Status as "pro-cathedral".

The city of Dublin possesses two cathedrals, but unusually, both belong to one church, the minority Church of Ireland, which had been the Established Church in Ireland until 1871. In contrast, the majority religion in Ireland, Roman Catholicism, has no cathedral in the Republic of Ireland's capital city and has not had one since the Protestant Reformation. As the official church, the Church of Ireland took control of most church property, including the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity (generally known as Christchurch) and St Patrick's Cathedral.  These two churches had long shared the role of cathedral of Dublin, controversially at first, then under an agreement of 1300, "Pacis Compositio", which gave Christchurch formal precedence, including the right to enthrone the Archbishop and to hold his cross, mitre and ring after death, but with deceased Archbishops of Dublin to be buried alternately in each of the two cathedrals, unless they personally willed otherwise, and the two cathedrals to act as one, and "shared equally in their freedoms".  Even though Christchurch has been in possession of the Church of Ireland for nearly five hundred years, it is still viewed by the Roman Catholic Church as the primary official Dublin cathedral, since it was so designated by the pope at the request of the then Archbishop of Dublin, St Laurence O'Toole in the 12th century. Unless the pope either formally revokes Christchurch's designation or grants cathedral status to another church, the main Roman Catholic church in Dublin will continue to be designated a "pro-cathedral" (meaning in effect "acting" cathedral), a title officially given to St Mary's Church in 1886, though it used that title unofficially since the 1820s.

History.

The Pro-Cathedral owes its origins to the Penal Laws which restricted Catholicism (and other non-Church of Ireland faiths) until the early nineteenth century. For centuries, Roman Catholics could not celebrate Mass or the sacraments in public and were subject to severe penalties (hence the word "penal"). While these laws ebbed and flowed in terms of the severity with which they were applied, Catholic churches if they were built at all, were built down narrow, difficult to find roadways. By the early nineteenth century, many of the Penal Laws had either been repealed or were no longer enforced; an unsuccessful attempt had already been made to grant Catholic Emancipation. As a result, Catholicism began to abandon its previous status as an "underground" religion.  In 1803, a committee formed by then Archbishop John Thomas Troy bought Lord Annesley's townhouse on the corner of Marlborough Street and Elephant Lane (now called Cathedral Street), within sight of the city's premier thoroughfare, Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street) as the location for the planned new pro-cathedral, pending the erection, when funds and the law allowed, of a full Roman Catholic cathedral. In 1814 a public competition had been announced by Archbishop Troy, inviting designs for the new church.  In June 1814 the demolition of the house took place. Constructed between 1815 and 1825, pro-cathedral combines a number of styles. The exterior is in Greek revival style, while the interior is more Renaissance style, based on the Church of Saint-Philippe du Roule of Paris. Archbishop of Dublin, Daniel Murray, celebrated the new pro-cathedral's completion on 14 November 1825, the feast of Dublin's patron saint, St Laurence O’Toole.  Though not a full cathedral, the new building became a symbol of the Irish nationalist spirit in the era following the ending of the Penal Laws. Daniel O'Connell, the leader of Irish nationalism and the first Roman Catholic MP elected to the British House of Commons, was present at a special thanksgiving High Mass in the Pro-Cathedral in 1829 following the granting of Catholic Emancipation, which among other things had allowed Catholics to be elected to parliament. In 1841, as the first Catholic Lord Mayor of Dublin in centuries, O'Connell formally celebrated his election by travelling in state to "the Pro" for High Mass. After he died in 1847, his remains were laid in state on a great catafalque in the Pro-Cathedral.  St Mary's baptism register contains quite a few entries for children born in the nearby Rotunda hospital; they were probably baptised quite quickly due to the feared infant mortality rates of the 19th century.

Plans for a full cathedral.

The Pro-Cathedral was never intended to be other than a temporary acting cathedral, pending the availability of funds to build a full cathedral. Various locations for the new cathedral were discussed. W. T. Cosgrave, President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State (prime minister) from 1922 to 1932 and a deeply religious Catholic, suggested that the burnt out shell of the General Post Office, the location of the 1916 Rising, be turned into a cathedral, but the idea was not acted on, and the GPO was restored for use as a post office.  John Charles McQuaid, who served as Archbishop from the 1940s to the early 1970s, bought the gardens in the centre of Merrion Square and announced plans to erect a cathedral there, but to the relief of Dubliners, who preferred a garden in the center of the city, his plans never came to pass and the gardens were eventually handed over by his successor to Dublin Corporation and opened to the public. While it is suggested periodically that the Church of Ireland, which has a relatively small membership, might hand over one of its cathedrals to the Catholic Church, no serious proposals have been made for such an arrangement. The Church of Ireland did offer one of the cathedrals to the Catholic church in the late 20th century but the offer was declined by the Catholic hierarchy apparently due to the projected cost of maintaining the building. (The Dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral (which serves as the "national cathedral" of the Church of Ireland - Christchurch is treated as the diocesan cathedral of Dublin) did suggest allowing Catholic Masses to be celebrated in St. Patrick's but the idea was dropped after opposition within the Church of Ireland.) Though theoretically the possibility of erecting a new Catholic cathedral remains on the agenda, in reality most of the funds collected for the building of a new cathedral have been spent erecting new churches in what was for a lengthy period a rapidly growing archdiocese.

State ceremony in the Pro-Cathedral.

The Pro-Cathedral remains a focal point of religious and state ceremonial activity. Up until 1983, incoming presidents of Ireland traditionally attended, prior to their civil inauguration, a religious ceremony in either St Patrick's Cathedral (if they were members of the Church of Ireland) or the Pro-Cathedral (if they were Roman Catholic). Whereas up to 1973, those ceremonies were exclusively denominational, the ceremonies for the inaugurations of President Childers in 1973, President Ó Dálaigh in 1974 and President Hillery in 1976, were multidenominational, with representatives of the Roman Catholic, Church of Ireland, Presbyterian, Methodist and the Jewish faith taking part in the ceremony. (In 1973 it took place in St Patrick's, in 1974 and 1976 in the Pro-Cathedral.) In 1983 a multidenominational service was included as part of the civil inauguration in Dublin Castle.  The major faiths held religious ceremonies in their main cathedral or pro-cathedral to mark the beginning of the law term or a session of parliament, which would be attended by the President of Ireland, the Taoiseach, ministers, the opposition, parliamentarians and members of the Diplomatic Corps. State funerals of major figures including Michael Collins and former presidents Seán T. O'Kelly, Éamon de Valera, Patrick Hillery and Lord Mayor of Dublin Kathleen Clarke took place there. A painting of the funeral of Michael Collins hangs in Áras an Uachtaráin, the president's residence.  Pope Francis visited the Pro-Cathedral on 25 August 2018 during an apostolic visit to Ireland.

Layout.

Internally, the Pro-Cathedral is dramatically different from the two main cathedrals of Dublin. Its mixture of Greek and Roman styles has proved controversial, being variously described as an artistic gem and an eyesore. Its main aisle leads up to an altar, behind which a stained glass window of the Blessed Virgin Mary (the Saint Mary of its name) is visible. For most of its existence it possessed a massive Victorian altar and reredos by Peter Turnerelli, a Belfast born sculptor of Italian parentage. In the late 1970s this was removed, as part of a re-ordering to bring its sanctuary in line with changes that followed the introduction of the revision of the Mass. The reredos was completely removed, leaving just the tabernacle, though the front panel of the original altar was reinstated in the new altar, which was moved to the centre of a new paved area in an expanded sanctuary. The altar rails were also removed. The pulpit was moved as well, and is currently sitting unused in a corner of the building. A large contingent of Italian artisans were employed by the church, to decorate the interior of the Cathedral.  The Pro-Cathedral caught fire in the early 1990s. Though the fire was extinguished before it caught hold of the building, considerable smoke damage was done to one corner of the building around the monument to Cardinal Cullen, perhaps the most famous of all the nineteenth-century Archbishops, and the first Archbishop of Dublin to be made a cardinal.

Organ of the Pro-Cathedral.

The original organ in the Pro-Cathedral was built by the Dublin organbuilder, John White, more than one hundred years ago, and the present instrument contains some of White's original pipework. The present facade of the organ dates from William Hill's rebuild of in the organ around 1900. Subsequent work was carried out by Henry Willis & Co. in the 1930s, before J.W. Walker's major rebuild of 1971 under the administrator Monsignor John Moloney and the most recent refurbishment of the instrument, by the same firm which was completed in the autumn of 1995. The newly refurbished instrument was inaugurated in a gala concert given by Olivier Latry on 20 March 1996.  The swell of the organ is built into the back wall of the Church. The shutters of the swell are in line with the rest of the wall. The organ console itself was moved in a general redevelopment of the church in 1995. This was to facilitate the direction of the choir.  This organ has become regarded as one of the finest examples in Ireland of the late nineteenth-century grand Romantic organ, and has since its original installation featured prominently in the many great liturgical occasions which have graced the pro-cathedral church. More recently many of the great organ recitalists of our time have performed on it: Daniel Chorzempa, Xavier Darasse, Sir David Lumsden, Daniel Roth, Dame Gillian Weir, Arthur Wills, Olivier Latry, and others. The current Titular Organist of Saint Mary's Pro-Cathedral is Professor Gerard Gillen who has held this position since 1976. David Grealy was appointed Associate Organist in September, 2017.  A chancel organ built by the Dublin organbuilder, John White, is located on the epistle (right) side of the High Altar. It fell into disuse on the reordering of the sanctuary c.1980. Its mechanism and pipework are stored in the bowels of the Pro-Cathedral. In the early 2000s a three-stop portable continuo organ was acquired, which provides accompaniment for sanctuary services such as Vespers/Evening Prayer, and is also used for continuo purposes in appropriate choral and orchestral repertoire.

Music of the Pro-Cathedral.

Music has always been a central ministry in Saint Mary's Pro-Cathedral. The Church is noted for its Palestrina Choir, the resident choir of Saint Mary's Pro-Cathedral. It had its origins in a boys' choir formed in the 1890s by Vincent O'Brien, then a music teacher at St Mary's Place Christian Brothers School in Dublin. It was at a performance of Palestrina's Missa Papae Marcelli at St Teresa's Carmelite Church in Clarendon Street in 1898 that this choir came to the attention of Edward Martyn, their founding sponsor. Martyn wished to promote the music of Palestrina which was espoused by Pope Pius X as a standard to which liturgical music should aspire. The Palestrina Choir was constituted and installed in the Pro-Cathedral on 1 January 1903 with O'Brien as director.  In the century since its foundation, the Choir has had seven directors. Vincent O'Brien, director until 1946, was succeeded by his son, Oliver. In 1978, Fr Seán O hEarcaigh took over the baton from Oliver O'Brien. He was succeeded in 1982, by Ite O'Donovan and in 1996 by Comdt Joseph Ryan. Órla Barry was the director from the end of 1996 to 2001. The current director is Blánaid Murphy, who is widely recognised as one of Ireland's pre-eminent choral educators, particularly of children's voices. Over the years the Palestrina Choir has attracted singers of high renown. John McCormack was a member of the Choir from 1904 to 1905. Many recent members are now distinguished soloists, most notably Emmanuel Lawler, who began his singing career as a boy soprano in the Choir. In recent years, the Choir has travelled widely, singing at many cathedrals and venues throughout Ireland, Europe, and North America.  During the school term the Palestrina Choir sing at Sunday morning Solemn Latin Mass (Novus Ordo), Friday evening Vespers & Benediction of the Most Blessed Sacrament (5.15pm) and Mass (5.45pm).  A girls' choir was formed in 2009. The choir currently sing the 10am Mass on Sundays and the 5.45pm evening Mass on Tuesdays. Cantors and visiting choirs frequently assist with the musical liturgies in the Cathedral.  Another permanent group is the Pro Nuova group, which sings contemporary liturgical music at the Sunday evening Mass.

St Mary's Church (), known also as St Mary's Pro-Cathedral or simply the Pro-Cathedral, the Chapel in Marlborough Street or the Pro, is a pro-cathedral and is the episcopal seat of the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and Primate of Ireland.

Die Prokathedrale der Unbefleckten Empfängnis der Hl. Jungfrau Maria (, ) ist eine römisch-katholische Pro-Kathedrale in der irischen Hauptstadt Dublin.


Description.

Fraser's eagle-owl is a relatively small species of eagle-owl with has rather "fluffy" ear tufts and a facial disc with a distinct dark rim. The upperparts are rufous and buffy brown, barred with darker bars, the pale scapulars have dark edged outer webs which show as a series of pale dots across the shoulder. The flight and tail feathers have narrow light and dark bars. The underparts are pale rufous shading to whitish on the belly and undertail coverts. Total length, females larger than males.

Voice.

The territorial song of the male Fraser's eagle-owl is a rapid, stuttering and long deep, guttural trill which has been said to resemble the noise made by an electricity generator. There is also a two syllable hoot, which is stereotypically owl like, with the second syllable being higher pitched and more whistled. The double hoot is repeated at intervals of 3–4 seconds, and to the listener familiar with it, similar to the hoot of the European tawny owl. Another call, which is given by both sexes, used is a single soft mewing "wooh". They snap their bills to communicate, as do many owls.

Distribution.

It is widely spread across the African tropical rainforest ; also found on Bioko.

Habitat.

Their habitat is primarily forest, forest clearings, and cardamom plantations. Ranges from sea-level up to about, in Cameroon.

Biology.

Like most owls Fraser's eagle-owl is a nocturnal bird, roosting during the day hidden by leaves, about above the ground. The roost site is often located by small, diurnal birds which mob the owl. The birds stop roosting at dusk and become active, singing is most often in the early evening, just after dusk, but they will also sing just before dawn. Its main prey is small mammals, such as mice, squirrels and galagos, and it also takes birds, frogs, reptiles, insects and other arthropods as well as the occasionally feeding on fruit.  The breeding biology of Fraser's eagle-owl is little known. In Gabon they are reported as singing in June–September but breeding seems to take place throughout the year, apparently varying geographically with egg laying being recorded in February in Liberia, through to December Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo. As nestlings have been found on the ground then it has been suggested that Fraser's eagle-owl may nest on the ground, however, there has been at least one record of a nestling observed in a tree cavity. The eggs are white with no markings. The juveniles are apparently dependent on the adults for a long time and retain their juvenile plumage for about a year.

Taxonomic notes.

Fraser's eagle-owl and the Usambara eagle-owl "Bubo vosseleri" have been considered as conspecific but they are widely separated and most authorities regard them as separate species. If that is the case then Fraser's eagle owl has no subspecies.

Fraser's eagle-owl ("Bubo poensis") is a species of African owl in the family Strigidae. It is named after the British zoologist Louis Fraser.

Der Guinea-Uhu ("Bubo poensis") ist eine Art aus der Familie der eigentlichen Eulen. Er kommt ausschließlich in West- und Zentralafrika vor.


Early life.

Benjamin Robins was born in Bath. His parents were Quakers in poor circumstances, and as a result, he received very little formal education. Having come to London on the advice of Dr. Henry Pemberton (1694–1771), who had recognised Robins' talents, for a time he maintained himself by teaching mathematics, but soon devoted himself to engineering and the study of fortification.

Scientific gunnery.

In particular he carried out an extensive series of experiments in gunnery, embodying his results in his famous treatise on "New Principles of Gunnery" (1742), which contains a description of his ballistic pendulum (see chronograph).  Robins also made a number of important experiments on the resistance of the air to the motion of projectiles, and on the force of gunpowder, with computation of the velocities thereby communicated to projectiles. He compared the results of his theory with experimental determinations of the ranges of mortars and cannon, and gave practical maxims for the management of artillery. He also made observations on the flight of rockets, and wrote on the advantages of rifled gun barrels. His work on gunnery was translated into German by Leonhard Euler, who added a critical commentary of his own. However, the work of Robins still served as an important piece of technical information that helped the later advancement of the Prussian artillery, especially of its improvement in accuracy, a big step forwards that the book turned out to be a shot in the arm of the ambitious Frederick the Great who determined to vault the status and power of Prussian artillery to the top among other European armies.

Mathematics.

Of less interest nowadays are Robins's more purely mathematical writings, such as his "Discourse concerning the Nature and Certainty of Sir Isaac Newton's Methods of Fluxions and of Prime and Ultimate Ratios" (1735), "A Demonstration of the Eleventh Proposition of Sir Isaac Newton's Treatise of Quadratures" (Phil. Trans., 1727), and similar works.

Politics.

Besides his scientific labours, Robins took an active part in politics. He wrote pamphlets in support of the opposition to Sir Robert Walpole, and was secretary of a committee appointed by the House of Commons to enquire into the conduct of that minister. He also wrote a preface to the "Report on the Proceedings of the Board of General Officers on their Examination into the Conduct of Lieutenant-General Sir John Cope", in which he gave an apology for the battle of Prestonpans.  In 1749, he was appointed engineer general to the East India Company, and went out to superintend the reconstruction of their forts. However, his health soon failed, and he died at Fort St David in India. His works were published in two volumes in 1761.

Benjamin Robins (170729 July 1751) was a pioneering English scientist, Newtonian mathematician, and military engineer. He wrote an influential treatise on gunnery, for the first time introducing Newtonian science to military men, was an early enthusiast for rifled gun barrels, and his work had substantive influence on the development of artillery during the latter half of the eighteenth century – and directly stimulated the teaching of calculus in military academies.

Benjamin Robins (* 1707 in Bath; † 29. Juli 1751 in Cuddalore) war ein britischer Militäringenieur, Mathematiker und breit interessierter Wissenschaftler. Er begann als Amateurforscher und wurde einer der Begründer der wissenschaftlichen Ballistik.


Early years.

Laldenga, the fourth child of a cultivator Liantlira Ralte and Darchhungi Hnamte, was born on 11 June 1927 in village Pukpui in the Mizo district of Assam (now in the Lunglei district of Mizoram). He joined the Indian Army and served up to Havildar. He resigned from the army and joined civil service as Accounts Clerk under District Council office in Aizawl.

Secessionist movement.

Laldenga joined a voluntary organisation called Mizo Cultural Society, formed in 1955, as its Secretary. The society became Mautam Front in March 1960 to work for relief due to the Mautam famine that affected the entire Mizoram (which was then a district council of Assam). The government could not make efficient effort to provide basic survival needs, and this prompted the need for more powerful pressure group. The organisation was then renamed Mizo National Famine Front (MNFF) in September 1960. This soon evolved into a political organisation and ultimately became the Mizo National Front (MNF) on 22 October 1961. Laldenga took the support from Pakistan for the separatist movement and was arrested and jailed by Indian authorities. As an outcome of his talks, between 1963 and 1966 East Pakistan provided military training and shelter to Mizo fighters when they needed exile..  On the night of 28 February 1966, the MNF launched an daring and ambitious attack on the district's major towns, resulting in the March 1966 Mizo National Front uprising. It declared independence and called on the Mizos to rise against India. The Indian Government responded by sending troops and aircraft on bombing missions. Villagers were uprooted from the hills and sent without their consent to Regrouped Villages built along the highways. For the next 20 years, violence continued in the Mizo hills with the fighters camping in Mizoram (India) and East Pakistan. With the fall of East Pakistan in 1971, Laldenga's men scattered to Myanmar while he moved to Pakistan. After secret meetings in Europe with Indian officials, he returned seeking a peaceful resolution of the problem.  During his guerrilla life, Laldenga was arrested on several occasions and spent 10 years in exile, mostly in Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Peace Accord and last days.

When Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1984, it encouraged a new wave of negotiation. Laldenga met him on 15 February 1985, and peace settlement was on its way. On 30 June 1986 the official document entitled "Mizoram Accord, 1986, Memorandum of Settlement" was then signed by Ladenga, R. D. Pradhan, Home Secretary, and Lalkhama, Chief secretary.  Ladenga became an interim Chief Minister, as the sitting Chief Minister Lalthanhawla stepped down to Deputy Chief Minister. Under the terms of the accord, Mizoram was granted statehood in February 1987. Laldenga and his party MNF won the first elections to the state legislature. However, defections toppled him from office in 1988.  He never rose to political arena again due to chronic lung cancer. After he got medical treatments in New Delhi and New York City, he headed for London. Just after landing on airport, he died on the way to hospital on 7 July 1990. He was honoured with the first state funeral in Mizoram, and buried at the centre of Aizawl city.

Laldenga (1927-1990) was a Mizo politician and the first Chief Minister of Mizoram state in northeast India from 1986 till 1988. He is the founder of the Mizo National Front.

Laldenga (* 11. Juni 1927 in Pukpui, Assam, Britisch-Indien; † 7. Juli 1990 in London) war ein indischer Guerillakämpfer der Mizo National Front und von 1986 bis 1989 Chief Minister von Mizoram.


Early life.

Ingalls was born January 25, 1837, in Sutton Township, Caledonia County, Vermont. He was the youngest of 9 children of James Ingalls (circa 1792-1866) and Mary Cass (circa 1797-1883). His parents are buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, Madison, Dane County, Wisconsin. He had a sister, Jane Margaret Ingalls (1821–1920), who married Estes Wilson. Jane Ingalls Wilson was one of the first female physicians in Wisconsin.  Ingalls spent his childhood in Clinton, Massachusetts. He worked as an errand boy at Lancaster Mills and graduated from Clinton High School in 1856.

Civil War.

James Monroe Ingalls moved to Madison, Wisconsin, with his parents in about 1856. He was a professor of mathematics in the Evansville Seminary, Wisconsin, 1860-1863. He enlisted in the regular army on January 2, 1864, during the Civil War, and was assigned to the 16th Infantry. He was promoted corporal and served as commissary and quartermaster-sergeant until May 21, 1865. He was promoted 2d and 1st lieutenant on May 3, 1865, accepting the promotions on May 21, 1865. On April 17, 1869, he was transferred to the 2d Infantry; on January 1, 1871, to the 1st artillery. He was Commandant of Cadets and Professor of Military Science and Tactics and Mathematics at West Virginia University 1877-78. He was a very popular professor. He was promoted captain of artillery on July 1, 1880; major on June 1, 1897, and lieutenant-colonel on October 5, 1900. He served in Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia and other points in the south between 1864 and 1871, and was then sent to the artillery school at Fort Monroe, graduating in the class of 1872. He was then stationed successively at Plattsburgh Barracks, and Forts Jefferson and Barrancas, and, in July 1880, was assigned to the command of Battery A, Governor's Island, New York Harbor, and thence transferred to San Francisco Harbor, where he served until ordered to Battery G at Fort Munroe 1882. He suggested and organized the department of ballistics at the artillery school, Fort Monroe, and was made the first instructor on December 19, 1882, which position he held until the school suspended operations in spring 1898 because of the Spanish–American War. He was also senior instructor in practical artillery exercises, class of 1884; in engineering, class of 1888; in electricity and defensive torpedoes, classes of 1884, 1886, 1888 and 1890; and in signaling, 1884-88. Lieutenant Colonel Ingalls retired from the Army in 1901. In 1904, he was made colonel retired. Ingalls died on May 1, 1927 in Providence, Rhode Island, and is buried in Cedar Grove Cemetery, New London, Connecticut.  Author A. J. Bastarache has called Colonel Ingalls the "Father of Ballistics" for his pioneering research that contributed to America's military successes through the 20th century.

Family life.

Ingalls married Elizabeth Niles, daughter of John S. Niles and Elizabeth Lilly, in July 1860, in Dane County, Wisconsin. She was born in 1841 in Leon, Cattaraugus County, New York, and died on July 28, 1875 of typhoid fever at Fort Barrancas, Escambia County, Florida, and is buried in the national cemetery there. They had two children. Their son, Arthur Niles Ingalls (1861–1875), also died of typhoid fever and is buried with his mother. Their daughter, Hilda Eliza Ingalls (born September 1868 in McPhersonburg, Virginia) married Joel Randall Burrow in 1889. He later became the Secretary of State of the State of Kansas. Hilda died on November 4, 1908, and is buried at Fairview Cemetery, Smith Center, Kansas.  Ingalls married a second time on July 17, 1877, in New London, Connecticut, to Harriet Elizabeth Thurston, daughter of Benjamin Babcock Thurston, who had been Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island. They had one child, Fanny Thurston Ingalls, who never married.

James Monroe Ingalls (January 25, 1837 – May 1, 1927) was an American soldier and an authority on ballistics. His tabulations on ballistics was the authoritative source for over 100 years.

James Monroe Ingalls (* 25. Januar 1837 in Sutton, Vermont; † 1. Mai 1927 in Providence, Rhode Island) war ein US-amerikanischer Offizier und Ballistiker.


Racing career.

Early career.

Riggs was born in Bahama, North Carolina, and began his racing career at the age of fourteen in the American Motorcycle Association, where he won the State Championship in North Carolina two years in a row. At the age of seventeen, he began racing the NASCAR mini stock division, and won twelve races over his first three seasons. He continued to race in that series over the next decade, and was a two-time champion at Southern National Speedway.  In 1999, Riggs made his major-league NASCAR debut in the Craftsman Truck Series at Indianapolis Raceway Park, driving the No. 84 for Long Brothers Racing. He started seventh and finished nineteenth. He also competed at Richmond International Raceway, where he finished 23rd. In 2000, he finished ninth at Martinsville Speedway for Long, when he was hired to drive the No. 86 Dodge Ram for Impact Motorsports, where he had seven top-tens. Towards the end of the season, he was released from Impact, and competed in one final race at California Speedway for Brevak Racing, finishing sixteenth. The following season, he drove for Ultra Motorsports, where he picked up five wins, the first coming at Martinsville. He finished fifth in points at the end of the season.

Nationwide Series.

In 2002, Riggs moved to the Busch Series (now Xfinity Series) to drive the No. 10 Ford Taurus for ppc Racing. He won his first race at Nashville Superspeedway, then won again two weeks later at California. He finished tenth in points at the end of the season, earning him Rookie of the Year honors. The next season, he picked up two more wins including a thrilling last-lap pass for a victory at Gateway International Raceway after Mike Bliss ran out of gas just after the white flag, scored the other win at Nashville, and finished sixth in points as part of the Top 6 going for the title at Homestead, but his hopes ended after he crashed after the start of the race. He also won the Most Popular Driver award.  Riggs returned to the NASCAR Nationwide Series in 2010 to drive the No. 09 Ford Fusion for RAB Racing with Brack Maggard. After the February 27 race at Las Vegas, Riggs sat 10th in the series point standings. However, despite strong and consistent runs, Riggs was unable to bring sponsorship to the team and was released after the Nashville 300. On May 28, 2010, Riggs signed with Richard Childress Racing to drive the No. 21 Chevrolet Impala for the Federated Auto Parts 300 at Nashville Superspeedway and for the Meijer 300 at Kentucky Speedway, while sharing duties with Clint Bowyer for the remainder of the season. At Nashville, Riggs recorded his first Top-10 of the season, finishing 9th. He also finished 9th at Kentucky. In 2011, Riggs made 12 starts in the Nationwide Series for R3 Motorsports, with a best finish of 13th at Darlington.

Sprint Cup Series.

In 2004, Riggs signed to drive the No. 10 Chevrolet Monte Carlo for MB2 Motorsports. Qualifying for all but one race that season, he had a fifth-place finish at Dover International Speedway and finished 29th in points, fifth in the Rookie of the Year standings. In 2005, he won his first pole at Martinsville, and went on to have a second-place finish at Michigan International Speedway.  At the end of the year, Riggs and Valvoline left for Evernham Motorsports taking the No. 10 with him. In 2006, Riggs failed to make the Daytona 500 because of a mechanical error in qualifying and a lack of owner points from the previous season (from the former No. 91 team). The No. 10 team finished the 2006 season high enough in owners' points to guarantee themselves a starting spot in the first 5 races in 2007. Riggs had back-to-back top-10 finishes at Martinsville and Texas. Riggs also won the pole for the Coca-Cola 600 and the NEXTEL Open exhibition race at Charlotte. He won the NEXTEL Open, leading all but one lap, and advanced to the NEXTEL All-Star Challenge where he finished tenth. In the Coca-Cola 600, Riggs led 90 laps, but a pit road violation took him out of contention and he finished 13th. His highest ranking in the 2006 NEXTEL Cup points standings has been 18th. Riggs's best finish in the 2006 Nextel Cup season was a 4th-place finish which came at the Sharpie 500 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Riggs won the pole in the Bank of America 500, sweeping both poles at Charlotte.  Riggs struggled in 2007, falling out of the top-35 in owner's points, and began failing to qualify for several races. During the summer, Riggs did not renew his contract with Evernham, and on October 3, 2007 it was revealed that Riggs had signed a contract to drive Haas CNC Racing's No. 66 Chevrolet for the 2008 season. He was replaced in the No. 10 car for the last two races of 2007 by Patrick Carpentier.  Riggs was released from Haas CNC when that team signed Tony Stewart and became Stewart-Haas Racing. Riggs joined Tommy Baldwin Racing to drive the No. 36 Toyota Camry in the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. After qualifying for eight races, including the 2009 Daytona 500, Riggs announced that he was parting ways with TBR, refusing to be a start-and-park driver. He was replaced in favor of Mike Skinner, Brian Simo, and Patrick Carpentier.  On March 30, 2010, it was announced Riggs would drive the No. 90 Chevrolet Impala for Keyed-Up Motorsports on an initial two race contract, taking over from Casey Mears who moved to Joe Gibbs Racing as a standby driver for Denny Hamlin. Riggs was running 25th on the lead lap in the Subway Fresh Fit 600 at Phoenix, but he blew a right-front tire with 4 laps to go and pounded the Turn 3 wall, forcing a green-white-checkered finish. Riggs went on to finish 28th. Due to sponsorship reasons, Keyed-Up Motorsports announced they would not return to the Sprint Cup Series until they had enough funds to run entire races.  Riggs drove for Whitney Motorsports in 4 races in 2011. However, after 4 DNQ's, he was released from the team. He has made several attempts to qualify in the R3 Motorsports No. 23 in late 2011 and 2012.  In 2013, he announced that would begin driving for Xxxtreme Motorsport in the No. 44 Ford Fusion, with sponsorship from No Label Watches, hendrickcars.com, and Everest College. He made his debut at Phoenix, finishing 43rd after blowing a tire.

Personal life.

Riggs' son Layne currently competes in the CARS Late Model Stock Tour.

Motorsports career results.

ARCA Re/Max Series.

Season still in progress<br

Russell Scott Riggs (born January 1, 1971), known professionally as Scott Riggs, is an American professional stock car racing driver. He last competed in the 92 for RBR Enterprises in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series.

Russell Scott Riggs (* 1. Januar, 1971 in Bahama, North Carolina) ist ein NASCAR-Rennfahrer. Riggs ist im Moment ein Free Agent. Zuletzt fuhr er den Toyota Camry mit der Nummer 36 für Tommy Baldwin Racing im NASCAR Sprint Cup.


Early history.

Built by the Joh. C. Tecklenborg yard at Geestemünde, she was launched as the freighter "Pungo" in 1914 and operated by the "Afrikanische Fruchtkompanie" for F. Laeisz of Hamburg. After an uneventful career carrying cargoes of bananas from the German colony of Kamerun to Germany she was requisitioned by the Imperial German Navy for use as a minelayer. Her conversion took place at Imperial shipyard at Wilhelmshaven in the autumn of 1915, and under the command of Nikolaus zu Dohna-Schlodien, she entered service on 1 November that year.

First raiding voyage.

"Möwe" slipped out of Wilhelmshaven on 29 December 1915 for her first task, to set a minefield in the Pentland Firth, near the main base of the British Home Fleet at Scapa Flow. This was completed in severe weather conditions. A few days later the pre-dreadnought battleship struck one of the mines; despite attempts to tow her to safety she sank. "Möwe" then moved down the west coast of Ireland to France. There she laid another mine field off the Gironde estuary, which sank a further two ships.  This part of her mission complete, "Möwe" then moved into the Atlantic, operating first between Spain and the Canary islands, and later off the coast of Brazil. On January 16, 1916, the "Möwe" encountered a lightly armed British merchant ship and after a small battle, the British ship was scuttled. In three months she caught fifteen ships, two of which were sent, with cargo and prisoners, to port as prizes; the rest were sunk. She returned to Germany, and a hero's welcome, on 4 April 1916. Richard Stumpf records that there were a number of Africans amongst the crew upon this arrival. Felix von Luckner served aboard "SMS Möwe" before his journey with SMS "Seeadler" in late 1916 to late 1917.

Interlude as "Vineta".

In an effort to maintain security, "Möwe" was renamed "Vineta", after another auxiliary cruiser which had been withdrawn from service. In this guise she set out on a series of short cruises during the summer of 1916 to attack Allied shipping off the coast of Norway. This only brought one success, however, before she was ordered in for a refit prior to another sortie into the Atlantic.

Second raiding voyage.

Departing on 23 November 1916, "Möwe" had even more success on her second cruise into the Atlantic.  On 6 December 1916, she captured and sank the Canadian Pacific Steamship freighter outbound from Halifax to Liverpool. "Mount Temple"′s cargo included 700 horses bound for the Canadian Expeditionary Force in France and many crates of dinosaur fossils collected from Alberta's Red Deer River badlands by Charles H. Sternberg destined for the British Museum of Natural History. On 12 December, it was the turn of, sunk along with her cargo of 1,200 horses that would have been used on the Western Front.  In four months she had accounted for another 25 ships totalling. One of these, SS "Yarrowdale", was sent as prize to Germany and, as Dohna-Schlodien had recommended, was outfitted as a commerce raider herself. "Möwe" also retained as a collier, before arming and commissioning her as the auxiliary "Geier". "Geier" operated in this role for six weeks, accounting for two ships sunk, before being disarmed and scuttled by "Möwe" prior to returning home. On 10 March, she was damaged in action against an armed New Zealand merchant ship "Otaki" off the Azores in the Atlantic. Armed with a single 120mm stern gun, the "Otaki" fought a gallant but doomed action. The "Möwe" was hit several times and a serious fire was put out with difficulty. The "Otaki", however, was hit some thirty times before sinking. "Otaki"s captain Archibald Bisset Smith was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross, finally going down in his ship with the British colours still flying”. Five of her crewmen were killed and another ten men were wounded. The damage forced the raider to return course for Germany.  In March 1917 "Möwe" again successfully ran the British blockade, ironically at the same time as "Yarrowdale", now the auxiliary cruiser, was cornered and sunk by the same blockading force. "Möwe" arrived home safely on 22 March 1917.

Later history.

On her return "Möwe" was taken out of service as a raider, being reckoned too valuable as a propaganda tool to be risked again. She served in the Baltic as a submarine tender, before becoming the auxiliary minelayer "Ostsee" in 1918. After the Treaty of Versailles, she went to Britain, to be operated by Elders and Fyffes as the freighter "Greenbrier". In 1933 she was sold to a German shipping company. As the freighter "Oldenburg", it served the route between Germany and occupied Norway in World War II.  On 7 April 1945 she was attacked by Bristol Beaufighters of Coastal Command aircraft from No. 114 Squadron RAF, No. 455 Squadron RAAF, and No. 489 Squadron RNZAF at her moorings sheltering off the coast of Norway—near the village of Vadheim in Sogn og Fjordane county. Following an intense strafing and rocket attack, holed by their rockets and strafed by cannon fire, she burned and sank.

Raiding career.

In three raiding voyages "Möwe" captured and sank 40 ships, grossing in excess of 180,000 GRT. She also laid mines which accounted for two more ships and a capital warship. This made her the most successful German raider in either the First or the Second World War.

Film.

In 1917 the imperial "Bild- und Filmamt" in Berlin produced "Graf Dohna und seine Möwe", one of the best-known propaganda films of World War I. The distributor was Paul Davidson; part of the production the "Projektions-AG »Union«" (PAGU), Berlin. The film was first released on 2 May 1917 in the "Deutsches Opernhaus" (Deutsche Oper Berlin) in Berlin.

SMS "Möwe" (German: "Seagull") was a merchant raider of the Imperial German Navy which operated against Allied shipping during World War I.

SMS "Möve" war ein Hilfskreuzer der Kaiserlichen Marine des Deutschen Reiches. Das Schiff war eine von zwei Einheiten der Pionier-Klasse und lief 1914 unter dem Namen "Pungo" für die Afrikanische Frucht-Compagnie vom Stapel, die in der deutschen Kolonie Kamerun Bananenplantagen unterhielt. Benannt war die "Pungo" nach einer Lokalität in Fako. Sie wurde zunächst von der Firma F. Laeisz bereedert und 1915 von der Kaiserlichen Marine übernommen. Auf zwei Fahrten im Atlantik 1916/1917 unter dem Kommando von Korvettenkapitän Nikolaus Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien brachte der Hilfskreuzer insgesamt 39 alliierte Handelsschiffe auf oder versenkte sie. Er wurde dadurch auf angloamerikanischer Seite zum Symbol für den Kreuzerkrieg schlechthin.


History.

First years.

In 1919, Louis Faiveley founded in Saint Ouen, France, the "Établissments Louis Faiveley", a small assembly shop centered on electromechanical parts. It soon grew and became one of the French railway system's leading suppliers. It introduced in 1923 its first pantograph. In 1930, it also ventured in the manufacture of door systems for trains. By the 30s, it was already one of France's leading companies in all its fields of activity. In 1935, the company became a Societé Anonyme, although the shares' majority stayed in hands of the Faiveley family.  After the Second World War, the company quickly recovered. In 1946, it introduced electric heating systems. In 1955, it helped set a new high-speed train record, as a Faiveley-equipped train exceeded 331 kilometres per hour. That year, Faiveley also introduced the first single-arm pantograph. This innovation helped the company to ensure its position as world leader in railway pantograph systems.

Internationalisation.

In 1961, the company created a research and development division with the aim of adapting electronic applications to the railroad industry, included automatic door systems. It also begun to equipe the new rubber-wheeled Paris Metro cars. In 1965, the company started to produce automatic doors for buildings, creating in 1968 a subsidiary specifically for this area: Faiveley Automatismes.  The company continued its expansion. In 1966, it opened a subsidiary in Spain. In 1976, one in Brazil (Equipfer). In 1979, was created the Italian branch. Attempts to enter into the American and Canadian markets, however, were not as successful. Only in the late 90s it could settle in those countries.  France remained as Faiveley's core market. During the 70s, the company introduced new corail coaches for the SNCF and provided equipment for a new generation of subway trains, the MF77. In 1972, Faiveley presented its first very-high-speed pantograph. Soon after, it introduced its first electric automated road system.  In 1984, Faiveley purchased Saint-Gobain subsidiary Air-Industrie's transport division, giving it operations in passenger train air conditioning systems. That year, it acquired from the Matra's subsidiary Interlec its tachometry activities. Together with the company's other transportation-related activities, these subsidiary operations were gathered into a newly created subsidiary: Faiveley Transport.  The company was one of the suppliers of the new SNCF's TGV trains. In 1990, its pantographs were key to achieve a new 513.3 kilometres per hour record by TGV Atlantique.  In 1991, the company moved its headquarters to Saint-Pierre-des-Corps.

Diversification.

With competition becoming more intense in its field of activity, Faiveley decided it was time to expand their operations.  In 1992, the company acquired plastics product maker Grand-Perret. In 1993, Faiveley moved to concentrate its activities around its historic core of railroad and transportation equipment and its brand new plastics division, selling its Faiveley Automatismes subsidiary. It also made an aggressive move to increase its business in the Japanese market, one of the most important at the time, forming a joint venture with Nabco called Nabco-Faiveley Ltd which became one of leading providers of Japan's railroad. Later, Faiveley partnered also with Mitsui. That year Faivaley created a British subsidiary, to take a part of the business in the recently privatised rail system.  In 1994, Faiveley was listed on the Paris Bourse. In 1995, it acquired VPI-Verchère Plastiques Industriels, a thermo-injected plastic company. The following year, Faiveley added the operations of Rhône Moulage and Sepal Ltd, two companies also centered in plastics. By the end of the decade, that material had risen to nearly 20 percent of Faiveley's total sales.  In 1995. Faiveley purchased the German railroad air conditioning company Hagenuk Fahrzeugklima from its parent company Siemens. The purchase was a key step into the German market as well as the Asian through is Chinese subsidiary Shanghai Hagenuk Refrigerating Machine, but also brought losses to the company during the following years. This led to a reorganisation that included staff reductions in Germany and France and changes in the Board of Directors.  In December 2002, Faiveley purchased a 75 percent stake in the Czech pantograph and electro-mechanical equipment supplier Lekov. In 2004, it acquired the train brakes manufacturer Sab Wabco and the air conditioning manufacturer Neu Systèmes. In early 2007, it purchased the electronic systems and rolling stock manufacturer ESPAS group. Faiveley CX pantographs were fitted in the V150 TGV's record-breaking attempt of 2007, which set a new world railway speed record of 574.8 kilometres per hour.  In April 2008, the company acquired from Carbone Lorraine its sintered brake material manufacturing and design department. In July of that year, it purchased the American freight wagon components' manufacturer Ellcon-National.  In September 2009 Faiveley SA and its subsidiary Faiveley Transport merged into a sole company, called Faiveley Transport SA.  In March 2011, the company purchased an 80 percent stake in the rolling stock heating, ventilation and air conditioning equipment manufacturer Urs Dolder AG and the remaining stake of Lekov.  On 3 February 2012, Faiveley Transport completed the purchase of Graham-White, an American designer and manufacturer of compressed air drying and brake systems for rail transport.  In February 2013, the company won a trial against Wabtec for the acts of unfair competition and secrets violation.  On 30 November 2016, the 51% stake of the company controlled by the Faiveley family was purchased by Wabtec, giving Wabtec controlling interest in Faiveley Transport.

Current activities.

Faiveley Transport offers a wide range of products related to the train equipment, such as cabin heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC); HVAC system room, air distribution ducts, exhaust, urs dolder heaters; pantographs and high voltage switches, energy meters, auxiliary power converters, master controllers and driver awareness system. The company also provides access and information systems, such as platform screen doors and automatic platform gates, portal platform, door systems, passenger information systems and CCTV vigilance. In addition, it provides checks and security products, including couplers, odometry/tachometry systems and event recorders, brake control units, oil-free air generator BURAN, Nowe sanding, axle mounted disc, magnetictrack brake, disc brakes controllers, air generation and air treatment, and pantograph compressor. The company provides renovation, maintenance, installation and consultancy services, including torque and engineering maintenance and spare parts and logistics. It serves tram, metro, high speed locomotives, and regional market segments trains.

Acquisition by Wabtec Corporation.

In December 2016, Wabtec Corporation acquired majority stock ownership of Faiveley Transport from the Faiveley family, who had owned about 51% of the outstanding shares, for €1.6 billion and 6.3 million shares of Wabtec's common stock. After tender offers for the remaining outstanding shares, Wabtec owned 98.53% of Faiveley stock, with 97.66% of the voting rights. Wabtec plans to complete the acquisition with a mandatory squeeze-out of the shares which were not tendered.

Faiveley Transport (), formerly Faiveley, is an international manufacturer and supplier of equipment for the railway industry founded in 1919. It introduced the single-arm pantograph in 1955. The company has subsidiaries in more than 24 countries. The majority of Faiveley Transport's outstanding stock is owned by Wabtec Corporation, which acquired majority stock ownership from the Faiveley family in 2016.

Die Faiveley Transport mit Sitz in Gennevilliers bei Paris (Frankreich) ist ein ehemals unabhängiger börsennotierter Anbieter von Bahnsystemen und Dienstleistungen. Das Unternehmen ist seit 2017 vollständig im Besitz des US-amerikanischen Bahnkonzerns Wabtec.


Naming.

For the model number, the "C" stands for "COMAC" and "China"; "9" is a homophonic pun in Chinese with "forever"; while "19" refers to its capacity of 190 passengers. The "C" also has the implication that forms an "ABC" parallel situation with Airbus and Boeing. In Mandarin Chinese, "9" () is a homophone of 久, meaning "forever" as a Chengyu in.

Development.

The 2008 program launch initially targeted a maiden flight in 2014. Comac applied for a type certificate for the aircraft from the Civil Aviation Authority of China on 28 October 2010. The company intends to manufacture up to 2,300 aircraft of the type. In June 2011, COMAC and Irish low-cost airline Ryanair signed an agreement to co-operate on the development of the C919. In 2012 Airbus' chief strategist Marwan Lahoud was assuming that the aircraft would offer competition to Airbus by 2020.  From 2010 to 2015 the Chinese cyberthreat actor Turbine Panda, linked to the Ministry of State Security’s Jiangsu Bureau, penetrated a number of the C919's foreign components manufacturers including Honeywell and Safran. Crowdstrike argued that the operations involved both cyber intrusion and theft as well as HUMINT operations with the aim of transitioning component manufacturing to domestic companies using stolen intellectual property and industrial processes.  On 24 November 2011, Comac announced the completion of the joint definition phase, marking the end of the preliminary design phase for the C919, with estimated completion of the detailed design phase in 2012. Production of the first C919 prototype began on 9 December 2011. The C919's aerodynamics were designed with the help of the Tianhe-2 supercomputer. The annual production was targeted at 150 planes by 2020. Canada's Bombardier Aerospace has been collaborating since March 2012 on supply chain services, electrical systems, human interface, cockpit, flight training, flight-test support, sales, and marketing, as of June 2013.  Its announced development budget is 58 billion yuan ($9.5 billion) but its actual cost is estimated at well over $20 billion. The flight testbed was expected to complete final assembly in 2014 and perform its first flight in 2015; however, delivery was delayed again until 2018 due to technical difficulties and supply issues. At the November 2014 Zhuhai Airshow, it was announced that the first flight would be delayed to 2017. On 2 November 2015, Comac rolled out its first C919 aircraft.  In May 2018, a composite wing development completed in 2012 was revealed years after abandoning it for a metallic one, as static and damage tolerance tests were completed, verifying the structural design and strength before full-size composite wingbox tests. On 12 July, the static test aircraft simulated a 2.5g, 150% ultimate load, bending the wings by nearly three metres for three seconds.

Flight testing.

2017.

High-speed taxi tests were completed in April 2017 and the first flight took place on 5 May 2017. At the time, Comac had a planned test programme of 4,200 flight hours and introduction to service in 2020. It is estimated, however, that this could be delayed into 2021. The European Aviation Safety Agency is working to validate the Chinese type certificate. The 4,200h planned are higher than the 3,000h typically logged for the Airbus or Boeing narrowbodies, but lower than the 5,000h taken by the ARJ21.  Comac had its second prototype ready on 28 July 2017, aiming to fly it within the year for engine, APU, fuel system and extreme weather tests. The first has not flown since the maiden flight but no major issues have surfaced while small improvements are being made. The flight-test plan and modules was going to be detailed and will use six aircraft. On 28 September, it made its second flight at, which lasted 2 hours 46 minutes, although it was supposed to last one more hour. While the second prototype is ground tested, this five-month interval is extraordinary: in 2013 the Airbus A350 flew again after five days and in 2015 the troubled Mitsubishi MRJ flew again after eight days.  On 3 November, it made its third flight in 3h 45min, reaching. It was then transferred on 10 November from Shanghai to Xian to continue its flight test campaign, a 2h 24min, flight reaching and.  The second prototype made its first flight on 17 December 2017. The first three prototypes are expected to test its performance and dynamic or power systems including the turbofans. The fourth prototype likewise will test the mission systems, like the avionics, and the electrical system, and the fifth and sixth prototypes passenger facilities, including the cabin and information system.

2018.

The delay between first and subsequent flights underline the program immaturity by maiden flight: flying early at low speed and altitude is possible but faster and higher is limited by aeroelastic flutter needing ground vibration testing and aircraft instrumentation which were not ready in May. Due to flight testing problems, the 2020 introduction previous schedule was delayed to 2021, for China Eastern Airlines. In February 2018, the first prototype was flying more than once a week.  In June 2018, Aviation Week reported the flight-test aircraft grounding for modifications, extending the schedule by three months but maintaining a 2020 certification target. The two prototypes were having their flaps and tailplanes modified, due to delamination of the carbon-fiber reinforced plastic elevators. Flight tests should restart in July 2018, fuel tanks were also modified. The third test aircraft was also being modified and maximum-rate pressurization was tested. As three other planes will be available in 2019, Comac maintains first deliveries for 2021.  Comac denied any grounding and highlighted that modifications are part of the flight test process, stating the two first aircraft were flying stability tests and checking systems. The first was calibrated and had its counterweight and trailing cone systems modified while the second had its functions and systems checked and will be transferred to the Dongying test base. The third was in final assembly with its wing and fuselage joined, cables and systems were being installed for a first flight target by the end of the year. On 12 July, the second prototype flew from Shanghai-Pudong to Dongying Airport in 1h 46min to allow for various meteorological conditions testing. In September, Comac expected to conduct 1,500 test flights for over 2,000 hours before the first delivery and planned to fly the third prototype before the end of 2018.  In October 2018, the flight-deck design is re-evaluated to comply with US FAR Part 25.1302, not necessary for CAAC but for FAA certification to sell it outside of China, as COMAC go through the learning curve of the aircraft design process, and developing indigenous competitors for the CFM Leap-1C would take at least another 15 years. By then, the two prototypes had flown less than 150 h, averaging less than 5 h per month each. To achieve certification in December 2020 and first delivery in 2021, the planned 4,200 h of flight tests would need 33 h a month each if the last four prototypes are evenly spaced before year-end-2019. Newest airliner designs like the Airbus A350 needed a 2,600 h campaign, and the Mitsubishi MRJ is expected to need 3,000 h.  On October 15, 2018 ten Chinese nationals including intelligence officials were indicted in the US for working with COMAC to steal the secrets of thirteen foreign aerospace companies working on the C919.  By 2018 end, the first prototype was to enter flutter flight tests after having completed ground tests. The third prototype made its maiden flight by 28 December over 1h 38 min.

2019.

A fourth prototype conducted its maiden flight on 1 August 2019 from Shanghai Pudong International Airport, with two further aircraft expected to join the test fleet before the end of 2019. A fifth prototype conducted its first flight on 24 October 2019, also from the aforementioned Shanghai airport; the fifth prototype is expected to undergo testing for extreme weather conditions, environmental control, drainage, and electrical supply. Comac pushed back its certification target from 2020 to 2021, with first delivery the following year.  The fleet of C919 airframes intended for tests related to flight certification was completed on December 27, 2019 with the maiden flight of the sixth prototype. Report at the time indicates that the aircraft is expected to enter commercial service with China Eastern Airlines in either 2021 or 2022.

Design.

Configuration and performance.

The dimensions of the C919 are quite similar to those of the Airbus A320; its fuselage is wide and high with a cross-section. This may allow for a common unit load device to be used for both aircraft. It has a wingspan ( with winglets). The aircraft's intended payload capacity will be 20.4 tonnes. The design calls for cruise at with an operating ceiling of 12,200 metres (39,800 feet). There will be two variants: the standard version with a range, and a extended-range version. The C919 is a cautious design, similar to the 30 years older A320.

Construction.

The center wing box, outer wing box, wing panels, flaps, and ailerons are planned to be built in Xi'an, China; the center fuselage sections are planned to be built in Hongdu, China. Aluminium-lithium alloys account for 8.8% of the structure and composite materials for 12%. The air frame will be made largely of aluminium alloy. Aircraft design and assembly is performed in Shanghai.

Wings.

The wing is supercritical, increasing aerodynamic efficiency by 20% and reducing drag by 8% compared to a non-supercritical one. The center wing box was originally intended to use carbon fibre composites. It was changed later to an aluminium design to reduce design complications.

Systems.

The engine's nacelle, thrust reverser and exhaust system will be provided by Nexcelle, with such features as an advanced inlet configuration, the extensive use of composites and acoustic treatment and an electrically operated thrust reverser. Michelin will supply Air X radial tyres. Its integrated modular avionics architecture is based on Ethernet. The landing gear is made in China by a joint venture of Germany's Liebherr and Avic's Landing Gear Advanced Manufacturing Corp: Liebherr LAMC Aviation.  While the airframe is entirely made by Chinese Avic, most systems are made by Western-Chinese joint-ventures: with UTAS for the electric power, fire protection and lighting; with Rockwell Collins for the cabin systems and avionics, with Thales for the IFE, with Honeywell for the flight controls, APU, wheels and brakes; with Moog for the high lift system; with Parker for the hydraulics, actuators and fuel systems, with Liebherr for the landing gear and air management; and the CFM engine and Nexcelle nacelle are entirely foreign.

Engines.

Both Pratt & Whitney and CFM International offered to provide the engines for the aircraft, the former offering the PW1000G and the latter the LEAP-1C; the latter was ultimately selected.  AVIC Commercial Aircraft Engine Co was also tasked with developing an indigenous engine to be used with the aircraft. The ACAE CJ-1000A was unveiled at the 2012 Zhuhai Airshow.  The first CJ-1000AX demonstrator assembly was completed in December 2017 after an 18-month process, for an after 2021 planned service entry. Debugging was completed by 30 March 2018, culminating in May 2018 with its first power-on in a test cell in Shanghai, reaching a core speed of 6,600 rpm.  In February 2020, Reuters reported that the US government considers to block GE from selling the LEAP-1C engine to Comac, citing concerns of reverse engineering, competition for Boeing, and military use of technology.

Market.

In 2012 the C919 order book stood at 380 units worth US$26 billion, and averaging $ million. FlightGlobal's Ascend market values in 2013 were $49.2 million for the Airbus A320neo, % less than its $100.2 million list price and $51.4 million for the Boeing 737 MAX-8, % less than its $100.5 million list price.  The Chinese airlines that have placed orders for the C919 already have either the Boeing 737 or Airbus A320 in their fleets. In 2013, Chinese state-owned newspaper "Global Times" complained that an "Aviation Week" editorial about the bleak prospects for the aircraft "maliciously disparaged the future outlook for the C919".  COMAC aims to take a fifth of the global narrowbody market and a third of the Chinese market by 2035. It expects 2,000 sales in the next 20 years. China considers it as a source of national pride. The "Financial Times" claimed the C919 is outdated by 10–15 years compared to the latest versions of the A320 and Boeing 737, and will probably cost more to operate. Its range of falls short of the of the A320neo and 737 Max 8, the C919 payload-range and economics are similar to the current single-aisles, but it will compete with the Neo and Max. FlightGlobal forecasts 1,209 deliveries: 687 standard and 522 stretched variants, for 85% in China.

Orders.

At the November 2010 Zhuhai Airshow, Comac announced orders for 55 C919 aircraft from six airlines, with an additional 45 options. The purchasing airlines or lessors included China Eastern Airlines, Air China, Hainan Airlines, China Southern Airlines, CDB Leasing Company, and GE Capital Aviation Services. On 19 October 2011, Chinese ICBC Leasing ordered 45 C919s and agreed to be the launch customer. On 11 November 2014, Comac announced at the 2014 Zhuhai Airshow that China Merchants Bank's aircraft leasing division made a firm commitment for 30 C919s, and that total orders were now up to 450 aircraft.  At the June 2015 Paris Air Show, Ping An Leasing signed a letter of intent for 50 C919s, becoming one of Comac's largest customers, and Puren Group signed a letter of intent for seven C919s and seven ARJ21s, intended for the start-up Puren Airlines. In November 2016 COMAC has received an order for 20 C919s including 5 firm from Shanghai Pudong Development Bank Financial Leasing and for 36 C919s from CITIC Group Financial Leasing including 18 firm. While no down payments were needed before its maiden flight, 500,000 yuan ($76,000) were deposited subsequently for each firm order. The last ICBC Leasing order for 55 on 5 December 2017 brought the order book to 785. In February 2018, its total order book was for 815, before the order for 200 from HNA Group in June 2018, along 100 ARJ-21s.  As of 31 August 2018, FlightGlobal recenses 305 orders plus 45 options and 658 letters of intent: commitments.  As of March 2020, China Eastern Airlines subsidiary OTT Airlines is scheduled to be the launch customer for the C919.

See also.

Related development

The Comac C919 is a narrow-body twinjet airliner developed by Chinese aerospace manufacturer Comac. The development programme was launched in 2008. Production of the prototype began in December 2011, with the first prototype being ready on 2 November 2015 and having its maiden flight on 5 May 2017. Its first commercial deliveries are expected in 2021 to China Eastern Airlines.

Die Comac C919 ist nach der teilweise in China entwickelten Comac ARJ21 (bis 2009: ACAC ARJ21) das erste zweistrahlige Passagierflugzeug, das vollständig in der Volksrepublik China entwickelt wurde und dort seit 2015 durch das Konsortium Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China (Comac) gebaut wird.


Origin and etymology.

There are several different views on the origin of Fuzhou Tanka. The mainstream theory believes that Fuzhou Tanka are descendants of the Baiyue of ancient times. As a branch of the Tanka people, Fuzhou Tanka has been in South China for more than 2000 years. Their Fuzhounese name "Kuóh-dà̤" (曲 蹄) is a derogatory term used by the Fuzhou people on land, which can be literally translated into "bowlegged" and might come from the bow shape of their legs caused by longtime living in the low cabins of their boats.  The Amoy University anthropologist Ling Hui-hsiang wrote on his theory of the Fujian Tanka being descendants of the Baiyue. He claimed that Guangdong and Fujian Tanka are definitely descended from the old Pai Yue peoples, and that they may have been ancestors of the Malay race.

Language.

Fuzhou Tanka now speak the Fuzhou dialect, which is widely used by the majority Fuzhou people in this region. Mandarin has also been brought to many of them through national compulsory education. However, they had their own language in history, but gradually abandoned it. In Ming Dynasty, many of them were already able to speak the Fuzhou dialect or other Eastern Min languages.

Society.

Traditionally, Fuzhou Tanka people lived on boats in most of their lives. They were severely discriminated by land living Fuzhounese residents. Their life depended on fishing and ferrying, and most of them remained poor and uneducated before the founding of Republic of China. Fuzhou Tanka people had a rich tradition of folk music, especially call and response. They also had different views on chastity and remarriage from the land living Han Chinese. Pre-marital sex and remarriage were not restricted in their society. Due to the discriminatory policy imposed by the land living Han majority, Fuzhou Tanka were forced to dress themselves in a humble way to show their inferiority to the land residents.  By the second half of the 19th century, many Tanka people had already been converted to Roman Catholicism. Some of these Catholic Tanka consequently moved onto land under the protection of the Catholic Church. In the Republic of China era, the ethnic egalitarianism was guaranteed by law. Since the 1950s, the Communist government began to resettle Fuzhou Tanka to land dwellings. As a result, many Fuzhou Tanka villages were built along the Min River and the coast. Nowadays, most Fuzhou Tanka people have abandoned their traditional waterborne lives and intermarriage is common. Their traditions, such as Fuzhou Tanka folk music, are under threat as well.

Discrimination against Fuzhou Tanka.

Before the founding of Republic of China, the Fuzhou Tanka were generally treated by land Chinese residents as mean and inferior. They were not allowed to dwell on land, receive education, wear silk clothes or work in government or army. In some areas, they were even forbidden to walk on land, otherwise, they would be faced with death threats. Since the 18th century several attempts had been made by the Qing and Kuomintang governments to lift the discrimination against Tanka people, but it was only in the People's Republic of China era that all the discriminatory policies were completely eliminated. Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, the 'gypsies of the sea' were not allowed to go ashore or marry the people living along the beach.

Religion.

Before the 19th century, many Fuzhou Tanka practiced Taoism, worshiping Mazu, Linshui and other gods and goddesses. In the late 19th century, many Fuzhou Tanka people were converted to Roman Catholicism. Received, protected and assisted by the Roman Catholic Church in Fuzhou through Protectorate of missions, some of them were able to build simple land dwellings. Currently, the majority of Fuzhou Tanka people are Roman Catholic, which constitute a significant portion in Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Fuzhou.

Surnames.

The Fuzhou Tanka have different surnames than the Tanka of Guangdong. Qing records indicate that "Weng, Ou, Chi, Pu, Jiang, and Hai" (翁, 歐, 池, 浦, 江) were surnames of the Fuzhou Tanka. Qing records also stated that Tanka surnames in Guangdong consisted of "Mai, Pu, Wu, Su, and He", alternatively some people claimed Gu and Zeng as Tanka surnames.

Fuzhou Tanka (Fuzhou dialect: 曲蹄; Foochow Romanized: Kuóh-dà̤; Simplified Chinese: 福州<unk>民 Hók-ciŭ Dáng-mìng; 江妹仔 Gĕ̤ng-muói-giāng; 曲蹄婆 Kuóh-dà̤-bò̤), or Fuzhou Boat People, is an ethnic group in Fujian, China. A branch of the Tanka people, they traditionally lived on sampans in the lower course of Min River and the coast of Fuzhou in Fujian Province most of their lives and have been officially recognized as Han Chinese since 1955.

Fuzhou Tanka (Chinesisch: 福州<unk>民, auch 连家船民, wörtlich übersetzt Schiffsvolk auf Lian Jiang) ist eine ethnische Gruppe, die vorwiegend entlang des mittleren und unteren Laufs des Flusses Min in der chinesischen Provinz Fujian sowie an den Küstenabschnitten vor der Stadt Fuzhou lebt. Traditionell verbringen sie ihr gesamtes Leben auf dem Wasser und benutzten ihre Schiffe als Wohn- und Arbeitsstätten. In der Volksrepublik China werden sie zu den Han-Chinesen gezählt. Ihre Muttersprache ist Min Dong, die in Fuzhou gesprochene chinesische Sprache. Sie haben ihre eigenen Traditionen entwickelt, die sich von der dortigen Landbevölkerung unterscheiden, so dass sie als eine eigene ethnische Gruppe betrachtet werden können. In früheren Literaturen wurden sie als 游艇子 (Yóu Tíng Zăi, wörtliche Übersetzung: Kinder der Schiffe), 白水郎 (Bái Shủi Láng, weiße Wassermenschen) oder 蜒 (Tíng, Libellen) bezeichnet. Die Landbevölkerung benennt sie dagegen abwertend als 曲蹄 (Fuzhou Dialekt: Kuóh-dà̤-giāng, Krummbein). Sie wurden lange Zeit von der Landbevölkerung, besonders den Han-Chinesen, schwer diskriminiert. Zur Zeit der Republik China wurden Gesetze erlassen und die die Diskriminierung der Tanka verboten. Seit den 1950er Jahren begann die Regierung langsam, die Tanka aufs Land umzusiedeln. Bis in die 1990er Jahre hatten die meisten von ihnen ihr Wasserleben aufgegeben.


Summary.

It is a depiction of the persecution of ethnic Germans in Romania by the Stalinist regime of the Soviet Union, and deals with the deportation of Romanian Germans to the Soviet Union for forced labour by Soviet occupying forces during and after 1945. The novel tells the story of a youth from Sibiu in Transylvania, Leo Auberg, who is deported at the age of 17 to a Soviet forced labor concentration camp in Nowo-Gorlowka (Novogorlovka, Ukraine, now incorporated in Gorlovka) and spends five years of his life there.  It is inspired by the experiences of poet Oskar Pastior and other survivors, including the mother of the author. Initially, Pastior and Müller had planned to write a book about his experiences together, however, Pastior died in 2006. It is based on her interviews with many deportees from her home village of Nițchidorf in Romania; from fragments offered during her childhood by her mother; and extensively from her interactions with the poet Oskar Pastior who was a deportee from Sibiu (Hermannstadt) Romania for five years.  The title comes from a compound word "Hungerengel" coined by Pastior to describe the pervasive hunger that dominated his prison experience in the Donets Basin as war reparations slave labor. The fierce hunger was also an angel that kept him alive during the ordeal. The German title, "Atemschaukel", is another compound word that is more difficult to translate, meaning something like "BreathingSwing" or "BreathSwinging", to denote the mechanical and distanced aspects of self-awareness of breathing that the prison experience engendered.  According to Ruth Klueger this book offers a new direction in German literature, that of fiction by a second hand participant in the camps, whether Gulag or Internment or Concentration or Extermination.

Translation.

Translation rights have been sold in several countries including Poland and Sweden. The working title of "Everything I Possess I Carry With Me", based on the first sentence of the book, was suggested by the German publisher when it sold translation rights, however no English-language translation was published under this title.

Awards and honors.

The novel was nominated for the prestigious German Book Prize in 2009, and the author received the Nobel Prize in Literature the same year.  The English translation by Philip Boehm was nominated for the Best Translated Book Award (2013), and won the Oxford-Weidenfeld Translation Prize (2013).

The Hunger Angel (; 2009) is a 304-page prose poem by Herta Müller. The English translation is by Philip Boehm (2012).

Atemschaukel ist ein 2009 erschienener Roman von Herta Müller, die im selben Jahr mit dem Nobelpreis für Literatur ausgezeichnet wurde. Darin berichtet Leopold Auberg, ein Siebzehnjähriger aus Siebenbürgen, über seine Deportation in das Arbeitslager Nowo-Gorlowka in der Sowjet-Ukraine. Die Verfolgung Rumäniendeutscher unter Stalin wird in einer individuellen Geschichte sichtbar gemacht. Der im Hanser Verlag publizierte Roman kam in die Shortlist für den Deutschen Buchpreis 2009.


History.

Lacombe is named after Albert Lacombe (28 February 1827 — 12 December 1916), a French-Canadian Roman Catholic Oblate missionary what lived among and evangelized the Cree and Blackfoot First Nations of western Canada. He is now remembered for having brokered a peace between the Cree and Blackfoot, negotiating construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway through Blackfoot territory, and securing a promise from the Blackfoot leader Crowfoot to refrain from joining the North-West Rebellion of 1885. The Lacombe Police Service have policed the community since 1900.  In 1880 the first land surveys of the Lacombe area took place and three years later, in 1883, the first permanent settler arrived, Ed Barnett. Barnett was a retired member of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) who had served a mere three years. He left Fort Macleod in August 1881 at 23 years of age. According to his own diary and his official obituary in the RCMP Quarterly, spring 1940, on July 19, 1881, Barnett was among a small NWMP party that escorted Chief Sitting Bull and his people to the Canada–US border. Along the Calgary-Edmonton Trail, he established a "stopping house" for travelers on a land grant given to him for serving his service in the NWMP. His family and friends from Ontario moved out and the community began to grow. The stopping house then became known as Barnett's Siding. The Canadian Pacific Railway arrived in 1891. This provided better access to the area and new opportunities for settlement. By 1893 the downtown blocks and lots were surveyed. Village status was granted in 1896 and town status in 1902.  In 1907, the federal government set up an experimental farm to research grain and livestock production. The President of the C.P.R. William Van Horne renamed Barnett's Siding as Lacombe in honour of Father Lacombe.

Geography.

Climate.

Lacombe experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb").

Demographics.

The population of the City of Lacombe according to its 2019 municipal census is 13,985, a change of from its 2014 municipal census population of 12,728.  In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the City of Lacombe recorded a population of 13,057 living in 4,797 of its 5,034 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 11,707. With a land area of, it had a population density of in 2016.  In the 2011 Census, the City of Lacombe had a population of 11,707 living in 4,413 of its 4,686 total dwellings, a change of 8.9% from its 2006 adjusted population of 10,752. With a land area of, it had a population density of in 2011.

Economy.

Nestled in one of Central Alberta's most fertile valleys between Calgary and Edmonton, the local economy includes a strong agricultural base supplemented by oil and gas industry.  The city is also home to the Lacombe Research Centre where the first livestock breed developed in Canada, the Lacombe hog, was produced.

Lacombe Research Centre.

For more than a century, the federal government has funded agricultural research through a network of research centres strategically placed in almost every province. This research program has played a major role in developing the more than $120-billion Canadian agrifood industry.  The Lacombe Research Centre (LRC) is one of a network of 19 national agricultural research centres operated by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. The Centre conducts research in field crops and livestock production relevant to the central Alberta region. The Centre's main research focuses on the factors that influence red meat: yield, quality, safety and preservation. The Centre also develops integrated, sustainable crop and animal production systems and crop varieties for the short-season environments of the parkland and northwestern Canada.  The LRC developed a variety of hog called Lacombe. Work began in 1947. It took 12 years to develop the 'Lacombe' variety which is noted for its characteristics suitable to the harsh prairie environment. 'Lacombe' is 55% Danish Landrace, 22% Chester White, and 23% Berkshire. The 'Lacombe' hog was the first livestock breed to be developed in Canada.  Beaverlodge and Fort Vermilion Part of the Lacombe Research Centre  The Beaverlodge Research Farm and its sub-station Fort Vermilion are part of the Lacombe Research Centre and form the most northern agricultural research establishment in Canada. The Beaverlodge Research Farm specializes in research and development of technology for improved production systems for crops, honey bees and other pollinating insects adapted to environmental conditions in northwestern Canada. Research at the Fort Vermilion site focuses primarily on the adaptation of technologies for this northern agricultural area.

Sports.

The Lacombe Generals of Allan Cup Hockey West played out of the Gary Moe Auto Group Sportsplex from 2016–19.

Education.

The city's Seventh-day Adventist university, Burman University (formerly Canadian University College), was established near Lacombe in 1909 and continues to operate today. It and the nearby Hamlet of College Heights were annexed by Lacombe in 2000.  Lacombe is home to many public schools within the Wolf Creek Public School Division, including École Secondaire Lacombe Composite High School – a Grade 10-12 school with approximately 800 students that recently underwent extensive renovations completed in 2009. Other public schools include École J.S. McCormick School (K-3), École Lacombe Upper Elementary School (4-6), Terrace Ridge School (K-7), École Lacombe Junior High School (7-9), and Lacombe Outreach School.  The city's private schools include Lacombe Christian School (Preschool-Grade 9) and it has two campuses one for pre-2 and the other side from 3-9, Central Alberta Christian High School (10-12), College Heights Christian School (K-9) and Parkview Adventist Academy (10-12), as well as Father Lacombe Catholic School (K-9).

Architecture.

Several times, the main street of this community has been used in films, since it was remodelled to resemble a town in the early 1900s. Lacombe's Main Street is lined with restored Edwardian buildings in the downtown. Most prominent of these is the Flatiron Building which today houses the Flatiron Museum and Interpretive Centre. The downtown area also has the oldest operating blacksmith shop, which is now the Lacombe Blacksmith Shop Museum and the Michener House Museum and Archives, which is the oldest remaining building in Lacombe as well as the birthplace of the Rt. Hon. Roland Michener, Canada's Governor General from 1967–1974.

Lacombe () is a city in central Alberta, Canada. It is located approximately north of Red Deer, the nearest major city, and south of Edmonton, the nearest metropolitan area. The city is set in the rolling parkland of central Alberta, between the Rocky Mountains foothills to the west and the flatter Alberta prairie to the east.

Lacombe ist eine Stadt in der kanadischen Provinz Alberta. Sie liegt in der Region Central Alberta zwischen Edmonton im Norden und Red Deer im Süden.


1st Armoured Division (Vereinigtes Königreich)

Formation.

The division was formed in November 1937 on the initiative of General Sir Archibald Montgomery-Massingberd, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS). At the time, it was named The Mobile Division. The choice of General Officer Commanding reflected the tensions within the army. The Secretary of State for War (Leslie Hore-Belisha) wanted a Royal Tank Corps (RTC) officer as tanks would be the main force of the division but Montgomery-Massingberd wanted a cavalry officer. Supporters of Montgomery-Massingberd proposed that the tank element of the division should be formed from cavalry regiments equipped only with light tanks and that the tank brigade and its heavier tanks be removed from the division. The compromise was the appointment of Major-General Alan Brooke who was from the Royal Artillery. When Brooke was promoted, his replacement was Major-General Roger Evans, a cavalry officer.  The Mobile Division was formed with the 1st and 2nd Light Armoured Brigades, the 1st Army Tank Brigade, artillery, engineers and signals. Its paper strength was 620 armoured fighting vehicles but of these were reconnaissance vehicles and some were simulated by trucks. The heavier tanks were in the tank brigade, which had obsolete medium tanks until cruiser tank deliveries began in December 1938. At the same time, the organisation of the division was changed to a Light Armoured Brigade (three regiments with light and cruiser tanks), a Heavy Armoured Brigade (three regiments of cruiser tanks) and a Support Group (motorised rifle battalion, motorised artillery regiment and a company of engineers). In practice, with insufficient cruiser tanks to equip the division, there was no difference in numbers and type of tanks between the light and heavy brigades.

Second World War.

The 1st Armoured Division first saw service during the Second World War in incomplete form under the command of Major-General Roger Evans when the second British Expeditionary Force (2nd BEF) was sent to France in May 1940. The 1st Armoured Division, consisting of the understrength 2nd and 3rd Armoured Brigades, along with the 1st Support Group, and with no infantry support (which had been transferred in April to form the 30th Infantry Brigade), landed in France on 14 May 1940 and, after suffering heavy tank losses during the Battle of France, was evacuated to England on 16 June, having fought south of the river Somme, isolated from the other British formations.  Until 27 August 1941, the division was stationed in the United Kingdom on anti-invasion duties, anticipating a German invasion, under the command of Major-General Willoughby Norrie, who had taken command on 24 August 1940. It then embarked for Egypt under the command of Major-General Herbert Lumsden and arrived on 13 November 1941. After Major-General Lumsden was wounded, Major-General Frank Messervy took command in January 1942, retaining command until Major-General Lumsden returned in March. The 1st Armoured Division took part in many of the battles of the North African Campaign against "Generalfeldmarschall" Erwin Rommel, the "Desert Fox", including Gazala, Mersa Matruh, First El Alamein, Second El Alamein, Tebaga Gap, Mareth Line, Akarit, El Kourzia and Tunis. In August 1942, Major-General Raymond Briggs was appointed to command and in July 1943 was succeeded by Major-General Alexander Galloway.  From the end of the campaign in Tunisia in May 1943, which saw the surrender of almost 250,000 German and Italian soldiers, the 1st Armoured Division remained in North Africa until May 1944. The division, minus the 18th Lorried Infantry Brigade (previously 7th Motor Brigade, on loan to the 1st Infantry Division in the Anzio beachhead, only rejoining 1st Armoured in August), then transferred to the Italian Front, arriving in Italy in late May.  The division came under command of V Corps, under Lieutenant-General Charles Keightley, of the Eighth Army, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese. The 1st Armoured Division was the only British division, of six in total, to have fought at Alamein under Eighth Army command, to rejoin the army in Italy. During the fighting in front of the Gothic Line throughout August and September, the 2nd Armoured Brigade suffered severe losses in tanks in the Battle of Coriano, with the 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays), losing 31 tanks, out of 52. Major-General Richard Hull, aged just 37 and three months who became Chief of the General Staff, took over command for this part of the campaign in August 1944. The division was broken up soon after, due to a lack of sufficient drafts to replace casualties; the 2nd Armoured Brigade survived as an independent brigade and the 18th Infantry Brigade was broken up and used to fill gaps in other British divisions, mainly for the 46th and 56th Infantry Divisions. The division was officially disbanded on 11 January 1945.

Order of battle.

The 1st Armoured Division was constituted as follows and shows some of the changes that were made to British armoured formations during the war.  Other brigades were part of the division for varying lengths of time:

Post Second World War.

It was not until 1960 that the Division re-emerged in the British Army. It was reformed as the 1st Division following the disbandment of the 1st Infantry Division and was initially based with the British Army of the Rhine at Verden an der Aller in West Germany.  During the 1970s, the division consisted of two "square" brigades, the 7th Armoured Brigade and 22nd Armoured Brigade. It became the 1st Armoured Division in 1976 and served with I (BR) Corps being based at Caithness and Shiel Barracks in Verden in Germany from 1978. After being briefly reorganised into two "task forces" ("Alpha" and "Bravo") in the late 1970s, it consisted of the 7th Armoured Brigade, the 12th Armoured Brigade and 22nd Armoured Brigade in the 1980s. The divisional badge dates from 1983, and combines the hollow red triangular "spearhead" badge of the 1st Infantry Division with the charging rhinoceros badge of 1st Armoured Division as displayed in the Second World War.

Gulf War.

The headquarters of the division was deployed to Saudi Arabia in 1990 to command British land forces. It had the 4th Armoured Brigade and 7th Armoured Brigade under command. During the war, it came under the US VII Corps and was part of the great armoured left-hook that destroyed many Iraqi Republican Guard formations. The two brigades in the division alternated heading the advance. The division participated in the Battle of Norfolk. During this engagement the division destroyed several Iraqi companies of T-55 tanks. After 48 hours of combat, the division destroyed or isolated four Iraqi infantry divisions (the 26th, 48th, 31st, and 25th) and overran the Iraqi 52nd Armoured Division in several sharp engagements. The British 1st Armoured Division had traveled 217 miles in 97 hours. The British 1st Armoured Division had captured or destroyed about 300 tanks and a very large number of armoured personnel carriers, trucks, reconnaissance vehicles, etc. The division also took over 7,000 Iraqi prisoners of war including two division commanders and two other general officers.

1993 to 2014.

In 1993, HQ 1st Armoured Division was disbanded and the 1st (UK) Armoured Division formed from the 4th Armoured Division. The headquarters were established at Wentworth Barracks in Herford in 1993. The divisional headquarters was deployed in command of the Multi-National Division (South-West) in Bosnia in 1996–1997 and 1998–1999.  The Division headquarters again deployed to the Persian Gulf area in 2003. It again commanded British forces in the area, this time with three full brigades under its control. Those were 7th Armoured Brigade again, along with 16 Air Assault Brigade, and 3 Commando Brigade. In a combined arms operation, the division secured southern Iraq, including the city of Basra during the invasion. It came under I Marine Expeditionary Force during the 2003 conflict.  The following brigades made up the 1st (United Kingdom) Armoured Division during that period:  ""Land Command Shapes Up", Jane's Defence Weekly, 15 July 1995, should confirm details of the structure of 1st Armoured Division in the mid 1990s.

Current formation.

Under Army 2020, the division was renamed 1st (United Kingdom) Division in July 2014 and given responsibility for commanding the Adaptable Force which comprises: 4th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters North East, 7th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters East, 11th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters South East, 38th (Irish) Brigade, 42nd Infantry Brigade and Headquarters North West, 51st Infantry Brigade and Headquarters Scotland and 160th Infantry Brigade and Headquarters Wales.  The division moved to Imphal Barracks in York on 1 June 2015.

Future formation.

A Field Army restructuring would see some unit changes and additions to the division. The future structure will be:

General Officers Commanding.

Commanders have been:

The 1st (United Kingdom) Division, formerly known as the 1st Armoured Division, is a division of the British Army. It has recently returned home from being stationed in Germany. Originally formed in November 1937 as the Mobile Division, it saw extensive service during the Second World War and was disbanded afterwards; reconstituted in 1976, it remains in service. It should not be confused with the 1st Infantry Division.

Die 1st Armoured Division () war eine Panzerdivision der British Army. Sie wurde erstmals im Zweiten Weltkrieg aufgestellt und war von 1976 bis 2015 als Teil der britischen Streitkräfte in Deutschland stationiert. Im Juli 2014 wurde der Verband in "1st (United Kingdom) Division" bzw. "1st Division (Vereinigtes Königreich)" umbenannt.