History.

The iPhone App Store opened on July 10, 2008. On July 11, the iPhone 3G was released and came pre-loaded with support for App Store.  After the success of Apple's App Store and the launch of similar services by its competitors, the term "app store" has been adopted to refer to any similar service for mobile devices. However, Apple applied for a U.S. trademark on the term "App Store" in 2008, which was tentatively approved in early 2011. In June 2011, U.S. District Judge Phyllis Hamilton, who was presiding over Apple's case against Amazon, said she would "probably" deny Apple's motion to stop Amazon from using the "App Store" name. In July, Apple was denied preliminary injunction against Amazon's Appstore by a federal judge.  The term "app" has become a popular buzzword; in January 2011, "app" was awarded the honor of being 2010's "Word of the Year" by the American Dialect Society. "App" has been used as shorthand for "application" since at least the mid-1990s, and in product names since at least 2006, for example then-named Google Apps.  Apple announced Mac App Store, a similar app distribution platform for its macOS personal computer operating system, in October 2010, with the official launch taking place in January 2011 with the release of its 10.6.6 "Snow Leopard" update.  In February 2013, Apple informed developers that they could begin using appstore.com for links to their apps. In June at its developer conference, Apple announced an upcoming "Kids" section in App Store, a new section featuring apps categorized by age range, and the section was launched alongside the release of iOS 7 in September 2013.  In November 2014, due to pressure from the European Commission, Apple updated App Store so that all apps that have no charge to download are labeled "Get" instead of the previous "Free", due to many "free" apps' inclusions of paid in-app purchases.  In January 2017, reports surfaced that documentation for a new beta for the then-upcoming release of iOS 10.3 detailed that Apple would let developers respond to customer reviews in the App Store, marking a significant change from the previous limitation, which prevented developers from communicating with users. The functionality was officially enabled on March 27, 2017 when iOS 10.3 was released to users. Further details were also released about reviews for users, including that they will be able to rate and review apps in the apps themselves rather than being redirected to the App Store, and that they can mark other users' reviews as "Helpful" or "Not Helpful". Apple published a document describing proper ways to respond for developers, including being timely, clear and concise, prioritize certain forms of reviews (low-star ratings, certain countries or recent reviews) through filtering in iTunes Connect, and that developer responses go through an approval process before being published. Developers are also forbidden from manipulating or incenting feedback. Developer responses are listed in the App Store as a line underneath the respective user's review, and users receive a notification/email upon a response from the respective developer, with the option to update their review.  In March 2017, App Store submissions containing pricing details, such as "free", in the name started getting rejected. Developers had previously been advised in developer guides in iTunes Connect and App Store overview pages that they should refrain from the practice, though apps were still approved. Starting in March, some (though not all) apps with "free" in their titles were being rejected.  In October 2016, in an effort to improve app discoverability, Apple rolled out the ability for developers to purchase advertising spots in App Store to users in the United States. The ads, shown at the top of the search results, are based strictly on relevant keywords, and are not used to create profiles on users. Apple expanded search ads to the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand in April 2017, along with more configurable advertising settings for developers. Search ads were expanded to Canada, Mexico and Switzerland in October 2017. In December 2017, Apple revamped its search ads program to offer two distinctive versions; "Search Ads Basic" is a pay-per-install program aimed at smaller developers, in which they only pay when users actually install their app. Search Ads Basic also features an easier setup process and a restricted monthly budget. "Search Ads Advanced" is a new name given to the older method, in which developers have to pay whenever users tap on their apps in search results, along with unlimited monthly budgets. At launch, the Basic program is only available in the U.S., with international rollout expected "sometime next year".  Apple also offers an iTunes Affiliate Program, which lets people refer others to apps and other iTunes content, along with in-app purchases, for a percentage of sales. The commission rate for in-app purchases was reduced from 7% to 2.5% in May 2017, while affiliate rates for paid apps, music, movies, books, and TV shows remained at 7%.  App Store received a major design overhaul with the release of iOS 11. The new design features a greater focus on editorial content and daily highlights, and introduces a "cleaner and more consistent and colorful look" similar to several of Apple's built-in iOS apps.  Prior to September 2017, Apple offered a way for users to manage their iOS app purchases through the iTunes computer software. In September, version 12.7 of iTunes was released, removing the App Store section in the process. However, the following month, iTunes 12.6.3 was also released, retaining the App Store, with "9to5Mac" noting that the secondary release was positioned by Apple as "necessary for some businesses performing internal app deployments".  In December 2017, Apple announced that developers could offer applications for pre-order, letting them make apps visible in the store between 2–90 days ahead of release.  On January 4, 2018, Apple announced that the App Store had a record-breaking holiday season according to a new press release. During the week starting on Christmas Eve, a record number of customers made App Store purchases, spending more than $890 million in that seven-day period. On New Year's Day 2018 alone, customers made $300 million in purchases.

Development and monetization.

iOS SDK.

The iOS SDK (Software Development Kit) allows for the development of mobile apps on iOS.  While originally developing iPhone prior to its unveiling in 2007, Apple's then-CEO Steve Jobs did not intend to let third-party developers build native apps for iOS, instead directing them to make web applications for the Safari web browser. However, backlash from developers prompted the company to reconsider, with Jobs announcing in October 2007 that Apple would have a software development kit available for developers by February 2008. The SDK was released on March 6, 2008.  The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.  Combined with Xcode, the iOS SDK helps developers write iOS apps using officially supported programming languages, including Swift and Objective-C. Other companies have also created tools that allow for the development of native iOS apps using their respective programming languages.

Monetization.

To publish apps on App Store, developers must pay a $99 yearly fee for access to Apple's Developer Program. Apple has announced that, in the United States in 2018, it will waive the fee for nonprofit organizations and governments.  Developers have a few options for monetizing their applications. The "Free Model" enables free apps, increasing likelihood of engagement. The "Freemium Model" makes the app download free, but users are offered optional additional features in-app that require payments. The "Subscription Model" enables ongoing monetization through renewable transactions. The "Paid Model" makes the app itself a paid download and offers no additional features. The "Paymium Model" enables paid app downloads and paid in-app content.  In-app subscriptions were originally introduced for magazines, newspapers and music apps in February 2011, giving developers 70% of revenue earned and Apple 30%. Publishers could also sell digital subscriptions through their website, bypassing Apple's fees, but were not allowed to advertise their website alternative through the apps themselves.  In 2016, multiple media outlets reported that apps had decreased significantly in popularity. "Recode" wrote that "The app boom is over", an editorial in "TechCrunch" stated that "The air of hopelessness that surrounds the mobile app ecosystem is obvious and demoralizing", and "The Verge" wrote that "the original App Store model of selling apps for a buck or two looks antiquated". Issues included consumer "boredom", a lack of app discoverability, and, as stated by a report from 2014, a lack of new app downloads among smartphone users.  In an interview with "The Verge" in June 2016, Phil Schiller, Apple's senior vice president of Worldwide Marketing, said that Apple had a "renewed focus and energy" on the App Store, and announced multiple significant changes, including advertisements in search results and a new app subscription model. The subscription model saw the firmly established 70/30 revenue split between developers and Apple change into a new 85/15 revenue split if a user stays subscribed to the developer's app for a year, and opens the possibility of subscriptions to all apps, not just select categories.  App data and insights analyst company App Annie released a report in October 2016, announcing that China had overtaken the United States as Apple's biggest market in App Store revenue. In the third quarter of 2016, Chinese users spent $1.7 billion vs. approximately $1.5 billion by American users.  In June 2017, Apple announced that App Store had generated over $70 billion in revenue for developers since its 2008 launch.

Number of iOS applications.

On July 10, 2008, Apple's then-CEO Steve Jobs told "USA Today" that App Store contained 500 third-party applications for the iPhone and the iPod Touch, and of these 25 percent were free. Ten million applications were downloaded the first weekend. By September, the number of available apps had increased to 3,000, with over 100 million downloads.  Over the years, the store has surpassed multiple major milestones, including 50,000, 100,000, 250,000, 500,000, 1 million, and 2 million apps. The billionth application was downloaded on April 24, 2009.

Number of iPad applications.

The iPad was released in April 2010, with approximately 3,000 apps available. By July 2011, 16 months after the release, there were over 100,000 apps available designed specifically for the device.

Most downloaded apps.

Yearly.

Apple publishes a list on a yearly basis, giving credit to the apps with the highest number of downloads in the past year.

Of All-time.

These are the most-downloaded iOS applications and the highest revenue generating iOS applications of all time from 2010–2018.

Application ratings.

Apple rates applications worldwide based on their content, and determines the age group for which each is appropriate. According to the iPhone OS 3.0 launch event, the iPhone will allow blocking of objectionable apps in the iPhone's settings. The following are the ratings that Apple has detailed:

App approval process.

Applications are subject to approval by Apple, as outlined in the SDK agreement, for basic reliability testing and other analysis. Applications may still be distributed "ad-hoc" if they are rejected, by the author manually submitting a request to Apple to license the application to individual iPhones, although Apple may withdraw the ability for authors to do this at a later date. , Apple employed mostly static analysis for their app review process, which means that dynamic code reassembly techniques could defeat the review process.  In June 2017, Apple updated its App Store review guidelines to specify that app developers will no longer have the ability to use custom prompts for encouraging users to leave reviews for their apps. With the release of iOS 11 in late 2017, Apple will also let developers choose whether to keep current app reviews when updating their apps or to reset. Additionally, another update to App Store policies allows users to optionally "tip" content creators, by voluntarily sending them money. Furthermore, apps must be notarized as of macOS 10.15, indicating the Mac App Store is starting to further resemble the iOS App Store.

Controversial apps.

In November 2012, Boyfriend Maker, a dating sim game, was removed due to "reports of references to violent sexual acts and paedophilia" deemed inappropriate to Boyfriend Maker's age rating of 4+. A revised version called Boyfriend Plus was approved by Apple in April 2013.  In March 2013, HiddenApps was approved and appeared in App Store. The app provided access to developer diagnostic menus, allowed for stock apps to be hidden, and enabled an opt-out feature for iAds, Apple's developer-driven advertisement system. The app was removed shortly afterwards for violating guidelines.  In April 2013, Apple removed AppGratis, a then-successful app store market that promoted paid apps by offering one for free each day. Apple told "All Things Digital" that the app violated two of its developer agreement clauses, including "Apps that display Apps other than your own for purchase or promotion in a manner similar to or confusing with the App Store will be rejected" and "Apps cannot use Push Notifications to send advertising, promotions, or direct marketing of any kind". Apple did, however, tell the developers they were "welcome to resubmit" after changing the app, though there was "not much hope that it could survive in anything like its current incarnation".  In November 2014, Apple removed the marijuana social networking app MassRoots, with the reason given that it "encourage[d] excessive consumption of alcohol or illegal substances.” In February 2015, MassRoots was reintroduced into the store after Apple changed its enforcement guidelines to allow cannabis social apps in the 23 states where it is legal.  In September 2015, it was discovered that "hundreds" of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a malicious version of the Xcode development software. The issues prompted Apple to remove infected apps from the store and issue a statement that it was "working with the developers to make sure they’re using the proper version of Xcode". A security firm later published lists of infected apps, including a China-only version of "Angry Birds 2", CamCard, Lifesmart, TinyDeal.com, and WeChat. In the aftermath, Apple stated that it would make Xcode faster to download in certain regions outside the United States, and contacted all developers to ensure they only download the code from the Mac App Store or Apple's website, and provided a code signature for developers to test if they are running a tampered version of Xcode.  In June 2017, a scamming trend was discovered on the store, in which developers make apps built on non-existent services, attach in-app purchase subscriptions to the opening dialogue, then buy App Store search advertising space to get the app into the higher rankings. In one instance, an app by the name of "Mobile protection :Clean & Security VPN" would require payments of $99.99 for a seven-day subscription after a short trial. Apple has not yet responded to the issues.  In addition, Apple has removed software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from App Store, due to text in Apple's Terms of Service agreement imposing digital rights management and proprietary legal terms incompatible with the terms of the GPL.

Large-scale app removals.

On September 1, 2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, it would be removing old apps that do not function as intended or that don't follow current review guidelines. Developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately. Additionally, the app names registered by developers cannot exceed 50 characters, in an attempt to stop developers from inserting long descriptions or irrelevant terms in app names to improve the app's ranking in App Store search results. App intelligence firm Sensor Tower revealed in November 2016 that Apple, as promised from its September announcement of removing old apps, had removed 47,300 apps from App Store in October 2016, a 238 percent increase of its prior number of average monthly app removals.  In June 2017, "TechCrunch" reported that Apple had turned its app removal focus on apps copying functionality from other, popular apps. An example cited included "if a popular game like "Flappy Bird" or "Red Ball" hits the charts, there will be hundreds or thousands of clones within weeks that attempt to capitalize on the initial wave of popularity". The report also noted removals of music apps serving pirated tracks. The publication wrote that, since the initial September app removals began, Apple had removed "multiple hundreds of thousands" of apps.  In December 2017, a new report from "TechCrunch" stated that Apple had begun enforcing new restrictions on the use of "commercialized template or app generation services". Originally introduced as part of Apple's 2017 developer conference, new App Store guidelines allow the company to ban apps making use of templates or commercial app services. This affected many small businesses, with "TechCrunch"s report citing that "local retailers, restaurants, small fitness studios, nonprofits, churches and other organizations" benefit from using templates or app services due to minimal costs. Developers had received notice from Apple with a January 1, 2018 deadline to change their respective apps. The news caught the attention of Congress, with Congressman Ted Lieu writing a letter to Apple at the beginning of December, asking it to reconsider, writing that "It is my understanding that many small businesses, research organizations, and religious institutions rely on template apps when they do not possess the resources to develop apps in-house", and that the new rules cast "too wide a net", specifically "invalidating apps from longstanding and legitimate developers who pose no threat to the App Store’s integrity". Additionally, the news of stricter enforcement caused significant criticism from app development firms; one company told "TechCrunch" that it chose to close down its business following the news, saying that "The 4.2.6 [rule enforcement] was just a final drop that made us move on a bit faster with that decision [to close]", and another company told the publication that "There was no way in June [when the guidelines changed] that we would have said, ‘that’s going to target our apps'... Apple had told us you aren’t being targeted by this from a quality standpoint. So being hit now under the umbrella of spam is shocking to every quality developer out there and all the good actors". Furthermore, the latter company stated that "there’s only so much you can do with apps that perform the same utility – ordering food". A third company said that "Rule 4.2.6 is a concrete illustration of the danger of Apple’s dominant position", and a fourth said that "They’ve wiped out pretty much an entire industry. Not just DIY tools like AppMakr, but also development suites like Titanium". Towards the end of the year, Apple updated the guideline to clarify that companies and organizations are allowed to use template apps, but only as long as they directly publish their app on their own; it remained a violation of the rule for commercial app services to publish apps for the respective clients.

Censorship by the Chinese government.

In January 2017, Apple complied with a request from the Chinese government to remove the Chinese version of "The New York Times" app. This followed the government's efforts in 2012 to block the "Times" website after stories of hidden wealth among family members of then-leader of China, Wen Jiabao, were published. In a statement, an Apple spokesperson told the media that "we have been informed that the app is in violation of local regulations", though would not specify which regulations, and added that "As a result the app must be taken down off the China app store. When this situation changes the app store will once again offer the "New York Times" app for download in China". The following July, it was reported that Apple had begun to remove listings in China for apps that circumvent government Internet censorship policies and new laws restricting virtual private network (VPN) services. Apple issued a statement, explaining that the app removals were a result of developers not complying with new laws in China requiring a government license for businesses offering VPNs, and that "These apps remain available in all other markets where they do business". In an earnings call the following month, Cook elaborated on the recent news, explainining that "We would obviously rather not remove the apps, but like we do in other countries, we follow the law wherever we do business". Besides VPN services, a number of Internet calling apps, including Microsoft's Skype, were also removed from the Chinese App Store in 2017, with Apple telling "The New York Times" that, similar to the VPN apps, these new apps also violated local law. Microsoft explained to "BBC News" that its Skype app had been "temporarily removed" and that it was "working to reinstate the app as soon as possible", though many news outlets reported on the Chinese government's increased efforts and pressure to crack down on Internet freedom.  Following Apple CEO Tim Cook's appearance at China's World Internet Conference in December 2017, in which Cook stated that Apple and China share a vision of "developing a digital economy for openness and shared benefits", free speech and human rights activists criticized Cook and the company. Maya Wang at Human Rights Watch told "The Washington Post" that "Cook’s appearance lends credibility to a state that aggressively censors the internet, throws people in jail for being critical about social ills, and is building artificial intelligence systems that monitors everyone and targets dissent.... The version of cyberspace the Chinese government is building is a decidedly dystopian one, and I don’t think anyone would want to share in this ‘common future.’ Apple should have spoken out against it, not endorsed it." U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy told "CNBC" that "American tech companies have become leading champions of free expression. But that commitment should not end at our borders.... Global leaders in innovation, like Apple, have both an opportunity and a moral obligation to promote free expression and other basic human rights in countries that routinely deny these rights."  Cook told "Reuters" that "My hope over time is that some of the things, the couple of things that’s been pulled, come back. I have great hope on that and great optimism on that". However, "TechCrunch"s Jon Russell criticized this line of thinking, writing that "Firstly, Apple didn’t just remove a 'couple of things' from the reach of China-based users", but rather "a couple of hundred" apps, acknowledging that "even that is under counting". Furthermore, Russell listed censorship efforts by the Chinese government, including VPN bans and restrictions on live video and messaging apps, and wrote that "Apple had little choice but to follow Beijing’s line in order to continue to do business in the lucrative Chinese market, but statements like Cook’s today are dangerous because they massively underplay the severity of the situation". Florida Senator Marco Rubio also criticized Cook's appearance at the World Internet Conference, describing the situation as "here’s an example of a company, in my view, so desperate to have access to the Chinese market place that they are willing to follow the laws of that country even if those laws run counter to what those companies’ own standards are supposed to be". In August 2018, as a result of Chinese regulations, 25,000 illegal apps were pulled down by Apple from the App Store in China.  In October 2019, Apple rejected, approved, and finally removed an app used by participants in the 2019 Hong Kong protests.

Removal of vaping apps.

In November 2019, Apple removed all applications related to vaping, citing warning from health experts.

The App Store is a digital distribution platform, developed and maintained by Apple Inc., for mobile apps on its iOS operating system. The store allows users to browse and download apps developed with Apple's iOS software development kit. Apps can be downloaded on the iPhone smartphone, the iPod Touch handheld computer, or the iPad tablet computer, and some can be transferred to the Apple Watch smartwatch or 4th-generation or newer Apple TVs as extensions of iPhone apps.

Der App Store (von der englischen Kurzform für "Application" „Anwendungssoftware“ und "Store" „Geschäft“) ist eine digitale Vertriebsplattform für Anwendungssoftware (App Store) vom US-amerikanischen Unternehmen Apple. Die Plattform wurde 2008 eingeführt und bietet Mobile Apps für iOS-Geräte und Software für tvOS und watchOS.


Composition and recording.

Written in an 8/4 Latin style, the opener, "Catta", is the most conventional piece on the album (as drummer Chambers said in the liner notes; "conventional?"). "Idle While" is a lyrical waltz provided by Chambers. "Les Noirs Marchent", meaning "The Blacks are marching" is a militaristic style free song dedicated to the civil rights movement. "Dialogue" is the most free in nature, with an ominous opening phrase played by Hutcherson, before the others proceed to abandon the idea of a solo. "Ghetto Lights" was written whilst Bobby was at Hill's house and was inspired by a tune played by Hill's wife, Laverne. As Hutcherson recounted, "some of her tunes had a real ghetto feel". "Jasper" was originally released on the 1968 record "Spiral".

Reception.

"The Penguin Guide to Jazz" awarded it the maximum five stars, as well as the special "crown" accolade in the first and second editions. According to the authors: ""Dialogue" stands head and shoulders above [Hutcherson's other classic Blue Note dates]. Drawing on some of the free-harmonic and -rhythmic innovations developed on Eric Dolphy's "Out to Lunch" (on which Hutcherson played), he began to develop a complex contrapuntal style that involved parallel melodies rather than unisons and complex rhythmic patterns which he conceived... as focal points round which the musicians operated." AllMusic's Steve Huey gave the album five stars as well writing: ""Dialogue" remains Hutcherson's most adventurous, "outside" album, and while there are more extensive showcases for his playing, this high-caliber session stands as arguably his greatest musical achievement".

Dialogue is an album by jazz vibraphonist Bobby Hutcherson, released on the Blue Note label in 1965. This was Hutcherson's first LP released as bandleader (an earlier session, "The Kicker", has since been issued on CD by Blue Note) following work with Eric Dolphy. The album features four Andrew Hill compositions and two Joe Chambers pieces. It has received widespread critical acclaim and is considered by most critics one of Hutcherson's greatest achievements.

Dialogue ist ein Jazz-Album von Bobby Hutcherson, aufgenommen von Rudy Van Gelder in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey am 3. April 1965 und veröffentlicht auf Blue Note Records.


Development.

In the early 1950s, plans to combat a potential invasion from Soviet forces during the Cold War called for a Royal Armoured Corps formation to be equipped with the Cromwell tank.  Production of Centurion Mk 3 was slower than production of 20-pounder guns, while the larger-gunned Conqueror tank was still under development to take on the primary anti-tank role. A mixed force of Centurion, Comet and Cromwell tanks was retained in service, but the Cromwell's armament lacked the punch to deal with more modern potential foes. With an increased requirement for anti-tank performance in the interim, an up-gunning of Cromwell was needed. This was to incorporate the same 20 pounder (84 mm) gun as used in the Centurion Mk 3.  Mounting the gun required a new two-man turret to be developed. The resulting vehicle was initially named FV4101 Cromwell Heavy AT Gun, but renamed Charioteer before entering service.

Design.

Design focussed primarily on anti-tank capabilities, sharing much in common with tank destroyers. This has caused confusion with tank destroyers in many references, although the vehicle was designed for, and remained in, the tank role.  The new turret used the larger Ordnance QF 20 pounder gun. This was mounted with a co-axial 0.30 in M1919 Browning machine gun. Smoke grenade dischargers were fitted to both sides of the turret. A flap to the turret rear allowed spent shell casings from the gun to be ejected from the vehicle.  Hulls were based on the later Cromwell VII standard, modified with Comet Model B style fishtail exhausts and no hull-mounted machine gun. Most hulls were reworked to Type F standard, and fire extinguisher pulls were re-routed to the two track-side bins. A large armoured telephone box was fitted to the vehicle rear for communication with infantry.  Additional defensive armour was welded to the Cromwell hull in keeping with the Cromwell VII standard, but the turret upgrade focused on offensive capability. Weight limitations on the suspension prevented the use of heavier armour on the turret, and whilst sloped to provide additional protection, the new turret used much thinner material (20–30 mm).  The turret ring was slightly increased in size to accommodate the larger gun, but the size limitation of the Cromwell hull meant that the new turret would need to be much larger and taller around it. This gave the vehicle a much higher profile.  Even with this size increase, stowage for the larger ammunition rounds was severely limited. The hull machine gunner's position was removed to provide additional stowage space for ammunition, but the vehicle still carried only 25 rounds. Some conventional High Explosive (HE) shells were carried, but the primary ammunition was Armour-Piercing Discarding Sabot projectiles (APDS)  A mixed collection of Cromwells were upgraded, resulting in a number of variations in design based on the vehicle's previous format.

Production.

Building on the remaining Cromwell tanks as a basis, the tanks were converted by Robinson and Kershaw Ltd at their works in Dukinfield, Cheshire. While an expected production run of 630 was indicated in 1951, the production was cut short and the exact number produced is unclear. The first 200 were expected by March 1953 with a further 200 following in 1954. The actual number produced is believed to be 442.  British historian David Fletcher considered it as the fifth-worst British tank produced. His particular criticisms were mostly about the bulky, thin-armoured turret, but also about it being considered as a tank rather than restricted to being an extemporised tank destroyer.

Service.

During development and manufacture the British Army went through two re-organisations, resulting in the tanks being reassigned to Royal Armoured Corps units of the British Territorial Army. These tanks replaced tank destroyers and self-propelled guns transferred from the Royal Artillery to the RAC during the re-organisation.  The number of vehicles required was cut, and only a small number entered service. Manufacturing of the modification was halted with around 440 of 630 vehicles completed. Surplus vehicles were sold to Austria, Finland, Jordan and Lebanon. The tanks were used by a number of forces in the Middle East through instability in the region, such as the Six-Day War.  While the vehicle was originally intended to operate with a 3-man crew, the commander's visibility from the turret was restricted during firing. This meant a 4th crew member was added as an external observer, meaning they would get out of the vehicle and relay information to the crew inside. The large size of the turret meant the vehicle was best used in a hull down position, firing over cover.

Variants.

Production was based on a mixed fleet of Cromwell VI, VII, VIIw and VIII vehicles of mixed hull types. While all were upgraded to VII standard, some hull differences remained based on the vehicle's past. As a result, the vehicle continued to be known as Charioteer, Mks. 6, 7, 7w and 8 with hull types D, E and F.  The Ordnance QF 20 pounder was upgraded during production and service, and many vehicles were fitted with the later 20 pounder featuring a symmetrical fume extractor mid-barrel. Those without the fume extractor were dubbed Charioteer VIIA or Model A while those with the upgrade were named Charioteer VIIB or Model B.  In Jordanian Army use the vehicle was altered with upgraded electrically-driven turret traverse motors, and a larger commander's cupola mounting a.50 calibre machine gun. These traverse-motors were driven from a separate electrical supply. Different radio equipment was also fitted.  Beyond the original requirement, further up-gunning was attempted. A single vehicle was upgraded with the Royal Ordnance L7 105mm gun for trials in 1969. It was intended for export, and did not enter service. The gun is similar in appearance and based on the original, but can be distinguished by an offset fume extractor (larger at the top). This vehicle survives at the East of England Tank Museum.

The Charioteer Tank, or FV4101 Tank, Medium Gun, Charioteer was a post-war British armoured fighting vehicle. The vehicle was produced in the 1950s to up-gun units of the Royal Armoured Corps continuing to use the Cromwell tank during the early phases of the Cold War. The vehicle itself was a modified Cromwell with a more powerful gun installed in a relatively lightly armoured two-man turret.

Der Charioteer (offizielle Bezeichnung FV4101 Cromwell Heavy AT Gun) war ein britischer Jagdpanzer (engl.: "tank destroyer") aus den 1950er-Jahren. Er wurde aus dem britischen Kampfpanzer Cromwell entwickelt.


History and pedigree.

Landot noir was created by French grape breeder Pierre Landot from a series of trials conducted between 1929-1949 with vines growing in vineyard in Conzieu in the Ain department in eastern France. The vine was made a crossing between one of Landot's earlier crossings, Landal, and Villard blanc which was created by French horticulturalist Bertille Seyve and his father-in-law Victor Villard. The grape was brought to North America in the mid-1950s and in 1978 was used by viticulturists at the University of Minnesota to create the hybrid grape Frontenac.  Landot noir is considered a "complex" interspecific hybrid which means that its pedigree includes several species from the "Vitis" genus. The father vine, Landal, was a result of a crossing of two Seibel grapes, Seibel 8216 (itself a complex hybrid that contains "Vitis vinifera", "Vitis rupestris" and "Vitis aestivalis" in its lineage) and Plantet (another complex hybrid that includes "Vitis berlandieri" and "Vitis cinerea" in its lineage). Landot noir's mother vine, Villard blanc, was the result of crossing two Seibel grapes, Seibel 6905 and Seibel 6468, which both have similarly complex lineages.

Viticulture.

Landot noir is an early to mid-ripening grape variety that is noted for its cold-hardiness.

Wine regions.

Landot noir can be found in several wine regions throughout Canada and the United States. In Quebec, the grape is often blended with other hybrid varieties such as Landal, Cabernet Severny and Frontenac. In the United States plantings of Landot noir can be found in Illinois, Ohio, Rhode Island and New Hampshire where at least one winery is making a varietal wine.

Styles.

Landot noir can be used as both a blending grape and in varietal wines. According to Master of Wine Jancis Robinson, Landot noir tends to produce soft, light bodied wines that can have slight spicy note to them.

Synonyms.

As a relatively recently created hybrid grape Landot noir has not been known under many synonyms with only Landot 4511 being the only synonym recognized by Vitis International Variety Catalogue (VIVC).

Landot noir is a red hybrid grape variety that is a crossing of Landal and Villard blanc. Created after a series of trials between 1929-1949, the grape was introduced to Canada and the United States in the 1950s and today can be found in Quebec as well as New Hampshire where a varietal is produced by Jewell Towne Vineyards.

Landot Noir ist eine Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts durch den französischen Züchter Pierre Landot (1900–1942) neu gezüchtete Rotweinsorte. Sie ist eine Kreuzung zwischen der roten Sorte "Landal Noir" und der weißen "Villard Blanc". Zwischen 1929 und Anfang der 1940er Jahre züchtete Landot in Conzieu im Département Ain eine Vielzahl interspezifischer Rebsorten im Kampf gegen die Reblaus. Es handelt sich dabei um eine überaus komplexe Züchtung, in der Gene der Wildreben "Vitis labrusca, Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, Vitis aestivalis, Vitis cinerea, Vitis berlandieri" und "Vitis vinifera" vorhanden sind. Die Rotweine der Sorte sind recht kräftig aber aufgrund des Einflusses amerikanischer Wildreben etwas unangenehm im Geschmack (→ Fox-Ton).


History.

American football is arguably the fastest growing sport in Poland, which appeared in Poland in 1999, when a pioneer initiative was established in Warsaw. The Polish American Football Association ( or "PZFA") was created in November 2004, initiated by the first two American football teams: Warsaw Eagles and 1. KFA Wielkopolska. Its founding was a response to the dynamic growth of the American football movement in Poland.  The first game between Polish teams (still without professional equipment) was played in December 2005 in Poznań. The first international game, officiated by professionals, was played in March 2006 – The Warsaw Eagles took on Czech team Pardubice Stallions in a game played in Warsaw. From that moment on, teams began to be established in different parts of the country.  The Polish American Football League started in October 2006 with just 4 teams. There were 9 teams competing for the second championship in 2007. In 2008, the league split into two divisions - PLFA I (8 teams) and PLFA II (9 teams). There were 22 teams competing for the 2009 season and 21 for the 2010 season. 2011- 34 teams, 2012- 42 teams, and 2013- 74 teams.

Season structure.

The regular season in the Topliga starts in March/April and ends in June/July. Each team plays nine games competing against every other team in the division (4 or 5 home games and 5 or 4 away games). A team is awarded two points for a win, one point for a tie, and zero points for a loss (a tie only occurs if the overtime can not be played). After a regular season, the top four teams qualify for the play-offs (1st place against 4th place and 2nd against 3rd) and the Semi-Final winners meet in the championship game called SuperFinal; there is no 3rd place game.

Game rules.

Playing rules are based on those of the NCAA College football with minor modifications, e.g.: Rules are adopted with a one-year delay. For example, 2011 NCAA game rule changes was adopted for 2012 PLFA season.  Before 2012, coaches, players and officials used the English-language NCAA Rulebook. In February 2012, the Rulebook was translated into Polish by the Officiating Department chairman.

The Polish American Football League or shortly PLFA () is a structured system for the American football competitions in Poland founded in 2006 by the Polish federation PZFA. In 2012, the Topliga was created as a major league with a bid (invitation) rule. The remaining teams are divided into two leagues (PLFA I and PLFA II) between which there is promotion and relegation. There are two eight-man football competitions: PLFA 8 for reserve teams and smaller clubs, and PLFA J for under-17 players.

Die Polska Liga Futbolu Amerykańskiego (PLFA) ist eine Liga für American Football in Polen. Gegründet wurde sie 2006 und wird vom polnischen Verband "Polski Związek Futbolu Amerykańskiego (PZFA)" ausgerichtet. Die höchste Spielklasse ist seit 2012 die Topliga. Sie wird ebenso wie die nachgereihten "PLFA I" und "PLFA II" auf Amateurbasis ausgetragen. Nach der Saison 2017 kam es zu einer Spaltung im polnischen American Football, 20 Vereine verließen die PLFA und gründeten eine neue Liga, die Liga Futbolu Amerykańskiego (LFA).


Extent.

The Kalinga region is generally defined as the eastern coastal region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers. However, its exact boundaries have fluctuated at various times in the history.  In the ancient Indian literature, the Kalinga region is associated with the Mahendragiri mountain located in the Ganjam district of Odisha, near its border with Andhra Pradesh.  At times, the southern border of Kalinga extended further up to the Krishna river. In the north, it sometimes extended beyond the Mahandi river, up to the Vaitarani river. The Kalinga region did not encompass the whole of present-day Odisha: the north-eastern part of Odisha was included in the distinct Utkala region. Utkala gradually lost its identity, and came to be considered as a part of Kalinga.  The eastern boundary of Kalinga was formed by the sea (the Bay of Bengal). Its western boundary is difficult to pinpoint, as it varied with the political power of its rulers. However, the Puranic literature suggests that Kalinga extended up to the Amarakantaka hills in the west.  Several ancient inscriptions mention the term "Trikalinga", which has been interpreted in several ways. According to one theory, Trikalinga refers to the widest extent of Kalinga. However, the Eastern Chalukya records suggest that Kalinga and Trikalinga were two distinct regions, with Trikalinga denoting the hilly region to the west of Kalinga.

History.

According to scholar Godavarti Ramadasu (1980) that the word kalinga itself is a Dravidian word. In the Kui language, rice is called kulinga. Since the Kuis were mainly rice eaters, Aryans might have called them Kulingas or Kalingas. (Source- Ramadasu.G, (1980) Telugu bhasha charitra, Telugu academy). The name of the region is derived from a tribe of the same name. According to the legendary text "Mahabharata", the progenitors of the Kalingas and of their neighbouring tribes were brothers. These neighbours included the Angas, the Vangas, the Pundras, and the Suhmas.  The Kalingas occupied the extensive territory stretching from river "Baitarani" in Odisha to the "Varahanandi" in the Visakhapatnam district. Its capital in the ancient times was the city of "Dantakura" or Dantapura (now "Dantavaktra" fort near Chicacole in the Ganjam district, washed by the river "Languliya" or "Langulini").  The Hathigumpha inscription suggests that a king named Nandaraja had excavated an aqueduct there in the past. Assuming that Nandaraja refers to a king of the Nanda dynasty, it appears that Kalinga region was annexed by the Nandas at some point. It appears to have become independent again after the fall of the Nandas. It is described as "Calingae" in Megasthenes' "Indica" (3rd century BCE):  Kalinga was annexed by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. The headquarters of the Mauryan province of Kalinga was located at Tosali. After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, the region came under the control of the Mahameghavahana family, whose king Kharavela described himself as the "supreme lord of Kalinga".  Kalinga came under Gupta suzerainty in the 4th century CE. After the Gupta withdrawal, it was ruled by several minor dynasties, whose rulers bore the title "Kalingadhipati" ("Lord of Kalinga". These included the Vasishthas, the Matharas, and the Pitrbhaktas.  In the 7th century, the Shailodbhava king Madhavaraja II as well as the Eastern Ganga king Indravarman claimed the title "Sakala-Kalingadhipati" ("the lord of the entire Kalinga").  During 8th-10th centuries, the Bhauma-Kara dynasty ruled the region, although they called their kingdom "Tosala" (derived from Tosali, the ancient capital of Kalinga). The subsequent Somavamshi kings called themselves the lord of Kalinga, Kosala, and Utkala.  During 11th-15th century, the Eastern Gangas became the dominant power in the region, and bore the title "Kalingadhipati". Their capital was originally located at Kalinganagara (modern Mukhalingam), and was later transferred to Kataka (modern Cuttack) during the reign of Anantavarman Chodaganga in the 12th century.  Kalinga is also an important part of the legendary history of Sri Lanka, as it was the birthplace of legendary Prince Vijaya according to the "Mahavamsa".  Derived from Kalinga is the still current term Keling or Kling, used in parts of Southeast Asia to denote a person of the Indian subcontinent or Indian diaspora and at present having some derogatory and pejorative connotations, especially in Malaysia. The word Keling derives from the ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga. While this was apparently sometimes localized as Kalingga (as in the Indonesian Kalingga Kingdom), the terminal schwa sound was dropped in common usage to form Keling. Though ostensibly denoting the Kalinga kingdom, the term Keling in ancient Southeast Asia came to be a more general term for India and its people. The Khmer word Kleng (ក្លិង្គ) and the Thai word Khaek (แขก) derived from the same root. Prior to the introduction of the English word "India", Keling and Jambu Dwipa were used to refer to the country in the Malay and Indonesian language, while Benua Keling referred to the Indian Subcontinent. The earliest known occurrence of the word Keling appears in the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals). The legend mentions Raja Shulan as the king of Kalingga who sets out to conquer China with his descendant Raja Chulan. Scholars identify Raja Chulan with the Chola king of southern India,[5] from whom the term Chulia derives, as in Penang's Chulia Street. Later parts of the Sejarah Melayu mention the voyages of Hang Nadim and Hang Tuah to Benua Keling (India). However Keling must not be misunderstood as a specific territory, rather it refers to people of Indian origin and not only the inhabitants of Kalinga.[4] For example, a colonial-era Indonesian tradition refers to the Ramayana epic as Rama Keling meaning "Rama the Indian". After the introduction of Islam, Keling sometimes referred specifically to Tamils or Telugu people while Gujaratis and Indo-Aryan peoples from Pakistan were often confused with Parsi or Persians. The Dutch used the words "Clings" and "Klingers" to refer to the Indian inhabitants of Malacca. The British colonial writings also use the word "Kling" to describe the immigrants from Madras Presidency and Coromandel coast.[4] John Crawfurd (1856) mentioned that the term "Kling" was used by the Malays and the Javanese as "a general term for all the people of Hindustan (North India), and for the country India itself".(Reference- "A historical perspective on the word 'Keling'").

<mapframe text="Extreme points of Kalinga, as mentioned in the historical records" width="350" height="350" zoom="5" longitude="84" latitude="19.5"> </mapframe> Kalinga is a historical region of India. It is generally defined as the eastern coastal region between the Mahanadi and the Godavari rivers, although its boundaries have fluctuated with the territory of its rulers. The core territory of Kalinga now encompasses a large part of Odisha and northern part of Andhra Pradesh. At its widest extent, the Kalinga region also included a part of present-day Chhattisgarh.

Kalinga war ein Königreich im östlichen Mittelindien, das in etwa den Bereich des heutigen Odisha und die nördlichen Teile des anschließenden Andhra Pradesh umfasste. Die größte Stadt auf dem Gebiete Kalingas war Sisupalgarh. Es war ein fruchtbares Gebiet, das sich vom Damodar bis zum Godavari und vom Golf von Bengalen nach Westen erstreckte. Die Hauptstadt des Königreiches war Toshali.


Diet.

Gopher tortoises are mainly herbivores that feed on low growing plant life. Their diet consists mostly of grasses and legumes. Gopher tortoises are scavengers and will also feed on small berries, fruits, carrion, and excrement. Gopher tortoises are rarely seen drinking from still water. Most of the water gopher tortoises consume comes from within the food they eat.

Breeding.

Gopher tortoises usually mate during the months of April and May. The female will then choose either a sunny spot nearby or a sandy mound in front of her burrow to lay between 3 and 15 eggs. The eggs then hatch from 70 to 100 days later. Once hatched the baby tortoises spend most of their time in their mother's burrow until they learn to dig their own. They do not reach maturity until they are around 10 to 15 years old. Gopher tortoises have an abbreviated mating season in early spring, when male tortoises visit the female tortoise' burrows and mate with them.

Species.

In July 2011, researchers decided on the basis of DNA and behavioral data that the Sonoran and Mojave populations of the desert tortoise were distinct species. As such, there are currently six recognized species in the genus "Gopherus":  Listed alphabetically by binomial name.  Members of Gopherus that became extinct in the late Pleistocene:

Conservation.

Populations of all six species of "Gopherus" have declined dramatically. In the past, gopher tortoises were hunted for their meat, which was used in stews. Currently the most significant threat to their survival is habitat destruction, but the pet trade and collisions with vehicles have also taken their toll. To help decrease gopher tortoise death due to collisions with vehicles, the US Department of Transportation in Mississippi has recently placed angled fences along the road side to keep tortoise from wandering onto the highways near their habitats. On November 9, 2009, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed rulemaking to include the Eastern Population of the Gopher tortoise, "Gopherus polyphemus", in the List of Threatened Wildlife.

Gopherus is a genus of fossorial tortoises commonly referred to as gopher tortoises. The gopher tortoise is grouped with land tortoises that originated 60 million years ago, in North America. A genetic study has shown that their closest relatives are in the Asian genus "Manouria". The gopher tortoises live in the southern United States from California's Mojave Desert across to Florida, and in parts of northern Mexico. Gopher tortoises are so named because of their ability to dig large, deep burrows; those of the Gopher tortoise can be up to in length and in depth. These burrows are used by a variety of other species, including mammals, other reptiles, amphibians, and birds. Gopher tortoises are in length, depending on the species. All six species are found in xeric habitats. Numerous extinct species are known, the oldest dating to the Priabonian stage of the Late Eocene of the United States.

Die Gopherschildkröten ("Gopherus") sind eine Schildkrötengattung aus der Familie der Landschildkröten. Ihr Verbreitungsgebiet ist auf das Südliche Nordamerika begrenzt. Nach neuen genetischen Untersuchungen ist die nächstverwandte Gattung die in Asien vorkommende Gattung der Asiatischen Waldschildkröten ("Manouria").


Plot.

In the near future, robots are commonplacea part of everyday life like any other electrical applianceand are just as prone to malfunctions. When a robot malfunctions, it could pose a threat to people or property. Such robots are known as "runaways." Since they are more dangerous than the average machine, they are handled by a division of the police trained in robotics. The "runaway" squad, however, is treated as an easy and unexciting assignment, and often ridiculed.  Sgt. Jack R. Ramsay (Tom Selleck) is a veteran police officer who joined the runaway squad after an incident in which his fear of heights allowed a criminal to escape, which subsequently resulted in a family's death at the hands of that escaped criminal. After years on the job, Ramsay has found himself one of the division's few real experts. His new partner Karen Thompson (Cynthia Rhodes) is enthusiastic about the job, but he assures her there is little excitement involved, saying that mostly it involves flipping a switch. This changes when they find themselves handling a new threatthe first robotic homicide. Investigating a household robot that murdered a family with a kitchen knife and handgun, Jack discovers strange integrated circuits, which not only override a robot's safety features but also direct it to attack humans. These circuits are not hacked chips, but created from a series of master templates, enabling them to be mass-produced.  Despite being unable to learn anything from uncooperative informants who end up dead, Ramsay refuses to give up and soon discovers the perpetrator is sociopathic genius Dr. Charles Luther (Gene Simmons). Luther, while working for a defense contractor, developed a program that allows a robot to thermographically identify a human from amidst cover and to even differentiate between humans. Seeing the profit potential, he killed his fellow researchers and tried to sell the technology on the black market. A failed attempt to arrest Luthercomplicated by Ramsay having to remove an explosive shell from Thompson's armresults in the recovery of another of Luther's weapons, a smart bullet: a miniature heat seeking missile capable of locking onto a human target's unique heat signature, pursuing them wherever they run, even around corners.  While investigating another of Luther's partners, Ramsay and Thompson find Jackie Rogers (Kirstie Alley), who was once Luther's lover. She double-crossed him and stole the circuit templates, intending to sell them herself. She is scared because she believes Luther will stop at nothing to kill her. When they create a ruse to transfer Jackie to safety, Luther attacks the police convoy with robotic smart bombs. They discover that the bombs are zeroing in on a bug in Jackie's purse; they throw the bag out the window before a bomb reaches the car.  Ramsay decides to make a public appearance with Jackie at a restaurant to draw Luther out, but instead Luther captures Thompson and wants Ramsay to exchange her for Jackie and the templates. Before making the exchange, Jackie gives some of the templates to Ramsay, for insurance that Luther won't kill her. But Luther kills her anyway, after discovering the templates missing. He then fires his smart bullets into the crowded restaurant and flees.  To retrieve the missing templates, Luther plans to attack Ramsay. He uses the police computers to discover everything about Ramsay's personal life, including his son. Once Ramsay discovers his information has been hacked, he races home to find his household robot damaged and his son Bobby (Joey Cramer) missing. Luther calls to confirm he kidnapped Bobby and wants to exchange him for the missing templates.  Ramsay agrees to meet Luther at an unfinished skyscraper. Luther gets the templates while in exchange Ramsay sends his son down in an elevator whereupon Luther informs him that a legion of "assassin" robotssmall, spider-like robots which kill by injecting their victims with acidare waiting to kill the first person exiting the elevator. Thompson arrives and helps Bobby stay out of reach of the robots. Furious, Luther begins firing smart bullets, but Ramsay turns on the robotic construction equipment, creating multiple heat sources which cause the bullets to miss. Ramsay uses this distraction to escape and jump on to an elevator to go down. However, the elevator malfunctions, speeding up to the very top with Ramsay on-board and stops. Ramsay is forced to overcome his fear of heights by reaching a reset button underneath the elevator to restart it, while encountering three robot spiders. Ramsay is able to defeat the spiders and restart the elevator downward. The elevator makes a stop on the floor Luther is on, with Luther approaching an exhausted Ramsay in the elevator and insulting him, causing Ramsay to start the elevator back down again. During the descent, a struggle between Ramsay and Luther ensues, but Ramsay manages to gain the upper hand by stopping the elevator. The abrupt stop catapults Luther over the side, and on the ground on his back, in the midst of his robot spiders. Programmed to kill whoever came down from above, the robots rush Luther, injecting him in multiple places.  Ramsay helps his son down and then cautiously approaches the motionless villain. Screaming, Luther reaches up to grab Ramsay, but falls back, dead, while the spiders self-destruct around him.

Production.

The film was written and directed by Michael Crichton who said he deliberately made it vague how far into the future the film was set. "If you want my world view, I think it's about a year ahead," he said. "I wanted to make a cops and robbers film. I believe a lot in right and wrong-I'm not a moralist-but in the concepts of right and wrong. While I think it's very important that there are movies where the bad guy has a point of view, where at times it's important to understand him, at other times, it's important not to be so understanding. Everything is not the same. Birth is not murder, murder is not birth.  Crichton said the film "is not a cautionary tale" about technology but "an updated police story with every police cliche turned a bit... This is a movie, at least in part, about the difference between people and machines. We tried very hard to keep perspective. Machines are so visually interesting that a lot of times they threaten to take over a film. There have been some very technically innovative movies in recent years that are very difficult to relate to as an audience. Sometimes I'll sit there and think: 'Boy, this is really knowledgeable. But so what?'"  Crichton wanted to ensure the film was visual and easy to follow. "Movies are about the here and now in things you see. To me, there's no point in writing a highly cinematic book or doing a very literary movie... I'm self-consciously attempting to simplify my stories. Usually, when I see something I've done, I think: 'Why is everything so complicated? I don't want to work so hard to understand it.' "  The star was Tom Selleck who had a small role in Crichton's film "Coma" and since become a star on TV in "Magnum, P.I.". He later said, "With my TV series, I don't have the luxury of taking on a lot of projects. So when I got offered a movie and the timing's right, I say yes. I keep thinking if I don't say yes, then everyone will go away. And being a fan of Michael Crichton's helped, because I'm really very nervous doing this... I need my confidence built as much as anybody. It's a strange business... I like to grow in my parts, this was a risk in some ways."  "I try to look for something a little different each time," Selleck added about his film roles, "although I know people tend to lump them all in the same category. "They called "Lassiter" and "High Road to China" action pictures. But they really weren't, at least not by my definition. "High Road" was a romantic adventure, "Lassiter" more of a caper movie. "Runaway" really is an action picture."  "The script doesn't follow a straight path between finding out who the bad guy is and getting him," said Selleck. "It's not action for action's sake. It's much more complex than that. You really get a chance to know the characters."  The film marked the first feature acting role for rock star Gene Simmons (he had been in "Kiss Meets the Phantom of the Park"). Simmons had been interested in acting for a while, and had studied it since 1981. He turned down a TV series which wanted to exploit his KISS fame as well as parts in "Flashdance" and "Dr Detroit" because "I wasn't interested in musicals or comedy. I wanted to start out in something serious. I understand brooding characters more than I do splashy people." He was offered the part after meeting Michael Crichton and did not have to read for it.  "I didn't see Luther as evil," Simmons said, "but as a deadly animal who kills when someone gets in his way... Crichton didn't want me to memorize the script or talk to my acting coach. His direction was, `Don't be afraid to try different things.' "  Michael Crichton later said the film "has a technological presence, but if you're a real gadgeteer, you won't like the movie much. I'm bored with special effects. When they were doing the robot photographs for this, I used to go and make phone calls. The little machines can be very distracting, and I've tried to keep them in the background. But people like the little gadgets and I can't help it... It's a very noisy movie, lots to listen to... It's a nice-looking future. No neo-Nazis. No Big Brother. No hideosity. No grime.  Crichton felt too many films blamed technology for problems. "There's some bizarre aspect of people that's desperately eager not to accept responsibility for the power they use, the votes they cast or the garbage they create," he explains. "There's nothing called 'technology' that creates itself. If we don't like atomic weapons or air pollution, we have only ourselves to blame. It's all choices, all a product of our hands and minds."  Filming took place from 29 May to August 1984 in Vancouver while star Tom Selleck was on a break from "Magnum, P.I.".  Jerry Goldsmith composed the original musical score, which was the composer's first all-electronic soundtrack.

Reception.

The film was marketed with the tagline "It is the future. Machines intended to do our work are programmed to turn against us. Someone must stop the madman who started it all." Gene Simmons wrote music for the album "Animalize" with KISS while participating in this film.  With a multimillion-dollar budget, big-name actors and a world-famous author as both writer and director, "Runaway" was planned as 1984's major science fiction draw. However, it was overshadowed by James Cameron's blockbuster "The Terminator", "", and "", and the film was a box office disappointment.

Critical response.

The film received mixed reviews. Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" said, "Mr. Crichton has a much better feel for the gadgets than its human players." Kevin Thomas of "The Los Angeles Times" called it "assured, thoroughly cinematic filmmaking, its flourish of ingenious gadgetry not overwhelming its human dimension." Gene Siskel of "The Chicago Tribune" thought the movie began excitingly but descended into a "routine chase thriller" in which Selleck was a poor lead ("he's too nice, too familiar to be a big star in the movies"). "At the Movies" gave "Runaway" two thumbs down. Roger Ebert thought that Selleck and Simmons gave "good performances" but the film quickly became mired in cliches, while Gene Siskel thought the core premise was intriguing but the film poorly executed.  On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 47% based on reviews from 19 critics.  Kirstie Alley earned a 1984 Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. Tom Selleck later reflected: "Jack Ramsay is not exactly a character whose name is on the tip of everybody's tongue, but "Runaway" was a really great popcorn movie... It was very futuristic, it had robots and all sorts of stuff, and it was a nice movie. It was a good movie that I'm very proud of. It didn't do very well, which was a great disappointment to Michael, who became a friend. And Gene Simmons was in it! Gene hadn't been in a feature film before, but he was great. We had some great talks and good times... I know it [the plot] sounds hokey, but with Michael Crichton at the helm, it was pretty good stuff."

Runaway is a 1984 American Metrocolor science fiction action film written and directed by Michael Crichton, starring Tom Selleck, Gene Simmons, Cynthia Rhodes and Kirstie Alley filmed in Panavision. Selleck portrays a police officer assigned to track down dangerous robots, while Simmons is a scientist who hopes to profit from his malevolent manipulation of robots. The film was a box office disappointment and received mixed reviews.

Runaway – Spinnen des Todes (Originaltitel: "Runaway") ist ein US-amerikanischer Science-Fiction-Film aus dem Jahr 1984. Regie führte Michael Crichton, der auch das Drehbuch schrieb.


Woodrow Wilson.

Woodrow Wilson (28 December 1856 – 3 February 1924) was elected President of the United States on the basis of domestic issues in 1912, and re-elected in 1916. He based his 1916 re-election campaign around the slogan "he kept us out of war", and had worked hard to broker a compromise peace. In early 1917 Berlin decided to launch all-out submarine warfare designed to sink American ships bringing supplies to Britain; in the Zimmermann Telegram it proposed a military alliance with Mexico to fight a war against the US. The nation was poorly armed when it went to war in April 1917, but it had millions of potential fresh soldiers, billions of dollars, and huge supplies of raw materials needed by the Allies. Officially Wilson kept the US independent of the Allies. In 1918 Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the armistice. He issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. It had an enormous impact on both sides in Europe, and made him the man of the hour in Paris. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he assembled a high-powered group of academic advisors to help him in Paris but his distrustful personality led him to break with a series of close advisors, most notably Colonel House. He made a major blunder by refusing to bring along any prominent Republicans to Paris, which politicised the American debate and weakened his support. His main goal was a long-term solution to end warfare based on the League of Nations and self-determination of nations. He paid special attention to creating new nations out of defunct empires, and was opposed to harsh terms and reparations imposed on Germany. A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred to as "Wilsonianism". Wilsonianism calls for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, and has been a contentious position in American foreign policy.

David Lloyd George.

David Lloyd George, (1863–1945) from the British Liberal Party was a highly effective leader of the coalition government that took power in late 1916 and managed the British war effort. However his coalition premiership was supported more by Conservatives than by his own Liberals, and the subsequent split was a key factor in the decline of the Liberal Party as a serious political force.  He won by a landslide in the election of 1918, held just after the war ended, where he spoke out for harsh terms against Germany. However, he was much more moderate at Paris. Unlike Clemenceau and Orlando, Lloyd George did not want to destroy the German economy and political system—as Clemenceau demanded—with massive reparations. When asked how he had done at the peace conference, he commented, "Not badly, considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon [Wilson and Clemenceau]."  It has been said that "Lloyd George was the most affable and the most resilient, and he was probably the best at negotiating". In an article from the New York Times, it says that "Lloyd George was a pragmatist determined to protect and expand the interests of the British Empire."

Vittorio Emanuele Orlando.

Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (19 May 1860 – 1 December 1952) was an Italian diplomat and political figure. He was born in Palermo, Sicily. His father, a landed gentleman, delayed venturing out to register his son's birth for fear of Giuseppe Garibaldi's 1,000 patriots who had just stormed into Sicily on the first leg of their march to build an Italian state. He is commonly nicknamed "The Premier of Victory".  In 1897 he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies (Italian: Camera dei Deputati) for the district of Partinico for which he was constantly re-elected until 1925. He aligned himself with Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921.  As Prime Minister of Italy, he went to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He demanded the fulfillment of the "secret Treaty of London of 1915, by which the Allies had promised Italy ample territorial compensation in Dalmatia for its entry into World War I." However, Woodrow Wilson brought forth considerable opposition to Orlando's demands. Therefore, Orlando failed to secure British or French support. This caused him to leave the Peace Conference. However, he returned a month later. "Even then no solution satisfactory to Italy was found"; Orlando resigned and the treaties he negotiated were signed by Francesco Saverio Nitti and Giovanni Giolitti. The so-called "Mutilated victory" was used as propaganda in the rise of Benito Mussolini. Opposing Fascism, Orlando gave up (1925) his seat in parliament and devoted himself to teaching and writing."  Aside from his prominent political role, Orlando is also known for his writings, over a hundred works, on legal and judicial issues; Orlando was himself a professor of law.  He was among the fathers of the Republican Constitution being member of the Constitutional assembly also as speaker of the house. He was a candidate to be the first Italian President elected by the Parliament.

Georges Clemenceau.

Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (French pronunciation: [ʒɔʁʒ klemɑ̃so]; 28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French politician, physician, and journalist. He served as the Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909, and again from 1917 to 1920. He is commonly nicknamed "Le Tigre" (The Tiger) and "Père-la-Victoire" (Father Victory) for his determination as a wartime leader.  "Succeeding Paul Painlevé as premier in November 1917, Clemenceau formed a coalition cabinet in which he was also minister of war. He renewed the dispirited morale of France, persuaded the allies to agree to a unified command, and pushed the war vigorously until the final victory. Leading the French delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, Clemenceau insisted on Germany's disarmament and was never satisfied with the Versailles Treaty. He was the main antagonist of Woodrow Wilson, whose ideas he viewed as too idealistic." For nearly the final year of World War I he led France, and was one of the major voices behind the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference in the aftermath of the war. Clemenceau was hoping that there would be more punishment put on Germany.

Purpose.

While the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference made up more than twenty nations, the Big Four entered Versailles and were leading architects of the Treaty of Versailles which was signed by Germany; the Treaty of St. Germain, with Austria; the Treaty of Neuilly, with Bulgaria; the Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary; and the Treaty of Sèvres, with the Ottoman Empire. At one point Orlando temporarily pulled out of the conference because Italian demands were not met, leaving the other three countries as the sole major architects of the talk, referred to as the "Big Three". The Italian delegation returned after 11 days.

The Big Four or the Four Nations refer to the four top Allied powers of World War I and their leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. The Big Four is also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.

Der Rat der Vier, auch die Großen Vier genannt, in der Anfangsphase Rat der Zehn, traf die wichtigsten Entscheidungen nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg im Rahmen der Pariser Friedenskonferenz von 1919. Er bestand aus den vier Regierungschefs der mächtigsten Siegernationen, Georges Clemenceau (Frankreich), David Lloyd George (Großbritannien), Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (Italien) und Woodrow Wilson (USA), die unter den 32 insgesamt anwesenden Nationen ausschlaggebend waren.


Powers and process.

Article 4, Section 36 of the Mississippi Constitution specifies that the state legislature must meet for 125 days every four years and 90 days in other years. The Mississippi House of Representatives has the authority to determine rules of its own proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and expel a member with a two-thirds vote of its membership. Bills must undergo three readings in each house, unless two-thirds of the house dispenses with the rules. They cannot be amended to a new purpose. Amendments to bills must be approved by both houses.  The governor has the power to veto legislation, but legislators can override the veto with a two-thirds decision.  State representatives are authorized under the Mississippi Constitution to select the Governor of Mississippi if no candidate receives more than 50% of the vote. This has occurred only once, in 1999, when Ronnie Musgrove was selected (Musgrove had the most votes statewide, but fell a fraction of a point shy of a majority).

Salary.

State representatives earn $10,000 per year.

Composition.

The following composition reflects the balance of power after the 2019 elections, which was the third election since Reconstruction to give a majority of seats in the State House to the Republicans. State representatives are elected every four years by the qualified electors of the district for which they are running. Candidates are required to be at least 21 years of age and a resident of the state and district for which they are campaigning.

The Mississippi House of Representatives is the lower house of the Mississippi Legislature, the lawmaking body of the U.S. state of Mississippi. According to the state constitution of 1890, it is to comprise no more than 122 members elected for four-year terms. To qualify as a member of the House candidates must be at least 21 years old, a resident of Mississippi for at least four years, and a resident in the district in which he or she is running for at least two years. Current state law provides for the maximum number of members. Elections are held the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

Das Repräsentantenhaus von Mississippi ("Mississippi House of Representatives") ist das Unterhaus der Mississippi Legislature, der Legislative des US-Bundesstaates Mississippi. Der Sitzungssaal des Repräsentantenhauses befindet sich gemeinsam mit dem Staatssenat im Mississippi State Capitol in der Hauptstadt Jackson.


First Republic (1810–1812).

The French invasion of Spain in 1808 led to the collapse of the Spanish Monarchy. Most subjects of Spain did not accept the government of Joseph Bonaparte, placed on the Spanish throne by his brother, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte of France. At the same time, the process of creating a stable government in Spain, which would be widely recognized throughout the empire, took two years. ("See Junta (Peninsular War)".) This created a power vacuum in the Spanish possessions in America, which created further political uncertainty. On April 19, 1810 the municipal council of Caracas headed a successful movement to depose the Spanish Governor and Captain General, Vicente Emparán. A junta was established in Caracas, and soon other Venezuelan provinces followed suit. The reverberations of this act of independence could be felt throughout Venezuela almost immediately. Across Venezuela, towns and cities decided to either side with the movement based in Caracas or not, and de facto civil war ensued throughout much of Venezuela. The Caracas Junta called for a congress of Venezuelan provinces to establish a government for the region. Initially, both the Junta and Congress upheld the "rights of Ferdinand VII," meaning that they recognized themselves to still be part of the Spanish Monarchy, but had established a separate government due to the French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. As the Congress deliberated, a faction proposing outright independence quickly won favor. Persons such as Francisco de Miranda, a long-term Venezuelan expatriate, and Simón Bolívar, a young, Criollo aristocrat—both influenced by Age of Enlightenment ideas and the example of the French Revolution—led the movement. The Congress declared Venezuela's independence on 5 July 1811, establishing the Republic of Venezuela.  Even before the Congress began its sessions in November 1810, a civil war started between those who supported the juntas, and eventually independence, and royalists who wanted to maintain the union with Spain. Two provinces, Maracaibo Province and Guayana Province, and one district, Coro, never recognized the Caracas Junta and remained loyal to the governments in Spain. Military expeditions to bring Coro and Guayana under the control of the Republic failed. In 1811 an uprising in Valencia against the Republic was successfully suppressed. By 1812 the situation increasingly became aggravated for the young Republic. It was short of funds, Spanish Regency set up a blockade (although it was easily bypassed by British and American merchant ships), and, shortly after, on 26 March 1812, a devastating earthquake affected republican areas. In these desperate moments, Miranda was given dictatorial powers, nevertheless, he was unable to stem the royalist advance headed by Captain Domingo de Monteverde. By midyear, after the Battle of San Mateo, the Republic collapsed. Miranda capitulated to Monteverde and signed an armistice on 25 July 1812.

Second Republic (1813–1814).

Bolívar and other republicans continued the resistance from other parts of the Spanish South America and the Caribbean, or organized guerrilla movements in the interior of the country. In 1813 Bolívar joined the army of United Provinces of New Granada. After winning a series of battles, Bolívar received the approval of the New Granadan Congress to lead a liberating force into Venezuela in what became known as the Admirable Campaign. At the same time, Santiago Mariño invaded from the northeast in an independently organized campaign. Both forces quickly defeated the royalist troops in various battles, such as Alto de los Godos. Bolívar entered Caracas on 6 August 1813, proclaiming the restoration of the Venezuelan Republic and his supreme leadership of it, something which was not fully recognized by Mariño based in Cumaná, although the two leaders did cooperate militarily.  In the viceroyalties of La Plata and New Granada the Creoles displaced the Spanish authorities with relative ease, as Caracas had done at first. The autonomous movement swept through New Granada, but the country remained politically disunited. Bogotá inherited the role of capital from Spain, but the royalists were entrenched in southern Colombia (Popayán and Pasto). Cali was a bastion of the independence movement just north of royalist territory. Cartagena declared independence not only from Spain but also from Bogotá. Bolívar arrived in Cartagena and was well received, as he was later in Bogotá, where he joined the army of the United Provinces of New Granada. He recruited a force and invaded Venezuela from the southwest, by crossing the Andes (1813). His chief lieutenant was the headstrong José Félix Ribas. In Trujillo, an Andean province, Bolívar emitted his infamous Decree of War to the Death with which he hoped to get the "pardos" and any "mantuano" who was having second thoughts on his side. At the time that Bolívar was victorious in the west, Santiago Mariño and Manuel Piar, a "pardo" from the Dutch island of Curaçao, were successfully fighting royalists in eastern Venezuela. Quickly losing ground (much as Miranda had a year earlier) Monteverde took refuge in Puerto Cabello, and Bolívar occupied Caracas, re-establishing the Republic, with two "states", one in the west headed by Bolívar and one in the east headed by Mariño.  But neither the successful invasions nor Bolívar's decree were provoking a massive enrollment of "pardos" in the cause of Independence. Rather it was the other way around. In the llanos, a populist Spanish immigrant caudillo, José Tomás Boves, initiated a widespread "pardo" movement against the restored Republic. Bolívar and Ribas held and defended the "mantuano"-controlled center of Venezuela. In the east, the royalists started recovering territory. After suffering a setback, Mariño and Bolívar joined their forces, but they were defeated by Boves in 1814. Republicans were forced to evacuate Caracas and flee to the east, where, in the port of Carúpano, Piar was still holding out. Piar, however, did not accept Bolívar's supreme command, and once again Bolívar left Venezuela and went to New Granada (1815). "(See Bolívar in New Granada)."  Resistance to the Republic this time came from the people of the vast southern plains, the "Llaneros", who organized under the command of Spanish immigrant, José Tomás Boves. The war was transformed. The "Llaneros" had a dislike for the urban and elite Criollos who led the independence movement. Boves's "Llanero" army routinely killed white Venezuelans. Negroes were supplied with maps and lists of rebel plantations by royalists. The "Llanero" army routed the patriots in the center of the country. Finally Boves marched towards Caracas, forcing the Republicans to flee to the east of the country, ending the second republic.  The traditional image of the Venezuelan llanos swarming with caudillos like Boves exaggerates the situation. Boves was the only significant pro-Spain caudillo and he was acting in concert with Francisco Tomás Morales, who was a regular officer of Spain. In the Battle of Urica, Boves was killed and Morales took command and carried out mopping up operations against the remaining patriot resistance, which included the capture and execution of Ribas. As was still common in the early 19th century, Morales had his head boiled in oil (to preserve it) and sent to Caracas. "(See the Execution of Miguel Hidalgo in Mexico.)" Boves died shortly thereafter in battle, but the country had been returned to royalist control. Morillo arrived in Venezuela and began operations with Morales.

Spanish reconquest of New Granada (1815–1816).

In Spain, anti-French forces had liberated the country, and the restored Ferdinand VII sent a large expeditionary force to Venezuela and New Granada under Pablo Morillo, who had distinguished himself during Spain's War of Independence.  Royalist forces under Morillo and Morales captured Cartagena and Bogotá in 1816. Before leaving for New Granada Morillo had decommissioned most of the irregular forces that had fought under Boves, except those that he took to New Granada. With little prospects, some "pardos" and "llaneros" began to join the rebellions that were breaking out against Spanish rule in the broad plains of southern Venezuela. In the meantime, Bolívar chose to sail to Jamaica to enlist British aid, which was refused. From there, he went to Haiti, which had been the first Latin American republic to become independent. With the support of the Haitian president Alexandre Pétion and with the naval aid of Luis Brión, another émigré, who was a merchant from Curaçao, Bolívar returned to Margarita Island, a secure republican redoubt, but his command of the republican forces was still not firm. Mariño, who had come back with Bolívar from Haiti, headed his own expeditions and succeeded in temporarily capturing Cumaná in 1817. With Brión supplying a small fleet, Bolívar sailed west along the Venezuelan coast to Ocumare de la Costa (the Expedition of Los Cayos), where, in fulfillment of Pétion's request, he officially proclaimed the end of slavery (although this went unheeded). Morales, back in Venezuela after subduing New Granada, attacked the republican expeditionary force with an army that vastly outnumbered the republicans. Bolívar fled, sailing once again to Haiti with Brión. However, Piar and Gregor MacGregor, a Scottish soldier of fortune, who had previously been active in New Granada, managed to escape with their forces into the interior of the country, defeating Morales at El Juncal in September 1816 before moving south to Guayana.  Boves's locally raised "Llanero" army was replaced in 1815 by a formal expedition sent from Spain under the leadership of Pablo Morillo. It was the largest expedition the Spanish had ever sent to the Americas. Venezuela's proximity to Cuba, Puerto Rico and Spain made it the first target of the royalist counterattack. The "Llaneros" were either demobilized or incorporated into the expeditionary units. The republican patriots found themselves once more dispersed, and again the war took a local character. Different patriot guerrilla bands formed, but could not agree on a united leadership, much less a united strategy. One group of patriots launched an expedition to eastern Venezuela that ended in failure. Bolívar thereafter sought to join forces with Manuel Piar, another patriot leader but differences between them prevented a united republican front. Bolívar then went to the "Llanos" where he joined forces with José Antonio Páez, but a failed attack on central Venezuela forced Bolivar to retreat back to Apure. Morillo counterattacked successfully but was defeated at the Battle of Las Queseras del Medio. A long-term stalemate ensued in which the royalists controlled the highly populated, urban north and the republicans the vast, under-populated plains of the south.

Stalemate (1816–1819).

Bolívar and Brión returned and tried in 1817 to capture Barcelona, where the Spaniards repulsed them. In the meantime, Piar and Mariño had occupied defenceless Angostura (a city at the narrowest and deepest part of the Orinoco River, hence its name, subsequently changed to Ciudad Bolívar), to where Bolívar headed and was chosen as supreme leader of the independence movement. (It was at this time that Bolívar ordered the addition of a new star for Guayana to the seven stars on the Venezuelan flag, which represented the number of provinces that originally had favored independence. Since Bolívar played a central role in the symbolism of the Venezuelan government led by Chávez, this long-forgotten change was revived in the 2006 revision to the flag.) Once in Guayana, Bolívar quickly cashiered Piar, who had been trying (or was accused of trying—historians still debate this) to form a "pardo" force of his own, by having him arrested and executed after a court martial in which Brión was one of the judges. British veterans of the Napoleonic wars began arriving in Venezuela, where they formed the nucleus of what later became known as the British Legion. Morillo returned to Caracas and Morales was given troops to dominate eastern Venezuela, which he did successfully. Francisco de Paula Santander, a New Granadan who had retreated to the llanos after Morillo's invasion, met with Bolívar and agreed to join forces. Morillo's other lieutenant, the second in command of the expeditionary force, Miguel de la Torre, was ordered to put down a significant rebellion in the llanos of Apure led by José Antonio Páez. At the time in the Southern Cone of South America, José de San Martín had concluded the liberation of Chile with the essential support of the Chilean Bernardo O'Higgins.  The year 1818 saw a stalemate between the patriots based in Angostura (and free-wheeling in part of the llanos) and Morillo (entrenched in Caracas, triumphant in eastern Venezuela, and operating in the llanos as far as Apure). This is the time during which (according to Marx), Bolívar dilly-dallied and lost one skirmish after another, also saying that European officers in Angostura were egging him on to attack the center of Venezuela. (Bolívar did attempt to do so, but suffered defeat at La Puerta.) At the time James Rooke did in fact command over 1,000 European soldiers within Bolívar's army in Venezuela. But Morillo had larger forces, and not just of Spanish line troops but also of pardos still loyal to the Spanish crown.  In 1819 Bolívar proclaimed the republic of Great Colombia, which included Venezuela and New Granada. New volunteers arrived in Venezuela, though most, like those that preceded them, were in essence mercenaries probably under the illusion that there were fortunes to be made in Venezuela, which was hardly the case. There is no evidence that the British government was backing them, but since Spain was no longer a British ally, it was not hindering them either. In Europe, generally, Bolívar's name was known as was the Spanish American movement for independence, which had the sympathy of every liberal-minded person, as did the independence of Greece, then also in the process of emancipation. Morillo had his hands full and pardos were starting to look towards patriot leaders. Campaigns in eastern Venezuela began turning the tide for independence and in the llanos Páez defeated Morillo and Morales in Apure. This cleared the way for Bolívar and Santander to invade New Granada, where, in Pantano de Vargas, the Spaniards were defeated in a battle in which the British Legion played a central role and its commander, Rooke, was killed in action. In the battle of Boyacá (1819), Spanish power was crushed in New Granada, except in the south. Páez occupied Barinas and, from New Granada, Bolívar invaded Venezuela.

Consolidation of independence.

In 1819, to break this impasse Bolívar invaded New Granada, which had been reconquered by Morillo's expeditionary force three years earlier. Bolívar decisively defeated the royalists at Boyacá. With the liberation of New Granada, the republicans had a significant base from which to attack Morillo's forces. A republican Congress at Angostura (today Ciudad Bolívar), which already had a small New Granada delegation, declared the union of New Granada and Venezuela in a Republic of Colombia (the Gran Colombia of contemporary accounts) to present a united front against the Spanish Monarchy.  In 1821, the Gran Colombian army won a decisive victory at the second Battle of Carabobo, after which the only cities in the hands of the royalist forces were Cumaná, which fell shortly thereafter, and Puerto Cabello, which managed to resist a siege before finally capitulating in October 1823.

Aftermath.

The Spanish sent a fleet in 1823 to reconquer the country but were defeated at the Battle of Lake Maracaibo. In the following years Venezuelan forces, as part of the army of Gran Colombia, continued campaigning under the leadership of Bolívar to liberate the southern parts of New Granada and Ecuador. Once this was accomplished, Gran Colombia continued its fight against the Spanish in Peru and Bolivia, completing the efforts of Chilean and Argentine patriots, such as José de San Martín, who liberated southern South America.

The Venezuelan War of Independence (1810–1823) was one of the Spanish American wars of independence of the early nineteenth century, when independence movements in Latin America fought against rule by the Spanish Empire, emboldened by Spain's troubles in the Napoleonic Wars.

Die Unabhängigkeitskriege in Venezuela waren ein Teil der südamerikanischen Unabhängigkeitskriege von 1810 bis 1823. Ziel der bewaffneten Kämpfe war die Loslösung des Generalkapitanats Venezuela vom kolonialen Mutterland Spanien.


History.

On 13 October 1923, the company was established under name "Ikarus – the first Serbian airplane, car and engine industry Kovačević and Co", with headquarters in Novi Sad. The founders were Dimitrije Konjović, brothers Dušan and Milivoj Kovačević, Đoka Radulović and Josif Mikl. On 20 November 1923, "Ikarus" started business officially after the registration before the Novi Sad District Court. In the beginning, the company manufactured a number of foreign designs under licence, such as the French Potez 25, Czechoslovakian Avia BH-33 and English Hawker Fury; Bristol Blenheim as well as the locally designed Ikarus ŠM, Ikarus IO, SIM-VIII, Ikarus IK-2 and Ikarus Orkan.  On 3 March 1924, the first school type airplane "Brandenburg" was manufactured. In 1927, the Yugoslavian Air Command decided that "Ikarus" should start the production of military planes; the factory for the production of military planes was built in Zemun. On 20 June 1927, "Ikarus" together with Military and Navy Ministry concluded an agreement to build a new factory of airplane engines in Rakovica. In 1928, the Sports Club "Ikarus" was established, thus "Ikarus" being the first company to build gliders in the country. By December 1932, the company relocated its headquarters from Novi Sad to Zemun. In April 1935, the first model of war airplane of domestic design was completed; a single-seat glider "IK-1", designed by engineers Ljubomir Ilić and Kosta Sivčev. In January 1936, the Yugoslav Air Command and "Ikarus" signed an agreement for the manufacturing of British "Hawker Fury" fighter plane, of all-metal construction. By the spring of 1938, the Yugoslav Air Command and the company concluded an agreement on the supply of twin-engine bombers "Blenheim", under the British license. In 1938, the Administration Building of "Ikarus" in Zemun was built.  With the start of the World War II (WWII) in Yugoslavia, the Nazi Germany occupation authorities confiscated the company on 17 April 1941. On 17 and 25 April 1944, the factory was heavily damaged in the Allied air-strikes. By early November 1944, the factory restarted operations.  On 12 August 1945, the first emergency Assembly of "Ikarus" shareholders in the socialist Yugoslavia was held in. On 27 March 1946, "Ikarus" was nationalized by the decision of the District Court of Zemun. Until the end of 1946, the subsequent decisions in form of property nationalization were made. On 22 October 1946, the first plane "Aero-2B" flew for the first time, the first prototype made by the air industry in socialist Yugoslavia. On 23 January 1948, the Government of Yugoslavia made a decision to establish the State Enterprise "Ikarus". Also, the Sports Club "Naša krila" was established.  In 1950, a single-seat fighter plane S-49 was built by engineers Ilić, Sivčev, Zrnić and Popović. In the same year, "Ikarus" manufactured the first gliders in the socialist Yugoslavia; a single-seat glider "Hawk 1" was awarded the third prize at the International Championship in Sweden. By the end of October 1952, the first Yugoslav jet plane "451 M" took off. In 1954, "Kosava" twin-seat glider received the first prize at the International Championship in England.  From 1954 onward, Ikarus also commenced bus production, originally of Sauer and MAN designs under licence, but eventually the company's own designs.  In 1957, the airplane Ikarus S-451MM set the world speed record flying at 750.34 km/hour. In 1960, the Ikarus S-451M, ultra light jet plane set the world speed record, flying at 500.2 km/hour. On 14 November 1961, by the official act of the Administration for Military Industry Affairs, "Ikarus" ceased to be a military company. Most of the personal and equipment from the aircraft section of "Ikarus" had been relocated during the previous decade to a new aircraft factory SOKO, located in Mostar, SR Bosnia and Herzegovina.  In 1992, the company was privatized, and the following year changed its name to "Ikarbus", due to name usage conflicts with the Hungarian bus manufacturer with the same name.  During the 1990s Yugoslav Wars and international sanctions imposed on FR Yugoslavia, the company's production stagnated. As there was no political will to adjust a state-owned company to a transition, that trend continued during the 2000s and 2010s, causing Ikarbus to become indebted and work in limited capacity. In March 2019, the Chinese "Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy" company began the process of acquiring a majority stake in company's ownership structure.

Products.

Every vehicle made by Ikarbus has a name starting with 'IK', followed by a hyphen and then the vehicle's code: IK-1xxs are solo city buses, IK-2xxs are articulated city buses and IK-3xxs and IK-4xxs are coaches. Earlier IK 160(P)/161/166 models are also articulated buses. The letter N disambiguates integral models from non-integral ones.  Currently produced models under Ikarbus brand are:  In 1927 an aeronautical section of the factory was found in Zemun where numerous planes were designed and manufactured, as well as under license. The factory included its own airfield. After the end of the World War II, in 1946, another two aeronautical companies, Zmaj and Rogožarski joined Ikarus as a wholly nationalised state aircraft industry. The Ikarus factory had manufactured in its workshops 475 aircraft up until 1962, when it stopped working for the aviation industry.

Historical.

The most notable aircraft manufactured by the company are: Ikarus 214, Ikarus 215, Ikarus 451, Ikarus 452, Ikarus Aero 2, Ikarus IK-2, Ikarus IO, Ikarus Kosava, Ikarus Kurir, Ikarus MM-2, Ikarus Meteor, Ikarus Orkan, Ikarus S-49 and Ikarus SM.  The historical models under Ikarus brand are:  The historical models under Ikarbus brand are:

Ikarbus a.d. ("Ikarbus - Fabrika autobusa i specijanih vozila a.d.") is a Serbian bus manufacturer based in Zemun. It was originally established as an aircraft manufacturer in 1923, under the name Ikarus. In 1954, it commenced bus production and since 1960 it completely shifted towards it. In 1992, it changed its name to Ikarbus.

Ikarbus ist ein Unternehmen der Omnibusindustrie in Belgrad, Serbien. Gegründet wurde das Unternehmen als Ikarus AG – Erste serbische Flugzeug-, Automobil und Maschinenfabrik Kovačević und Co. "(Ikarus A.D. - prva srpska industrija aeroplana, automobila i strojeva Kovačević i drugovi)" am 13. Oktober 1923 von "Dimitrije Konjović", einem ehemaligen k.u.k.-Piloten, (der für die Rettung einer französischen U-Boot-Besatzung im Ersten Weltkrieg (1915) – das U-Boot "Q 70 Foucault" hatte Konjović zuvor versenkt – nach dem Krieg von Frankreich mit einem Orden für Tapferkeit, Humanität und Barmherzigkeit ausgezeichnet wurde), "Josif Mikl", schon zu k.u.k.-Zeiten Flugzeugkonstrukteur, "Đoka Radulović" und den Brüdern "Dušan" und "Milivoje Kovačević".