Early life.

Avetik Abrahamyan was born in Yerevan, Soviet Armenia on 20 February 1980 to parents Grigor and Sylvia Abrahamyan. He moved to Germany with his parents and brothers in 1995 at the age of 15. As a teenager, Abraham showed an interest in cycling and eventually became the North Bavarian and Franconian Youth Champion. However, after watching an exciting Mike Tyson fight, Arthur was inspired to become a boxing star too. In 1999, Arthur and his brothers returned to Armenia for military service. After 2002, all the brothers had finished their military service and returned to Germany in 2003.

Amateur career.

Abraham boxed as an amateur in Bamberg and later in Nuremberg. He was an International junior welterweight German champion in 1997 and a three time Senior light middleweight Armenian champion in 2000, 2001 and 2002. Abraham attempted to compete for Armenia at the 2000 Summer Olympics, but was unable due to his two years of military service. In 2003, with Arthur and his brother Alexander returned to Germany, hoping to begin a professional boxing career. His final amateur record was 81-3-6 (48 KO).  In 2003, Arthur and Alexander competed alongside promoter and manager Wilfried Sauerland and his head coach Ulli Wegner. Arthur was a sparring partner for IBF and WBA super middleweight champion Sven Ottke, whom was in the preparations of a title defense. Wegner was so impressed that he began to train Arthur personally.

Professional career.

Middleweight.

Early career.

Abraham started his professional career on 16 August 2003. The Sauerland-promoted Abraham had many early victories. He defeated Canadian southpaw Ian Gardner (18–1) for the vacant WBA Inter-Continental middleweight title, Hector Velazco (former WBO champion) and contender Nader Hamdan (36–1).  In July 2005, Abraham defended his WBA Inter-Continental title against the highly regarded Briton Howard Eastman. Eastman had previously only lost to American William Joppy and former Undisputed middleweight champion Bernard Hopkins.

IBF middleweight champion.

Abraham vs. Ikeke.

On 10 December 2005, in Leipzig, Germany, Abraham won the vacant IBF middleweight title against Kingsley Ikeke (23-1, 13 KOs) by a 5th round knock-out. The IBF belt had previously been vacated by undisputed champion Jermain Taylor after a bout with Abraham was denied in October that year. In the fifth round, Arthur met Ikeke with hard shots to the head. Ikeke began to tumble toward the canvas and Abraham landed some final rights to seal the victory.  Abraham defended his title on 5 March 2006 with a unanimous decision against Australian Shannan Taylor. Two months later, Abraham won a second title defense against Kofi Jantuah, also on points.

Abraham vs. Miranda.

On 23 September 2006, Abraham won a decision against undefeated contender Edison Miranda despite having his jaw broken in two places in round four. Miranda took advantage of this by fighting dirty. Miranda was docked five points for landing repeated low blows as well as intentionally headbutting Abraham. However, even without the five points deducted, Abraham would have still won the fight (114-109, 115-109, 116-109). Abraham's jaw was operated on the night after the fight. He had 22 screws inserted into two titanium plates. After the Miranda bout, Arthur was praised for his ability to finish the fight despite his injury.  Abraham defeated Canadian Sébastien Demers by KO in the third round after two minutes and fifty-seven seconds. Abraham was clearly physically superior than his opponent. Arthur won his fifth title defense by defeating fellow Armenian Khoren Gevor by 11th-round knockout from a powerful left hook.

Abraham vs. Elcock, Ayala.

On 8 December 2007, Abraham defeated Wayne Elcock to make his sixth title defense by technical knockout in the 5th round.  During two of his matches, Abraham was accompanied by live performances of the Scorpions and is currently accompanied by the track "Ready For The Fight" by The Young Punx.  On 29 March 2008, Abraham defeated American Elvin Ayala via 12th-round KO after connecting with a devastating left hook that sent his opponent crashing to the canvas face first. This was Abraham's 7th successful title defence.

Abraham vs. Miranda II.

On 21 June 2008, a rematch between Abraham and Miranda took place at a catchweight of 166 lbs. Abraham's IBF middleweight title was not on the line. In the first minute of the fourth round, a perfectly timed right hand-left hook sent Miranda to the floor. Miranda rose, clearly hurt. Another left hook would drop Miranda along the ropes and Miranda would again rise but his legs were clearly gone and the end was at hand. Abraham landed a final striking right hand for the round's third knockdown as the referee leapt in to halt the action before Miranda could attempt to rise again.

Abraham vs. Marquez.

On 8 November 2008, Abraham defeated Raúl Márquez (41–4–1, 29 KOs), 37, by a 6th round technical knockout, at the Bamberg's Jako Arena, the 8th defense of his IBF middleweight boxing title.  He retained his IBF title on 14 March 2009 against Lajuan Simon, his first fight over 12 rounds since his legendary battle against Edison Miranda. The 10th and final defense of his middleweight title took place in Berlin against Mahir Oral. Abraham won this fight by a 10th-round technical knockout. Oral's coach threw in the towel after several knockdowns.

Super-middleweight.

Super Six World Boxing Classic.

After failing to secure a match-up with WBO and WBC champion Kelly Pavlik or WBA champion Felix Sturm, Abraham announced that he would change his weight class to compete at super middleweight. Abraham participated in the Super Six World Boxing Classic tournament for the WBA and WBC super middleweight titles. Fellow participants were: WBA champion Mikkel Kessler, WBC champion Carl Froch, Andre Dirrell, Andre Ward and Jermain Taylor.

Abraham vs. Taylor.

In his first match of the tournament, Abraham faced Jermain Taylor on 17 October 2009. Arthur was previously supposed to fight Taylor for the undisputed middleweight title, but the fight fell through. Abraham defeated Taylor via a devastating knockout in the 12th round. Taylor was hospitalized with a severe concussion, suffering short term memory loss, unable to remember details of this bout. Taylor was replaced with veteran Allan Green in the tournament. After being released from the hospital, Taylor released a statement saying that he's doing just fine and wanted to congratulate Abraham on his victory and wish him well in the tournament. Former heavyweight champion Mike Tyson was in attendance and was impressed by Abraham's intensity and determination.  As of the end of 2009, "The Ring" has ranked Abraham as the 14th best boxer in the world. On 5 March 2010, Abraham was ranked #8 in the world by Yahoo! Sports.

Abraham vs. Dirrell.

On 27 March 2010, Abraham fought American boxer Andre Dirrell in the second stage of the Super Six World Boxing Classic at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan. At the end of round 10, Dirrell was comfortably ahead 97–92, 98–91 and 97–92 on the scorecards. In round 10, Abraham knocked Dirrell down following a straight right, but the referee ruled it a slip. Abraham lost via disqualification due to hitting Dirrell after he slipped in the 11th round. Dirrell slipped after being hit on the chin near the corner. The fight was stopped at 1:13 of the round. After he slipped, Abraham landed a right hand to his chin, knocking him down and out completely. Through a translator, Abraham said, "I was not looking at his feet, I was looking at his eyes. I didn't see if he was down." After the punch, the ring immediately filled up with people including Andre's brother Anthony. Andre was taken to hospital for a brain scan. Anthony later confirmed that his brother was alright. Abraham suffered his first defeat professionally due to the disqualification.

Abraham vs. Froch.

Abraham was next scheduled to fight British boxer Carl Froch (26-1, 20 KOs), also for the vacant WBC super middleweight title on 27 November 2010. The fight was pushed back from 2 October in Monaco due to Froch suffering a back injury. The fight took place at the Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland. Abraham failed to become a two-weight world champion, losing to Froch in his third fight of the tournament. Abraham was dominated from start to finish, losing by a unanimous decision. The scores given by the judges were 119–109, 120–108 and 120–108, which reflected the one-sided nature of the bout. Abraham was disappointed with his performance, "I wanted to hit him. I tried but I could not do it. Nothing more to say." Froch stated it was his best performance to date.

Abraham vs. Ward.

Abraham qualified for the semifinals, having one win out of three fights. But first, Abraham had a pre-fight with Croatian contender Stjepan Božić. Abraham won by technical knockout in the second round due to an injury in Božić's hand.  On 14 May 2011, Abraham fought undefeated American Andre Ward in the Super Six semi finals for the WBA super middleweight title. The fight took place at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California. Abraham entered having lost two of his previous three bouts. Ward started out slow with Abraham, trying to find a way to penetrate his tight defense. After a competitive first few rounds, Ward seized control of the fight, using his ring savvy and instincts to control Abraham. Although Abraham was somewhat passive at times, he gave an earnest effort and frequently threw combinations that were mostly blocked by Ward. Abraham hurt Ward a couple of times in the final round, but it wasn't enough to finish Ward, who had dominated the fight and won a lopsided unanimous decision. The three judges scored the bout 120-108, 118-110 & 118-111. ESPN had it 118-110 in favor of Ward. Abraham didn't believe he had lost the fight with such wide scores. Over 12 rounds, Ward threw 289 jabs. In total he landed 178 of 444 total punches thrown (40%). Ward went on to defeat Froch in the finals and won the Super Six World Boxing Classic tournament.

Comeback.

On 30 October 2011, Abraham originally announced that he intended to return to the middleweight division in 2012 but later decided to remain at super middleweight.  In his first comeback fight on 14 January 2012, Abraham defeated Argentinian Pablo Oscar Natalio Farias via technical knockout in round five and won the vacant WBO European super middleweight championship. After Abraham landed several hard combinations that put Farias down three times in the fifth round, referee Manuel Maritxalar stopped the fight. On 31 March 2012, Abraham defeated former EBU super middleweight champion Piotr Wilczewski by a lopsided unanimous decision to retain his WBO European title. Wilczewski was docked a point in the seventh round and was down in the eleventh round, though it was ruled a slip.

WBO super-middleweight champion.

Abraham vs. Stieglitz.

In April 2012, the WBO announced that they had removed George Groves as their mandatory challenger and replaced him with Abraham, meaning the latter would now be in line to challenge WBO super middleweight champion Robert Stieglitz (41-2, 23 KOs). Sauerland Event confirmed the fight would take place on 25 August in Berlin at the O2 World. Abraham won a twelve-round unanimous decision over Stieglitz to capture the WBO championship in a spectacular battle which made Abraham a two-division champion. Abraham became the second Armenian and the first German to win championships in two different divisions. The judges' scores were 116-112, 116-112 and 115-113. Abraham was named best boxer of Germany in 2012 by "BoxSport" magazine. His coach Ulli Wegner was also named the best coach of the year.

Abraham vs. Bouadla, Stieglitz II.

On 9 October 2012 Mehdi Bouadla (26-4-0, 11 KOs) was confirmed as Abraham's first title defence at super middleweight. The fight took place on 15 December at Nüremberg Arena, Nüremberg, Germany. Abraham retained his title against Bouadla on 15 December 2012. He won via technical knockout in the eighth round. A cut beside Bouadla's right eye streamed blood into his eyes, impeding his vision and causing the stoppage of the bout, as he could not see Abraham's punches and as such took brutal punishment. In the post fight, Abraham said, "This is where I started boxing. To be here now, in front of 10,000 people as world champion -- there's no better feeling."  Five days after the Bouadia fight, a rematch with Stieglitz was discussed to take place in the first quarter of 2013. In January, Abraham stated the fight would take place on 3 March. At the time, Stieglitz was entering a legal dispute after allegedly assaulting his father-in-law, which he stated was self-defence. The fight took place in Stieglitz's home of Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany in front of 8,000 at the GETEC Arena. Abraham's eye rapidly swelled shut in the second round and he could soon no longer see. The referee waved him off at the start of the fourth round, resulting in his defeat. CompuBox stats showed that Stieglitz was in full control of the rematch, landing 70 of 203 punches thrown (34%), with Abraham landed 27 of his 107 thrown (25%). Stieglitz out-landed Abraham 63-19 in power punches.

Regaining composure.

After losing the World title, Abraham had two more fights in 2013. First he beat Willbeforce Shihepo (20-4, 15 KOs) by 12 round unanimous decision (116-113, 117-111 & 116-112). Abraham claimed the vacant WBO Inter-Continenteal super middleweight title. Two months later, Abraham successfully defended the title against Giovanni De Carolis (20-4, 10 KOs) by unanimous decision (120-108, 119-109 twice).

WBO super-middleweight champion.

Abraham vs. Stieglitz III, Sjekloca.

A rubber match with Stieglitz (46-3, 26 KOs) took place on 1 March 2014, with the WBO super middleweight title on the line once again at the GETEC Arena in Magdeburg, Germany. After a purse bid was ordered where the minimum bid was $300,000, Stieglitz promoter Ulf Steinforth of SES bid $3,135,000 on 9 December, easily beating the other bid, which came from Abraham's promoter Sauerland Event at $1,541,414. Stieglitz, being the champion was entitled to $2,351,250 (75%), while Abraham would receive the remaining $783,750 (25%). In a very close fight through 11 rounds, Stieglitz took a knee in the twelfth round, as Abraham's counter-punching took its toll. Stieglitz was the 'come forward' aggressor with jab attacks. Abraham fought with counterattacks that wore Stieglitz down late. Abraham won the fight by split decision (112-113, 114-111 & 115-110). CompuBox stats showed that Abraham landed 140 of 451 punches thrown (31%), Stieglitz landed 106 of his 489 (22%). Abraham was much more active in the final 5 rounds and worked his jab, which was the key to winning the fight.  In April, Abraham planned a quick first defence to be made two months later against Serbian Nikola Sjekloca (28-1, 8 KOs). The fight took place at Velodrom in Berlin, Germany on 3 May 2014. The fight went full 12 rounds as Abraham came out victorious on points on all three judges scorecards (116-112, 116-113, 119-110). Abraham believed he had broken his had in round 7 and boxed sensibly for the remainder of the fight.

Abraham vs. Smith I, II.

Promoter Kalle Sauerland announced on 21 July 2014, that Abraham would defend his WBO title against English boxer Paul Smith (35-3, 20 KOs) at Sparkassen-Arena in Germany on 27 September. Talks for the fight began in May 2014. Prior to the fight, Smith stated he had studied Abraham's loss to Carl Froch. Froch used Smith as a sparring partner before their fight. Abraham defeated Smith to retain his title in a controversial decision. The fight went full 12 rounds as Abraham won on all three judges scorecards by a wide margin (119-109 & 117-111 twice). The scorecards were derided in some quarters for being too wide given the competitiveness of the fight. Many British fans in attendance booed the decision. Smith's promoter Eddie Hearn dubbed the decision a "disgrace".  The WBO stated they would review the fight and decision, with the possible outcome being a rematch. In October, the WBO rejected Smith's request for an immediate rematch, however confirmed that he would stay in the top 5 in their rankings. Smith still believed that he would get another opportunity through a voluntary defence.  By the end of October, Abraham made the WBO aware that he could fight Smith again in the 2015. In December 2014, a deal was reached for the rematch to take place. The fight would take place on 21 February 2015 at the O World Arena in Berlin. With another win, Abraham was hoping to set up a fight with Felix Sturm. With 9,000 fans in attendance, the fight went the full 12 rounds as Abraham won via points on all three scorecards (116-112, 117-111 twice). Abraham was mostly dominant during the fight when he unloaded a barrage of power punches, and spent some time against the ropes, covering up, to keep himself becoming fatigued. After the fight, Smith praised Abraham, "I felt I left it all in there tonight, I'm not going home with any or many regrets. He shook me once or twice, he was better tonight (than the first fight)." The fight averaged more than 4 million viewers SAT1 in Germany.

Abraham vs. Stieglitz IV, Murray.

Abraham fought Robert Stieglitz (47-4-1 27 KOs) for the fourth and final time on 18 July 2015 at the Gerry Weber Stadium, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany. The fight was billed as 'Final Showdown'. The WBO ordered the fight on 26 February, giving both camps 90 days to reach a deal. A deal was reached by both camps on 9 April. Although having a 3-1 lead against Stieglitz, Abraham promised to win via KO to cement his place as the number 1 super-middleweight. Prior to the fight, Abraham made plans to continue his boxing career for a further two more years before considering the possibility of retirement. In an interview, he said, "I will not lose. I plan on continuing my career for at least another two years and then retiring along with my coach and my world championship belt. " He also made plans to possibly unify the division. Abraham won via TKO in the sixth round. Stieglitz was knocked down in round 4 once but managed to pick himself back up. Abraham was ahead on three judges scorecards at the time on stoppage (48-46, 50-44, 49-45).  On 7 October 2015, Matchroom Sport announced that negotiations were done for Abraham to defend his WBO world title on 21 November against 33 year old British boxer Martin Murray (32-2-1, 15 KOs) at the TUI Arena in Hanover. Murray was still looking for his first world title after being stopped late by world middleweight champion Gennady Golovkin earlier in the year in what was his third world title challenge. Murray was on a three match winning streak since. The fight went full 12 rounds as Abraham won via split decision (116-111, 115-112, 112-115). Murray lost one point for holding in round eleven, which did not affect the outcome. Abraham praised Murray during the post fight interview, "I trained hard, have shed blood and sweat. I was technically and tactically the better boxer. But I didn't box against a punchbag. He is a world-class fighter, who put in a good fight and you have to acknowledge that."

Abraham vs. Ramírez.

It was announced on 18 January 2016 that undefeated #1 WBO Gilberto Ramírez (33-0, 24 KOs) would be challenging Abraham for the WBO super middleweight in the co-feature bout on the 9 April undercard of the Manny Pacquiao vs. Timothy Bradley III card on HBO pay-per-view. The fight card took place at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas, Nevada. All three judges scored the fight 120-108 for Ramírez, who became the first Mexican fighter to win a super middleweight world title. Ramírez won on the punch count by outworking Abraham in almost very round with a superior jab, a consistent mix of head and body power punches, and superior head and foot movement. Abraham slipped to a (1-3) record in the United States following the defeat. In the post fight interview, Ramírez said, "I took to him a Mexican boxing school. He was a very, very strong puncher, but he couldn't take any movement. I knew halfway through the fight I was going to win the fight. I came here to make history, and I did it."

Later career.

Team Sauerland announced that Abraham would fight on 16 July 2016 in his first bout since losing his 168-pound world title on 9 April. Abraham would face 23 year old Tim-Robin Lihaug (15-1, 8 KOs) for the vacant WBO International super middleweight title at the Max-Schmeling-Halle in Berlin. Abraham won the fight with a decisive TKO victory stopping Lihaug in round 8 to claim the title, previously vacated by Gilberto Ramirez.  Early talks in October suggested Abraham and Martin Murray (33-4-1, 16 KOs) could meet for the second time in Monaco on 12 November 2016. The fight was scheduled take place at the Salle des Étoiles. The fight was announced as a non-title bout, where the winner would be the mandatory challenger for the WBO super middleweight title, the same title Abraham lost to Gilberto Ramírez in April 2016. Abraham suffered an elbow injury in training which pulled him off the card. It was thought that a rematch would take place at a future date, however Murray would find another opponent for the Monte Carlo card. Russian boxer Dmitry Chudinov would step in Abraham's place until he withdrew due to a virus, having Nuhu Lawal replace him.

Abraham vs. Krasniqi.

The World Boxing Organization ordered a purse bid to take place on 4 January 2017 in Hungary for an eliminator between Abraham, ranked number two and number three ranked two time light heavyweight challenger Robin Krasniqi (46-4, 17 KOs) with $300,000 being the minimum bid. On 14 January, an agreement was reached for an eliminator to take place on 22 April. A press conference on 19 February confirmed that the fight would take place at the Messe Erfurt Convention Center in Erfurt, Germany. Abraham constantly hurt Krasniqi in the second half of the fight on his way to winning a 12-round unanimous decision and once again earned a world title match. The judges at ringside scored the fight 118-110, 115-114 and 117-111 in Abraham's favor. Krasniqi started the fight well using his height advantage. The fight turned around when Abraham caught Krasniqi in round 6 with a right hand. This turned the fight around and put Krasniqi on the back-foot. Abraham spent most of the later rounds cutting off the ring.

Abraham vs. Eubank Jr..

Reports suggested on 1 June 2017 that Chris Eubank Jr. would make his ring return in July 2017 defending his IBO super middleweight title against Abraham in London. It is believed that Eubank Jr. was offered in the region of £3 million. The two potential dates discussed were the 15 and 22 July. It would be regarded as Eubank Jr.'s biggest fight since his loss to Saunders in 2014. On 5 June, it was confirmed that the fight would take place at the Wembley Arena on 15 July and televised on ITV Box Office. The official press announcement was scheduled to take place on 7 June. On 7 July, the World Boxing Super Series announced the winner would be taking part in the super-middleweight knockout tournament. At the Draft Gala in Monte Carlo on 8 July, Chris Eubank Sr., who represented both Abraham and Eubank Jr. picked undefeated Turkish contender Avni Yildrim (16-0, 10 KOs). At the weigh in, Abraham weighed 12st 1lb 5oz, which was 1lb 13oz over the limit. He was given two hours to lose the extra weight. Eubank Jr. weighed inside the limit at 11st 13lb 3oz. It was said that if Abraham couldn't make weight a second time, the fight would still take place in a non-title fight. Abraham made weight on third attempt.  Eubank Jr. won via a unanimous decision with the scorecards 120-108, 120-108 and 118-110. Abraham had little to offer, mostly in defence mode as Eubank Jr. outlanded and outpointed him. Eubank Jr. landed uppercuts throughout the fight, many single and some in combinations, with Abraham only managing to connect a few shots clean, but left little to no damage. Abraham suffered his second defeat in his last four fights.

Abraham vs. Nielsen.

On 13 March 2018, Danish newspaper BT reported that Abraham and Danish boxer Patrick Nielsen could next fight, although there was no agreement, the bout was being lightly discussed. Nielsen was coming off a loss to British boxer John Ryder in October 2017. On 19 March, the fight was officially confirmed to take place on 28 April at the Baden Arena in Offenburg, Germany. On fight night, Abraham dropped Nielsen on his way to edge out a win via split decision after 12 rounds to win the vacant WBO International title. Two judges scored the bout 116-111 each for Abraham and the remaining judge scored it 114-113 for Nielsen. Abraham pressured Nielsen throughout landing heavy shots. Nielsen used good movement around the ring, catching Abraham with jabs and combinations, however lacked the punching power to keep Abraham at a distance.

Life outside of boxing.

Abraham appeared in Cologne, Germany for an exhibition match against entertainer Oliver Pocher on 24 October 2009 in a bouncy, castle-like "ring" and fought with huge, air-cushion-like boxing gloves. On 9 April 2010, Abraham took to the dance show Let's Dance on RTL with partner Nina Uszkureit, but left after the first episode of the show in order to concentrate fully on his boxing career.  In the film "Max Schmeling" (2010), he played a supporting role of boxer Richard Vogt, Schmeling ́s last opponent. Just as in real life, Ulli Wegner was in his corner.  German actor and producer Til Schweiger invited Abraham to act in his film "Crime Scene" (2013). Til and Abraham had been friends for a long time. Abraham played a pimp that is a leader of a gang that controls the shadow business in the film.  Abraham was among the panel of judges for the "Miss Germany" beauty pageant in 2012 and 2013.  On 9 January 2013, the RA Ministry of Diaspora hosted a presser for Abraham. Minister Hranush Hakobyan praised Abraham as a role model and awarded him the "Poghos Nubar" medal.  Abraham sent a letter of condolence on the death of Vladimir Yengibaryan to his family.

Personal life.

His family members call him "Avo", short for Avetik. Abraham married his wife Mary, then a Yerevan State University student, in 2015. The wedding took place in Armenia and was not publicized; he informed media of his marriage six months later. His younger brother Alexander is also a professional boxer, and his older brother Christian owns a furniture shop.  Abraham plans on opening a boxing school in Armenia following his future retirement. He will also have foreign-language classes for students at the boxing school, such as English and German, to help have success internationally.  He received German citizenship in August 2006, while also retaining his Armenian citizenship.  On 21 September 2008, Abraham and fellow boxer Vic Darchinyan were honored by Armenian President Serge Sargsyan during a 20th anniversary celebration of the nation's independence. Both men were awarded with medals "For the great services for Armenia" of the first degree.

Avetik Abrahamyan (; born 20 February 1980), best known as Arthur Abraham, is an Armenian-German professional boxer. He is a multiple-time former world champion in two weight classes, having held the IBF middleweight title from 2005 to 2009, and the WBO super-middleweight title twice between 2012 and 2016.

Arthur Abraham (* 20. Februar 1980 in Jerewan, Armenische SSR, Sowjetunion als "Awetik Abrahamjan", in wissenschaftlicher Transliteration "Avetik Abrahamyan") ist ein ehemaliger deutscher Profiboxer mit armenischem Migrationshintergrund und ehemaliger ungeschlagener IBF-Weltmeister im Mittelgewicht sowie ehemaliger zweifacher WBO-Weltmeister im Supermittelgewicht.


Biography.

She was born Maria Karoline Flachsland, the daughter of Johann Friedrich Flachsland (1715–1755) and his wife Rosina Catharina Mauritii (1717–1765). Orphaned at a young age, she went to live at the home of her sister Friederike Katharina (1744–1801) in Darmstadt. There, she became a member of the "Darmstadt Circle," which became one of the most important developers of a concept they called "sensitivity." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who soon became her friend, Franz Michael Leuchsenring, Sophie von La Roche, Johann Heinrich Merck and her future husband Johann Gottfried Herder belonged to the group.  Karoline (sometimes spelled Caroline or Carolina) was considered very open-minded, highly educated, and proficient in several languages. Within the Circle, she was called "Psyche." Later, Goethe called her his "sister."  On 2 May 1773, Karoline married Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) in Darmstadt and took his surname. After the wedding, they moved to Bückeburg where he was named court preacher. In their secluded residence, the couple lived their "happiest" and spiritually fruitful time. There, the young family grew significantly with Gottfried (1774-1806) and August (1776-1838). After moving to Weimar, more children followed, Karl Emil (1779-1857), Luise (1781-1860), and Emil Ernst Gottfried (1783-1855).

Works.

During her marriage, Karoline always took part in her husband's official and literary work and was also an unnamed helper in the creation of many of his works. "No Johann Gottfried Herder without Karoline," poet Johann Gleim boasted of her.  Her identification with her husband's life and work was consistent throughout her life. She worked tirelessly on his reputation not only during his lifetime but also after his death. As secretary and editor of his writings and the author of numerous letters, as well as a biographer and editor of Herder-Werke, Karoline Herder remained one of the female figures in the Weimar circle of Neoclassicists.

Last years.

A year before Johann Gottfried Herder's death in 1802, he was ennobled by the Elector-Prince of Bavaria, and this act permitted him to add the prefix "von" to his last name. At the same time Karoline added it to hers.  Maria Karoline von Herder died in Weimar on 15 September 1809 at 59 years of age and was buried there in the old Jakobsfriedhof (Jacob's cemetery).

Maria Karoline Herder (born 28 January 1750 in Reichenweier, Alsace (then part of Germany), died 15 September 1809 in Weimar) was a German editor who collected and published the works of her famous husband, philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder.

Maria Caroline Flachsland auch Karoline (* 28. Januar 1750 in Reichenweier, Elsass; † 15. September 1809 in Weimar) war die Ehefrau von Johann Gottfried von Herder. Sie schrieb eine Biografie ihres Mannes, redigierte und bearbeitete seine Schriften und gab sie nach seinem Tod heraus.


Origins.

On the night of 11 November 1940, the British incapacitated or destroyed half of the Italian fleet's battleships in a daring aerial assault as they lay at rest at Taranto. Until then, the Italians had left their capital ships in harbour, hoping its mere presence as a fleet in being would deter British shipping through the area, though they would not decline battle if given the opportunity.  Six days later, on the night of 17 November, an Italian force consisting of two battleships ( and ) and a number of supporting units attempted to intercept two British aircraft carriers, and and their cruiser escorts, who were "en route" to Malta in an attempt to provide planes to reinforce that island's defenses (Operation White). The British were warned of their approach and immediately turned about and returned to Gibraltar, launching their aircraft (two Blackburn Skuas and 12 Hawker Hurricanes) prematurely. One Skua and eight Hurricanes were lost at sea, as they ran out of fuel well before arriving at their destination, with the loss of seven airmen.  The Italians' success in disrupting the reinforcement of Malta cast serious doubt upon British plans to send a further convoy to supply the island (Operation Collar). However, the convoy was attempted, with increased support, including ships from Gibraltar-based Force H and Force D out of Alexandria. The convoy was spotted by the Italian intelligence service, and once again the Italian fleet sailed out to intercept it. The first Italian naval unit to make visual contact with the convoy was the torpedo boat on the night of 26 November. After launching two torpedoes from long range, which missed their target, "Sirio" reported seven enemy warships heading to the east.

Battle.

The British, aware of the Italian fleet's movements, sent their forces north to intercept them before they could come anywhere near the cargo ships. At 09:45 on 27 November, an IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance floatplane from the heavy cruiser "Bolzano" discovered a British squadron steaming to the east, north of Chetaïbi.  Shortly after, at 9:56, Somerville received the report of his own aircraft from the carrier HMS "Ark Royal" about the presence of five cruisers and five destroyers, and assumed that these were Italian units closing for battle. Force D had not yet arrived from Alexandria and the British were outgunned, but 15 minutes later, Force D was spotted and the tables turned. The two forces were fairly even; although the Italian ships possessed both longer-ranged and larger guns, the British had an aircraft carrier, which had shown several advantages over the battleship at Taranto. However, the Italian admiral Inigo Campioni had been given orders to avoid combat unless it was heavily in his favour, so a decisive battle was out of the question.  Admiral Somerville deployed his forces into two main groups, with five cruisers under Rear Admiral Lancelot Holland in front and two battleships and seven destroyers in a second group following to the south. Meanwhile, and even further to the south, "Ark Royal" was preparing to launch its complement of Fairey Swordfish. The Italians had organized their fleet into three groups, two composed of the six heavy cruisers and seven of the destroyers and a third group of the two battleships and another seven escorting destroyers bringing up the rear. At 12:07, after a report received from the cruiser s floatplane, Campioni realized the closeness in strengths of the two forces and in accordance with his orders commanded the cruiser groups to re-form on the battleships and prepare to depart. However, by this point, the lead cruiser formation had already angled toward the British and was beginning to engage them in battle.  At 12:22, the lead groups of both cruiser forces came into range and opened fire at. Rapid fire between the two forces continued as the distance between them closed, but as the range shortened Italian firepower began to put pressure on the outgunned British. The arrival of the battleship on the British side helped to even the odds, but she was too slow to maintain formation and dropped out of battle after a few salvoes at 12:26. Four minutes later, Vice Admiral Angelo Iachino, commander of the Italian cruiser group, received orders to disengage, although the battle had swung slightly in their favour. Iachino ordered an increase in speed to, laid smoke and started to withdraw.  At this time, the Italian destroyer was hit by a broadside from and seriously damaged, although she was towed to port after the battle. The heavy cruiser was hit at 12:22 by a single 203 mm (8 in) shell, which knocked out her "Y" turret, killed seven men, wounded nine others and ignited a fire that took an hour to subdue. A second hit at 12:35 destroyed the after breaker (electrical switchboard) room and cut power to the ship's aft section, including the remaining aft turret. Most sources believe that the first hit was scored by an Italian heavy cruiser from the 1o Cruiser Division, either from "Fiume" or, while the second round came from the 3o Cruiser Division, either from or, at the time the only Italian warships within range.  For the next few minutes, the tables turned in favour of the British when the battlecruiser closed the distance on the Italian cruisers, and straddled "Trieste" with two salvoes. The Italian cruiser was hit by splinters. This advantage was soon negated, however, when at 13:00, "Vittorio Veneto" opened fire from. "Vittorio Veneto" fired 19 rounds in seven salvoes from long range and that was enough for the now outgunned British cruisers, which turned back at the fourth salvo. In fact, as giant water-spouts erupted around "Berwick" and "Manchester", Holland ordered smoke, and his ships fled southeast to close with "Renown". "Manchester" was holed by splinters from "Vittorio Veneto"'s rounds. Both forces withdrew, the battle lasting a total of 54 minutes and causing little damage to either side.

Aftermath.

After the battle Winston Churchill wanted Somerville to be replaced, having questioned the admiral's offensive spirit ever since his objections to attacking the French at Mers-el-Kébir. However, a board of inquiry exonerated Somerville, who enjoyed the strong support of several fellow admirals. As for Campioni, although he had a mandate to be conservative, he had presided over the loss of Italy's best opportunity to deal the British a sharp setback in a fleet action. His days of command at sea were numbered. As Iachino remarked, "the use of these ships, which constituted at that moment nearly all of our fleet's effective units after the blow at Taranto, was decided by Supermarina mainly for reasons of morale, and to demonstrate that our combative spirit remained intact."

Popular culture.

The battle features in the 1941 Italian film "The White Ship" directed by Roberto Rossellini.

The Battle of Cape Spartivento, known as the Battle of Cape Teulada in Italy, was a naval battle during the Battle of the Mediterranean in the Second World War, fought between naval forces of the Royal Navy and the Italian "Regia Marina" on 27 November 1940.

Die Seeschlacht bei Kap Teulada, auch bekannt als "Seeschlacht bei Kap Spartivento", wurde am 27. November 1940 zwischen der italienischen Marine ("Regia Marina") und britischen Royal Navy südlich von Sardinien ausgetragen. Es handelte sich um eine kleinere Seeschlacht von knapp einer Stunde mit nur geringen Verlusten auf beiden Seiten.


Composition.

MW 50 is something of a misnomer, as it is actually a mixture of three fluids: 50% methanol acting primarily to achieve optimum anti-detonant effect, secondarily as an anti-freeze; 49.5% water; and 0.5% "Schutzöl" 39, an oil-based anti-corrosion additive. The similar MW 30 increased the water to 69.5% and decreased methanol to 30%. This increased the cooling performance but made it easier to freeze, the mixture intended to be used for lower-altitude missions. EW 30 and EW 50 mixtures also existed, which substituted methanol with ethanol; in emergency, pure water could be used.

Effect.

The effect of MW 50 injection could be dramatic. Simply turning on the system allowed the engine to pull in more air due to the charge cooling effect, boosting performance by about on the BMW 801 and DB 605. However, the MW 50 also allowed the supercharger to be run at much higher boost levels as well, for a combined increase of. At sea level, this allowed the engine to run at over. MW 50 was fully effective up to about, above which it added only about 4% extra power, due largely to charge cooling.

Time limits.

The increased power could be used for a maximum of 10 minutes at a time, much like the American war emergency power setting for their own aircraft, with at least five minutes between each application. Aircraft generally carried enough MW 50 for about two ten-minute periods of use, allowing them to increase their climb rate and level speed in combat for interception missions.

Applications.

Fittings for MW 50 first appeared on the BMW 801D in 1942, but it never went into production for this engine because the cylinder heads developed micro-cracks when MW 50 was used. Instead, the DB 605-engined later versions of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 were fitted with an MW 50 injection system, beginning in early 1944. Later engine designs all included the fittings as well, notably the Junkers Jumo 213, which relied on it to increase non-boosted performance and tune the supercharger for higher altitudes.

Other systems.

MW 50 was not the only charge cooling system to be used by the Germans. Some engines dedicated to high altitude included an intercooler instead, as they would be needing the cooling for longer periods of time. The 801D also included the ability to spray gasoline into the supercharger (the "Erhöhte Notleistung" [Increased Emergency Performance] system), in place of the MW 50. While this was not as effective, it did increase boost without the complexity of the additional tanking and plumbing. Additionally, many of the late-war engines also included a system for high-altitude boost, GM-1, which was intended to add oxygen to the fuel/air mix by injecting nitrous oxide into the supercharger instead of employing higher boost levels – the Jumo 213E inverted V12 on the Ta 152H could "sprint" with both boost systems engaged to airspeeds of well over at low altitudes.

MW 50 (Methanol-"Wasser" 50) was a 50-50 mixture of methanol and water (German: "Wasser") that was often sprayed into the supercharger of World War II aircraft engines primarily for its anti-detonation effect, allowing the use of increased boost pressures. Secondary effects were cooling of the engine and charge cooling. Higher boost was only effective at altitudes below the full-throttle height, where the supercharger could still provide additional boost pressure that was otherwise wasted, while the smaller secondary effects were useful even above that altitude.

MW-50 war die Abkürzung für ein Methanol-Wasser-Gemisch mit einem Mischungsverhältnis von 50:50, das im Zweiten Weltkrieg bei der deutschen Luftwaffe zur Leistungssteigerung von aufgeladenen Flugmotoren eingesetzt wurde. Aggregate, die MW-50 verwendeten, kamen vor allem bei Jagdflugzeugen wie der Bf 109 oder Fw 190 zum Einsatz, wodurch die Piloten in kritischen Situationen die Motoren kurzzeitig mit erhöhter Leistung („Sondernotleistung“) betreiben konnten.


Biblical narrative.

The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible. Some rudimentary ritual sacrifice had continued at the site of the first temple following its destruction. According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (, ), construction started at the original site of the altar of Solomon's Temple. After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had filled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity (), work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius I () and was completed during the sixth year of his reign (c. 516 BCE), with the temple dedication taking place the following year.  These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.  The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.  The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel's enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.  Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360, having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple and reinstituting the sacrificial rituals known as the "korbanot".  On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm. First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators (, ).  The Samaritans wanted to help with this work but Zerubbabel and the elders declined such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple unaided. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.  Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died () and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the "false Smerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion (), under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people (), although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first ().  Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 586 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked the following holy articles:  In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of Holies) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included:  According to the Mishnah, the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur.  The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great. According to the Babylonian Talmud however, the Temple lacked the "Shekhinah" (the dwelling or settling divine presence of God) and the "Ruach HaKodesh" (holy spirit) present in the First Temple.

Rabbinical literature.

Traditional rabbinic literature states that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd-century work "Seder Olam Rabbah", placed construction in 350 BCE (3408 AM), 166 years later than secular estimates, and destruction in 70 CE (3829 AM).  The fifth order, or division, of the Mishnah, known as Kodashim, provides detailed descriptions and discussions of the religious laws connected with Temple service including the sacrifices, the Temple and its furnishings, as well as the priests who carried out the duties and ceremonies of its service. Tractates of the order deal with the sacrifices of animals, birds, and meal offerings, the laws of bringing a sacrifice, such as the sin offering and the guilt offering, and the laws of misappropriation of sacred property. In addition, the order contains a description of the Second Temple (tractate Middot), and a description and rules about the daily sacrifice service in the Temple (tractate Tamid).

Rededication by the Maccabees.

Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated Pharaoh Ptolemy V Epiphanes at the Battle of Paneion. Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid Empire. When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services stopped, Judaism was effectively outlawed.  In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also banned circumcision and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the Temple.  Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean Kingdom, as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah.

Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest.

There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was in line to be the king, agreed to be contented with being the high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.

Herod's Temple.

Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount. Herod's work on the Temple is generally dated from 20/19 BCE until 12/11 or 10 BCE. Writer Bieke Mahieu dates the work on the Temple enclosures from 25 BCE and that on the Temple building in 19 BCE, and situates the dedication of both in November 18 BCE. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process. When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple, Herod's grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this.

Construction.

Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE. Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.  The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities: the sacrificial rituals, called offerings, were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction, and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests. Later the Exodus 30:13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.

Platform.

Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone "bricks" were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons, while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons). King Herod had architects from Greece, Rome and Egypt plan the construction. The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels. Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out. Once they were removed, they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed. The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints. They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts. Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent. Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes. Roman pulleys and cranes weren't strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them. As the mountainside began to rise, the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face, which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level. Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill.  The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah. Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. (6m) below the current level, as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels. Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years, but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer, although the Temple itself may have taken that long. During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years. It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE.

Court of the Gentiles.

This area was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food, as well as currency changers, exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord, as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims. Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available. Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself.  The priests, in their white linen robes and tubular hats, were everywhere, directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacrifices were to be performed.  Behind them, as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates, was the Royal Porch, which contained a marketplace, administrative quarters, and a synagogue. On the upper floors, the great Jewish sages held court, priests and Levites performed various chores, and from there, tourists were able to observe the events. The Royal Porch is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the first century BCE, while the theory that Herod began the extension and the Royal Porch is based mainly on Josephus's possibly politically motivated claim. During Herod's reign the porch was not yet open to the public.  To the east of the court was Solomon's Porch, and to the north, the "soreg", the "middle wall of separation", a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter, described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus (Wars 5.5.2 [3b] 6.2.4).

Pinnacle.

The accounts of the temptation of Christ in the gospels of Matthew and Luke both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more 'pinnacles':  The Greek word used is πτερυγιον ("pterugion"), which literally means a tower, rampart, or pinnacle. According to "Strong's Concordance", it can mean little wing, or by extension anything like a wing such as a battlement or parapet. The archaeologist Benjamin Mazar thought it referred to the southeast corner of the Temple overlooking the Kidron Valley.

Inside the Soreg.

According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate. The gates were: On the south side (going from west to east) the Fuel Gate, the Firstling Gate, the Water Gate. On the north side, from west to east, are the Jeconiah Gate, the Offering Gate, the Women's Gate and the Song Gate. On the Eastern side, the Nicanor gate, which is where most Jewish visitors entered. A few pieces of the Soreg have survived to the present day.  Within this area was the Court of the Women, open to all Jews, male and female. Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties. There was also a place for lepers (considered ritually unclean), as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites. In this, the largest of the temple courts, one could see constant dancing, singing and music.  Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites, where they could observe sacrifices of the high priest in the Court of the Priests. The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests.

Temple sanctuary.

Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temple: the menorah, the incense-burning altar, and various other implements.

Pilgrimages.

Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa (now part of Tel Aviv), where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered religious. The pilgrims would purchase sacrificial animals, usually a pigeon or a lamb, in preparation for the following day's events.  The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple Mount complex. They would check their animals, then visit a mikveh, where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves. The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals, and head to the Huldah gates. After ascending a staircase three stories in height, and passing through the gate, the pilgrims would find themselves in the Court of the Gentiles.

Destruction.

In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, on 4 August 70 CE (the 9th Day of Av and possibly the day on which Tisha B'Av was observed) or 30 August 70 CE, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The Arch of Titus, in Rome and built to commemorate Titus's victory in Judea, depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79 CE—possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.  The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees.  The Temple was on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock. The gates let out close to Al-Aqsa Mosque (which came much later). Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem. A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple.

Archaeology.

In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 × 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the "soreg" separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:  Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.  In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found.  After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions' Gate. Thus, the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount. Currently, Robinson's Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. This had been used by the priests as an entrance. Commoners had entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side which led through colonnades to the top of the platform. One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archeological digs have found thousands of "mikvehs" (ceremonial bathtubs) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, and a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon's Stables, which still exist and whose current renovation by the "Waqf" is extremely controversial. The temple was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight.  On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves. More recent archaeological findings include mosaic floors from the Second Temple period.  The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.

Second Temple Judaism.

The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes that would affect most subsequent Abrahamic religions. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period.

The Second Temple (, "Beit HaMikdash HaSheni") was the Jewish holy temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple (the First Temple), which was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered and part of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile to Babylon.

Herodes der Große begann 21 v. Chr. mit einer grundlegenden Umgestaltung des Jerusalemer Tempels, die zugleich sein anspruchsvollstes Bauprojekt wurde. Innerhalb von nur anderthalb Jahren wurde das eigentliche Tempelgebäude fertiggestellt und mit großer Prachtentfaltung eingeweiht. Die Neugestaltung des gesamten Tempelberg-Komplexes aber zog sich noch lange nach dem Tod des Herodes hin und kam erst kurz vor dem Ausbruch des Jüdischen Krieges zum Abschluss. Er wurde im Jahre 70 n. Chr. durch die römische Armee zerstört.


Instigation of the letter.

Even though the historical circumstance which led to this letter have now largely been clarified, their interpretation is still controversial. This document, which is important for the founding of the German Empire, could well be regarded as the result of a state of doubtful behaviour, and thus perhaps even a form of corruption.

William's hesitation.

William I took the new office of German Emperor only hesitantly, since he saw himself as the Prussian King. On the one hand, the southern German princes were not necessarily willing to accept Wilhelm's desire to call himself "Emperor of Germany", since they did not want to recognise a new sovereign. Finally, it was both William's and Bismarck's concerns to make the act of conferring and establishing the new dignity appear as one of the German princes and not the parliaments. It was still clear that 22 years previously in 1848, William's brother and predecessor, Frederick William IV, had rejected the emperor's deputation, which he had ordered the emperor's crown for a Lesser German Empire on the order of the Frankfurt National Assembly with the ""free consent of the crowned heads, the princes and the free cities of Germany"", since he was not born emperor. Bismarck, therefore, could only gain William's approval if the German princes and free cities asked him to accept the imperial crown., ""the old, legitimate crown of the German nation, which had been laid down since 1806"", as William described it elsewhere. This could only be done by the Bavarian King, since, according to the King of Prussia, he was regarded as the highest ranking of the princes of the small German nation.

Ludwig's opposition to Prussia.

Ludwig II, who had been in office since 1864, was, however, a supporter of the Greater German solution, a German agreement including Austria, and thus also under the leadership of the Austria Emperor, and above all under the full protection of Bavarian sovereignty. He had not wounded the defeat of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, in which Bavaria, together with Saxony, Baden, Württemberg, Hanover, Hesse-Darmstadt, Electoral Hesse and Nassau, had stood as an ally to Austria. Bavaria had to pay Prussia 30 million guilders as compensation and subordinate its army to Prussia's command in the event of war.  Under this command, with the enthusiastic consent of the population, 55,000 Bavarian soldiers, led by Prussian Prince Frederick William, were drawn into the war against France in 1870. Ludwig had refused to take the lead. He was also absent from the victory celebrations at Versailles and had rejected the request of his own government and on the orders of Bismarck, to make the Prussian King a German Emperor. His government, however, had already announced its acceptance to the German Empire without his consent, while Ludwig still complained about France's loss in the war.

Ludwig's notorious financial problems.

From the outset, Ludwig was less interested in governmental affairs than in a particular representative depiction of his kingship in culture and architecture. This had a tradition in his family, his great-grandfather Maximilian I and grandfather Ludwig I had already used large parts of the state budget to the representative development of Munich as residence, but also to the promotion of art, education and science. Ludwig's locks burdened his private finances to the utmost. Prince Eulenberg-Hertefeld, secretary of the Prussian ambassador in Munich, described how the king had shattered state finances, and privately tried to get money from all sides, like a loan of twenty million florins from the prince of Thurn and Taxis. He had also begged the Austrian Emperor, the kings of Belgium and Sweden to ask the (Turkish) Sultan and the Shah of Persia for money.

Agreements of the Imperial Letter.

Telegram from Count Werthern.

The tense financial situation, especially of his private fortune, was known to Bismarck and his own Bavarian ministers to induce Ludwig to make a decision, the Prussian ambassador, Count Werthern, on 19 November 1870, to Bismarck in the following words:  As early as 20 November 1870, Bismarck telegraphed to the head of the Federal Chancellery in Berlin, Delbrück: ""I hope to come to a conclusion with Bavaria. If it does so, it seems unquestionable that the question of the Emperor is to be brought from there"".

Unity with Bavaria and King Ludwig.

On 23 November 1870, Bismarck had reached an agreement with the representative of the Bavarian Government on their acceptance to the German Empire. Bismarck made major concessions to Bavaria (its own post and telecommunication systems, its own railways and its own army during peace time). He returned from the negotiations that ""Now the Bavarian agreement has been finished and signed. German unity has been made and the emperor also"". His employees signed the agreement with two empty bottles of champagne next to it.  Oberst-Stallmeister Count Holnstein, Ludwig's confidant and personal communicator, arrived in Versailles two days later on 25 November 1870, where he was immediately received by Bismarck, without first communicating with the Bavarian negotiation delegation. Nothing is known about the course of the conversation, only the result of an agreement between the parties. On 26 November 1870, Bismarck announced this, albeit in a somewhat alienated form, to his co-workers, when, in a confidential memorandum, which he had sent to the head of the Staatskanzlei Delbrück on contract negotiations with the Bavarian government representatives on 23 November 1870, notes that ""Following my letter today, I still keep in confidence that I have also discussed the imperial question with the Bavarian Ministers and have stated their willingness to initiate the same by stimulating Bavaria. According to their suggestions, I suppose that a letter from His Majesty the King of Bavaria to His Majesty the King in which the motion is made and is already underway"." In fact, he had only recently agreed with Ludwig's representative about his demands and on 27 November 1870, he formulate the supposedly awaited letter, the later imperial letter, with caution. He had refrained from his original demand that Ludwig should come to Versailles in person. He gave the draft of the emperor's letter, together with a personal letter to Ludwig, which he began with exuberant thanksgiving. ""Most Gracious, Most Highly King! For the gracious opening which Count Holnstein had made to Your Majesty, I would like to congratulate you on the most honourable expression of my thanks."" He then read the imperial letter.  Together with the Bavarian state ministers, who had represented Bavaria at the conclusion of the Bavarian acceptance treaty, Holnstein returned to Munich on the train and brought them to Bismarck's draft. On 30 November 1870, Holnstein arrived at the Hohenschwangau Castle, where Ludwig was staying and was received by the King when he was informed that he had to return to Versailles at 6 pm. He then told the King that he would go back to Versailles, either with or without result, but it was to be expected that the troops in front of Paris would exclaim William I as Emperor. With minor modifications, Ludwig wrote up Bismarck's draft and handed it to Holstein, who brought him to Munich for sealing. In an accompanying letter, Ludwig asked his secretary of the Cabinet to review the letter and, if a different letter seemed to be more appropriate to him, "the matter is being crushed, and I authorise you to tear the letter to the King of Prussia". The Secretary of the Cabinet, on the other hand, sealed the letter on 1 December, and Holnstein returned to Versailles the following day, where he received the letter from Ludwig's uncle, Prince Luitpold of Bavaria (1886–1912) who took over the role of Prince Regent after Ludwig was incapacitated.  On 3 December 1870, Bismarck jubilated in a telegram to Count Werthern, the Prussian ambassador in Munich:

Count of Holnstein.

Count Maximilian von Holnstein (born 19 October 1835) knew Ludwig from his childhood. He was pardoned in 1866 by Ludwig from a fortress, which he had served for the sake of a reverend, and appointed him as the Royal Bavarian Oberstallmeister. He came from the House of Wittelsbach and held the royal domination of Schwarzenfeld, Rauberweiherhaus, Thanstein and Pillmersried in the Upper Palatinate. He enjoyed Ludwig's fullest confidence, which he lost only three years before his death because of his resistance to the King wasting money. He had acted as a guardian of Ludwig's incarceration. After Ludwig died, he remained as Oberststallmeister to Prince Regent Luitpold until 1892, and then retired to his castle in Schwarzfeld, where he died in 1895.  Holnstein was also economically successful and belong to the co-founders of the "Bayerische Vereinsbank". He played a central role in the settlement of the agreements with Bismarck. The details of the processing of payments made were fixed with him and he received 10% of the money, which headed back to Ludwig for his services. Bismarck acknowledged his merits for German unification. ""The Count of Holnstein has made a considerable contribution to the formal conclusion of our national agreement by eliminating the external obstacles of the German National Assembly by making two trips in a week without sleep and by the clever execution of his commission in Hohenschwangau"." Bismarck recommended to Count Werthern, the Prussian ambassador in Munich, on 24 December 1870, in connection with the ratification of the Bavarian acceptance treaties by the Bavarian parliament, which appeared to be uncertain, to discuss the position of the King on this question ""also with Count Holnstein, who is best informed of the King's intentions and views"." Holnstein's influence on Ludwig must have been striking. In 1882, Prince Eulenberg-Hertefeld reported the remark that ""Holnstein must know some strange thing about the King and use it as weapon – the King no longer loves him, and he obeys him"."

Settlement of payments to Ludwig.

The information on the amount of payments made by Prussia to Ludwig fluctuated. This also pointed out that the German Empire in 1876 unified the currency and in Prussia converted Guilders into Goldmarks. Overall, Ludwig appeared to have received more than six million gold marks. In addition to a first large advance payment, the guarantee was to be given to him later, only after the first year's payments. The current payments began in 1873, initially 300,000 gold marks, which should have increased by the end of 1885. In 1884, Ludwig also received a special payment of more than one million gold marks. The payments were handled secretly by Swiss banks and flowed into Ludwig's private assets.  Since neither Emperor William nor Parliament could know of the agreement, Bismarck deducted the amounts of Welfs funds confiscated after the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 which corresponded to the King's House of Hanover, estimated at 42 million guilders, identical of which to the English and Hanoverian throne. The property was considered to be confiscated until England would recognise the annexation of Hanover by Prussia. During this time, the revenues of Prussia flowed. Bismarck regarded the Welfs' funds as being outside of parliamentary control and used his income as a slush fund. It was not until 1892 that Emperor William II ordered the proceeds of the Welfs' funds to be given to the head of the former head of the Royal House of Hanover. Only after Ludwig's death and Bismarck's resignation as Chancellor in 1890 were the payments announced. Bismarck declared it a loan granted to the King of Bavaria, of which he had never accepted that it was to be repaid.

Different assessments of Ludwig's behaviour.

Since the payments and their circumstances had become known, it was disputed whether a bribery had been sent to the Imperial Letter and thus to a symbolically important act with regard to the founding of the Empire, whether it was a dossier to a swaying sovereign, or whether the payments were "the work of bribes." Ludwig's behaviour was defended by the fact that it would correspond to political habits, to negotiate with the task of sovereignty or its restriction also over money payments, how often payments in the form of appanages or other donations to sovereigns were also agreed. Ludwig had certainly been seduced by his advisers. Finally, a few years earlier, Prussia had to pay 30 million guilders as reparations. Ludwig's admirers also pointed out that their King would have been able to change his mind on money at all. On the other hand, the Bavarian government had already declared itself ready to join the German Empire at the time of the telegram sent by Count Werthern and could not have succeeded in carrying out its repayment of reparations. Moreover, it was clear to everyone that the private assets of the monarch were separate from the state's assets. On his accession to the throne, Ludwig II had expressed himself openly and with joy to the constitution, which refused to grant him former absolute rights to the power of the state, although he soon dreamed of a strengthening royal power.  In any case, the King could no longer dispose of state revenues by virtue of a constitution. The secret and disguised handling of money payments were proof that Ludwig had been aware of this. Bismarck was only able to fulfil his guaranteed money payments on the basis of the fact that larger withdrawals from the Welfs' fund would not have been noticeable, but would also have attacked his stock, which would have contradicted the conditions of seizure. At any rate, Bismarck had also been concerned about the embarrassing secrecy. From the very beginning, he had admitted to the hiding-place, even before the Bavarian government. This was also confirmed by his official announcement of 26 November 1870 on Ludwig's change of meaning – after he had secretly agreed with Holnstein – to the head of the Federal Chancellery, Delbrück. (The Bavarian ministers had already pointed out a letter from Ludwig, which had already been sent to Versailles). All parties were aware of the interests of the Bavarian state on the other hand, and the private interests of the monarch.

Ambiguous assets.

Thus, there is a great deal of evidence for the interpretation that King Ludwig, outside the Bavarian state budget, had demanded and paid for third-party remuneration for a statutory act, that is, an official act, into his private assets, which according to modern terminology would be corruption. However, it has to be considered that the debate on the accession of Bavaria to the nation of Germany was discussed between 19 November (Telegram sent by Werthern) and 3 December 1870 (sending of the Imperial Letter by Prince Luitpold), including the reserve rights and personal involvement of Ludwig in clarifying the imperial question. For Ludwig, these were related questions, in which he would hardly have distinguished between his person and the state.  Ludwig also had to be held to the effect that from his point of view, the separation of state power from royal private wealth was by no means self-evident. At the end of the monarchy of 1918, this question was still to be highly disputed among lawyers and led to the Bavarian law on the Wittelsbach Equalisation Fund. For, at the beginning of the 19th century, to which Ludwig had also descended, had transferred his property to the distressed state (also in accordance with the Bavarian constitution of 1818), and the state had taken over the supply of Wittelsbach. After 1918, jurists of the former royal house argued that in Bavaria a separation between state property and the house wealth of the Wittelsbachs had not yet been carried out. The resulting compromise led to the founding of the Wittelsbach compensation fund, which included the former Wittelsbach property (including the castles of Berg and Hohenschwangau, but not the castles belonging to King Ludwig II, which were retained under state ownership) and whose income since then has been sustained by members of the former Royal family.  From the present point of view, no harm was caused to the state as means of Ludwig's conduct. The six million gold marks which had been sent to him as a whole, was demonstrably used to settle construction calculations, for example, the Herrenchiemsee Castle, corresponded approximately to the value of the actual expenses for Neuschwanstein Castle, the most famous of King Ludwig's castles. In 2006 alone, it was visited by over one million people. Even the annual income from this castle for the free state exceeds the sum in question.

The Kaiserbrief (engl. Imperial Letter), is the letter to the German Federal princes signed by North German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck on 27 November 1870 and Bavarian King Ludwig II (born 1845, reign 1864–1886) on 30 November 1870. Ludwig's uncle, Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, the later Prince Regent (1886–1912), on 3 December 1870 personally handed over the Imperial Letter to the Prussian king.

Kaiserbrief nennt man ein Schreiben aus dem Jahr 1870. Darin boten die Fürsten in Deutschland dem preußischen König und Inhaber des norddeutschen Bundespräsidiums, Wilhelm I., die Krone eines Deutschen Kaisers an. Anlass war der bevorstehende Beitritt der süddeutschen Staaten zum Norddeutschen Bund.


Composition.

NCS contains over 90% carbohydrate, sucrose being the predominant (near 80%) sugar. It also contains minerals (up to 3%), mainly calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride and phosphates, but also a number of essential nutrients or oligo-elements including iron, zinc, magnesium, copper, cobalt, nickel and chromium. The particular chemical composition of NCS depends on the cane variety used, the soils on which it was grown, the fertilization applied and the processing methods.

Economy.

Generally produced for local markets, NCS probably was the dominant form of cane sugar consumption before the advent of large-scale production of refined sugar for export markets after 1700. Today, NCS has practically disappeared in most non-sugarcane producing countries, as it is traded internationally only in small amounts. However, NCS remains important in most sugarcane producing countries, as shown by the average share in the daily consumption of caloric sweeteners (g/person/day, 2007) in the following countries: Myanmar 46%; Bangladesh 20%; Colombia 19%; India 10%; Pakistan 10%.  Most of NCS is produced on small scale in farms which process their own sugar cane using traditional technology. Production appears inefficient and its quality uneven. In some countries, such as India, Colombia, Brazil and Costa Rica, a larger scale NCS industry exists, which process cane from outside farmers using improved technology, which is centered on more efficient energy use and better processing to obtain homogeneous quality and scale-savings.  According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) world NCS production has been practically stagnant since the mid 1980s, after modest increases in the previous twenty years, stabilizing at about 12 to 14 million metric tons per year. The real amount produced may be greater given the difficulties in tracking small scale on-farm production. However, whilst production of NCS has been declining in Asia, it has been rising, even if only slowly, in Latin America. NCS production in Latin America reached an all-time high in 2011, surpassing the two million metric ton level for the first time. This compares to around 1.6 million tons 20 years earlier. In Colombia, the share of sugarcane allocated to production of NCS is now the highest worldwide, at 40%. In Brazil, output rose from an estimated 280,000 tons in 2005 to 470,000 tons in 2011. NCS is traded mostly locally in un-branded, solid presentations, such as blocks, cones or other shapes. Such a feature limits its consumption given the difficulties involved in dealing with these solid presentations in the kitchen and in industry. In some countries (for example, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and Costa Rica) solid NCS is being progressively replaced by user-friendly, branded, granulated presentations, often packed in plastic or paper bags for use at home and also as an industrial sweetener for the preparation of beverages and many other processed foods. It is also used to produce alcoholic beverages such as rum, and as a substrate for fermentation processes to produce alcohol and other derivatives.  The international trade in NCS has been small and decreasing, reaching more recently levels in the order of 50,000 tons per year. Again, the true quantities are probably greater, as NCS is classified in different ways by importing countries. The introduction of the granulated presentation has permitted the development of a small specialty market in Europe, U.S. and Japan supplied by at least a few producers from India, Costa Rica, Colombia and Brazil.

Technology.

NCS is clean dried sugar cane juice. Given the high sugar content of cane juice NCS is essentially made up of crystals of sucrose mixed with molasses, and many additional constituents of cane juice, like inverted sugars (glucose and fructose), minerals, vitamins, organic acids, and other trace substances, many still unknown. Depending on its manufacturing process it is either presented in solid form, known as lump sugar, or granulated form.

Manufacturing process.

The basic manufacture process of NCS involves juice extraction, physical elimination of impurities and clarification of the juice, evaporation of the water content of the juice, crystallization, eventually drying and packaging.  The cane juice is generally extracted from cleaned and eventually shredded cane stalks by mechanical processes, commonly with simple crushers consisting of three metal rollers. It is filtered to separate bagasse particles and/or allowed to settle so to eliminate solid impurities.  Clarification is carried out to coagulate the particulates, which come to the surface during boiling and are skimmed off. A variety of materials are used, such as plant material, ash, etc. With the aim of neutralizing the juice, which facilitates the formation of sugar crystals, lime or sulfur dioxide are added. In some of the larger factories the juice is filtered and chemically clarified.  Water evaporation is achieved by boiling, mostly in open pans, either in a single or in a series of pans located above a furnace. Larger factories use vacuum pans. In the last step of evaporation crystallization is achieved, either by pouring the heavy syrup into suitable molds to obtain solid forms or by stirring the syrup to obtain granulated product. The granulated product may be dried to enhance its flow and shelf life. Both solid and granulated presentations are then packed.

Nutrition and health.

The progressive loss of worldwide importance of NCS is a typical case of the displacement of a traditional product by an industrialized alternative, in this case by refined sugar and other caloric and non-caloric sweeteners, as judged from the decreasing relative importance of NCS within caloric sweetener consumption. This is part of broader changes in global food consumption patterns characterized by a large increase in refined foods, especially fats, sugar and flours. This pattern, part of a more general nutrition transition, has been linked to the development of diseases such as obesity, diabetes and strokes, which have taken on epidemic proportions in many countries. Increasing recognition of the negative impacts of current dominant diets and sedentary behavioral patterns may help reverse such a pattern and hopefully allow better health upon aging. "Natural" and "organic" products appear increasingly popular, attaining significant market shares in many countries. Conversely, refined and "industrial" products tend to be negatively perceived, among them specially refined sugar and non-caloric sweeteners. This might open opportunities for the revival of NCS consumption.

Non-centrifugal cane sugar (NCS) is the technical name given to traditional raw sugar obtained by evaporating water from sugarcane juice. NCS is internationally recognized as a discrete and unique product by the FAO since 1964 and by the World Customs Organization (WCO) since 2007. WCO defines NCS as "cane sugar obtained without centrifugation". It also states that "the product contains only natural anhedral microcrystals, of irregular shape, not visible to the naked eye, which are surrounded by residues of molasses and other constituents of sugar cane". NCS is produced in most sugarcane growing regions of the world, being known by many different names such as panela, jaggery, or gur. Some varieties of muscovado are non-centrifugal.

Vollrohrzucker (auch: Muscovado oder Mascobado) ist eine unraffinierte Zuckersorte, die aus dem Saft des Zuckerrohrs durch Filtern, Eindicken, Trocknen und Mahlen gewonnen wird. Je nach Klärung ist das Endprodukt grau bis kräftig braun. Vollrohrzucker besitzt einen charakteristischen Eigengeschmack und besteht zu 91 % aus Saccharose.