummenigge) and FC Luzern. With the former, he led the scorers list in his first two seasons, notably scoring 36 in 34 games in 1987–88 (second position overall, only two points behind champions Neuchâtel Xamax).  Eriksen ended his career at nearly 36 with his first club, hometown's Svendborg fB.

International career.

Eriksen won 17 caps and scored six goals for Denmark, his debut coming in 1981. He was selected for the squad that competed in the 1986 FIFA World Cup, appearing as a substitute against West Germany (2–0 win, one goal) and Spain (1–5 round-of-16 loss).  Eriksen was also picked for UEFA Euro 1988 in West Germany, playing twice in an eventual group stage exit (two 0–2 losses), starting against Italy.

Death.

After ending his career, Eriksen suffered Alzheimer's disease, and lived his last three years in a nursing home in Svendborg. After falling accidentally in his home he died on 12 February 2002, at 44 years of age. He was buried in St. Nicolai Church in Svendborg on 20 February 2002.

John Hartmann Eriksen (20 November 1957 – 12 February 2002) was a Danish footballer who played as a striker. He scored 319 league goals over the course of 15 seasons. He played in four countries, namely the Netherlands and Switzerland. Eriksen was a Danish international in the 1980s, appearing in the 1986 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1988.

John Hartmann Eriksen (* 20. November 1957 in Assens; † 12. Februar 2002 in Svendborg) war ein dänischer Fußballspieler, der auf der Position eines Stürmers spielte.


Family.

Ivanov's family origin was debatable, some sources say that Ivanov came from a noble family originated from the Kaluga Governorate, but other sources told that he was the son of a cantonist. Despite all of these sources about his family, the true identity of where his family originated from is still a mystery.

Early life.

Ivanov was born on July 22, 1851 (based on the old calendar at use in the Russian Empire at that time), in Mosalsk in the Kaluga Governorate. He attended the 2nd Cadet Corps and the Pavlovsky Cadet Corps in St. Petersburg at an early age, and graduated from the Mikhailovsky Artillery School in 1869, and served in the 3rd Grenadier Guards and artillery brigades. He first saw action during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), and was promoted to colonel in mid August 1877. After which he subsequently remained in Romania to serve as an instructor to the Romanian Army. In late July 1884, he was commander of the 2nd Battalion of the Imperial Guards Artillery, and in early April 1890, was appointed commandant of the fortress artillery of Kronstadt. In mid December 1899, he was selected to be an aide-de-camp to Grand Duke Michael. He also participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China during the beginning of the century, after which he was promoted to lieutenant-general in early December 1901.

Russo-Japanese War.

General Ivanov participated in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, he was appointed to the 1st Manchurian Army. In mid July 1904, he was appointed commander of the Eastern Detachment, after its commander, Lieutenant General Fyodor Keller was killed at the Battle of Motien Pass, and was later appointed to the 3rd Siberian Army Corps, and commanded the corps during retreating from Liaoyang after the battle ended. Later during the Battle of Shaho, he was ordered to bypass the left flank of the Japanese Army and repulse them back to Korea. After that, the Japanese retreated due to heavy resistance by the Russians. After that at Mukden, he distinguished himself during defensing against the Japanese. After that brief success of his, he was awarded the Order of St. George both the 3rd and the 4th class for military distinction.  After the war, he became the commander of the Manchurian Army. In early November 1907, he became the commander of the 1st Army Corps. After that, he was appointed the chief of staff of the city of Kronstadt in mid-April of that year, and governor-general in November. Later that same year, he was appointed adjutant general. In mid April 1908, he was promoted to General of the Artillery; he was also appointed commander-in-chief of the Kiev Military District later in early December.

World War I.

At the beginning of the First World War, Ivanov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Southwestern Front. At first, he together with the aged general von Saltza suffered a minor defeat at Kraśnik, but success came next when the Russians successfully advanced into Austrian Galicia, with the Russian casualties of about 200,000, the Austrians having roughly twice the casualties, including thousands of POWs. For the huge successes at the front, he was awarded the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class with swords, and the Order of St, George of the 2nd degree, being three of the only generals that was awarded this high decoration, the other two generals being General Nikolai Ruzsky and Nikolai Yudenich. During the battle at the Vistula River, he with his Southwestern Front armies (4th Army and the 9th Army), together with the Northwestern Front commander-in-chief General Ruzsky with his armies (2nd Army and the 5th Army) from the North. In the matter of a month, General Ivanov and General Ruzsky's troops successfully repulsed the German advance, taking about a hundred kilometres of land. Later on, General Ivanov commanded an operation towards Kraków, it was successful at first, but was later ordered to retreated, ending the initial success.  In early 1915, General Ivanov gained approval of the Stavka to launch an offensive towards Hungary, but the offensive was disturbed by the Germans in Poland. Furthermore, the Austro-German forces launched an offenisve in southern Poland. During the battle, the Russians suffered a casualties up to 350 thousand men, and the Russians were pushed out of Galicia, starting the Russian Great Retreat. General Ivanov repeatedly showed examples of poor leadership of the troops and indecisiveness, much like many other Russian generals at that time. Most particularly, he and the General Radko Dimitriev (commander of the 3rd Army) didn't make any effort to strengthen the 3rd Army, which the Austro-German forces inflicted the main blow at and nearly wiping the army.  Later in June, General Ivanov ordered General Nikolai Khodorovich, commander-in-chief of the Kiev Military District, to take 1 in a 1000 local German civilians as hostages, and imprison them for the rest of the war. General Ivanov also prescribed to requisition that all the German hostages could only have a small portion of food of all the supplies they had got, and the hostages were settled in highly secured residence. And if any hostages didn't follow the orders, they would be met with death penalty.  Later at the end of 1915, he conducted a failed operation by the 11th Army against the enemy's forces. And in March 1916, he was replaced by General Aleksei Brusilov as the commander-in-chief of the Southwestern Front, he was then appointed a member of the State Council, and was made adjutant to tsar Nicholas II himself. General Brusilov recalled that, when he arrived and accepted the post, General Ivanov burst into tears and said that he couldn't understand why he was to be replaced. General Brusilov assumed that it was due to the fact that General Ivanov was too passive, whom believed that the front couldn't succeed.  General Ivanov, with his loyalty towards the tsar and surprisingly the tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna and the mystic Rasputin as well, he enjoyed great confidence and reputation from the royal family. After General Mikhail Alekseyev was appointed chief of staff to the supreme commander-in-chief in mid 1915, which was the tsar himself, the tsarina wrote a letter to her husband, advising him not to let Alekseyev the only person in charge of the Stavka and advised him to let Ivanov to assist him, saying that:  Further actions showed that it was Ivanov was the mastermind behind Alekseyev, who was not trusted by the tsarina. In return, Ivanov was treated very well by Nicholas. Later on, the tsar wrote to his wife:  Since September 1915, the tsarina had sent many letters to her husband, exerting pressure on him in order to summon General Ivanov back from the front to be at the post of Minister of War. The tsar later accepted it in March, and summoned the general to the headquarters to be the tsar's secondment person. By the end of 1916, the tsarina launched a series of letters against General Alekseyev, Ivanov joined her by informing the situations of the Stavka and reported it to Alekseyev.

February Revolution.

On February 27 (March 12), 1917, the February Revolution broke out in Russia, and was Centred in Petrograd, the capital. General Alekseyev proposed to send a detachment by its commander with full power, to restore order in the capital. The tsar then ordered to allocate an infantry and cavalry brigade from the Northern and Western Fronts, and appointed Ivanov as the head of the general-adjutants and commander-in-chief of the Petrograd Military District, replacing Lieutenant-General Sergei Khabalov. Later on, the tsar ordered him to take command of the St. George Battalion in Tsarskoye Selo to ensure the royal family's satefy. There was also a speech of the Stavka about strengthening the Petrograd Garrison by allocating "strong regiments" from the front back to the capital. Later, when the soldiers and police loyal to the Imperial Government surrendered to the revolutionaries, Minister of War General Mikhail Belyaev declared Petrograd a stage of siege, and military operation against the revolutionaries in the capital had begun.  General Alekseyev ordered Northern Front commander-in-chief General Yuri Danilov to send Ivanov two infantry and two cavalry regiments, reinforced by a machine-gun team:  The Western Front informed General Alekseyev about dispatching the 34th Sevsky and 36th Orlovsky Infantry Regiments, the 2nd Hussar Pavlograd and the 2nd Don Cossack Regiments during February 28 and March 2. The Northern Front singled out the 67th and 68th Infantry Regiments, the 15th Ulansky Tatar and the 3rd Ural Cossack regiments.

Russian Civil War.

After the October Revolution, he joined the White movement in southern Russia. In October 1918, he agreed to the invitation of Pyotr Krasnov to take command of the Southern Army. In the autumn of 1918, it numbered more than 20,000 troops, of which there were about 3,000 at the front. Parts of the army operating in the Voronezh and Tsaritsyn areas suffered heavy losses. In February-March 1919, they were reformed and became part of the 6th Infantry Division of the Armed Forces of South Russia.  Nikolai Ivanov died of typhus on January 27, 1919 in Odessa.

Nikolai Iudovich Ivanov (, tr. ; 1851 – 27 January 1919) was a Russian artillery general in the Imperial Russian Army.

Nikolai Iudowitsch Iwanow (; * ; † 27. Januar 1919 in Odessa) war ein kaiserlich-russischer Offizier, zuletzt General der Artillerie im Ersten Weltkrieg.


History.

Banshee was built on the former site of Son of Beast, a wooden roller coaster plagued with issues and demolished in 2012, and the Thunder Alley go-kart attraction that was removed the same year. In the queue line there is a memorial for the Son of Beast. Following their removal, it was not immediately clear what would replace the attractions. Construction on a new attraction began, however, on April 22, 2013. A trademark for the name "Banshee" was filed on April 24, 2013. Owner Cedar Fair had previously considered using the name for a roller coaster at Cedar Point, though Cedar Point's coaster was ultimately named Mantis.  Kings Island began teasing the new attraction on the first day of the 2013 season. Along the perimeter of the former Thunder Alley, a fence was set up with a sign that read, "Due to the increasing occurrence of mysterious and bone-chilling screams, it has become necessary to close this section of the park until the cause of this evil phenomenon can be identified." During the course of the summer, several clues about the attraction were set up around the construction site. On June 10, 2013, the park launched their social media campaign by posting a photo showing the construction site with the caption, "Field of Dreams". The campaign continued with five scarecrows around the construction site and several Twitter posts about the future attraction. Then, at the beginning of July 2013, recordings of someone screaming could be heard by park guests near the construction area. Two weeks later, farm owls were placed in nearby trees. On July 31, 2013, Kings Island detailed plans to reveal a new world record-breaking attraction on the evening of August 8, 2013. Media packages containing a silver comb, artificial hair and a tag were sent out to media outlets to notify them of the upcoming announcement. A limited number of tickets were also made available to the public giving access to a tour of the construction site prior to the revealing and reserved seats at the event, with net proceeds being donated to breast cancer research. Blueprints for the project were leaked to the public on August 1, 2013.  On August 8, 2013, Kings Island officially unveiled Banshee, the world's longest inverted roller coaster. At a cost of $24 million, the ride is the single biggest investment in Kings Island history. Banshee is the second Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster at Kings Island following the installation of Diamondback in 2009. It is also the park's 14th roller coaster.  The foundation work for the supports was done by R.E. Middleton, and the rest of the ride's construction was performed by Adena Corporation. The first pieces of track and supports were delivered to the park from Clermont Steel Fabricators on August 16, 2013; the first track piece was erected on August 27, 2013. The lift hill was completed on September 29, 2013, and by the end of October, other elements such as the first drop, dive loop, and vertical loop were installed. A construction update on November 20, 2013, showed that the zero-g-roll was completed. The final piece of track was installed on January 23, 2014, and testing began on March 15, 2014. The ride officially opened to the public on April 18, 2014. On July 10, 2014, less than three months after opening, Kings Island celebrated Banshee's 1 millionth rider, who received a gift package and a commemorative sign.

Ride experience.

Banshee stands tall and features a first drop of. With a length of, the ride is the world's longest inverted roller coaster. The ride includes seven inversions including two vertical loops, a dive loop, a zero-g roll, a pretzel knot and an inline twist. Riders experience speeds of up to on the 2 minute and 40 second ride.  After departing from the station, the train makes a left turn toward the chain lift hill. After reaching the top, the sound of a banshee screaming is played as the train drops into a heavily-banked right turn. After reaching the bottom of the drop, riders enter a dive loop immediately followed by a vertical loop around the lift hill. Continuing down the valley, the train enters the third inversion, a zero-gravity roll, where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness. Next, the train makes an upward left-hand turn into a "pretzel knot" (an element where the train enters a dive loop, followed by an Immelmann loop). Upon exiting the pretzel knot, the train enters a second vertical loop before making a right turn into an inline twist. Following a downward left hand helix, the train makes a final banked right turn into the final brake run leading back to the station. At night, Banshee employs state-of-the-art lighting and fog effects to enhance the riding experience.

Ride characteristics.

Location.

The ride has a number of features which are unlike many roller coasters. Due to the terrain underneath Banshee, the highest point of the ride – the lift hill – is higher than the lowest point of the ride, at the bottom of the pretzel knot. As a result of this elevation change, Banshee reaches its maximum speed of approximately halfway through the layout, rather than after the first drop as evidenced in most roller coasters.

Trains.

Banshee operates with three trains made of steel and fiberglass, containing eight cars that seat four riders each in a single row, for a total of 32 riders per train. This configuration allows for a theoretical 1,650 riders per hour. Riders are restrained by flexible, over-the-shoulder restraints and interlocking seat belts, similar to those used on Bolliger & Mabillard's Wing Coaster models but a first among their inverted coasters. Each train is painted a different color – blue, green and purple.

Track.

Banshee's tubular steel track is long and the lift is approximately high. The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia, Ohio. Additionally, the first vertical loop featured on Banshee wraps around the lift hill.

Theme.

As the name suggests, the ride is themed after the mythological female spirit of the same name. The ride's backstory details sightings and screams of the banshee dating back to when the construction of Kings Island began in 1970. The ride features its own plaza area, with its station being themed appropriately.

Reception.

Following the announcement of Banshee, "Screamscape" amusement park enthusiast Lance Hart called the new roller coaster "The perfect addition to an already great coaster line-up" at Kings Island. Also, Brian Krosnick from "Theme Park Tourist" said that though he is excited for Banshee, he questions why the park did not choose to add additional theming throughout the layout of the ride.

Banshee is an inverted roller coaster located at Kings Island amusement park in Mason, Ohio. Designed and built by Bolliger & Mabillard (B&M), Banshee opened to the public on April 18, 2014. The roller coaster features of track, making it the longest inverted roller coaster in the world. Banshee is also the first inverted coaster built in the United States since Patriot debuted at Worlds of Fun in 2006.

Banshee („Todesfee“) im US-amerikanischen Freizeitpark Kings Island (Mason, Ohio) ist eine Stahlachterbahn vom Modell Inverted Coaster des Herstellers Bolliger & Mabillard, die am 18. April 2014 offiziell eröffnet wurde. Die 1257 m lange und 24 Millionen Dollar teure Strecke erreicht eine Höhe von 51 m, aus der die Züge auf eine Höchstgeschwindigkeit von 109 km/h beschleunigt werden, und besitzt neben fünf weiteren Inversionen einen auf Achterbahnen einmaligen Pretzel-Knot.


History.

In 1983 Taramis were formed as Prowler in Melbourne with the line-up of Joe Cordina on drums, Danny Komorr on bass guitar, Mick "Lights" Cawthan on lead guitar, Craig Robertson on lead guitar, and Shane "Joel" Southby on lead vocals. Initially Prowler played cover versions of Iron Maiden and Manowar material. Cawthan was replaced by Andrew Rigo on guitar but Rigo left soon after. In 1985 Cordina was replaced on drums by Dave Browne, the group were playing more original material and changed their name to Taramis – from the 1984 film "Conan the Destroyer".  In late 1986, the band recorded their debut album, "Queen of Thieves", which appeared on the Metal for Melbourne record label in August 1987. It was produced and engineered by George Simak (Black Jack). Before its release Komorr was replaced on bass guitar by Evan Harris. The group toured interstate and signed with United States label, Metal Blade, to issue the album in North America in the following year.  Early in 1990 Robertson left and was replaced by George Larin (ex-New Religion, Nothing Sacred) on lead guitar. Larin added a "more inventive and forceful playing style to the band's sound". In April 1992 their second album, "Stretch of the Imagination", was released on Rising Sun Productions. It was recorded at Oasis Studios with Doug Saunders (Mass Confusion) producing. In July that year they supported Brazilian band Sepultura at their Melbourne concert.  Taramis disbanded early in 1993. Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane noted they were "one of the first local groups to play a brand of 'progressive' heavy metal in the style of overseas acts... Taramis infused its esoteric music with an epic, mystical feel. Man-mountain frontman Joel Southby also possessed a booming rock voice which added an edge to the band's billowing, blustering song arrangements".  Southby moved to Sydney and eventually became a member of Merv Brewer Steel Guitar Band. He later moved to New Zealand. Larin developed his own self-titled project. In 2000 Browne joined Clauz, a three-piece metal group, which released an album, "Strict Regime", in 2002. In December 2008, Harris, who had been a member of Black Majesty and Endel Rivers, played bass guitar for Steve Turner, an Australian progressive rock guitarist, with Turner's album due in mid-2009. On 6 January 2009 Dave Browne died, at the age of 44 years; Taramis reunited in June to play a benefit concert in Browne's honour. Also that month both albums were re-released by My Graveyard Records with bonus tracks.

Taramis was an Australian heavy metal group, which began as Prowler in 1983. Initially they played covers of other artists' work; in 1985 they developed more original material and changed their name. By that time their line-up was Dave Browne on drums, Shane "Joel" Southby on lead vocals, Danny Komorr on bass guitar, and Craig Robertson on lead guitar. Their debut album, "Queen of Thieves", was released in August 1987. A second album followed in April 1992, "Stretch of the Imagination", and the group supported Brazilian band Sepultura at their Melbourne concert in July. Taramis disbanded early in 1993. Australian rock music historian Ian McFarlane noted they were "one of the first local groups to play a brand of 'progressive' heavy metal in the style of overseas acts... Taramis infused its esoteric music with an epic, mystical feel. Man-mountain frontman Joel Southby also possessed a booming rock voice which added an edge to the band's billowing, blustering song arrangements".

Taramis war eine australische Metal-Band aus Melbourne, die im Jahr 1982 unter dem Namen Prowler gegründet wurde und sich Mitte der 1990er Jahre auflöste.


Origin.

The Tanguts are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to the Qiang or Dangxiang (). Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China. The name Tangut first appears in the Orkhon inscriptions of 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselves "Mi-niah" (Miñak). The Tanguts eventually migrated from their homeland in northeastern Tibet to the eastern Ordos region under pressure from the Tibetan Empire. By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion the Tanguts were the most dominant local power in the region. There they established the first and only Tangut state to have ever existed--Western Xia. Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was stil used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture.

Appearance.

According to William of Rubruck, the Tanguts were valiant and had big men among them, in contrast to the Uyghurs who were "of medium size, like us."

Culture.

Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and the "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elite priestly caste. Although Buddhism was extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind of shamanism known as Root West. The black caps worn by Root West shamans give the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of the Black Headed Tanguts was a heavenly white crane, while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu.  According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as the Western Xia was named translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" ("phôn1 mbın2 lhi̯ə tha2"). Although the Chinese translation of this name () was occasionally used in Tangut sources, the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" (大夏) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" () to the Song. In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" ("Xī Xià" 西夏). The Mongols and other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which was derived from the Middle Chinese name for the region the Tanguts controlled ().

History.

In 881 the Tanguts assisted the Tang in suppressing the Huang Chao rebellion. As a reward the Tang granted the Tangut general Li Sigong the three prefectures of Xia (, Tangut: ), Sui (, Tangut: ), and Yin (, Tangut: ) as hereditary titles under the Dingnan Jiedushi. From there the Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conquered Ling Prefecture and set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping. By 1036 they had annexed the Guiyi Circuit and the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom, even pushing into Tibetan territory and conquering Xining. The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038.  Since the Tangut's founder, Li Deming, was not a particularly conservative ruler, the Tangut people began to absorb the Chinese culture that surrounded them, but never lost their actual identity, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself.  Li Deming's more conservative son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned as Emperor Jingzong, sought to restore and strengthen the Tangut identity by ordering the creation of an official Tangut script and by instituting laws that reinforced traditional cultural customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Rejecting the common Chinese surname of "Li" given to the Tuoba by the Tang court and that of "Zhao" given by the Song court, he adopted a Tangut surname, rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" (). He made Xingqing (, modern Yinchuan) his capital city.  In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of Mongolia and led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During the last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness, whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles.  In 1227, the capital of Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined the Mongol Empire. Some of them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were considered Semu under the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers.

Religion.

The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entire Chinese Buddhist canon was translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which the Huayan-Chan tradition of Guifeng Zongmi (Chinese: 圭峰宗密, 780–841) and his master Huayan Chengguan was the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations of Khitan source texts. The degree of Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to the local culture in North China than to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the Tibetan Mahamudra tradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along the Karma Kagyu rather than Sakya lines of Buddhist transmission.  A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during the Yuan dynasty. One of the more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism was Mount Wutai, where both Huayan and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism flourished from the late Tang dynasty up to the time of the Mongol conquest.  Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, the Helan Mountains and the Chan teachings of both Kim Hwasang and Baotang Wuzhu: Worship of Confucianism also existed in the Western Xia, which has led to some claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including the Chinese classics were rarely available in the Tangut language.  The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to Buddhist ethical beliefs, the Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services.  Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries.  As in China, becoming a Buddhist monk required government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for the time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving as nuns, a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin.  Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first several Karmapas upon the Yuan and Ming courts as well as the Western Xia, and mentions Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama: After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of the Pehar deity into Tibetan Buddhism, eventually in the important role as the state oracle, the Nechung Oracle.

The Tangut people (Tangut:, "mjɨ nja̱" or, "mji dzjwo"; Chinese: 党項, dǎngxiàng) were a Tibeto-Burman tribal union that inhabited Western Xia. The group lived under Tuyuhun authority and moved to Northwest China sometime before the 10th century to found the Western Xia or Tangut Empire (1038–1227). They spoke the Tangut language, one of the Qiangic languages that belong to the Tibeto-Burman family.

Die Tanguten () waren ein antikes sinitisches Volk im Gebiet der heutigen chinesischen Provinzen Innere Mongolei, Qinghai Sichuan und Gansu sowie des Autonomen Gebiets Ningxia. Im Jahre 1038 gründeten sie die Westliche Xia-Dynastie ("Xi Xia" oder "Xixia"). Ihre Nachfahren sind möglicherweise die Qiang im heutigen Südwesten Chinas.


Biography.

Early political career and Terza Posizione.

Adinolfi started his political activity in the years of student protests. In 1968 he was involved in the Roman Italian Social Movement scene, in particular he was active in the "Filippo Anfuso" section in via Livorno (next to Piazza Bologna).  From 1970 he began joining several far right extraparliamentary movements: the Fronte Studentesco, then Avanguardia Nazionale, Lotta di Popolo and, in the end, Alternativa Studentesca. Together with Giuseppe Dimitri and Roberto Fiore, in 1976, he is one of the founders of Lotta Studentesca in the bookshop of Walter Spedicato. In 1977 Lotta Studentesca becomes Terza Posizione, which eventually become one of the most important extraparliamentary far right movements.

Takedown of Terza Posizione and exile.

In the investigations following the Bologna Massacre (and the discovery of explosives being smuggled by members of Terza Posizione in Rome during a random search) an arrest warrant was issued on 28 August 1980 for Adinolfi, Fiore and other 26 far right exponents. Interrogations took place in Ferrara, Rome, Padua and Parma. On 23 September 1980 Terza Posizione was declared illegal, and another arrest warrant was declared, for the crime of subversive association.  As Adinolfi was found guilty of associative and ideologous crimes, he fled the country, and finally settled in France. He do however continue to travel back and forth from Italy, to follow the evolution of the far right scene.  In 1982 in Paris, Adinolfi collaborated in the realization of three numbers of the journals "Terza Posizione" and "Dixie", the latter focusing on finance and power. In the same year, Adinolfi and Spedicato gave life to the "Centro Studi Orientamenti e Ricerca" ("Scholarship Center for Orientation and Research") in which they elaborate five political documents and ten years of trimonthly bulletins. "Orientamenti e Ricerca" stopped its publications in 1995 with the death of Spedicato.

Back in Italy.

In 2000 Adinolfi could come back in Italy for prescription. He has since then been one of the most active and innovative ideologues and thinkers of the Italian far right scene. He proposes a socially oriented, anti-globalization, uncompromised far right policy. His political analysis is peculiar for the combination of uncompromised far right ideology and strive for objectivity (for example, he regularly stated that the far right should honour Ernesto Che Guevara, regardless of him being Communist, because of his human and political virtues).  He currently coordinate the journal "Orion", and the far right news website NoReporter. He also backed initiatives like the "Guardia d'Onore Mussolini" ("Mussolini Guard Of Honour", a voluntary organization that guards the Mussolini grave in Predappio) and the recent explosion of far-right social centres, of which the most famous is CasaPound. He currently leads the "Centro Studi Polaris" ("Polaris Scholarship Center"), and the think tank EurHope based on Brussel. He as funded the Lansquentes

Gabriele Adinolfi (Rome, 3 January 1954) is an Italian far right ideologue and essayist. He was one of the prominent characters of the 1970s extraparliamentary far right.

Gabriele Adinolfi (* 3. Januar 1954 in Rom) ist ein italienischer Publizist und neofaschistischer Aktivist. Er zählt zu den führenden Ideologen der extremen Rechten in Europa.


Early life and career.

Barker was born in Lovell, Maine. His parents were Stephen Barker and Betsey Andrews. Barker received a small education, up until he was sixteen. In 1842, he married Orsina Little. Orsina was the granddaughter of Jonathan Clark and Moses Little. Barker engaged in agricultural pursuits and also in the shook business. He moved to Carrolltown, Pennsylvania, in 1854 and later to Ebensburg, Pennsylvania, where he continued the shook business. Barker also worked with Neal Dow in favor of the Maine law. Barker was an ardent prohibitionist. He also engaged in the mercantile business in 1858 and later in the lumber business. He became the president of the Ebensburg and Cresson Branch Railroad, until it was taken over by the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Political Career and later life.

Barker was a delegate to the 1860 Republican National Convention. He cast his vote for the nomination of Abraham Lincoln at the convention. During the American Civil War, he served in Company E, Fourth Regiment, Pennsylvania Emergency Troops. Barker was elected as a Republican to the Thirty-ninth Congress. He was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1866 and for election as a Republican in 1872. After leaving congress, Barker left the Republican Party to join to the Prohibition Party in 1876. From 1878 to 1882, Barker served as the president of the Pennsylvania Prohibition Party. He reengaged in the lumber and shook business until 1880. Barker was also highly involved in Freemasonry. In 1896 Barker was nominated to run for congress by the Prohibition Party. This was his final political race, and he lost. He died in Altoona, Pennsylvania, while on a visit for medical treatment in 1898.  Retrieved on 2008-02-14

Abraham Andrews Barker (March 30, 1816 – March 18, 1898) served as a soldier during the American Civil War, and was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Abraham Andrews Barker (* 30. März 1816 in Lovell, Oxford County, Massachusetts; † 18. März 1898 in Altoona, Pennsylvania) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1865 und 1867 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Pennsylvania im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Early life.

Morrell was born in North Berwick, York County, Maine. He attended public schools and moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1836, and entered a counting room as clerk. He later engaged in mercantile pursuits.

Career.

In 1855 he moved to Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and became general manager of the Cambria Iron Company, which was the greatest manufacturer of iron and steel in the United States until the Johnstown Flood. Morrell also served as president of the local gas and water company from 1860 to 1884 and as president of the First National Bank of Johnstown from 1863 to 1884. He was president of the city council for many years.  Morrell was elected as a Republican to the Fortieth and Forty-first Congresses. He served as chairman of the United States House Committee on Manufactures during the Fortieth and Forty-first Congresses. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1870. He was a commissioner to the Paris Exposition of 1878.

Johnstown Flood.

Morrell became a member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, site of the South Fork Dam, which formed Lake Conemaugh, in order to keep a watchful eye on the dam under its stewardship, and campaigned to club officials, especially to its founder, Benjamin Franklin Ruff, regarding the safety of the dam. The failure of that dam eventually caused the great Johnstown Flood of May 31, 1889, which killed more than 2,200 people, and was then the largest disaster in U.S. history. Morrell insisted on inspections of the dam's breastwork both by his own engineers and those of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Morrell's warnings went unheeded, and his offer to effect repairs, partially at his own expense, was rejected by club president, Benjamin F. Ruff (who died two years prior to the flood). Morrell died four years before the Johnstown Flood; his membership was then bought by his colleague, Cyrus Elder, who was legal counsel for the Cambria Iron and Steel Company.

Death and legacy.

Morrell was again engaged in banking and died on August 20, 1885, in Johnstown, Cambria County, Pennsylvania.  He is the namesake of the ill-fated.

Daniel Johnson Morrell (August 8, 1821 – August 20, 1885) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Daniel Johnson Morrell (* 8. August 1821 in North Berwick, York County, Maine; † 20. August 1885 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1867 und 1871 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Pennsylvania im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Background.

Carcass disbanded in 1996, prior to the release of their album "Swansong". Walker, Steer, and Amott reformed in 2007 with Arch Enemy drummer Daniel Erlandsson as a live act and performed at festivals around the world for the next several years. In 2008, Steer said in an interview that a new album was unlikely due to Amott's and Walker's busy schedules. Also in 2008, Walker told "Decibel" that the reunion would not produce any new material, saying, "I don't see how it could ever happen, because me, Mike and Bill are all bandleaders. There'd be too many guys thinking they know better." However, in that same interview, he acknowledged that Steer had been "showing [Amott] riffs" that may lead to new songs.  While touring in 2008, Steer watched drummer Dan Wilding play and felt inspired by his similarity to former Carcass drummer Ken Owen, who had been unable to join Carcass for the reunion due to a cerebral hemorrhage he suffered in 1999. Amott and Erlandsson left the band in 2012 to focus on Arch Enemy, and Steer and Walker recruited Wilding to record "Surgical Steel", which they financed independently as they had no label backing at the time.

Promotion and release.

The German magazine "Legacy" premiered the "Surgical Steel" song "Captive Bolt Pistol" in June 2013 on a sampler CD, titled "Hell Is Here", promoting the 2013 Party.San Open Air festival. Nuclear Blast released the song as a free download on 16 July and released a 7" vinyl single the week of 9 August with "Intensive Battery Brooding" on the B-side. Carcass played a five-date North American tour in September 2013, followed by a longer tour of Europe in November 2013 with death metal band Amon Amarth. "Decibel" premiered "Zochrot", a song recorded during the "Surgical Steel" sessions, as a flexi disc included with "Decibel"'s October 2013 issue.  "Surgical Steel" was released as a CD in both a standard jewel case and a digipack, and as a double-LP on black or white vinyl. Additionally, a Mail Order Edition was released exclusively by Nuclear Blast. It is a box set containing the CD in a first aid kit, and is limited to 666 copies.  The band recorded four additional songs during the "Surgical Steel" sessions that were not included on the standard edition of the album: "A Wraith in the Apparatus", "Intensive Battery Brooding", "Zochrot", and "Livestock Marketplace". Additional songs were released on 11 November 2014 (North America), 14 November (rest of Europe) and 17 November (UK) on an EP titled "Surgical Remission/Surplus Steel". The EP is available on physical and digital formats.

Critical reception.

Chris Dick of "Decibel" praised the album as a worthy addition to the band's discography, noting that the album has a more aggressive first half and more melodic and riff-driven second half. Dick wrote, ""Surgical Steel" isn't just an unfeigned return to form; it's a verifiably vicious one". Mike Kemp of "Terrorizer" opined that the record wasn't a reinvention of the band's familiar sound, nor "a rehash of past glories". Instead, he called it a "bloody great death metal album" which fulfilled his expectations.  In a positive review on the website Invisible Oranges, Alee Karim described the album's "machine-gun-picking strafes, heavy mid-tempo stomps, [and] virtuosic yet hooky Thin Lizzy-esque twin-guitar harmonies" and said, "This may not end up being your favorite Carcass album [...] but it may be objectively the best realization of their sound." Hank Shteamer of Pitchfork called "Surgical Steel" "a nostalgic statement" that was "enjoyable". He also praised the musicians on the album, such as the "outstanding playing from Steer", "some of the tightest drumming in the band's discography", and called Walker "the star of the record".  "Surgical Steel" was named 2013's Album of the Year by several metal magazines and websites, including Metal Assault, Decibel Magazine, and MetalSucks, who would later in 2019 go on to rank "Surgical Steel" as the 2nd best Metal Album of the '10s.

Personnel.

Carcass  Additional musician  Production

Surgical Steel is the sixth full-length album by British death metal band Carcass. The album was released on 13 September 2013 in Europe, 16 September in the UK, and 17 September in North America, via Nuclear Blast. "Surgical Steel" is Carcass' first studio album since "Swansong" (1996), and their first to feature Dan Wilding as the replacement of original drummer Ken Owen, although the latter does provide backing vocals on the album. This was also the band's first album since "Symphonies of Sickness" (1989) to be recorded as a three-piece, and their first one to reach the Top 50 in UK album charts.

Surgical Steel ist das sechste Studioalbum der britischen Extreme-Metal-Band Carcass. Es erschien am 13. September 2013 bei Nuclear Blast als Comeback-Album nach der Wiedervereinigung der Gruppe im Jahr 2007. Stilistisch wird es als Death Metal mit Einflüssen aus dem Grindcore eingeordnet. Von der Musikpresse wurde das Album sehr positiv aufgenommen.


Plot.

The concept of the film is explained in a voiceover intro by G. W. Bailey, who wonders what it would be like if one of the 1930s/1940s Rex O'Herlihan films were to be made today. At that point, in a scene reminiscent of "The Wizard of Oz", the cinematography shifts from black and white to color and the soundtrack changes from mono to surround sound.  As a consequence of this paradigm shift, Rex O'Herlihan (Berenger), a "singing cowboy," is the only character aware of the plot outline. He explains that he "knows the future" inasmuch as "these Western towns are all the same" and that it's his "karma" to "ride into a town, help the good guys, who are usually poor for some reason, against the bad guys, who are usually rich for some reason, and ride out again." Rex's knowledge is also connected to the unspecified "root" vegetables he digs up and eats.  On his high-stepping horse Wildfire, Rex rides into the town of Oakwood Estates, walks into a saloon and meets Peter, the Town Drunk (Bailey). In exchange for a free drink, Peter explains the background: the town, and especially the sheep herders ("nice enough, but they smell God-awful"), are being terrorized by the cattle ranchers, headed by Colonel Ticonderoga (Andy Griffith). Also there is Miss Tracy (Marilu Henner), the traditional Prostitute with a Heart of Gold. A local sheriff (John Orchard) is "a corrupt old coward who takes his orders from the Colonel."  Blackie (Jim Carter), the foreman at Rancho Ticonderoga, swaggers into the bar with two of his henchmen and shoots the town real-estate agent. Miss Tracy objects, and when she is verbally abused by one of Blackie's henchmen, Rex intervenes. Blackie draws on Rex after they exchange words – including Rex's threat to "shoot in the hand" anyone of them drawing on him – and duly delivers on that threat. The disabled Blackie orders his two henchmen to kill Rex, but having been rattled by Rex's skill, they draw and fire their six-shooters hurriedly, and shoot Blackie in the back instead. Rex then proceeds to shoot both in the hand. He then orders them to remove Blackie's corpse.  Peter exchanges his drunk suit for a sidekick outfit, catches up with Rex, and is reluctantly accepted. (Rex has sworn off sidekicks as they keep dying.) At the singing cowboy's campsite, Peter finds not one but two women there eager to get to know Rex a little better, Miss Tracy and the Colonel's daughter (Sela Ward). In the PG-rated original version, Sela Ward and Rex sneak off behind a rock to have sex. This is removed and the film is rated G.  The Colonel goes for help to the boss of the railroad men (Fernando Rey) – who wear dusters and have theme music like characters in spaghetti westerns. "We should stick together. Look what we have in common: we're both rich, we're both power-mad, and we're both Colonels — that's got to count for something!"  Rex outwits the Bad Guys because he knows their every move before they do. But then the Colonels import "Wrangler" Bob Barber (Patrick Wayne), apparently another Good Guy. Bob psychs out Rex in their first meeting by attacking Rex's claim to be the "most good Good Guy" and pointing out that a Good Guy has to be "a confident heterosexual." "I thought it was just a heterosexual," Rex objects. "No, it's a confident heterosexual," responds Bob.  Rex backs down from the shootout. On his way out of town, while preparing to change roles to that of a sidekick, Rex explains to Peter that he rides into town, kisses the girls and rides out again. "That's all: I just kiss 'em. I mean, this is the 1880s. You gotta date and date and date and date and sometimes marry 'em before they, you know."  Bob reports that Rex is finished as a Good Guy. Nevertheless, the Colonels, over Bob's objection, arrange for Peter to be bushwhacked. This rouses Rex to round up the sheep herders and face down Bob and the rancher/railroad combine. Bob is revealed as not a Good Guy at all because, after all, he is a lawyer. Rex shoots him.  Colonel Ticonderoga makes the peace. He apologizes to Rex and throws a party at Rancho Ticonderoga, after which Rex and Peter (who survived because Rex had him wear a bulletproof vest) ride off together into the sunset.

Production.

The film was a passion project of director Hugh Wilson, who grew up loving Westerns he would see at the Saturday afternoon matinee. He was able to make it after the success of "Police Academy" (1984).  In the mid 1980s there was a brief revival in the popularity of the Western, with the studios making films like "Pale Rider", "Lust in the Dust" and "Silverado" (1985). In May 1984 it was announced Wilson would direct the film for Paramount.  "This isn't really a send up," said Wilson. "We're playing it very straight. We loved those old films and we really are trying to say something about them, like how can the hero keep changing his shirt?"  Wilson wanted George Gaynes to play a lead role but the actor was unable to due to his role on "Punky Brewster".  Shooting took place in Almeria, Spain, in October 1984. The film used sets that had once been featured in Sergio Leone films.  Patrick Wayne was hired to appear in the film mid-shoot after the producers were unhappy with the performance of another actor already cast in the part. Wayne later described it as "probably the best acting I've done on film."

Reception.

Box office.

The film was a box office disappointment.

Critical.

"Rustlers' Rhapsody" received negative reviews from critics, with many saying it paled in comparison to Mel Brooks' "Blazing Saddles". Writing in the "New York Times", Vincent Canby thought Wilson had ignored the "genuinely funny" idea that Rex might be caught in a time warp. The film currently holds a 17% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 12 reviews.  The "Los Angeles Times" called it "a joy."

Home-video releases.

"Rustlers' Rhapsody" was released on VHS cassette in by CIC Video.

Rustlers' Rhapsody is a 1985 American comedy-Western film. It is a parody of many Western conventions, most visibly of the singing cowboy films that were prominent in the 1930s and the 1940s. The film was written and directed by Hugh Wilson, who was supposedly inspired by working at CBS Studio Center, the former Republic Pictures backlot. It stars Tom Berenger as a stereotypical good-guy cowboy, Rex O'Herlihan, who is drawn out of a black-and-white film and transferred into a more self-aware setting. Patrick Wayne, son of Western icon John Wayne, co-stars, along with Andy Griffith, Fernando Rey, G.W. Bailey, Marilu Henner and Sela Ward.

Rhapsodie in Blei (Originaltitel: "Rustler's Rhapsody") ist ein Western aus dem Jahr 1984. Das als Hommage an die Zeit der B-Western in deren Stil gehaltene Werk wurde im deutschsprachigen Raum am 26. Juli 1985 in den Kinos erstaufgeführt und ein halbes Jahr später auf Video veröffentlicht.


Taxonomy.

The species was first named as "Agaricus infractus" by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1799. It was transferred to the genus "Cortinarius" by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1838 "Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici". Differing opinions regarding the organization of "Cortinarius" have led to the names "Phlegmacium infractum" (Wünsche) and"Pholiota infracta" (Kummer).  The mushroom is commonly known as the "sooty-olive Cortinarius", or the "bitter webcap".

Description.

The cap is in diameter, thickly fleshy, particularly in the center. It is initially convex, but already slightly undulatingly squashed while still young, becoming convex and depressed around the umbo, then flattened, retaining for a long time a low broad umbo but sometimes at length uniformly depressed. The margin is distinctly curved, slightly rolled inward when young, thin and sharply rounded when mature and often wavy and lobed. The cap surface is smooth and sticky, dirty yellow-olive to dirty brownish-olive or olive grayish-green, then dirty light brown with green tinge, streakily fibrillose almost from the middle (scantily so at center), finely and persistently dark greenish-brownish. The gills are moderately crowded to distant spaced—about four gills per centimeter in the middle on mature fruit bodies, at the margin about ten per centimeter. They are adnate and deeply emarginate (notched), especially when mature, up to broad, somewhat wrinkled on the surface and with the edge entire or slightly undulatingly denticulate. Their color is dirty olive, then later dark brownish-olive, with slightly paler edge.  The stem is up to long, wide at the apex but up to wide at the base, where it thickens bulbously. The bulb, which is not sharply upright but marked by a rounded ridge, is egg-shaped in cross section. For a long time the stem is solid, then sometimes hollow, firm, hard, silkily fibrillose, dirty whitish with olive tinge but faintly greenish-blue, particularly at the apex, and sometimes even with a blue tint or bluish spots on the bulb. The cortina is olive greenish, then brownish, thickly developed but soon disappearing. The flesh is tough, then softer, whitish, with slight bluish-green tinge, thick in the cap, homogenous and softly juicily fleshy; in the stem, fibrillosely rivulose beneath the surface and with a dirty bluish-green or greenish-olive tinge in this region, more homogenous and almost non-fibrillose in the bulb. The taste is bitter and the odor faint, similar to radish. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are 50–60 by 9–10 μm, with four sterigmata 6–7 μm long.  In 1999, Moser and Ammmirati described a variety that they had seen many times since 1983 in Shoshone National Forest, Wyoming. "Cortinarius infractus" var. "flavus" differs from the typical variety in its cap, which reaches up to with a yellow-brown to almost yellow color.; paler gills described as "olivaceous-brownish"; a slightly bitterish, sometimes mild taste.

Similar species.

"Cortinarius immixtus" somewhat resembles "C. infractus", but has brighter-colored young gills (ranging from yellowish to olive to green), a mild taste, and larger spores.

Distribution and habitat.

The fruit bodies of "Cortinarius infractus" grows scattered in deciduous forests of both oak and beech.

Bioactive compounds.

The chemical composition of the essential oils obtained from the fruit bodies were shown to contain 36 components, dominantly musk ambrette, in a ratio of 62.3%. The essential oil was also tested for antimicrobial activity against the human pathogenic bacteria "Escherichia coli", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Enterococcus faecalis", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Bacillus cereus" and the fungus "Candida tropicalis", but did not show any biological activity.  Two alkaloids, infractopicrin and 10-hydroxy-infractopicrin, have been isolated from the fruit bodies of "Cortinarius infractus". Both compounds show the ability to inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, and possess a higher selectivity than galanthamine, a drug used for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease and various other memory impairments. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and the prevention of acetylcholine breakdown is one of the most accepted therapy opportunities for Alzheimer's disease today. Due to the limited selectivity of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor drugs on the market, Alzheimer's disease patients suffer from side effects like nausea or vomiting, and natural products like the fungal alkaloids could be useful candidates for further drug development.

Cortinarius infractus, commonly known as the sooty-olive Cortinarius or the bitter webcap, is an inedible basidiomycete mushroom of the genus "Cortinarius". The fungus produces sooty-olive fruit bodies with sticky caps measuring up to in diameter. The fruit bodies contains alkaloids that inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.

Der ungenießbare Bittere Schleimkopf ("Cortinarius infractus") ist eine Pilzart aus der Familie der Schleierlingsverwandten (Cortinariaceae). Die Fruchtkörper erscheinen von August bis Oktober im Laub- und Nadelwald.


Composition.

Every state except Nebraska has a bicameral legislature, meaning that the legislature consists of two separate legislative chambers or houses. In each case the smaller chamber is called the Senate and is usually referred to as the upper house. This chamber typically, but not always, has the exclusive power to confirm appointments made by the governor and to try articles of impeachment. (In a few states, a separate Executive Council, composed of members elected from large districts, performs the confirmation function.) Members of the smaller chamber represent more citizens and usually serve for longer terms than members of the larger chamber, generally four years. In 41 states, the larger chamber is called the House of Representatives. Five states designate the larger chamber the Assembly and three states call it the House of Delegates. Members of the larger chamber usually serve for terms of two years. The larger chamber customarily has the exclusive power to initiate taxing legislation and articles of impeachment.  Prior to the United States Supreme Court decisions "Baker v. Carr" (1962) and "Reynolds v. Sims" (1964), the basis of representation in most state legislatures was modeled on that of the U.S. Congress: the state senators represented geographical units, while members of the larger chamber represented population. In "Reynolds v. Sims" the Supreme Court decided upon the one man, one vote standard for state legislatures and invalidated representation based on geographical units regardless of population. (The ruling does not affect the U.S. Senate, because that chamber's makeup is prescribed by the U.S. Constitution.)  Nebraska originally had a bicameral legislature like the other states, but the lower house was abolished following a referendum, effective with the 1936 elections. The remaining unicameral (one-chamber) legislature is called the Nebraska Legislature, but its members are called state senators.

Duties and influence.

As a legislative branch of government, a legislature generally performs state duties for a state in the same way that the United States Congress performs national duties at the national level. Generally, the same system of checks and balances that exists at the Federal level also exists between the state legislature, the state executive officer (governor) and the state judiciary, though the degree to which this is so varies from one state to the next.  During a legislative session, the legislature considers matters introduced by its members or submitted by the governor. Businesses and other special interest organizations often lobby the legislature to obtain beneficial legislation, defeat unfavorably perceived measures, or influence other legislative action. A legislature also approves the state's operating and capital budgets, which may begin as a legislative proposal or a submission by the governor.  Under the terms of Article V of the U.S. Constitution, state lawmakers retain the power to ratify Constitutional amendments which have been proposed by both houses of Congress and they also retain the ability to call for a national convention to propose amendments to the U.S. Constitution. After the convention has concluded its business 75% of the states will then be required to ratify what the convention has proposed. Under Article II, state legislatures choose the manner of appointing the state's presidential electors. Formerly, state legislatures appointed the U.S. Senators from their respective states until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913 required the direct election of Senators by the state's voters.

Lawmaking process.

Generally, the legislative bodies and their committees use either "Mason's Manual of Legislative Procedure" or an amended form thereof. During official meetings, a professional parliamentarian is available to ensure that legislation and accompanying discussion proceed as orderly as possible without bias.

Beginnings.

The lawmaking process begins with the introduction of a bill in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Bills may be introduced in either house, sometimes with the exception of bills increasing or decreasing revenue, which must originate in the House of Representatives. The order of business in each house provides a proper time for the introduction of bills.  Bills are usually assigned consecutive numbers, given in the order of their introduction, to facilitate identification. Usually a bill cannot become enacted until it has been read on a certain number of days in each house. Upon introduction, a bill is usually read by its title only, constituting the first reading of the bill. Because a bill is usually read by title only, it is important that the title give the members notice of the subject matter contained in the bill.

Committees.

General information.

As with other legislative bodies throughout the world, U. S. state legislatures operate mainly through committees when considering proposed bills. Thus, committee action is probably the most important phase of the legislative process. Most bills cannot be enacted into law until it has been referred to, acted upon by, and returned from, a standing committee in each house. Reference to committee usually follows the first reading of the bill.  Each committee is set up to consider bills relating to a particular subject.  Standing committees are charged with the important responsibility of examining bills and recommending action to the Senate or House. Often on days when a legislature is not in session, the committees of each house meet and consider the bills that have been referred to them to decide if the assigned bills should be reported for further action.  For most bills, the recommendations of the committee are followed, although either house is free to accept or reject the action of the committee. Bills reported favorably by a committee may be placed on a regular calendar (the agenda of the deliberative body).  Most of the work of the legislature is done by committees. The legislature as a whole relies on its committees to report out only those bills deserving the consideration of the entire house.  Through standing committees, each bill is addressed by a group of members who have special knowledge of its subject. Some members of the legislature have expert knowledge of particular subjects of legislation, and these members are usually placed on committees to take full advantage of this specialized knowledge. For this reason, the legislature often accepts the final recommendations of its standing committees. As has been noted, however, the legislature does not completely abdicate its responsibility for the consideration of pending bills. If the need arises, the members of either house can force a committee to take action on a bill, or they can ignore the committee's recommendations.

Pocket veto and discharge petitions.

Across the country, pocket veto powers are not uncommon in state legislatures, which allows a committee to "kill" a bill, sometimes without even a public vote; in Colorado, the power was notably repealed in a citizen initiative constitutional amendment in 1988 driven by various reform groups.  When a committee refuses to vote a bill out of committee, a discharge petition can be passed by the broader membership. The specifics vary from state to state; for example, in 2004, a report found that New York State "places more restrictions than any other state legislature on motions to discharge a bill from a committee", which led to subsequent reforms.

Post-committee.

Reports of Committee.

After a committee has completed work on a bill, it reports the bill to the appropriate house during the "reports of committees" in the daily order of business. Reported bills are immediately given a second reading. The houses do not vote on a bill at the time it is reported; however, reported bills are placed on the calendar for the next legislative day. This second reading is made by title only.  The regular calendar is a list of bills that have been favorably reported from committee and are ready for consideration by the membership of the entire house.

Third reading.

Regardless of how a bill is placed on the calendar, once the bill is considered and adopted, this is called the third reading. It is at this third reading of the bill that the entire legislature gives consideration to its passage. At this time, the bill may be studied in detail, debated, amended, and read at length before final passage.  If the majority vote in favor of the bill, it is recorded as passed.

Transmission to second house.

A bill that is passed in one house is transmitted, along with a formal message, to the other house. If the bill is not reported from committee or is not considered by the full house, the bill is defeated.  The house of origin, upon return of its amended bill, may take any one of several courses of action. It may concur in the amendment by the adoption of a motion to that effect; then the bill, having been passed by both houses in identical form, is ready for enrollment. Another possibility is that the house of origin may adopt a motion to non-concur in the amendment, at which point the bill dies. Finally, the house of origin may refuse to accept the amendment but request that a conference committee be appointed. The other house usually agrees to the request, and the presiding officer of each house appoints members to the conference committee.

Conference committees.

A conference committee is often empaneled to discuss the points of difference between the two houses' versions of the same bill, and tries to reach an agreement between them so that the identical bill can be passed by both houses. If an agreement is reached and if both houses adopt the conference committee's report, the bill is passed. If either house refuses to adopt the report of the conference committee, a motion may be made for further conference. If a conference committee is unable to reach an agreement, it may be discharged, and a new conference committee may be appointed. Some highly controversial bills may be referred to several different conference committees. If an agreement is never reached in conference prior to the end of the legislative session, the bill is lost.  When a bill has passed both houses in identical form, it is then ready for transmittal to the governor.

Presentation to the governor.

Once a bill reaches the governor, he or she may sign it, which completes its enactment into law. From this point, the bill becomes an act, and remains the law of the state unless repealed by legislative action or overturned by a court decision. If the governor does not approve of the bill, he or she may veto it. In the event of a veto, the governor returns the bill to the house in which it originated with a message explaining his or her objections and suggesting any amendments (if applicable) which might remove those objections. The bill is then reconsidered, and if a simple majority of the members of both houses agrees to the proposed executive amendments, it is returned to the governor, as he or she revised it, for his or her signature.  On the other hand, a qualified majority (two-thirds) of the members of each house can choose to approve a vetoed bill precisely as the legislature originally passed it, in which case it becomes a law over the governor's veto. If the governor fails to return a bill to the legislative house in which it originated within a specified number of days after it was presented to him or her, it becomes a law without their signature.  The bills that reach the governor less than a specified number of days before the end of the session may be approved by him or her within ten days after adjournment. The bills not approved within that time do not become law. This is known as a "pocket veto". This is the most conclusive form of veto, for the legislature (having adjourned) has no chance to reconsider the vetoed measure.

Constitutional amendments.

Sometimes what the legislature wishes to accomplish cannot be done simply by the passage of a bill, but rather requires amending the state constitution. Each state has specified steps intended to make it difficult to alter the constitution without the sufficient support of either the legislature, or the people, or both.

Aspects of the career of the state legislator.

In most states, a new state legislature convenes in January of the odd-numbered year after the election of members to the larger chamber. The period during which the legislature remains in session varies. In states where the legislature is considered part-time, a session may last several months; where the legislature is considered full-time, the session may last all year, with periodic breaks for district work.  Currently, there are 7,383 state legislators in the United States. They are usually assisted by staff aides to help prepare and analyze legislation, to review and amend submitted budgets, and to help solve constituents' grievances with the state government.  Many state legislators meet every year at the National Conference of The Council of State Governments (CSG), headquartered in Lexington, Kentucky, with offices in Washington, DC; New York City; Chicago; Atlanta; and Sacramento, and at the annual meetings of CSG's regions, The Southern Legislative Conference, The Midwestern Legislative Conference, the Eastern Regional Conference and CSG West, and at the Legislative Summit of the National Conference of State Legislatures, which is headquartered in Denver, Colorado and has a lobbying office in Washington, D.C.  Additionally, privately funded organizations with ideological leans have annual meetings attracting many legislators. These include the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), a conservative organization, and the State Innovation Exchange (SiX), its progressive counterpart.

Bill introduction limits.

As of 2017, 24 of 99 chambers have limits on the number of bills that a legislator can introduce per year.

Roll rates.

When a bill passes based on votes mostly from the minority party and "moderate" members of a majority party, it is referred to as the majority being "rolled". Political scientists study "roll rates" as a measure of the ability of the majority party to avoid votes on bills which a majority of the majority oppose. An empirical analysis of state legislatures found that of the 99 studied, 53 had roll rates below 5% and 83 have roll rates below 10%.

History.

The first American legislature was formed in 1619 by the Virginia House of Burgesses.

A state legislature in the United States is the legislative body of any of the 50 U.S. states. The formal name varies from state to state. In 27 states, the legislature is simply called the "Legislature", or the "State Legislature", while in 19 states the legislature is called the "General Assembly". In Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the legislature is called the "General Court", while North Dakota and Oregon designate the legislature the "Legislative Assembly".

Als State Legislature werden in den Vereinigten Staaten die Parlamente der Bundesstaaten bezeichnet. In manchen Bundesstaaten finden sich auch Begriffe wie General Assembly oder General Court. Da alle US-Bundesstaaten mit Ausnahme Nebraskas ein Zweikammerparlament – bestehend aus einem Senat und einem Abgeordnetenhaus – haben, handelt es sich also um einen Oberbegriff. Die Mitglieder beider Parlamentskammern werden direkt von den wahlberechtigten Bürgern gewählt.