Background.

In December 1965, the Beatles' "Rubber Soul" album was released to wide critical acclaim. According to author David Howard, the limits of pop music "had been raised into the stratosphere" by the release, resulting in a shift in focus away from singles to creating albums of consistently high quality. The following January, the Beatles carried out overdubs on live recordings taken from their 1965 US tour, for inclusion in the concert film "The Beatles at Shea Stadium". The group's manager, Brian Epstein, had intended that 1966 would then follow the pattern of the previous two years, in terms of the band making a feature film and an accompanying album, followed by concert tours during the summer months. After the Beatles vetoed the proposed film project, the time allocated for filming became a further three months free of professional engagements. This was the longest period the band members had experienced outside the group collective since 1962, and it defied convention that pop acts should be almost permanently working. The group thereby had an unprecedented amount of time to prepare for a new album.  Writing in "The Beatles Forever", Nicholas Schaffner cites 1966 as the start of the band's "'psychedelic' period" and adds: "That adjective implies not only the influence of certain mind-altering chemicals, but also the

Recording history.

The Beatles had hoped to work in a more modern facility than EMI's London studios at Abbey Road and were impressed with the sound on records created at Stax Studio in Memphis. In March 1966, Epstein investigated the possibility of their recording the new album at Stax, where, according to a letter written by Harrison two months later, the group intended to work with producer Jim Stewart. The idea was abandoned after locals began descending on the Stax building, as were alternative plans to use either Atlantic Studios in New York or Motown's Hitsville USA facility in Detroit.  Recording for the album instead began at EMI Studio 3 in London on 6 April, with George Martin again serving as producer. The first track attempted was Lennon's "Tomorrow Never Knows", the arrangement for which changed considerably between the initial take that day and the subsequent remake. This first version of "Tomorrow Never Knows", along with several other outtakes from the album sessions, was included on the 1996 compilation "Anthology 2". Also recorded during the "Revolver" sessions were "Paperback Writer" and "Rain", which were issued as the A- and B-side of a non-album single in late May. The band had worked on ten songs, including both sides of the upcoming single, by 1 May, when they interrupted the sessions to perform at the "NME" annual Poll-Winners Concert. At a time when "Time" magazine dubbed London "the Swinging City", belatedly recognising its ascendance as the era's cultural capital, the Beatles drew inspiration from attending concerts by

Production techniques.

Studio aesthetic.

The sessions for "Revolver" furthered the spirit of studio experimentation evident on "Rubber Soul". With the Beatles increasingly involved in the production of their music, Martin's role as producer had changed to one of a facilitator and collaborator, whereby the band now relied on him to make their ideas a reality.<ref name="Sheffield/RS 50th"></ref> According to Rodriguez, "Revolver" marked the first time the Beatles integrated studio technology into the "conception of the recordings they made". He views this approach as reflective of the group's waning interest in live performance before crowds of screaming fans, "in favor of creating soundscapes without limitation" in a studio environment. For the first time at EMI Studios, the company's four-track tape machines were placed in the studio's control room, alongside the producer and balance engineer, rather than in a dedicated machine room. The Beatles' new recording engineer on the project was nineteen-year-old Geoff Emerick, whom author and critic Ian MacDonald describes as an "English audio experimentalist" in the tradition of Joe Meek. Emerick recalled that no preproduction or rehearsal process took place for "Revolver"; instead, the

Innovations.

Author Mark Brend writes that, with "Revolver", the Beatles advanced Meek's strategy of employing the recording studio as a musical instrument and "formalized this approach into what is now an accepted option for pop music making". A key production technique they used was automatic double tracking (ADT), which EMI technical engineer Ken Townsend invented on 6 April. This technique employed two linked tape recorders to automatically create a doubled vocal track. The standard method had been to double the vocal by singing the same piece twice onto a multitrack tape, a task Lennon particularly disliked. The Beatles were delighted with the invention, and used it extensively on "Revolver". ADT soon became

Songs.

Overview.

Author Steve Turner writes that "Revolver" encapsulates not only "the spirit of the times" but the network of progressive social and cultural thinkers in which the Beatles had recently become immersed in London. The album is an early work in the psychedelic rock genre, which accompanied the emergence of counterculture ideology in the 1960s. Through its individual tracks, "Revolver" covers a wide range of styles, including acid rock, chamber music, R&B, raga rock, musique concrète, as well as standard contemporary rock and pop. In Rodriguez's view, the influence of Indian music permeates the album. Aside from the sounds and vocal styling used on much of the recording, this influence is evident in the limited chord changes in some of the songs, suggesting an Indian-style drone. According to cultural historian Simon Philo, "Revolver"

Side one.

"Taxman".

Harrison wrote "Taxman" as a protest against the high marginal tax rates paid by top earners like the Beatles, which, under Harold Wilson's Labour government, amounted to 95 per cent of income above the top threshold. The song's spoken count-in is out of tempo with the performance that follows, a device that Riley credits with establishing the "new studio aesthetic of "Revolver"". Harrison's vocals on the track were treated with heavy compression

"Eleanor Rigby".

Womack describes McCartney's "Eleanor Rigby" as a "narrative about the perils of loneliness". The story involves the title character, who is an ageing spinster, and a lonely priest named Father McKenzie who writes "sermon[s] that no one will hear". He presides over Rigby's funeral and acknowledges that despite his efforts, "no one was saved". The first McCartney composition to depart from the

"I'm Only Sleeping".

Author Peter Doggett describes "I'm Only Sleeping" as "Half acid dream, half latent Lennon laziness personified." As with "Rain", the basic track was recorded at a faster tempo before being subjected to varispeeding. The latter treatment, along with ADT, was also applied to Lennon's vocal as he sought to replicate,

"Love You To".

"Love You To" marked Harrison's first foray into Hindustani classical music as a composer, following his introduction of the sitar on "Norwegian Wood" in 1965. Made with only minimal contributions from Starr and McCartney, Harrison recorded "Love You To" with Indian musicians from the Asian Music Circle, who provided instrumentation such as tabla, tambura and sitar. Author Peter Lavezzoli recognises the song as "the first

"Here, There and Everywhere".

"Here, There and Everywhere" is a ballad that McCartney wrote towards the end of the "Revolver" sessions. His inspiration for the song was the Beach Boys' "Pet Sounds" track "God Only Knows", which, in turn, Brian Wilson had been inspired to write after listening to "Rubber Soul". McCartney's double-tracked vocal was treated with varispeeding, resulting in a higher pitch

"Yellow Submarine".

McCartney intended "Yellow Submarine" – a song he later characterised as a "kid's story" – as a vehicle for Starr's limited vocal range. The lyrics were written by McCartney and Lennon, with assistance from Scottish singer Donovan, and tell of life on a sea voyage accompanied by friends. Gould considers the song's childlike qualities to be "deceptive" and that, once in the studio, it became "a sophisticated sonic pastiche". On 1 June, the Beatles and a group of their friends created a nautical atmosphere over the pre-recorded

"She Said She Said".

The light atmosphere of "Yellow Submarine" is broken by what Riley terms "the outwardly harnessed, but inwardly raging guitar" that introduces Lennon's "She Said She Said". The song marks the second time that a Beatles arrangement used a shifting metre, after "Love You To", as the foundation of 4/4 briefly switches to 3/4. Harrison recalled that he helped Lennon finish the composition, which involved joining together three separate fragments of song. Having walked out of the session, McCartney did not contribute to the recording, leaving Harrison to perform the bass part in addition to lead guitar and harmony vocals. The lyric was inspired in part by a conversation that Lennon and Harrison had with actor Peter Fonda in Los Angeles in August 1965, while all three, along with Starr and members of the Byrds, were under the influence of LSD. During the conversation, Fonda commented: "I know what it's like to be dead", because as a child he had technically died during an operation.

Side two.

"Good Day Sunshine".

"Good Day Sunshine" was written by McCartney, whose piano playing dominates the recording. The track was one of several contemporary songs that evoked the unusually hot and sunny English summer of 1966. Music critic Richie Unterberger describes it as a song that conveys "one of the first fine days of spring,

"And Your Bird Can Sing".

"And Your Bird Can Sing" was written primarily by Lennon, with McCartney claiming to have helped on the lyric and estimating the song as "80–20" to Lennon. Harrison and McCartney played dual lead-guitar parts on the recording, including an ascending riff that Riley terms "magnetic... everything sticks to it". Riley describes

"For No One".

"For No One" was inspired by McCartney's relationship with English actress Jane Asher. Along with "Good Day Sunshine", which similarly dispensed with guitar parts for Harrison and Lennon, Rodriguez cites the track as an example of McCartney eschewing the group dynamic when recording his songs, a trend that would prove unpopular with his bandmates in later years. The recording features McCartney playing piano, bass and clavichord,

"Doctor Robert".

"Doctor Robert" was written by Lennon, although McCartney has since claimed co-authorship. A guitar-based rock song in the style of "And Your Bird Can Sing", its lyrics celebrate

"I Want to Tell You".

Harrison said he wrote "I Want to Tell You" about "the avalanche of thoughts" that he found hard to express in words. Supporting the lyrics, his stammering guitar riff, combined with the dissonance employed in the song's melody, conveys the difficulties of achieving meaningful communication.

"Got to Get You into My Life".

Described by Riley as the album's "most derivative cut", "Got to Get You into My Life" was influenced by the Motown Sound and written by McCartney after he had seen Stevie Wonder perform at the Scotch of St James nightclub in February. The horn players on the track included members of Georgie Fame's group, the Blue Flames. To capture the desired sound, microphones were placed in the bells of the brass

"Tomorrow Never Knows".

Rodriguez describes Lennon's "Tomorrow Never Knows" as "the greatest leap into the future" of the Beatles' recording career up to this point. The recording includes reverse guitar, processed vocals, and looped tape effects, accompanying a strongly syncopated, repetitive drum-beat. Lennon adapted the lyrics from Timothy Leary's book "The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on The Tibetan Book of the Dead", which equates the realisations brought about through LSD with the spiritually enlightened state achieved through meditation. Originally known as "Mark I", and then briefly "The Void", the eventual title came via one of Starr's malapropisms. Lennon intended the track as an evocation of a Tibetan Buddhist

North American format.

"I'm Only Sleeping", "And Your Bird Can Sing" and "Doctor Robert" were the tracks omitted from Capitol's version of "Revolver". In the case of "I'm Only Sleeping", the version issued on "Yesterday and Today" was a different mix from that included on EMI's "Revolver". Due to the exclusion of the three Lennon tracks, there were only two songs on the Capitol release for which he was the principal writer, compared with

Packaging.

Artwork.

The cover for "Revolver" was created by German-born bassist and artist Klaus Voormann, one of the Beatles' oldest friends from their time in Hamburg during the early 1960s. Voormann's artwork was part line drawing and part collage, using photographs mostly taken over 1964–65 by Robert Freeman. In his line drawings of the four Beatles, Voormann drew inspiration from the work of the nineteenth-century illustrator Aubrey Beardsley, who was the subject of a long-running exhibition at London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 1966 and highly influential on fashion and design themes of the time. Voormann placed the various photos within the tangle of hair that connects the four faces. Turner writes that the drawings show each Beatle "in another state of consciousness", such that the older images appear to be tumbling out from them.  Voormann's aim was to reflect the radical departure in sound represented particularly by "Tomorrow Never Knows",<ref name="Stummer/Guardian">Stummer, Robin (23 July 2016). "How I drew a pop art masterpiece for the Beatles – a snip at just £50". "The Observer"/theguardian.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017.</ref> and his choice of a black-and-white cover was in deliberate defiance of

Title.

The album's title, like that of "Rubber Soul", is a pun, referring to both a kind of handgun and the "revolving" motion of a record as it plays on a turntable. Gould views the title as a "McLuhanesque pun", since, more so than on their previous albums, the focus of "Revolver" appears to rotate from one Beatle to another with each song.  The

Release.

In mid May 1966, Tony Hall of "Record Mirror" wrote a preview of the Beatles' new recordings in which he opined that some of them were "the most revolutionary ever made by a pop group". While avoiding mention of the official song titles, he highlighted Lennon's "The Void" for its electronic effects, along with a "McCartney song about lonely people" set to string orchestration, and a "Harrison number on which he plays a long exotic solo on sitar". In Britain, EMI gradually distributed the album's songs to radio stations throughout July – a strategy that MacDonald describes as "building anticipation for what would clearly be a radical new phase in the group's recording career". "Revolver" was released there on 5 August and on 8 August in the United States. "Eleanor Rigby" was issued as a double A-side single with "Yellow Submarine". The pairing of a ballad devoid of any instrumentation played by a Beatle and a novelty song marked a significant departure from the usual content of the band's singles.  Schaffner likens the

Commercial performance.

In the UK, where "Eleanor Rigby" was the favoured side, the single became the best-selling song of 1966, after topping the national chart for four weeks during August and September. On "Record Retailer"s LPs chart (later the UK Albums Chart), "Revolver" entered at number 1 and stayed there for seven weeks during its 34-week run in the top 40. On the national chart compiled by "Melody Maker", the album was number 1 for nine weeks. Author Howard Sounes writes that, amid the fine summer weather and England's win in the World Cup, "Revolver" was "the soundtrack album of the season". By October, at least ten of the LP's songs had been covered by other artists and reviewed by "Melody Maker". Among these, Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers' version of "Got to Get You into My Life", which McCartney co-produced, was a top ten hit. McCartney's ballads "Here, There and Everywhere" and "For No One" became highly popular among mainstream recording artists. In the UK, "Revolver" was the second highest-selling album of 1966, behind "The Sound of Music".<ref name="Mawer/1966"></ref> In the "NME" readers' poll for 1966, "Revolver" and "Pet Sounds" were jointly recognised as the magazine's "Album of the Year". In America, Capitol were wary of the religious references in "Eleanor Rigby",

Critical reception.

Contemporary reviews.

Due to the controversies surrounding the Beatles during their tour, critical reaction in the United States was muted relative to the band's previous releases. According to Rodriguez, in its attempts to redefine the limits of pop music, "Revolver" emphasised the need for genuine rock criticism, a form of journalism that only became commonplace from 1967. "KRLA Beat" reviewer described "Revolver" as "a musical creation of exceptional excellence" while lamenting that, in the wake of the acclaimed "Rubber Soul", "it is receiving only a fraction of the attention and respect due". Writing in the recently launched "Crawdaddy!", Paul Williams gave the US LP a mixed review, in which he admired "Love You To" and "Eleanor Rigby" but

Retrospective assessments.

In the 2004 edition of "The Rolling Stone Album Guide", Rob Sheffield wrote that "Revolver" found the Beatles "at the peak of their powers, competing with one another because nobody else could touch them"; he described it as "the best album the Beatles ever made, which means the best album by anybody". Writing for "PopMatters" that year, David Medsker said that "Revolver" showed the four band members "peaking at the exact same time", and he deemed it to be "the best of the bunch, the letter that went unanswered"

Influence and legacy.

Development of popular music and 1960s counterculture.

MacDonald deems Lennon's remark about the Beatles' "god-like status" in March 1966 to have been "fairly realistic", given the reaction to "Revolver". He adds: "The album's aural invention was so masterful that it seemed to Western youth that The Beatles "knew" – that they had the key to current events and were somehow orchestrating them through their records." MacDonald highlights "the radically subversive" message of "Tomorrow Never Knows" – exhorting listeners to empty their minds of all ego- and material-related thought – as the inauguration of a "till-then élite-preserved concept of mind-expansion into pop, simultaneously drawing attention to consciousness-enhancing drugs and the ancient religious philosophies of the Orient". Author Shawn Levy writes that the

Ascendancy over "Sgt. Pepper".

Whereas "Sgt. Pepper" had long been identified as the Beatles' greatest album, since the 2000s "Revolver" has often surpassed it in lists of the group's best work. Sheffield cites the album's 1987 CD release, with the full complement of Lennon compositions, as marking the start of a process whereby "Revolver" "steadily climbed in public estimation" to become recognised as the Beatles' finest work. Everett also attributes the "problem" regarding the album's standing in the US to the "inferior track listing" available to Americans until the CD release. In Britain, its supremacy over "Sgt. Pepper" was one of the cultural revisions established by the Britpop

Appearances on best-album lists and further recognition.

"Revolver" has appeared high up in many lists of the best albums ever made, often in the top position. In 1997, it was named the third greatest album of all time in the BBC's "Music of the Millennium" poll. In 1998, it was ranked first in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums", directly ahead of "Sgt. Pepper" and "The Beatles", and it was first again in the 2000 edition of the book. Also in 2000, "Q" magazine placed it at number 1 in its list of the "50 Greatest British Albums Ever"; four years later, the album topped the same magazine's list "The Music That Changed the World". In 2001, it topped VH1's "100 Greatest Albums", compiled from a poll of more than 500 journalists, music executives and artists. In 2003, "Rolling Stone"

Track listing.

The following track listing is for the original release in all markets other than North America and was subsequently adopted as the standard version of the album for

Personnel.

According to Mark Lewisohn and Ian MacDonald, except where noted:  The Beatles  Additional musicians and production

Revolver is the seventh studio album by the English rock band the Beatles. It was released on 5 August 1966, accompanied by the double A-side single "Eleanor Rigby" / "Yellow Submarine". The album was the Beatles' final recording project before their retirement as live performers and marked the group's most overt use of studio technology to date, building on the advances of their late 1965 release "Rubber Soul". It has since become regarded as one of the greatest and most innovative albums in popular music, with recognition centred on its range of musical styles, diverse sounds, and lyrical content.

Revolver ist das siebte Studioalbum der britischen Gruppe The Beatles, das am 5. August 1966 in Großbritannien veröffentlicht wurde. In Deutschland erschien das Album bereits am 28. Juli 1966, hier war es einschließlich der Kompilationsalben deren elftes Album.


Examples.

Examples are the Domain Name System (DNS) which translates domain names to Internet protocol (IP) addresses and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to assign networking configuration information to network hosts. Authentication servers identify and authenticate users, provide user account profiles, and may log usage statistics.  E-mail, printing and distributed (network) file system services are common services on local area networks. They require users to have permissions to access the shared resources.  Other network services include:

Application layer.

In computer network programming, the application layer is an abstraction layer reserved for communications protocols and methods designed for process-to-process communications across an Internet Protocol (IP) computer network. Application layer protocols use the underlying transport layer protocols to establish host-to-host connections for network services.

TCP-IP network services.

Port numbers.

Many Internet Protocol-based services are associated with a particular well-known port number which is standardized by the Internet technical governance.  For example, World-Wide-Web servers operate on port 80, and email relay servers usually listen on port 25.

TCP versus UDP.

Different services use different packet transmission techniques.  In general, packets that must get through in the correct order, without loss, use TCP, whereas real time services where later packets are more important than older packets use UDP.  For example, file transfer requires complete accuracy and so is normally done using TCP, and audio conferencing is frequently done via UDP, where momentary glitches may not be noticed.  UDP lacks built-in network congestion avoidance and the protocols that use it must be extremely carefully designed to prevent network collapse.

In computer networking, a network service is an application running at the network application layer and above, that provides data storage, manipulation, presentation, communication or other capability which is often implemented using a client-server or peer-to-peer architecture based on application layer network protocols.

Ein Netzwerkdienst ist eine abstrahierte Funktion, die von einem Computernetzwerk den Anwendern bzw. teilnehmenden Geräten bereitgestellt wird. Der Fokus liegt dabei darauf, dass ein Dienst eine in sich geschlossene Funktionskomponente aus Anwendersicht darstellt, diese Funktion kann technisch über eines oder auch mehrere Netzwerkprotokolle der Anwendungsschicht realisiert werden. So ist beispielsweise das World Wide Web ein Dienst, den das Internet bereitstellt; dieser Dienst wird technisch über das Netzwerkprotokoll Hypertext Transfer Protocol realisiert.


Molecular structure.

As both are carotenoids, xanthophylls and carotenes are similar in structure, but xanthophylls contain oxygen atoms while carotenes are "purely hydrocarbons", which do not contain oxygen. Their content of oxygen causes xanthophylls to be more polar (in molecular structure) than carotenes, and causes their separation from carotenes in many types of chromatography. (Carotenes are usually more orange in color than xanthophylls.) Xanthophylls present their oxygen either as hydroxyl groups and/or as hydrogen atoms substituted by oxygen atoms when acting as a bridge to form epoxides.

Occurrence.

Like other carotenoids, xanthophylls are found in highest quantity in the leaves of most green plants, where they act to modulate light energy and perhaps serve as a non-photochemical quenching agent to deal with triplet chlorophyll (an excited form of chlorophyll), which is overproduced at high light levels in photosynthesis. The xanthophylls found in the bodies of animals including humans, and in dietary animal products, are ultimately derived from plant sources in the diet. For example, the yellow color of chicken egg yolks, fat, and skin comes from ingested xanthophylls—primarily lutein, which is added to chicken feed for this purpose.  The yellow color of the macula lutea (literally, "yellow spot") in the retina of the human eye results from the presence of lutein and zeaxanthin. Again, both these specific xanthophylls require a source in the human diet to be present in the human eye. They protect the eye from ionizing light (blue and ultraviolet light), which they absorb; but xanthophylls do not function in the mechanism of sight itself as they cannot be converted to retinal (also called retinaldehyde or vitamin A aldehyde). Their physical arrangement in the macula lutea is believed to be the cause of Haidinger's brush, an entoptic phenomenon that enables perception of polarizing light.

Example compounds.

The group of xanthophylls includes (among many other compounds) lutein, zeaxanthin, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, flavoxanthin, and α- and β-cryptoxanthin. The latter compound is the only known xanthophyll to contain a beta-ionone ring, and thus β-cryptoxanthin is the only xanthophyll that is known to possess pro-vitamin A activity for mammals. Even then, it is a vitamin only for plant-eating mammals that possess the enzyme to make retinal from carotenoids that contain beta-ionone (some carnivores lack this enzyme). In species other than mammals, certain xanthophylls may be converted to hydroxylated retinal-analogues that function directly in vision. For example, with the exception of certain flies, most insects use the xanthophyll derived R-isomer of 3-hydroxyretinal for visual activities, which means that β-cryptoxanthin and other xanthophylls (such as lutein and zeaxanthin) may function as forms of visual "vitamin A" for them, while carotenes (such as beta carotene) do not.

Xanthophyll cycle.

The xanthophyll cycle involves the enzymatic removal of epoxy groups from xanthophylls (e.g. violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, diadinoxanthin) to create so-called de-epoxidised xanthophylls (e.g. diatoxanthin, zeaxanthin). These enzymatic cycles were found to play a key role in stimulating energy dissipation within light-harvesting antenna proteins by non-photochemical quenching- a mechanism to reduce the amount of energy that reaches the photosynthetic reaction centers. Non-photochemical quenching is one of the main ways of protecting against photoinhibition. In higher plants, there are three carotenoid pigments that are active in the xanthophyll cycle: violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, and zeaxanthin. During light stress, violaxanthin is converted to zeaxanthin via the intermediate antheraxanthin, which plays a direct photoprotective role acting as a lipid-protective anti-oxidant and by stimulating non-photochemical quenching within light-harvesting proteins. This conversion of violaxanthin to zeaxanthin is done by the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase, while the reverse reaction is performed by zeaxanthin epoxidase.  In diatoms and dinoflagellates, the xanthophyll cycle consists of the pigment diadinoxanthin, which is transformed into diatoxanthin (diatoms) or dinoxanthin (dinoflagellates) under high-light conditions.  Wright et al. (Feb 2011) found that, "The increase in zeaxanthin appears to surpass the decrease in violaxanthin in spinach" and commented that the discrepancy could be explained by "a synthesis of zeaxanthin from beta-carotene", however they noted further study is required to explore this hypothesis.

Food sources.

Xanthophylls are found in all young leaves and in etiolated leaves. Examples of other rich sources include papaya, peaches, prunes, and squash, which contain lutein diesters. Kale contains about 18mg lutein and zeaxanthin per 100g, spinach about 11mg/100g, parsley about 6mg/100g, peas about 3mg/110g, squash about 2mg/100g, and pistachios about 1mg/100g.

Xanthophylls (originally phylloxanthins) are yellow pigments that occur widely in nature and form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group; the other division is formed by the carotenes. The name is from Greek (, "yellow") and (, "leaf"), due to their formation of the yellow band seen in early chromatography of leaf pigments.

Xanthophylle ( "xanthós" „gelb“, "phyllon" „Blatt“) sind neben den Carotinen die zweite wichtige Gruppe der Carotinoide. Ähnlich wie Carotine sind Xanthophylle meist Tetraterpene, doch tragen sie sauerstoffhaltige Gruppen in Form von Hydroxy- (-OH), Carbonyl- (-C=O) und Carboxygruppen (-COOH) sowie seltener Oxirangruppen.


Overview.

Prior to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the growth of the Four Asian Tiger economies (commonly referred to as "the Asian Miracle") has been attributed to export oriented policies and strong development policies. Unique to these economies were the sustained rapid growth and high levels of equal income distribution. A World Bank report suggests two development policies among others as sources for the Asian miracle: factor accumulation and macroeconomic management.  The Hong Kong economy underwent industrialization with the development of a textile industry in the 1950s. By the 1960s, manufacturing in the British colony had expanded and diversified to include clothing, electronics, and plastics for export orientation. Following Singapore's independence, the Economic Development Board formulated and implemented national economic strategies to promote the country's manufacturing sector. Industrial estates were set up and foreign investment was attracted to the country with tax incentives. Meanwhile, Taiwan and South Korea began to industrialize in the mid-1960s with heavy government involvement including initiatives and policies. Both countries pursued export-oriented industrialization as in Hong Kong and Singapore. The four countries were inspired by Japan's evident success, and they collectively pursued the same goal by investing in the same categories: infrastructure and education. They also benefited from foreign trade advantages that sets them apart from other countries, most significantly economic support from the United States; part of this is manifested in the proliferation of American electronic products in common households of the Four Tigers.  By the end of the 1960s, levels in physical and human capital in the four economies far exceeded other countries at similar levels of development. This subsequently led to a rapid growth in per capita income levels. While high investments were essential to their economic growth, the role of human capital was also important. Education in particular is cited as playing a major role in the Asian economic miracle. The levels of education enrollment in the Four Asian Tigers were higher than predicted given their level of income. By 1965, all four nations had achieved universal primary education. South Korea in particular had achieved a secondary education enrollment rate of 88% by 1987. There was also a notable decrease in the gap between male and female enrollments during the Asian miracle. Overall these advances in education allowed for high levels of literacy and cognitive skills. The creation of stable macroeconomic environments was the foundation upon which the Asian miracle was built. Each of the Four Asian Tiger states managed, to various degrees of success, three variables in: budget deficits, external debt and exchange rates. Each Tiger nation's budget deficits were kept within the limits of their financial limits, as to not destabilize the macro-economy. South Korea in particular had deficits lower than the OECD average in the 1980s. External debt was non-existent for Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, as they did not borrow from abroad. Although South Korea was the exception to this - its debt to GNP ratio was quite high during the period 1980-1985, it was sustained by the country’s high level of exports. Exchange rates in the Four Asian Tiger nations had been changed from long-term fixed rate regimes to fixed-but-adjustable rate regimes with the occasional steep devaluation of managed floating rate regimes. This active exchange rate management allowed the Four Tiger economies to avoid exchange rate appreciation and maintain a stable real exchange rate.  Export policies have been the de facto reason for the rise of these Four Asian Tiger economies. The approach taken has been different among the four nations. Hong Kong, and Singapore introduced trade regimes that were neoliberal in nature and encouraged free trade, while South Korea and Taiwan adopted mixed regimes that accommodated their own export industries. In Hong Kong and Singapore, due to small domestic markets, domestic prices were linked to international prices. South Korea and Taiwan introduced export incentives for the traded-goods sector. The governments of Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan also worked to promote specific exporting industries, which were termed as an export push strategy. All these policies helped these four nations to achieve a growth averaging 7.5% each year for three decades and as such they achieved developed country status.  Dani Rodrik, economist at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, has in a number of studies argued that state intervention was important in the East Asian growth miracle. He has argued "it is impossible to understand the East Asian growth miracle without appreciating the important role that government policy played in stimulating private investment".

1997 Asian financial crisis.

The Tiger economies experienced a setback in the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Hong Kong came under intense speculative attacks against its stock market and currency necessitating unprecedented market interventions by the state Hong Kong Monetary Authority. South Korea was hit the hardest as its foreign debt burdens swelled resulting in its currency falling between 35–50%. By the beginning of 1997, the stock market in Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea also saw losses of at least 60% in dollar terms. Singapore and Taiwan were relatively unscathed. The Four Asian Tigers recovered from the 1997 crisis faster than other countries due to various economic advantages including their high savings rate (except South Korea) and their openness to trade.

2008 financial crisis.

The export-oriented tiger economies, which benefited from American consumption, were hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08. By the fourth quarter of 2008, the GDP of all four nations fell by an average annualized rate of around 15%. Exports also fell by a 50% annualized rate. Weak domestic demand also affected the recovery of these economies. In 2008, retail sales fell 3% in Hong Kong, 6% in Singapore and 11% in Taiwan.  As the world recovered from the financial crisis, the Four Asian Tiger economies have also rebounded strongly. This is due in no small part to each country's government fiscal stimulus measures. These fiscal packages accounted for more than 4% of each country's GDP in 2009. Another reason for the strong bounce back is the modest corporate and household debt in these four nations.  A recent article published in "Applied Economics Letters" by financial economist Mete Feridun of University of Greenwich Business School and his international colleagues investigates the causal relationship between financial development and economic growth for Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, China, India and Singapore for the period between 1979 and 2009, using Johansen cointegration tests and vector error correction models. The results suggest that in the case of Indonesia, Singapore, the Philippines, China and India financial development leads to economic growth, whereas in the case of Thailand there exists a bidirectional causality between these variables. The results further suggest that in the case of Malaysia, financial development does not seem to cause economic growth.

Gross domestic product (GDP).

In 2018, the combined economy of the Four Asian Tigers constituted 3.46% of the world's economy with a total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 2,932 billion US dollars. The GDP in Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan was worth 363.03 billion, 361.1 billion, 1,619.42 billion and 589.39 billion US dollars respectively in 2018, which represented 0.428%, 0.426%, 1.911% and 0.696% of the world economy. Together, their combined economy surpassed the United Kingdom's GDP of 3.34% of the world's economy some time in the mid 2010s.

Education and technology.

These four countries had invested heavily in their infrastructure as well as in developing the intellectual abilities of their human talent, fostering and retaining their educated population to help further develop and improve their respective countries. This policy turned out to be so effective that by the late 20th century, all four countries had developed into advanced and high-income industrialized developed countries, developing many different areas of advanced technology that give them a tremendous competitive advantage in the world. For example, all four countries have become top level global education centers with Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong high school students consistently outperforming all other countries in the world and achieving the highest top scores on international math and science exams such as the PISA exam and with Singaporean and Taiwanese students winning multiple gold medals every year consistently at the International Biology Olympiad, International Linguistics Olympiad, International Physics Olympiad, International Earth Science Olympiad, International Mathematical Olympiad and International Chemistry Olympiad.  Additionally, these four countries are home to some of the most prestigious top ranking universities in the world such as National Taiwan University, Seoul National University, National University of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University and University of Hong Kong, Faculty of Dentistry, which as of 2017, was ranked as the number one top dental school in the world. While Taiwan and South Korea invested in technological innovation and development, Hong Kong and Singapore also pursued a path of finances and both became world-leading international financial centers. Inspired in part by Japan's technological and economic success, two of the earliest countries to pursue a similar path of cutting edge science and technology development were Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea, which have both become advanced innovative world leaders in state of the art technologies including medical science, computer technology, biotechnology, space technology (manned spacecraft & robots), military technology stealth technology, robotics and information technology manufacturing. Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea achieved this by promoting technological innovation, research and development, and export-oriented industrialization which turned an initially post-World War 2 poor agricultural economy into two thriving economic and technological superpowers on the same competitive level as Japan and the United States.

Cultural basis.

The role of Confucianism has been used to explain the success of the Four Asian Tigers. This conclusion is similar to the Protestant work ethic theory in the West promoted by German sociologist Max Weber in his book "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism". The culture of Confucianism is said to have been compatible with industrialization because it valued stability, hard work, discipline, and loyalty and respect towards authority figures. There is a significant influence of Confucianism on the corporate and political institutions of the Asian Tigers. Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew advocated Asian values as an alternative to the influence of Western culture in Asia. This theory was not without its critics. There was a lack of mainland Chinese economic success during the same time frame as the Four Tigers, and yet China was the birthplace of Confucianism. During the May Fourth Movement of 1919, Confucianism was blamed for China's inability to compete with Western powers.  In 1996, the economist Joseph Stiglitz pointed out that, ironically, "not that long ago, the Confucian heritage, with its emphasis on traditional values, was cited as an explanation for why these countries had not grown."

The Four Asian Tigers (also known as the Four Asian Dragons or Four Little Dragons in Chinese and Korean) refer to the economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. Between the early 1960s and 1990s, they underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates of more than 7 percent a year.

Tigerstaaten bezeichnet zusammenfassend Südkorea, Singapur, Taiwan und Hongkong. Diese vier südostasiatischen Volkswirtschaften werden in den chinesischsprachigen Wirtschaftsräumen wörtlich auch als die „Vier Kleinen Drachen Asiens“ () bezeichnet; auch im Koreanischen, Japanischen und Französischen hat sich diese Bezeichnung eingebürgert. Der in den 1980er-Jahren geprägte Begriff verweist darauf, dass diese Volkswirtschaften dank hohen Wirtschaftswachstums von Entwicklungsländern zu Industriestaaten aufstiegen. Die Bezeichnung ist in Anlehnung an die kraftvolle Energie eines Tigers, der zum Sprung ansetzt, entstanden, um auf die hohe Dynamik des Wirtschaftsaufschwungs hinzuweisen.


Content.

The print magazine features the following content:  The magazine also comes with a DVD, which features Demos, Mods, video-reviews as well as a full retail version of a videogame.

Versions.

"Gamestar" has been in published in various versions with different features. This includes the magazine version (which does not include any DVDs and is thus cheaper), a "normal" edition, which includes one DVD, and a XL Version, which contains 2 DVDs. The magazine for subscribers has less advertisement and shows a larger front-page picture. Until mid-2005 a CD-only version was also available, but it was decided that DVD-readers in Computers had become widespread enough, and so the CD-version was deemed unnecessary. Instead the XL version appeared for the first time.

History and Editorship.

"Gamestar" was founded by Charles Glimm, Jörg Langer und Toni Schwaiger with the IDG Entertainment Media GmbH as publisher in 1997, with Jörg Langer as editor-in-chief.  The new magazine soon gained a lot of popularity. By the fourth quarter of 1999 it sold about 333,000 issues per month, in 2000 it overtook competitor PC Games as the largest German language videogames magazine in Europe.  IDG also started "GameStar" sister magazines in Italy, Poland, Hungary and the United States. The US version was, quite differently from the rest, positioned as a magazine for adults, about PC and console games, similar to inCite. However they all folded after a few months due to disappointing sales. The only long term launch was achieved in Hungary. In 2005, "GameStar" spawned a sister magazine called "/GameStar/dev" which is targeted at European Game Developers. "GameStar" also has a sister magazine named "GamePro", which focuses on console games. Incidentally its headquarters are right next-door to the "GameStar" office.  In April 2015 "GameStar" and its sister magazine "GamePro" were sold by IDG to the French publisher Webedia.  Jörg Langer was succeeded by Gunnar Lott as editor-in-chief, followed by Michael Trier on 1 December 2007. As of June 2016, editor-in-Chief is Heiko Klinge.  "GameStar" also held a popular known E-Sports-League, the "GameStar Clanliga", featuring games such a "Warcraft III", "Counter-Strike" as well as "".

Sales and Popularity.

After it launched, "GameStar" was able to steadily gain in popularity. By the fourth quarter of 1999 it sold about 331.535 issues per month and in 2000 it overtook its competitor "PC Games" as the largest German language PC games magazine in Europe. Since then, "GameStar" kept the spot as the bests sold German language PC-gaming focused magazine in Europe.  Like the whole print market, "GameStar" was affected by diminishing sales. In 2008 the average monthly circulation was 250,000 copies, but by January 2015 sold issues per month have dropped to 63,189. Despite the drop, "GameStar" remains the highest selling German language PC-gaming focused magazine in Europe.

Gamestar.de and GSPB.

"GameStar" hosts a large PC gaming related portal in the internet. Like the magazine, the portal is centered on PC gaming and publishes news, reviews and tests for PC games and PC gaming related topics. "GameStar.de" is the largest PC gaming web portal in the German-speaking internet and one of the largest web portals in the entirety of the German-speaking internet. As of February 2016, "Gamestar.de" had 2.41 million unique visitors per month.  On YouTube, "GameStar" has its own channel with about 1.22 Mio subscribers (May 2020). During its history, "Gamestar" and IDG also hosted several spin-off YouTube channels, such as "High5", with temporary success. As off September 2015, those have been already closed.  "Gamestar.de" also hosts a large internet forum, the GSPB (GameStar Pinboard). The GSPB is one of largest internet forums in the German-speaking internet.

GameStar is a monthly released PC computer game magazine in Germany. "Gamestar" is the best sold German language magazine focused on PC gaming and it also hosts the largest videogaming related portal in the German-speaking internet.

Die GameStar (kurz GS) ist eine deutsche Computerspielezeitschrift mit Sitz in München. Sie wird vom Verlag Webedia Gaming GmbH herausgegeben, einer Tochter des französischen Webedia-Konzerns. Die Zeitschrift erscheint am vorletzten Mittwoch jedes Monats und umfasst pro Ausgabe, abhängig von der Anzahl aktuell erscheinender Spiele, etwa 132 Seiten. Ein Schwestermagazin der "GameStar" im Bereich der Konsolenspiele ist die GamePro. Die gleichnamige Website "gamestar.de" ist das wohl am meisten besuchteste Newsportal für PC-Spiele in Deutschland mit knapp 75.000 täglichen Besuchern. Gamestar betreibt ebenfalls den größten redaktionellen Gamingkanal Europas auf der Videoplattform Youtube.


Life.

Julia was probably born around 76 BC. Her mother died in 69 BC when Julia was only seven years old, after which she was raised by her paternal grandmother Aurelia Cotta. Her father engaged her to Quintus Servilius Caepio, who was the brother of Caesar's long-time mistress Servilia. The notion that it could have been Marcus Junius Brutus (Caesar's most famous assassin), who, after being adopted by his uncle, was known as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus for an unknown period of time, is just a conjecture. Caesar broke off this engagement and married her to Pompey in April 59 BC, with whom Caesar sought a strong political alliance in forming the First Triumvirate. This family-alliance of its two great chiefs was regarded as the firmest bond between Caesar and Pompey, and was accordingly viewed with much alarm by the "optimates" (the oligarchal party in Rome), especially by Marcus Tullius Cicero and Cato the Younger.  Pompey was supposedly infatuated with his bride. The personal charms of Julia were remarkable: she was a kind woman of beauty and virtue; and although policy prompted her union, and she was thirty years younger than her husband, she possessed in Pompey a devoted husband, to whom she was, in return, reportedly attached. A rumor suggested that the middle aged conqueror was losing interest in politics in favor of domestic life with his young wife. In fact, Pompey had been given the governorship of Hispania Ulterior, but had been permitted to remain in Rome to oversee the Roman grain supply as "curator annonae", exercising his command through subordinates.  Julia died before a breach between her husband and father had become inevitable. Plutarch reports that at the election of aediles in 55 BC, Pompey was surrounded by a tumultuous mob, and his gown was stained with blood of the rioters. A slave carried the stained toga to his house on the Carinae and was seen by Julia. Imagining that her husband was slain, she fell into premature labor, and her constitution received an irreparable shock. In August of the next year, 54 BC, she died in child birth, and her infant—a son, according to some writers, a daughter, according to others,—did not survive and died along with Julia. Caesar was in Britain, according to Seneca, when he received the news of Julia's death.  Pompey wished her ashes to repose in his favourite Alban villa, but the Roman people, who loved Julia, determined they should rest in the field of Mars ("Campus Martius"). For permission a special decree of the senate was necessary, and Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, one of the consuls of 54 BC, impelled by his hatred for Pompey and Caesar, procured an interdict from the tribunes. But the popular will prevailed, and, after listening to a funeral oration in the forum, the people placed her urn in the field of Mars. Ten years later the official pyre for Caesar's cremation would be erected near the tomb of his daughter, but the people intervened after the funeral oration by Marcus Antonius and cremated Caesar's body in the Forum.  After Julia’s death, Pompey and Caesar’s alliance began to fade, which resulted in Caesar's civil war. It was allegedly remarked, as a singular omen, that on the day Augustus entered Rome as Caesar's adoptive son (in May 44 BC), the monument of Julia was struck by lightning. Caesar himself vowed a ceremony to her manes, which he exhibited in 46 BC as extensive funeral games including gladiatorial combats. The date of the ceremony was chosen to coincide with the "ludi Veneris Genetricis" on September 26, the festival in honor of Venus Genetrix, the divine ancestress of the Julians.

Cultural depictions.

Literature.

The Italian Renaissance poet Carlo Marsuppini wrote a eulogy about Piccarda Bueri, in which he compared her to Julia. He names her as an example of great marital devotion.

Julia (c. 76 BC – 54 BC) was the daughter of Roman dictator Julius Caesar by his first or second wife Cornelia, and his only child from his marriages. Julia became the fourth wife of Pompey the Great and was renowned for her beauty and virtue.

Iulia (* zwischen 83 und 76 v. Chr.; † August oder September 54 v. Chr.) war die einzige Tochter Gaius Iulius Caesars und seiner ersten Frau Cornelia.


Site.

The Chrysler Building is located on the western side of Lexington Avenue between 42nd and 43rd streets. The land was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in 1902. The site is roughly a trapezoid with a frontage on Lexington Avenue; a frontage on 42nd Street; and a frontage on

History.

Context.

In the mid-1920s, New York's metropolitan area surpassed London's as the world's most populous metropolitan area and its population exceeded ten million by the early 1930s. The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes. Consumer goods such as radio, cinema, and the automobile became widespread. In 1927, Walter Chrysler's automotive company, the Chrysler Corporation, became the third-largest car manufacturer in the United States, behind Ford and General Motors. The following year, Chrysler was named "Time" magazine's "Person of the Year".  The economic boom of the 1920s and speculation in the real estate market fostered a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York City. The Chrysler Building

Planning.

Originally, the Chrysler Building was to be the Reynolds Building, a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds. Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park. When the amusement park was destroyed by fire in 1911, Reynolds turned his attention to Manhattan real estate, where he set out to build the tallest building in the world.  In 1921, Reynolds rented a large plot of land at the corner of Lexington Avenue and 42nd Street with the intention of building a tall building on the site. In 1927, after several years of

Design.

By February 2, 1928, the proposed building's height had been increased to 54 stories, which would have made it the tallest building in Midtown. The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building. A little more than a week after that, the plan was changed for the third time, with two additional stories added. By this time, 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue were both hubs for construction activity, due to the removal of the Third Avenue Elevated's 42nd Street spur, which was seen as a blight on the area. The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction. Because of the elevated spur's removal, real estate speculators believed that Lexington Avenue would become the "Broadway of the East Side", causing a ripple effect that would spur developments farther east.  In April 1928, Reynolds signed a 67-year lease

Construction and finalization of plans.

With the design complete, groundbreaking for the Reynolds Building took place on September 19, 1928, but Reynolds did not have the means to carry on construction. Reynolds sold the plot, lease, plans, and architect's services to Walter Chrysler for $2 million on October 15, 1928. That same day, the Goodwin Construction Company began demolition of what had been built. A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9. Chrysler's initial plans for the building were similar to Reynolds's, but with the 808-foot building having 68 floors instead of 67. The plans entailed a ground-floor pedestrian arcade, a facade of stone below the fifth floor, a brick-and-terracotta facade above, and a "three-story observation dome" with "bronze and glass" at the top. However, Chrysler wanted a more progressive design, and he worked with Van Alen to redesign the skyscraper to be tall. At the new height, Chrysler's building would be taller than the Woolworth Building, a building in lower Manhattan that was the world's tallest at the time. From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications

Completion.

In January 1930, it was announced that the Chrysler Corporation would maintain offices in the Chrysler Building during Automobile Show Week, and the first leases by outside tenants were announced in April 1930, before the building was officially completed. The building was formally opened on May 27, 1930, in a ceremony that coincided with the 42nd Street Property Owners and Merchants Association's meeting that year. In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read "in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement" was unveiled. Former Governor Smith, former Assemblyman Martin G. McCue, and 42nd Street Association president George W. Sweeney were among those in attendance. By June, it was reported that 65% of the available space had been leased. By August, the building was declared complete, but the New York City Department of Construction did

Later history.

The Chrysler family inherited the property after the death of Walter Chrysler in 1940, with the property being under the ownership of W.P. Chrysler Building Corporation. In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue. In 1949, this was revised to a 32-story annex costing $9 million. The annex building, designed by Reinhard, Hofmeister & Walquist, had a facade similar to that of the original Chrysler Building. The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated. Construction started on the annex in June 1950, and the first tenants started leasing in June 1951. The building itself was completed by 1952, and a sky bridge connecting the two buildings' seventh floors was built in 1959.  The family sold the building in 1953 to

Architecture.

The Chrysler Building is considered a leading example of Art Deco architecture. It is constructed of a steel frame in-filled with masonry, with areas of decorative metal cladding. The structure contains 3,862 exterior windows. Approximately fifty metal ornaments protrude at the building's corners on five floors reminiscent of gargoyles on Gothic cathedrals. The 31st-floor contains gargoyles and replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps, the 61st-floor eagles, a nod to America's national bird.  The Chrysler Building uses bright "Nirosta" stainless steel extensively in its design, an austenitic alloy developed in Germany by Krupp (a German acronym for "nichtrostender Stahl", meaning "non-rusting steel"). It was the first use of this "18-8 stainless steel" in an American project, composed of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Nirosta was used in the exterior ornaments, the window frames, the crown, and the needle. The steel was an integral part of Van Alen's design, as E.E. Thum explains: "The use of permanently bright metal was of greatest aid in the carrying of rising lines and the diminishing circular forms in the roof treatment, so as to accentuate the gradual upward swing until it literally dissolves into the sky..." Stainless steel producers used the Chrysler Building to evaluate the durability of the product in architecture. In 1929, the American Society for Testing Materials created an inspection committee to study its performance, which regarded the Chrysler Building as the best location to do so; a subcommittee examined the building's panels every five years until 1960, when the inspections were canceled because the panels had shown minimal deterioration.

Exterior.

Setbacks.

The Chrysler Building's height and legally mandated setbacks influenced Van Alen in his design. The walls of the lowermost sixteen floors rise directly from the sidewalk property lines, except for a recess on one side that gives the building a "U"-shaped floor plan above the fourth floor. There are setbacks on floors 16, 18, 23, 28, and 31, making the building compliant with the Zoning Law of 1916. This gives the building the appearance of a ziggurat on one side and a U-shaped palazzo on the other. Above the 31st floor, there

Designs between setbacks.

The ground floor exterior is covered in polished black granite from Shastone, while the three floors above it are done in white marble from Georgia. There are two main entrances, on Lexington Avenue and on 42nd Street, each three floors high with Shastone granite surrounding each proscenium-shaped entryway. At some distance into each main entryway, there are revolving doors located "beneath intricately patterned metal and glass screens", designed so as to embody the Art Deco tenet of amplifying the entrance's visual impact. A smaller side entrance on 43rd Street is only one story high. There are storefronts consisting of large Nirosta-steel-framed windows at ground level, with office windows on the second through fourth floors.  The west and east elevations of the building contain the air shafts above the fourth floor, while the north and south sides contain the receding setbacks. Below the 16th floor, the facade is clad with white brick interrupted by white-marble bands in a manner similar to a basket weaving. The windows, arranged in grids, do not have window sills, the frames being

Interior.

The interior of the building contains several innovative elements. The partitions between the offices are soundproofed and divided into interchangeable sections, so that the layout of any could be changed quickly and comfortably. Pipes under the floors carry both telephone and electricity cables.

Lobby.

The triangular-shaped lobby is regarded as a paragon of the Art Deco style, with clear influences of German Expressionism. Chrysler wanted the design to impress other architects and automobile magnates, so he imported various materials without giving consideration to the extra costs incurred. He covered the walls with huge slabs of African red granite. On the floor, he marked a path from the entrances to the elevators using travertine from Siena. Originally, Van Alen's plans for the lobby included four large supporting columns, but they were removed after Chrysler objected on the grounds that the columns made the lobby appear "cramped".  The lobby has dim lighting that gives it a somewhat subdued quality, although the appliqués of the lamps are striking and iconic. Both combine to create an intimate atmosphere and act to highlight the place. Vertical bars of fluorescent light are covered with Belgian blue marble and Mexican amber onyx, which soften and diffuse the light, to both illuminate and blend with the

Elevators.

There are 32 elevators in the skyscraper, clustered into groups of six or eight. At the time of opening, 28 of these elevators were for passenger use. Each bank serves different floors within the building, with several "express" elevators going from the lobby to a few landings in between, while "local" elevators connect the landings with the floors above these intermediate landings. As per Walter Chrysler's wishes, the elevators were designed to run at a rate of, despite the speed restriction enforced in all city elevators at the time. This restriction was loosened soon after the Empire State Building opened in 1931, as that building had also been equipped with high-speed elevators. The Chrysler Building also had three of the longest elevator shafts in the world at the time of completion.  Over the course of a year, Van Alen painstakingly designed these elevators with the assistance of L.T.M. Ralston, who was in charge of developing the elevator cabs' mechanical parts. The cabs were manufactured by the Otis Elevator Company, while the doors were made by the Tyler Company. The dimensions of each elevator were deep by wide. The doors are made of metal and covered with eight types of exotic woods. When the

Basement.

On the 42nd Street side of the Chrysler Building, a staircase from the street leads directly under the building to the New York City Subway's at Grand Central–42nd Street station. It is part of the structure's original design. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time was the operator of all the routes serving the 42nd Street station, originally

Above the 60th floor.

Cloud Club.

The private Cloud Club formerly occupied the 66th through 68th floors. It opened in July 1930 with some three hundred members, all wealthy males who formed the city's elite. Its creation was spurred by Texaco's wish for a proper restaurant for its executives prior to renting fourteen floors in the building. The Cloud Club was a compromise between William van Alen's modern style and Walter Chrysler's stately and traditional tastes. A member had to be elected, and if accepted, paid an initial fee of $200, plus a $150 to $300 annual fee.  There was a Tudor-style foyer on the 66th floor with oak paneling, and an old English-style grill room with wooden floors, wooden beams, wrought-iron chandeliers, and glass and lead doors. The main dining room, located on the 67th floor, was connected to the 66th

Private offices.

Originally, Walter Chrysler had a two-story apartment on the 69th and 70th floors with a fireplace and a private office. The office also contained a gymnasium and the loftiest bathrooms in the city. Chrysler also had a unit on the 58th through 60th floors, which served

Observation deck.

From the building's opening until 1945, it contained a observation deck on the 71st floor, called "Celestial". For fifty cents visitors could transit its circumference through a corridor with vaulted ceilings painted with celestial motifs and bedecked with small hanging glass planets. The center of the observatory contained the toolbox that Walter P. Chrysler used at the beginning of his career as a mechanic; it was later preserved at the Chrysler Technology Center in Auburn Hills, Michigan. An image of the

Crown.

The Chrysler Building is renowned for, and recognized by, its terraced crown, which is an extension of the main tower. Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault of seven concentric members with transitioning setbacks, mounted one behind another. The entire crown is clad with Nirosta steel, ribbed and riveted in a radiating sunburst pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow setbacks of the

Spire.

Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire and do not contain office space. They are very narrow, have low and sloping roofs, and are only used to house radio transmitters and other mechanical and electrical equipment. For example, the 73rd floor houses the motors of the elevators and a water tank, of which are reserved for extinguishing fires.  Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originated its transmission from the top of the Chrysler Building in 1938. WCBS-TV transmissions were shifted to the Empire State Building in 1960 in response to

Chrysler Center.

Chrysler Center is the name of the building complex consisting of the Chrysler Building, Chrysler Building East, and the commercial pavilion located between the two, called Chrysler Trylons. In 1998, Tishman Speyer acquired the entire complex and proceeded to renovate it completely over the next two years.  The Chrysler Building annex at 666 Third Avenue, also known as the Kent Building at the time, was renovated and renamed Chrysler Building East. This International Style building, built in 1952, is high and has 32 floors. The mechanical systems were modernized and the interior was modified. Renowned architect Philip Johnson replaced the glass facade with darker glass and added a extension.

Representation and influence.

Critical reception.

George H. Douglas writes that the building "remains one of the most appealing and awe-inspiring of skyscrapers". Architect Le Corbusier called the building "hot jazz in stone and steel". Ada Louise Huxtable, an architectural critic, noted that the building had "a wonderful, decorative, evocative aesthetic", while another architectural critic, Paul Goldberger, noted the "compressed,

As icon.

The Chrysler Building appears in several films set in New York and is widely considered one of the most positively acclaimed buildings in the city. A 1996 survey of New York architects revealed it as their favorite, and the "New York Times" described it in 2005 as "the single most important emblem of architectural imagery on the New York skyline". In the summer of 2005, the Skyscraper Museum in Lower Manhattan asked 100 architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 of

In popular culture.

While seen in many films, the Chrysler Building almost never appears as a main setting in them, prompting architect and author James Sanders to quip it should win "the Award for Best Supporting Skyscraper". The building was supposed to be featured in the 1933 film "King Kong", but only makes a cameo at the end thanks to its producers opting for the Empire State Building in a central role. The Chrysler Building notably appears in the background of "The Wiz" (1978); as the setting of much of "Q - The Winged Serpent" (1982); in the initial credits of "The Shadow of the Witness" (1987); and during or after apocalyptic events in "Independence Day" (1996), "Armageddon" (1998), "Deep Impact" (1998), "Godzilla" (1998), and "A.I. Artificial Intelligence" (2001). The building also appears in other films, such as "Spider-Man" (2002), "" (2007), "Two Weeks Notice" (2002), "The Sorcerer's Apprentice"

Tenants.

The Chrysler Corporation moved into the building as an anchor tenant in 1930, using its space as its divisional headquarters until the 1950s. Time, Inc. and Texaco oil were also original tenants. Needing more office space, Time moved to Rockefeller Center in 1937. Texaco relocated to Purchase, New York in 1977 in favor of a more suburban workplace.  Notable modern tenants include:

The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco–style skyscraper located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood on the East Side of Manhattan, New York City, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue near Midtown Manhattan. At, the structure was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. It is the tallest brick building in the world with a steel framework., the Chrysler is the 11th-tallest building in the city, tied with The New York Times Building.

Das Chrysler Building ist ein Wolkenkratzer in New York City und zählt zu den Wahrzeichen der Metropole. Es befindet sich in der "405 Lexington Avenue", Ecke 42. Straße in Midtown Manhattan auf einem Grundstück der privaten Hochschule Cooper Union.