Education.

Born in 1955, he received his PhD from the University of Frankfurt in 1987. From 1997 to 2001, he was joint chair of international relations at the European University Institute's Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies and the Department of Social and Political Sciences in Florence, Italy.

Work.

Risse is usually identified as a constructivist scholar of international relations. In contrast to American constructivists, his work borrows heavily from German social theory and philosophy, and in particular the work of Jürgen Habermas. His work suggests that communicative action can reshape actors' understanding of their interests with important consequences for world politics.  During the 1980s the main focus of his work laid on security policy, his dissertation “"Die Krise der Sicherheitspolitik"” (The Crisis of Security Policy) dealt with foreign and security policy decision making processes in West-Germany. In his thesis he observes the development of a Peace movement (opposed to the installation of medium-range rocket on German soil) and theorised their influence on West-German foreign policy. The contribution of his work is crucial to IR theory because it opposes the logic of equality between force and deterrence.  With the end of the Cold War, the focus of his work shifted to transnational relations and human rights. One of his works out of this period is the edited volume “Bringing Transnational Relations Back In”. Here he argues that regular interactions between non-state actors, that do not act on behalf of national governments, but try to influence the policies of a state, got out of focus. These organisations could be various NGOs for example, the Socialist International, Amnesty International or religious groups among others. In this volume an outlook on methodology and theory of transnational relations and their impact on domestic policy is developed. Another work of reference of this period is “Die Macht der Menschenrechte” (The Power of Human Rights). Based on liberal theory and democratic peace, Risse looks at international norms, speech acts and political change in the South. Whereby the main focus is laid on the realisation of human rights. His core theory is that the key for respect of human rights is the influence on transnational and domestic civil society on state structures. "Inter alia" he shows that economic development and democratisation do not forcibly go hand in hand.  Post 9/11 his focus changed again towards research on failed states and governance. In his latest publication he focussed on aspects of governance in areas of limited statehood – distinct from failed states.

Personal Life.

Thomas Risse is married to Tanja Börzel.

Thomas Risse (formerly Risse-Kappen) is a Berlin-based international relations scholar. He currently acts as chair for “transnational relations, foreign- and security policy” at the Otto-Suhr Institute for Political Science at Freie Universität Berlin. Furthermore, he has several engagements in German and international research networks, he also heads the PhD program of the Hertie School of Governance in Berlin.

Thomas Risse (vormals Risse-Kappen) (* 17. Dezember 1955 in Mettmann) ist ein deutscher Politikwissenschaftler mit dem Schwerpunkt Internationale Beziehungen und Professor für Theorie und Empirie der internationalen Politik am Otto-Suhr-Institut der Freien Universität Berlin.


Overview.

An architecture framework is a set of tools which can be used for developing a broad range of different architectures. It should:  The ANSI/IEEE Standard 1471-2000 specification of architecture (of software-intensive systems) may be stated as: "the fundamental organization of a system, embodied in its components, their relationships to each other and the environment, and the principles governing its design and evolution."  However TOGAF has its own view, which may be specified as either a "formal description of a system, or a detailed plan of the system at component level to guide its implementation", or as "the structure of components, their interrelationships, and the principles and guidelines governing their design and evolution over time."  The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is the core of TOGAF which describes a method for developing and managing the lifecycle of enterprise architecture.

History.

TOGAF was initiated in the early 1990s as methodology for the development of technical architecture, and has been developed by The Open Group into an extensive enterprise architecture framework. In 1995, the first version of TOGAF (TOGAF 1.0) was presented. This version was mainly based on the Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management (TAFIM), developed started in the late 1980s by the US Department of Defense.  In December 2001 TOGAF 7, the "Technical Edition", was published. TOGAF 8 ("Enterprise Edition") was first published in December 2002 and republished in updated form as TOGAF 8.1 in December 2003. Around 2005 TOGAF became a registered trademark of The Open Group. In November 2006 the Open Group released TOGAF 8.1.1. According to The Open Group, as of February 2011, over 15,000 individuals are TOGAF Certified. As of April 2018 the official register has over 77,500 certifications.  An evolutionary development from TOGAF 8, TOGAF 9 includes many new features such as:  Additional guidelines and techniques include:  The latest version is TOGAF 9.2, launched on 16 April 2018.  The Open Group provides TOGAF free of charge to organizations for their own internal noncommercial purposes.

TOGAF pillars.

Enterprise architecture domains.

TOGAF is based on four interrelated areas of specialization called architecture domains:

Architecture Development Method.

The Architecture Development Method (ADM) is applied to develop an enterprise architecture which will meet the business and information technology needs of an organization. It may be tailored to the organization's needs and is then employed to manage the execution of architecture planning activities.  The process is iterative and cyclic. Each step checks with Requirements. Phase C involves some combination of both Data Architecture and Applications Architecture. Additional clarity can be added between steps B and C in order to provide a complete information architecture.  Performance engineering working practices are applied to the Requirements phase, and to the Business Architecture, Information System Architecture, and Technology architecture phases. Within Information System Architecture, it is applied to both the Data Architecture and Application Architecture.

Enterprise Continuum.

The Enterprise Continuum is a way of classifying solutions and architectures on a continuum that range from generic foundation architectures through to tailored organization-specific both within and outside the Architecture Repository. These include architectural models, architectural patterns, architecture descriptions, and other artifacts. These artifacts may exist within the enterprise and also in the IT industry at large.  The Enterprise Continuum consists of both the Architecture Continuum and the Solutions Continuum. The Architecture Continuum specifies the structuring of reusable architecture assets and includes rules, representations, and relationships of the information systems available to the enterprise. The Solutions Continuum describes the implementation of the Architecture Continuum by defining reusable solutions.

TOGAF culture.

TOGAF certified tools.

The Open Group has a certification program for TOGAF 9 tools. For the latest register of certified tools refer The Open Group register.

Qualifications.

The Open Group oversees formal qualifications in TOGAF at two levels, which can be taken following formal training or self-study. Learners can undertake these qualifications through training companies.

Foundation.

(Level I) Ensures that an individual understands Enterprise Architecture along with core concepts and terminology of TOGAF.

Certified.

(Level II) Further to the Foundation qualification, this establishes that the candidate is able to analyse and apply their knowledge to business problems.  Gaining TOGAF Certified status automatically confers free membership of the Association of Enterprise Architects.

Criticism.

Despite TOGAF being considered as the de facto standard in an EA practice, it is not without its critics:

The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) is a framework for enterprise architecture that provides an approach for designing, planning, implementing, and governing an enterprise information technology architecture. TOGAF is a high-level approach to design. It is typically modeled at four levels: Business, Application, Data, and Technology. It relies heavily on modularization, standardization, and already existing, proven technologies and products.

Das The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) bietet einen Ansatz für Entwurf, Planung, Implementierung und Wartung von Unternehmensarchitekturen. Als operationelles Framework der Gruppe Government and Agency Frameworks bietet das TOGAF mit der Architecture Development Method (ADM) ein Vorgehensmodell zur Entwicklung von technischen Architekturen.


History.

Origin.

"Itsukushima jinja" was the chief Shinto shrine ("ichinomiya") of Aki Province.  It is said to have been erected in 593 supposedly by Saeki Kuramoto during the Suiko period. However, the present shrine has been popularly attributed to Taira no Kiyomori, a prominent warlord (daimyo) who contributed heavily to the building of the shrine during his time as governor of Aki Province in 1168. Another renowned patron of the shrine was the warlord Mori Motonari, lord of Choshu, who was responsible for rebuilding the honden in 1571. It is important to note, however, that as a result of waging war against Sue Takafusa there in 1555, Motonari is said to have tainted the island's grounds by battling on the island This relates to the strict notions of sacred purity that Shinto shrines stand for. Unfortunately, the only surviving structure in Itsukushima shrine from the Kamakura period is the Kyakuden or "Guest-God's Shrine".

Kiyomori.

It was not uncommon during the 16th century for daimyo to build shrines or take on other architectural projects in order to "reflect their power and splendor." The Taira are known specifically, for their involvement in maritime trade with the Sung dynasty, and attempting to monopolize overseas trade along the Inland Sea.  Kiyomori was at the height of his power when he established the Taira dominion over the island. He "ordered construction of the main hall of Itsukushima Shrine as a display of reverence for the tutelary god of navigation and to serve as a base for maritime activities..." Miyajima soon became the Taira family shrine. Supposedly, Kiyomori chose the location also for the reason to further establish himself in the Heian aristocracy as one who deviated from the social norms of Shinto pilgrimage. He lavished great wealth upon Itsukushima, and he enjoyed showing the place to his friends and colleagues, or even to royal personages..."  It is also said that Kiyomori rebuilt the shrine on account of a dream he had of an old monk who promised him dominion over Japan if he constructed a shrine on the island of Miyajima, and pay homage to its kami who are enshrined there for his success in life. The renovations funded by the Taira allowed for Itsukushima to "grow into an important religious complex."

Religious significance.

The Itsukushima shrine is dedicated to the three daughters of Susano-o no Mikoto: Ichikishimahime no mikoto, Tagorihime no mikoto, and Tagitsuhime no mikoto. Otherwise known as the "sanjoshin" or "three female deities", these Shinto deities are the goddesses of seas and storms. Kiyomori believed the goddesses to be "manifestations of Kannon," therefore the island was understood as the home of the bodhisattva. In Japanese, Itsukushima translates to mean " island dedicated to the gods" In fact, the island itself is also considered to be a god, which is why the shrine was built on the outskirts of the island. Adding to its sanctity, Mount Misen is "its tallest peak" ranging about "1,755 feet high." Tourists can either hike or take a ropeway to the top.  Its treasures include the celebrated Heike Nōkyō, or 'Sutras dedicated by the Taira House of Taira'. These consist of thirty-two scrolls, on which the Lotus, Amida, and Heart sutras have been copied by Kiyomori, his sons, and other members of the family, each completing the writing of one scroll, and " decorated with silver, gold, and mother-of-pearl by himself [Kiyomori] and other members of his clan."  Originally Itsukushima was a pure Shinto shrine "where no births or deaths were allowed to cause pollution. Because the island itself has been considered sacred, commoners were not allowed to set foot on it throughout much of its history to maintain its purity. Retaining the purity of the shrine is so important that since 1878, no deaths or births have been permitted near it. To this day, pregnant women are supposed to retreat to the mainland as the day of delivery approaches, as are the terminally ill or the very elderly whose passing has become imminent. Burials on the island are forbidden.To allow pilgrims to approach, the shrine was built like a pier over the water, so that it appeared to float, separate from the land. The red entrance gate, or "torii", was built over the water for much the same reason. Commoners had to steer their boats through the "torii" before approaching the shrine.

Architecture.

Japan has gone to great lengths to preserve the twelfth-century-style architecture of the Shrine throughout history. The shrine was designed and built according to the "Shinden-zukuri" style, equipped with pier-like structures over the Matsushima bay in order to create the illusion of floating on the water, separate from island, which could be approached by the devout "like a palace on the sea." This idea of intertwining architecture and nature is reflective of a popular trend during the 16th century as well as the Heian period in which Japanese structures tended to "follow after their environment," often allowing trees, water, and other forms of natural beauty to enter into the decor of homes and buildings. This led to a far more intimate relationship between the two.  The most recognizable and celebrated feature of the Itsukushima shrine, is its fifty-foot tall vermilion otorii gate ("great gate"), built of decay-resistant camphor wood,. The placement of an additional leg in front of and behind each main pillar identifies the "torii" as reflecting the style of "Ryōbu Shintō" (dual Shinto), a medieval school of esoteric Japanese Buddhism associated with the Shingon Sect. The "torii" appears to be floating only at high tide. When the tide is low, it is only approachable by foot from the island. Gathering shellfish near the gate is also popular at low tide. At night, powerful lights on the shore illuminate the "torii".Although the gate has been in place since 1168, the current gate dates back only to 1875.  Shinto architecture has many distinct parts, most of which include the shrine's "honden" (main hall) and the unusually long "haiden" (main oratory), and its equally long "heiden" (offertory hall). The "honden" "is an eight-by-four bay structure with a kirizuma roof surfaced in cypress bark." Its walls are decorated in white stucco; they were constructed using a process requiring fifteen coats of white stucco, with vermilion woodwork.  Extending from the sides of the "haraiden" of the main shrine is a "noh" stage which dates from 1590. "Noh" theater performances have long been used to pay homage to the gods through the ritual acting out of key events in Shinto myth.  On September 5, 2004, the shrine was severely damaged by Typhoon Songda. The boardwalks and roof were partially destroyed, and the shrine was temporarily closed for repairs. Today anyone can go visit the shrine for only 300 yen.

The Itsukushima shrine is one of Japan's most popular tourist attractions. It is most famous for its dramatic gate, or "torii" on the outskirts of the shrine, the sacred peaks of Mount Misen, extensive forests, and its aesthetic ocean view. The shrine complex itself consists of two main buildings: the Honsha shrine and the Sessha Marodo-jinja, as well as 17 other different buildings and structures that help to distinguish it. The complex is also listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and six of its buildings and possessions have been designated by the Japanese government as National Treasures.

Der Itsukushima-Schrein (jap., eigentlich:, "Itsukushima-jinja") ist ein Shintō-Schrein auf der Insel Miyajima in Hatsukaichi in der Präfektur Hiroshima in Japan.


History.

Xubuntu was originally intended to be released at the same time as Ubuntu 5.10 "Breezy Badger", 13 October 2005, but the work was not complete by that date. Instead the Xubuntu name was used for the "xubuntu-desktop" metapackage available through the Synaptic Package Manager which installed the Xfce desktop.  The first official Xubuntu release, led by Jani Monoses, appeared on 1 June 2006, as part of the Ubuntu 6.06 "Dapper Drake" line, which also included Kubuntu and Edubuntu.  Cody A.W. Somerville developed a comprehensive strategy for the Xubuntu project named the "Xubuntu Strategy Document". This document was approved by the Ubuntu Community Council in 2008.  In February 2009 Mark Shuttleworth agreed that an official LXDE version of Ubuntu, Lubuntu, would be developed. The LXDE desktop uses the Openbox window manager and, like Xubuntu, is intended to be a low-system-requirement, low-RAM environment for netbooks, mobile devices and older PCs and will compete with Xubuntu in that niche.  In November 2009, Cody A.W. Somerville stepped down as the project leader and made a call for nominations to help find a successor. Lionel Le Folgoc was confirmed by the Xubuntu community as the new project leader on 10 January 2010 and requested the formation of an official Xubuntu council., discussions regarding the future of Xubuntu's governance and the role a council might play in it were still ongoing.  In March 2012 Charlie Kravetz, a former Xubuntu project leader, formally resigned from the project. Despite this, the project members indicated that Xubuntu 12.04 would go ahead as scheduled.  In the beginning of 2016, the Xubuntu team began the process to transition the project to become council run rather than having a single project leader. On January 1, 2017, an official post on the Xubuntu site's blog announced the official formation of the Xubuntu Council. The purpose of the council is not just to make decisions about the future of the project, but to make sure the direction of the project adheres to guidelines established in the Strategy Document.

Performance.

The Xfce desktop environment is intended to use fewer system resources than the default Ubuntu GNOME desktop. In September 2010 the Xubuntu developers claimed that the minimum RAM Xubuntu could be run on was 128 MB, with 256 MB of RAM strongly recommended at that time.  Testing conducted by Martyn Honeyford at IBM in January 2007 on Xubuntu 6.10 concluded that it "uses approximately 25 MB less application memory, and also eats significantly less into buffers and cache (which may imply that

Releases.

Xubuntu 6.06 LTS.

The first official stand-alone release of Xubuntu was version 6.06 Long Term Support (LTS), which was made available on 1 June 2006.  It was introduced with the statement: The version used Linux kernel 2.6.15.7 and Xfce 4.4 beta 1. Applications included the Thunar file manager, GDM desktop manager, Abiword word processor and Gnumeric spread sheet, Evince PDF document viewer, Xarchiver archive manager, Xfburn CD burner, Firefox 1.5.0.3 web browser, Thunderbird 1.5.0.2 email client and the GDebi package manager.  Caitlyn Martin reviewed Xubuntu 6.06 in June 2006. She singled out its "bare bones approach" to

Xubuntu 6.10.

Xubuntu 6.10 was released on 26 October 2006. This version used Xfce 4.4 beta 2 and included Upstart, the Firefox 2.0 web browser, the Gaim 2.0.0 beta 3.1 instant messaging client along with new versions of AbiWord and Gnumeric. The media player was gxine which replaced Xfmedia. The previous "xffm4" file manager was replaced by Thunar. It introduced redesigned artwork for the bootup splash screen, the login window

Xubuntu 7.04.

Xubuntu 7.04 was released on 19 April 2007. This release was based on Xfce 4.4.  Michael Larabel of Phoronix carried out detailed benchmark testing of betas for Ubuntu 7.04, Kubuntu 7.04 and Xubuntu 7.04 in February 2007 on two different computers, one with dual Intel Clovertown processors and the other with an AMD Sempron. After a series of gzip compression, LAME compilation, and LAME encoding tasks he concluded, "in these tests with the dual Clovertown setup we found the results to be indistinguishable. However,

Xubuntu 7.10.

Xubuntu 7.10 was released on 18 October 2007. It was based upon Xfce, 4.4.1 and added updated translations along with a new theme, MurrinaStormCloud, using the Murrine Engine.  Application updates included Pidgin 2.2.0, (Gaim was renamed Pidgin) and GIMP 2.4. This Xubuntu version allowed the installation of Firefox extensions and plug-ins through the "Add/Remove Software" interface.  The developers claimed that this version of Xubuntu could run

Xubuntu 8.04 LTS.

Xubuntu 8.04 Long Term Support (LTS) was made available on 24 April 2008. This version of Xubuntu used Xfce 4.4.2, Xorg 7.3 and Linux kernel 2.6.24. It introduced PolicyKit for permissions control, PulseAudio and a new printing manager. It also introduced Wubi, that allowed Windows users to install Xubuntu as a program on Windows.  Applications included were Firefox 3 Beta 5, Brasero CD/DVD

Xubuntu 8.10.

Xubuntu 8.10 was released on 30 October 2008. This version of Xubuntu brought a new version of Abiword, version 2.6.4, the "Listen Multimedia Player" and introduced the "Catfish" desktop search application. It used Linux kernel 2.6.27, X.Org 7.4. There was an installation option of an encrypted private directory using ecryptfs-utils. The Totem media player was included.  Darren Yates, an Australian IT journalist, was very positive about Xubuntu 8.10, particularly

Xubuntu 9.04.

Version 9.04 was released on 23 April 2009. The development team advertised this release as giving improved boot-up times, "benefiting from the Ubuntu core developer team's improvements to boot-time code, the Xubuntu 9.04 desktop boots more quickly than ever. This means you can spend less time waiting, and more time being productive with your Xubuntu desktop."  Xubuntu 9.04 used Xfce 4.6, which included a new Xfce Settings Manager dialog, the new Xconf configuration system, an improved desktop menu and clock, new notifications, and remote file system application Gigolo.  This release also brought all new artwork and incorporated the Murrina Storm Cloud GTK+ theme and a new XFWM4 window manager theme. 9.04 also introduced new versions of many applications, including the AbiWord word processor, Brasero

Xubuntu 9.10.

29 October 2009 saw the release of Xubuntu 9.10, which utilized Xfce 4.6.1, Linux kernel 2.6.31 and by default the ext4 file system and GRUB 2. This release included the Exaile 0.3.0 music player, the Xfce4 power manager replaced the Gnome Power Manager and improved desktop notifications using "notify-osd". Upstart boot-up speed was improved.  The release promised "faster application load times and reduced memory footprint for a number of your favorite Xfce4 applications thanks to improvements in library linking provided by ld's --as-needed flag."  Dedoimedo gave Xubuntu a negative review, saying "When it comes to usability, Xubuntu has

Xubuntu 10.04 LTS.

Xubuntu 10.04 Long Term Support (LTS) was released on 29 April 2010. It moved to PulseAudio and replaced the Xsane scanner utilities with Simple Scan. It also incorporated the Ubuntu Software Center, which had been introduced in Ubuntu 9.10, to replace the old "Add/Remove Software" utility. The included spreadsheet application, Gnumeric was updated to version 1.10.1 and new games were introduced. Due to incompatibilities in the gnome-screensaver screensaver application it was replaced by xscreensaver. The default theme was an updated version of "Albatross", designed by the Shimmer Team.  This version of Xubuntu officially required a 700 MHz x86 processor, 128 MB of RAM, with 256 MB RAM "strongly recommended"

Xubuntu 10.10.

Xubuntu 10.10 was released on 10 October 2010. It included Parole, the Xfce4 media player, XFBurn CD/DVD writer in place of Brasero and Xfce4-taskmanager replaced Gnome-Task-Manager. These changes were all to lighten the release's memory footprint. AbiWord was updated to version 2.8.6 and Gnumeric to 1.10.8. This release also introduced the "Bluebird" theme, from the Shimmer Team.  This version of Xubuntu required 192 MB of RAM to run the standard live CD or to install it. The alternate installation CD required 64 MB of RAM to install Xubuntu. Either CD required 2.0 GB of free hard disk space. Once installed, Xubuntu

Xubuntu 11.04.

Xubuntu 11.04 was released on 28 April 2011. This version was based upon Xfce 4.8 and introduced editable menus using any menu editor that meets the freedesktop.org standards. This version also introduced a new Elementary Xubuntu icon theme, the Droid font by default and an updated installation slide show.  While Ubuntu 11.04 introduced the new default Unity interface, Xubuntu did not adopt Unity and instead retained its existing Xfce interface. Although the developers have decided to retain a minimalist interface, Xubuntu 11.04 has a new dock-like application launcher to achieve a more modern look.  Xubuntu 11.04 could be installed with one of 2 CDs. The Xubuntu 11.04 standard CD requires 4.4 GB of hard disk space and 256 MB of RAM to install, while the alternate CD, which uses a text-based installer, requires 64 MB of RAM and 2 GB of disk space for installation and provides additional options. Once installed, Xubuntu 11.04 can run with 256 MB of RAM, but 512 MB is "strongly recommended".  In reviewing Xubuntu

Xubuntu 11.10.

Xubuntu 11.10 was released on 13 October 2011, the same day that Ubuntu 11.10 was released.  In this release gThumb became the new image viewer/organizer, Leafpad replaced Mousepad as the default text editor and LightDM was introduced as the log-in manager. The release also incorporated pastebinit for cut and paste actions.  In reviewing Xubuntu 11.10 on the Acer eM350 netbook, Michael Reed of Linux Journal noted the extensive hardware support out of the box, attractive theme and good performance on 1 GB of RAM. He did remark on the inferior Adobe Flash performance compared to the Windows version of Flash, particularly in full

Xubuntu 12.04 LTS.

Xubuntu 12.04 was released on 26 April 2012. It was a "Long Term Support" release and was supported for three years, until April 2016. This contrasts with Edubuntu, Kubuntu and Ubuntu 12.04 which, while also LTS releases, were all supported for five years.  Xubuntu 12.04 incorporated many changes including some default shortcuts which were altered and new ones added, plus there were many appearance changes, including a new logo and wallpaper.

Xubuntu 12.10.

Xubuntu 12.10 was released on 18 October 2012. This release introduced the use of Xfce 4.10, as well as new versions of Catfish, Parole, LightDM, Greybird and the Ubiquity slideshow. The application menu was slightly reorganized, with settings-related launchers moved to the Settings Manager. The release also included updated artwork, new desktop wallpaper, a new look to the documentation and completely rewritten offline documentation. On 32 bit systems, hardware supporting PAE is required.

Xubuntu 13.04.

Xubuntu 13.04 was released on 25 April 2013. It was intended as a maintenance release with few new features. It incorporated updated documentation, a new version of Catfish (0.6.1), updates to the Greybird theme, GIMP and Gnumeric were reintroduced, a new version of Parole (0.5.0) and that duplicate partitions are no longer shown on desktop or in the Thunar file manager.  This was the first version of Xubuntu with

Xubuntu 13.10.

Xubuntu 13.10 was released on 17 October 2013. This release included some improvements over the previous release, including a new version of xfce4-settings and a new dialog box for display settings. There was also a new color theme tool and gtk-theme-config was added as default.

Xubuntu 14.04 LTS.

Xubuntu 14.04 LTS was released on 17 April 2014 and, being an LTS, featured three years of support. It incorporated the Xfdesktop 4.11, the Mugshot user account profile editor, the MenuLibre menu editor in place of Alacarte and the Light-locker screen lock to replace Xscreensaver. The Whisker Menu was introduced as the default application launching menu, having been formerly a Personal Package Archive option introduced in Xubuntu 12.04 LTS. It replaced the previous default menu system. The "Xfdesktop" also supported using different wallpapers on

Xubuntu 14.10.

Xubuntu 14.10 was released on 23 October 2014. This release incorporated very few new features. Changed were a new Xfce Power Manager plugin added to the panel and that items in the new alt-tab dialog could be clicked with the mouse. To illustrate the customization of the operating system, 14.10 featured pink highlight colours, something that could easily be changed by users, if desired.  Silviu Stahie, writing for Softpedia stated:

Xubuntu 15.04.

Xubuntu 15.04 was released on 23 April 2015. This release featured Xfce 4.12 and included new colour schemes, with redundant File Manager (Settings) menu entries removed. Otherwise this release was predominantly a bug-fix and package upgrade release, with very few significant changes.  Marius Nestor of Softpedia noted, "The biggest feature of

Xubuntu 15.10.

Xubuntu 15.10 was released on 22 October 2015.  This release had only minimal changes over 15.04. It incorporated the Xfce4 Panel Switch for the backup and restoration of panels and included five

Xubuntu 16.04 LTS.

Released on 21 April 2016, Xubuntu 16.04 is an LTS version, supported for three years until April 2019.  This release offered few new features. It included a new package of wallpapers and the replacement of the Ubuntu Software Center with Gnome Software, the same as in Ubuntu 16.04 LTS. Reviewer Jack Wallen said, "The truth of the matter is, the Ubuntu Software Center has been a horrible

Xubuntu 16.10.

Xubuntu 16.10 was released on 13 October 2016.  This version of Xubuntu introduced very few new features. The official release notice stated, "This release has seen little visible change since April's 16.04, however much has been done towards supplying Xubuntu with Xfce packages built with GTK3, including the porting of many plugins and Xfce Terminal to GTK3."  Reviewer Joey Sneddon of OMG Ubuntu! noted, "Xubuntu 16.10 has only a modest change

Xubuntu 17.04.

Xubuntu 17.04 was released on 13 April 2017.  The development team described this release, "This release has seen little visible change since April's 16.04, however much has been

Xubuntu 17.10.

Xubuntu 17.10 was released on 19 October 2017.  This release included only minor changes including the GNOME Font Viewer included by default and that the client side decorations consume less space within the Greybird GTK+ theme.  Distrowatch

Xubuntu 18.04 LTS.

Xubuntu 18.04 is a long term support version, released on 26 April 2018.  In this version, removed the GTK Theme Configuration, the Greybird GTK+ theme was upgraded to 3.22.8 version, including HiDPI support, Google Chrome GTK+ 3 styles and a new dark theme. "Sound Indicator"

Xubuntu 18.10.

Xubuntu 18.10 was released on 18 October 2018. This release includes Xfce components at version 4.13 as the project moves towards a Gtk+3-only desktop, Xfce Icon Theme 0.13, Greybird 3.22.9, which improves the window manager appearance, a new purple wallpaper.  The recommended system requirements for this

Xubuntu 19.04.

Xubuntu 19.04 was released on 18 April 2019. Starting with this version, Xubuntu no longer offered 32-bit ISOs.  In this release, new default applications were included, such as GIMP, LibreOffice Impress. LibreOffice Draw and AptURL, and Orage was removed.  This release was predominantly a bug fix release with few changes, but also included new screenshot tools and updated Xfce 4.13 components, using components from the development branch for Xfce 4.14.  A review in Full Circle magazine concluded: "Xubuntu 19.04 is a strong release. It is pretty much flawless as a desktop OS, which really is to be expected for a 27th release. It provides a simple and elegant experience for

Xubuntu 19.10.

This standard release was the last one before the next LTS release and arrived on 17 October 2019.  This release included Xfce 4.14, which was completed in August 2019 after nearly four and half years of development work. Other changes included the Xfce Screensaver replacing Light Locker for screen locking, new desktop keyboard shortcuts, the ZFS file system and logical volume manager included on an experimental basis for root.  In a lengthy review in DistroWatch, Jesse Smith wrote, "I feel I do not get to say this often enough: this distribution is boring in the best possible way. Even with new, experimental filesystem support and a complete shift in the libraries used to power the Xfce desktop, Xubuntu is beautifully stable, fast, and easy to navigate... Perhaps what I appreciated most about Xubuntu was that it did

Xubuntu 20.04 LTS.

This release is a long term support release and was released on 23 April 2020.  As in common with LTS releases, this one introduced very few new features. A new dark-colored windowing theme was included, Greybird-dark, as were six new community-submitted wallpaper designs. The applications apt-offline and pidgin-libnotify were not included and Python 2 support was removed.  A review of this release in "Debug Point" concluded, "this release is another significant milestone for Xubuntu 20.04 LTS among other popular Ubuntu-based distributions. Xubuntu 20.04 managed to bring the latest to its users who are still using older hardware and devices with its offerings."  DistroWatch reviewer Jeff Siegel gave this release a positive review, noting that Xubuntu is often undervalued. He wrote, "Xubuntu has always been the quiet middle child in the Ubuntu family, the one that was always overlooked in favour of its older siblings, the glitzy Kubuntu and the rock star

Xubuntu 20.10.

This standard release is

Applications.

As of the 20.04 LTS release, Xubuntu includes the following applications by

Table of releases.

Xubuntu versions are released twice a year, coinciding with Ubuntu releases. Xubuntu uses the same version numbers and code names as Ubuntu, using the year and month of the release as the version number. The first Xubuntu release, for example, was 6.06, indicating June 2006.  Xubuntu releases are also given code names, using an adjective and an animal with the same

Derivatives.

Xubuntu has been developed into several new versions by third-party developers:

Xubuntu () is a Canonical Ltd.–recognized, community-maintained derivative of the Ubuntu operating system. The name "Xubuntu" is a portmanteau of "Xfce" and "Ubuntu", as it uses the Xfce desktop environment, instead of Ubuntu's GNOME desktop.

Xubuntu ist ein von Canonical Ltd. veröffentlichtes Derivat des Betriebssystems Ubuntu und wird von einer freien Community gepflegt. Bei Ubuntu handelt es sich um eine freie und kostenlose Linux-Distribution, die von Debian abstammt. Xubuntu verwendet die Xfce-Desktop-Umgebung, die vor allem für ihre Stabilität und ressourcenschonende Arbeitsweise bekannt ist. Ubuntu hingegen verwendet als Desktopumgebung Gnome.


Description.

The African oystercatcher is a large, noisy wader, with completely black plumage, red legs and a strong broad red bill. The sexes are similar in appearance, however, females are larger and have a slightly longer beak than males. Juveniles have soft grey plumage and do not express the characteristic red legs and beak until after they fledged. The call is a distinctive loud piping, very similar to Eurasian oystercatchers. As the Eurasian oystercatcher is a migratory species they only occur as a vagrant in southern Africa, and its black-and-white plumage makes confusion impossible.

Average Measurements.

Body Length: Wingspan: Mass: ♂ ♀ Tarsus: Culmen:

Distribution and Habitat.

The African oystercatcher is native to the mainland coasts and offshore islands of Southern Africa sometimes occurring as a vagrant in Angola and Mozambique. Its breeding range extends from Lüderitz, Namibia to Mazeppa Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa. There are estimated to be over 6,000 adult birds in total.  Typically sedentary African oystercatchers rarely leave their territories, which include a nesting site and feeding grounds. These will usually be located on or near rocky shores where they can feed.

Ecology.

Feeding.

African oystercatchers predominantly feed on molluscs such as mussels and limpets, although are known to also feed on polychaetes, insects and potentially even fish. They are adapted to pry open mussels and loosen limpets off the rocks but have been recorded picking through sand to locate other food items.

Breeding.

The nest is a bare scrape on pebbles, sand or shingle within about of the high-water mark. On rock ledges there may be a rim of shells to keep the eggs in place. The female generally lays two eggs, but there may be one or three, which are incubated by both adults. The incubation period varies between 27 and 39 days and the young take a further 38 or so days to fledge. Breeding success is greater on offshore islands where there are few predators and less disturbance than mainland sites.  The eggs average about long, ranging from, and have a breadth of, ranging from.

Longevity and mortality.

The lifespan of an African oystercatcher is about 35 years, of which they are known to pair up for 25 years. Although adults are rarely predated most mainland egg and chick fatalities are due to disturbance by people, off-road vehicles, dog attacks and predation by the kelp gull "(Larus dominicanus)" and other avian predators. Off shore pairs experience similar avian predation although most chicks perish due to starvation.

Status.

As of December 2017 the global IUCN assessment of the African oystercatcher's status is "Least Concern". The population trend seems to be upward as the local community becomes more involved in adopting conservation measures. In South Africa, the species has also been downlisted to Least Concern. A long-term program by the South African Ringing Scheme is tracking the dispersal of ringed birds to keep conservation assessments in South Africa and Namibia up to date.

The African oystercatcher or African black oystercatcher ("Haematopus moquini"), is a large charismatic wader resident to the mainland coasts and offshore islands of southern Africa. This near-threatened oystercatcher has a population of over 6,000 adults, which breed between November and April. The scientific name "moquini" commemorates the French naturalist Alfred Moquin-Tandon who discovered and named this species before Bonaparte.

Der Schwarze Austernfischer ("Haematopus moquini"), auch Afrikanischer Schwarzer Austernfischer genannt, gehört zur Ordnung der Wat-, Möwen- und Alkenvögel (Charadriiformes). Die Art kommt nur in den Küstengebieten des südlichen Afrikas und auf Neuseeland vor.


Name.

The Karankawa name's origin is uncertain. Early speculation involved the names that neighboring tribes had for the Karankawa. The name Karankawa was theorized to originate from related peoples living nearby who called the dog the term "klam" or "glam", and to love, to like, to be fond of, "kawa." Thus Karankawa could mean dog-lovers or dog-raisers. Meanwhile, the Tonkawa called them Wrestlers ("Keles" or "Killis"), due to the Karankawas' skill in the art. They alternatively called them the barefooted or those without moccasins ("Yakokon kapa-i"), but this name was also applied to other groups with which the Tonkawe were acquainted. The Lipan-Apache called the Karankawa the people who walk in the water ("Nda kun dadehe"), possibly referring to their mode of fishing and catching turtles, or simply their location near the swampy coast. Notably, the Karankawa called themselves "Karankawa" as well.  Later speculation placed the Karankawa language in the Cariban linguistic stock. Linguistic data suggests that the Karankawa name originated from the old Spanish Main, "Kalina," and a suffix from a Northern Carib tribe, "kxura,"meaning "people;" a compound emerges: Karinxkxura, meaning "Carib people." But this theory is disputed and ultimately, the origins of the name "Karankawa" remain unknown.

Origins.

According to some contemporary sources, the migrations of their ancestors were entirely unknown to the Karankawa of the early nineteenth century. However, the linguist Herbert Landar argues that based on linguistic evidence, the Karankawa language and people originated from a Carib subgroup. The Carib subgroup to which the Karankawa people belong remains to be discovered. Their exact migratory path northward is equally indistinct. Migration northward is theorized to have occurred during the late fifteenth century. The route north was from the original land north of the Amazon river toward Tamaulipas and Texas, and was probably done over a long period of time by short bursts of migration. Scholars have speculated that the Karankawa were descended from a group of Carib Indians who arrived by sea from the Caribbean basin. This is partially based on the similarity of their physical appearance to Caribbean natives. However, no ethnographic or archaeological evidence has been found for this speculation.  Recent archaeological records that used radiocarbon dating for artifacts indicated that these native groups had been in the area as early as the 5th- millennium BCE.

Lifestyle.

Seasonal nomadic lifestyle.

The Karankawa voyaged from place to place on a seasonal basis in their dugouts, made from large trees with the bark left intact. They travelled in groups of thirty to forty people and remained in each place for about four weeks. After European contact, canoes were of two kinds, both being called "awa'n": the original dugout and old skiffs obtained from the whites. Neither were used for fishing but for transportation only, and their travels were limited to the waters close to the land. The women, children, and possessions travelled in the hold while the men stood on the stern and poled the canoe. Upon landing at their next destination, the women set up wigwams (called "ba'ak" in their native language) and the men hauled the boats on the shore. Their campsites were always close to the shoreline of the nearby body of water.  Their wigwams consisted of willow branches arranged in a circle, with the tops of the branches bent toward the center and interlocked in wickerwork. This wickerwork was fastened with deerskin. Upon this framework, the Karankawa lay deer, wildcat, panther or bear skins, again fastened with deerskin thongs.  The next step was to make a fire. After European contact, the Karankawa begged for matches or tinderboxes from settlers; otherwise, they resorted to the traditional method of using their firesticks, which they always carried in a package of deerthongs. The fire was always made in the center of their dwellings and kept burning day and night. They used animal skins to sit and sleep on within their dwellings. Their household goods and utensils included wooden spoons, some clay vessels, fishbone needles, and fine deer sinew.

Methods of hunting and gathering.

The primary food sources of the Karankawa were deers, rabbits, birds, fishes, oysters, shellfish, and turtles. They supplemented their hunting with gathering food such as berries, persimmons, wild grapes, sea-bird eggs, prickly pear cacti, and nuts. Their food was always boiled in earthen pots or roasted. Although there were a lot of salt deposits nearby, the Karankawa used chile for seasoning their food. After European contact, the Karankawa also would mix flour with water, lay the dough upon a flat stone, and baked it on the open fire. They were fond of sweet coffee.  The Karankawa seemed to manage to always get pure, freshwater, although the whites did not know where they obtained it, because the wells of the whites had a brackish taste.

Culture.

Language.

The Karankawa spoken language was observed to be deeply guttural. Syllabic structure was vocalic, they doubled consonants and vowels, and often extended sentences beyond the supply of breath which they could command. They often abbreviated their words and spoke softly.  They also possessed a gesture language for conversing with people from other Native American tribes.

Smoke signalling.

The Karankawa were noted for their skill of communicating with each other over long distances using smoke. The Karankawa could make the smoke of a small fire ascend toward the sky in many different ways, and it was as intelligible to them across long distances as their language. Their methods are unknown.

Manners and customs.

The Karankawa had a specific way of conversing. They carefully repressed their breath while speaking; at the end of their sentences, they exhaled heavily, releasing the air they held back during speaking. Moreover, their expression was interpreted by Europeans as impassive, especially because they never looked at the person to whom they were speaking. Their pronunciation was very exact, and they ridiculed poor elocution by the whites who tried to learn their language. The Europeans described their general demeanor as surly and fatigued.  They did not have a regular sleep schedule, but slept whenever they wished. They also ate and drank at all times of the day.  Karankawa never communicated their native names to the whites. However, they all adopted English or Spanish names. Many men adopted American military epithets and Christian names, and they would change these frequently.  Among the Karankawa there exists an in-law taboo. Once a man and his wife have become in the Karankawa sense, married, the husband and his children are now no longer allowed to enter the residence of his wife's parents nor can his wife's parents enter his or his children's home. These two groups are also no longer allowed to talk with one another and must never come face to face with one another. If there is the danger of coming face to face with one another both parties must avert their eyes and move away from each other. This taboo only seems to apply to the husbands and their children, most likely due to inconvenience on the wife's part as Karankawans are typically patrilocal.

Arts, athletics, and recreation.

The Karankawa possessed at least three musical instruments: a large gourd filled with stones which was shaken to produce sound, a fluted piece of wood which the Karankawa drew a stick over to produce sound, and a flute which was softly blown.  The Karankawa practiced hatchet-throwing, recreational brawls with knives, ball plays, and wrestling matches. No gambling or guessing games seemed to have developed among the Karankawa. The Karankawa were also noted for their remarkable physical feats, such as continuing to fight after being wounded in battle, breaking ice with their bodies, and swimming in freezing water.

Archery.

Their skill most notable was that of archery. The Karankawa made their own bows and arrows, and were renowned for great skill whether standing on land, in calm waters, or in turbulent waters.  Their bows were made of red cedar wood and they made them according to the height of each archer, reaching from the foot to the chin or eye. The bows were always kept in perfect repair. The arrows were about a yard long, tipped with steel and feathered with wild geese feathers.  As well as using archery for hunting, the Karankawa engaged in archery as a recreational activity. They often shot at the mark or shot arrows perpendicularly into space. The shooting matches they held were lively and sportive. Many young men were able to split the previous arrow in the target in two from a distance of at least eighty feet.

Social institutions.

Tribal leadership.

The groups of Karankawa were commonly led by two chiefs: a civil government chief with a hereditary succession in the male lines, and a war-chief, probably appointed by the civil government chief. No evidence of a confederacy, like that of the Caddo or Creeks, was found. The Karankawa were probably a loose-knit body living under separate chiefs only united by the common language and shared war expeditions.  The ritual in order to become a chief has been studied by 18th-century Spaniards. They have stated that a selection starts from many candidates and each is injured by a comb created from the spines of a sea fish, long wounds being dug into their skin from the top of their head to the soles of their feet and then tied to a pole for several days to either emerge thin or emaciated and close to death. While this description can indeed be a ritual to choose a chief, a diary of Fray Gaspar Jose De Solis states that he suspects these rituals could simply be a puberty rite or an initiation ritual to a brotherhood.

Gender and family structures.

One aspect of the Karankawa culture was their recognition of three gender roles: male, female, and a third role taken on by some males and women. Males who took on this third role are called "berdache" (Karankawa: "monanguia".) They generally took on female roles and activities in daily life, while playing a special role in religious rites. According to some accounts, the "berdache" also performed as passive sexual partners for other males.  In the written accounts of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca it is mentioned that bride price and bride service is part of a Karankawa marriage. While the bride price is assumed to be the generalized system in the indigenous population found by Cabeza de Vaca where the groom gives gift to the parents of the girl he wishes to marry in order to secure their permission, the bride service is based on a ritual where the husband must give every morsel of food he managed to collect or hunt to his wife. His wife then delivers the bounty to her parents and in return is gifted food to give back to her husband. This ritual goes on for an unknown number of months, but when it is concluded the pair typically then engage in patrilocal residence. In terms of marriage, divorce is a common aspect typically only to marriages that have not created any children and is unlikely if children have been born from the marriage. Between the husband and wife, no signs of fondness, intimacy, or special treatment were observed. The Karankawa reacted strongly and sometimes violently to Europeans interfering in marital or familial affairs.  The Karankawa were said to have great compassion and tenderness for their children. Children not able to walk yet were carried by the mother on the back, wrapped in a loop of skin.

Appearance.

Physical character.

Many Europeans noted the sharp contrasts in appearance between Karankawa men and women. The women were described as plainer, shorter and of stouter build than the men. The men were very tall, of strong athletic build, and had coarse black hair. Most men wore their hair so long as to be waist-length. Their foreheads were mostly low and broad, and the heads larger than most whites. The men, in contrast with the women, had lithe builds and slender hands and feet. Their skin color was said to be lighter and closer to cinammon-colored than the women. Both men and women were noted for their spectacularly white teeth, even elders.

Dress and ornamentation.

Forehead flattening was practiced for all Karankawa. As babies, a piece of cloth was applied first, then a thin board, and then a wadded cloth. Each of these tied to the head with a bandage and left to stay there about one year.  The men wore a breech-clout of skins, while the women wore skirts of deerskin. Neither head-covers nor shoes were ever worn by the Karankawa. Some women of the tribe obtained European clothing occasionally, but would only tear them apart or wear them temporarily. European blankets were of greater use to the tribe, worn fastened to their bodies during cold weather and pinned with thorns. Both men and women wore a small bracelet of undressed deer skin. The children were left to roam undressed until they were about ten years old.  The Karankawa had distinctive tattoos, notably: a blue circle tattooed over each cheekbone, one horizontal blue line from the outer angle of the eye toward the ear, three perpendicular parallel lines on the chin from the middle of the lower lip downward, and two other lines extending down from under each corner of the mouth. Moreover, they were observed by sixteenth century explorers to have piercings of cane on the lower lips, nose, and other parts of the body.  The woman in some tribes such as the Coco group also had a tattoo of concentric black circles from their nipple to circling their entire breast.  Men, women, and children alike rubbed sharks' oil on their entire bodies regularly to deter mosquitoes effectively and to keep their skin soft and supple. Europeans who encountered the Karankawa were disgusted by the odor.  The women wore no ornaments, while the men were seen with many ornaments. Men's long hair was braided and consisted of three strands. They inserted bright objects (e..g, ribbons, colored flannel). The women never braided their hair nor combed it regularly. The men wore necklaces of small shells, glass beads, pistachios, and thin metal disks on their throats (never on their chests). Rings were also worn by the men.

Religion and ritual.

Europeans knew limited information about the rituals of the Karankawa because the latter did not reveal the purposes of their actions or their beliefs. When Joutel, an explorer and companion of Robert Cavalier de La Salle, questioned their religious beliefs, the Karankawa only pointed at the sky.  At the full moon and after very successful hunting or fishing expeditions, the Karankawa traditionally held a ceremonial. After gathering around a central fire, they boiled a strong and bitter brew from the leaves of the yaupon tree and stirred it until the top was covered with a yellowish froth. This brew was shared and all the Karankawa drank freely. Although this brew was said to be intoxicating, Europeans did not notice any visible effects on the natives. One Native stood within the circle of men, wrapped up to his head in skins, and he bent over as he walked circled the fire. They chanted in chromatic ascending and descending tones, and all the Natives joined in the chorus. This ceremony would continue throughout the night.  Other than this, only a few other rituals were observed, and their purposes are unknown. The Karankawa would stare at the sun when it disappeared into the sea, like some other native groups of the area. They would also smoke tobacco through their nostrils first to the north, then to the east, west, and south. They frequently whistled at certain times and apparently for some objective, but ultimately for unknown purposes.  In regards to special burial rites or rituals, the Karankawa seemed to be indifferent, and buried their dead at the site of their passing.

Cannibalism.

According to some sources, the Karankawa practiced ritual cannibalism, in common with other Gulf coastal tribes of present-day Texas and Louisiana.  Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish conquistador who lived among the Karankawa for several years in the 1530 and wrote a memoir, made no mention of cannibalism except for ritualistic consumption of deceased relatives in the form of funeral ashes "presented in water for the relatives to drink." Cabeza De Vaca admitted that he and his fellow survivors had committed acts of cannibalism of their own, eating their dead in order to survive after shipwrecking off Galveston Bay. The Karankawa people were shocked at the Spanish cannibalism, which they found to be repugnant. Whites never actually witnessed an act of cannibalism, and second and third-hand accounts are of disputed credibility.

Dogs.

The Karankawa was distinctive in that they were one of the only tribes known to keep dogs. The Karankawan dogs, of a coyote-like or wolf-like species, accompanied the Karankawa on hunts, swims, and recreational activities. The dogs were voiceless, with straight ears and fox-like snouts.

History.

Early encounters with the Spanish and French (16th - 17th centuries).

In 1528, one of two barges put together by survivors of the failed Pánfilo de Narváez expedition to Florida struck aground at Galveston Island. Survivors, including Cabeza de Vaca, were cared for by the Capoque band of Karankawa. From 1527, Cabeza de Vaca subsisted for seven years among the coastal tribes, making a living as a medical practitioner and occasional trader. During his stay, de Vaca reported that a fatal stomach ailment reduced the Karankawa population by roughly one half; the nature and casualties resulting from this illness are unknown. De Vaca reported that extensive trade occurred with inland groups as far as the extent of the entire length of the present-day United States. After the introduction of the horse by Spaniards, these trade networks strengthened.  Henri Joutel, the companion of Robert Cavelier de La Salle on his last expedition in 1687, recorded several tribes living in the coastal area, including the Karankawa (which he spelled as Korenkake and Koinekahe). His observations were that the Karankawa were peaceable rather than hostile. Upon their first meeting, Joutel reports that the Karankawa "demonstrated their friendship by putting their hands over their hearts, which meant that they were glad to see us." He also noted that they possessed horses, which were undoubtedly obtained from the Spanish.  When de La Salle stole some canoes from the Karankawa to sail up a river and establish Fort St. Louis, the Karankawas were enraged. When they heard of de La Salle's departure and subsequent death, they attacked about twenty French settlers left in the fort and massacred all but five. The survivors were forcibly tattooed and made to follow the Karankawa on their hunting and fishing expeditions; they were eventually rescued by a Spanish expedition in 1689.

Relations with the Spanish.

The La Salle venture stimulated the Spanish into active exploration and colonization of south Texas. A Spanish search for Fort St. Louis to check if the French had returned led to a skirmish between the Karankawa and the Spanish, and an establishment of hostilities between these two groups.  In 1691, Captain Domingo Teran led a combined land-sea expedition to Texas to strengthen recently established missions and to search for French presence. Both expeditions were mismanaged and led to a temporary lapse in Spanish interest.  However, continued French action encouraged the Spaniards to occupy the area of Matagorda Bay permanently.  La Bahía del Espiritu Santo, a mission-presidio complex, was established in 1722 on the southern bank of the San Antonio river. At first, the Karankawa were not antagonistic to the Spanish. But in 1723, a skirmish occurred between the Spanish and Karankawa, after which the Karankawa moved away from the mission and became hostile. By 1727, the Karankawa depredations forced the mission-presidio complex to move inland to the Guadalupe river, where they remained until 1749. The Karankawa successfully reduced Spanish claim to the Texas coast.  By the 1730s, the Karankawa and other native tribes of the Texas area were viewed by the Spanish as the primary obstacle to control of northern New Spain. In 1749, Jose Escandon was made governor and representative of the viceroy, appointed to conquer and settle northern Mexico and the region of Texas and to map, survey, and acquaint himself with the area and with the natives. He recommended that the mission of La Bahía should be moved because of native hostility and the unfavorable climate.  A new mission, Mission Rosario, was established in 1754. It was in constant fear of revolt by the natives in the mission and often appealed to La Bahía for military aid. Overall, it was extremely ineffective as a spiritual and "civilizing" center. The Karankawa fled when subjected to any corporal punishment, and continued to enjoy the resources provided by the Spanish without being dependent on them.  Over time, the Karankawa grew to speak Spanish with great fluency and adopted Spanish names for themselves to facilitate interaction with the whites.  The late eighteenth century saw a revival of Karankawa resistance and strength. The Spanish began to see them as unable to be converted to mission life, and some began to scheme for their extermination. However, none of these schemes were carried out.  In 1806, the Rosario mission was merged with that of Refugio. In 1830, Refugio and La Bahía del Espiritu Santo were secularized.

Relations with the British and French.

While the Spanish tried to incorporate the Karankawa into their empire, the Karankawa engaged in purely economic terms with the British and French, trading skins and deer for weapons (i.e., muskets, guns) and household goods.

Encounters with Jean Lafitte.

When Galveston Island was occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte from 1817 to 1821, some of his men kidnapped a Karankawa woman. In response, about three hundred Karankawa moved in to attack. When Lafitte learned of their encampment and impending attack, he sent two hundred of his men, armed with two cannons to confront the Karankawa. After the Karankawa lost about thirty men, they retreated to the mainland, with the pirates in pursuit. On the mainland, a few more Karankawa were killed.

Encounters with the Texan colonists.

Austin was introduced to the Karankawas via an encounter with a peaceful Coco tribe. After some talks and an exchange of tobacco and a frying pan, Moses Austin considered them good friends, but after a warning of Karankawas at the mouth of a nearby river, Moses wrote in his journal that Karankawas are universal enemies of man and cannot be befriended and must be removed in order for Anglo-American settlers to live in peace.  In 1821, Moses Austin received the Austin land grant to settle 300 families between Galveston Bay and the Colorado River. The Karankawa sought to hinder their progress by killing settlers who were guarding the ship John Motley and by stealing their supplies. By 1825, settlers banded together to attack the Karankawa. Stephen Austin commissioned Captain Kuykendall to lead volunteers to expel them from the territory, which extended to the Lavaca river. They chased the Karankawa to Manahila Creek, where a Spanish missionary interceded on their behalf and made them promise to never again go east of the Lavaca. This promise was broken, however, and was met by disproportionate violence by the Texan colonists.

Genocide of the Karankawa community.

During the Texan-Mexican war, some of the Karankawa served in the Mexican Army. They suffered greatly in the Battle of the Alamo of 1836, and the Texans retaliated heavily for their service.  Chief Jose Maria's 19-year-old son, Walupe, was captured by the Mexicans and killed. His father came on board the ship of a Texan settler and announced his intent of revenge. However, he and the majority of his men were killed. Antonio, who claimed he was the brother of Jose Maria, became chief after that. During his administration and afterward, the Karankawa population diminished significantly from disease, conflict with Europeans and infighting.  By the 1840s, the Karankawa consisted of two groups: one settled on Padre Island, while the other applied to settle in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. After being exiled from their homeland, the latter group reportedly plundered and stole; the Mexican government subsequently ordered troops to subdue them. General Avalos was ordered to move the Karankawa to the border of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León. The two states disputed over the Karankawa, and they were eventually returned to Reynosa. After continued robberies, the Karankawa were removed to Texas.  In 1858, the judge of Rosario, Mexico, sent a message to the mayor of Reynosa that he had tried to arrest the Karankawa but they moved north of the American border beyond his jurisdiction. He added that Mexicans and Americans should work together for the Karankawas' arrest. Later that year, Juan Cortina made a surprise attack on the recently returned Karankawa and annihilated the last members of the tribe. In a study on the Karankawa published in 1888, one interviewee "thought that some [Karankawa] may be still in existence, but could not tell where."

Environment.

The Karankawa traveled to the mountains and basins region. They hunted and gathered food from rivers and by the mountains.  In the region that the Karankawa inhabited, numerous small chunks of asphaltum have been found along the coast from oil seepage beneath the Gulf of Mexico. These chunks were used to bind arrowheads to their shafts; as a coating for pottery such as ollas, jars, and bowls; and as a way to waterproof woven baskets.

The Karankawa were an Indigenous people concentrated in southern Texas along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, largely in the lower Colorado River and Brazos River valleys. They consisted of several independent seasonal nomadic groups who shared the same language and much of the same culture. The tribe included the groups called the Cujanes, Cocos, Guapites (Coapites), and Copanes. Some of the village names survived to modern day and are the Ebahamo, Emet, Kouyam, Meracouman, Quara, Quinet, and the Toyal villages.

Die Karankawa sind ein seit 1858 ausgestorbener nordamerikanischer Indianerstamm von der Golfküste in Texas. Sie spielten eine wichtige Rolle in der frühen Geschichte der damaligen mexikanischen Provinz. Ihre Sprache, von der nur etwa hundert Wörter bekannt sind, heißt ebenfalls Karankawa und weist Ähnlichkeiten mit dem Coahuiltec auf, doch die Zugehörigkeit ist nicht gesichert.


Early years.

Schenkkan was born in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, the son of Jean Gregory (née McKenzie) and Robert Frederic Schenkkan, a professor in the Department of Radio-Television-Film at The University of Texas at Austin, and public television executive. He grew up in Austin, Texas. As a Plan II Honors student he received a B.A. in Drama, "magna cum laude", from the University of Texas, Austin in 1975 (Phi Beta Kappa, Friars' Society, UT Texas Exes Distinguished Young Alumnus Award and E. William Doty College of Fine Arts Distinguished Alumnus Award), and an M.F.A. in Theatre Arts from Cornell University in 1977. For many years, he lived in New York City and then Los Angeles, California, working both as a writer and an actor in film, television, and theatre. Since 1990 he has focused exclusively on his writing and divides his time between New York City and Seattle. Schenkkan is of Dutch Jewish (father) and Scottish and English (mother) descent.

Career.

Schenkkan is the author of ten full-length plays. "By the Waters of Babylon" premiered at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in February, 2005. The play is unrelated to the Stephen Vincent Benét short story "By the Waters of Babylon" or its subsequent adaptation. "Lewis and Clark Reach the Euphrates" premiered at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles in December 2005. "The Marriage of Miss Hollywood and King Neptune" premiered at the University of Texas at Austin in November 2005. "The Devil and Daniel Webster" premiered at the Seattle Children’s Theatre in February 2006.  "Handler", a play dealing with a snake handling church, premiered at the Actors Express Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia. "Heaven On Earth" won the Julie Harris/Beverly Hills Theatre Guild Award, participated in the Eugene O'Neill Playwright's Conference, and premiered Off-Broadway at the WPA Theatre. "Final Passages" premiered at the Studio Arena theatre. "Tachinoki" premiered at the Ensemble Studio Theatre in Los Angeles and was designated a Critic's Choice by the LA Weekly. His other play for young audiences, "The Dream Thief", had its premier at Milwaukee's First Stage. Schenkkan has written numerous one-act plays which are collected together and published by Dramatists Play Service as "Conversations With the Spanish Lady". Among them is "The Survivalist" which premiered at Actors Theatre of Louisville's Humana festival, went on to the EST Marathon in NYC, Canada's DuMaurier Festival, and the Edinburgh Festival where it won the "Best of the Fringe" award.  "The Kentucky Cycle" underwent several years of development, starting in New York City at New Dramatists and the Ensemble Studio Theatre. The two part epic was later workshopped at the Mark Taper Forum, EST-LA, the Long Wharf Theatre, and the Sundance Institute. The complete "cycle" was awarded the largest grant ever given by the Fund for New American Plays and had its world premiere in 1991 at the Intiman Theatre in Seattle (Liz Huddle, producer) where it set box office records. In 1992, it was the centerpiece of the Mark Taper forum's 25th Anniversary Season. It was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, the first time in the history of the award that a play was so honored which had not first been presented in New York City. It also won both the PEN Centre West and the L.A. Drama Critics Circle Award for Best Play. In 1993 it appeared at the John F. Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. and opened on Broadway in November of that year where it was nominated for a Tony, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle awards.  His play "All the Way", about the behind-the-scenes political maneuvering of President Lyndon Baines Johnson to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, premiered at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival on July 28, 2012. Schenkkan describes this work as a play about "the morality of politics and power." "All the Way" won the 2012 ATCA/Steinberg Award for Best Play and the inaugural Edward M. Kennedy Prize for Drama Inspired by History. It opened in Boston at the American Repertory Theater on September 19, 2013 starring Bryan Cranston and sold out its entire run. The play had its Broadway premiere on March 6, 2014 at the Neil Simon Theatre, and was awarded the 2014 Tony Award for Best Play, with Cranston also winning a Tony Award for his performance as Lyndon Baines Johnson. A sequel, titled "The Great Society", premiered at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in July 2014 and on Broadway in September 2019.  Schenkkan's film work includes: "The Quiet American", directed by Phillip Noyce and starring Michael Caine (who received an Oscar nomination). For television he wrote four episodes of "The Pacific" (HBO, 2010) for which he was nominated for two Emmy Awards and won a WGA Award for Best Miniseries writing. Other television work includes "The Andromeda Strain" (A&E, 2009), "Spartacus" (USA Network, 2006), and "Crazy Horse" (TNT). In 2005, he was hired by Sony Pictures to develop a script based on Marvel Comics' "Killraven". Schenkkan was also named as the writer for the adaptation of the comic book "Incognito" published by the Marvel imprint Icon Comics. In 2016, his television adaptation of "All the Way" was filmed for HBO, with Cranston reprising his role as Lyndon Baines Johnson, and premiered in May. Also that year, he co-wrote the war drama film "Hacksaw Ridge", directed by Mel Gibson.  Schenkkan is the recipient of grants from New York State, the California Arts Council, and the Vogelstein and the Arthur foundations. He is a New Dramatists alumnus and a member of the Ensemble Studio Theatre and the National Theatre Conference. He was the 2012 Thornton Wilder Fellow at the MacDowell Colony and a member of the College of Fellows of the American Theater.  As an actor, Schenkkan has appeared in numerous roles, including the 1989 film "Out Cold"; he also starred in the 1990 cult drama teen film "Pump Up the Volume", in which he played David Deaver, the high school guidance counselor. He appeared as Lieutenant Commander Dexter Remmick in the "" episodes and.

Personal life.

Schenkkan has been married twice. His first marriage was to Mary Anne Dorward in 1984, and produced two children, Sarah Schenkkan and Joshua Schenkkan. The couple divorced in 1999. His second marriage was to the writer Maria Dahvana Headley in 2004. They divorced in 2012. Schenkkan is an uncle of actor Ben McKenzie.

Robert Frederic Schenkkan Jr. (born March 19, 1953) is an American playwright, screenwriter, and actor. He received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1992 for his play "The Kentucky Cycle" and his play "All the Way" earned the 2014 Tony Award for Best Play. He has three Emmy nominations and one WGA Award.

Robert Schenkkan (* 19. März 1953 in Chapel Hill, North Carolina) ist ein US-amerikanischer Filmschauspieler, Drehbuchautor und Filmproduzent. Er ist der Onkel des O.C.-Stars Benjamin McKenzie. Auch hat er bereits den begehrten Tony Award gewonnen.


History.

Kadıköy is an older settlement than most of those on the Anatolian side of the city of İstanbul. Relics dating to 5500-3500 BC (Chalcolithic period) have been found at the Fikirtepe Mound, and articles of stone, bone, ceramic, jewelry and bronze show that there has been a continuous settlement since prehistoric times. A port settlement dating from the Phoenicians has also been discovered. Chalcedon was the first settlement that the Greeks from Megara established on the Bosphorus, in 685 BC, a few years before they established Byzantium on the other side of the strait in 667 BC. Chalcedon became known as the 'city of the blind', the story being that Byzantium was founded following a prophecy that a great capital would be built 'opposite the city of the blind' (meaning that the people of Chalcedon must have been blind not to see the obvious value of the peninsula on the Golden Horn as a natural defensive harbour). The fourth ecumenical church council, Council of Chalcedon, was held there in 451 AD.  Chalcedon changed hands time and time again, as Persians, Bithynians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, and Turks passed through the area, which was badly damaged during the Fourth Crusade and came into Ottoman hands in 1353, a full century before Constantinople. Thus, Kadıköy has the oldest mosque in İstanbul, built almost a century before the conquest of Constantinople in 1453.  At the time of the conquest, Chalcedon was a rural settlement outside the protection of the city. It was soon put under the jurisdiction of the Constantinople courts, hence the name "Kadıköy", which means "Village of the Judge". In the Ottoman period, Kadıköy became a popular market for agricultural goods and in time developed into a residential area for people who would commute to the city by boat.  According to Ottoman estimations of 1882, the district of Kadıköy had a total population of 6,733, consisting of 2,695 Muslims, 1,831 Armenians, 1,822 Greeks, 249 Jews, 92 Latins, 28 Bulgarians and 16 Catholics.

Modern life.

Transport.

The major Haydarpaşa Terminal of the Turkish State Railways is located close to Kadıköy's centre and was opened in 1908 as the terminus of the İstanbul-Baghdad and İstanbul-Damascus-Medina railways. The terminal closed due to infrastructure works in 2013 and reopened in 2018, serving east- and south-bound international, domestic and regional trains.  The Söğütlüçeşme railway station, the next station after Haydarpaşa Terminal, is the terminus of the Metrobus line to European side of İstanbul.  The M4 line of the Istanbul Metro runs from Kadıköy to Tavşantepe daily between 6:00 and 23:57.  The centre of Kadıköy today is the transportation hub for people commuting between the Asian side of the city and the European side across the Bosphorus. There is a large bus and minibus terminal next to the ferry quay. Ferries are the most dominantly visible form of transport in Kadıköy, and the central market area is adjacent to the ferry quay.  Public transportation with terminus in Kadıköy:  For more lines, visit: http://www.iett.istanbul/en/main/hatlar  Traditional ferries,  Sea buses,

Politics.

The centre-left Republican People's Party (CHP) is usually successful in Kadıköy in both local and national elections. Since the mid-1990s the mayor has been from the CHP. Former mayor S. Öztürk is often credited with the recent growth in the number of shopping and leisure areas around Kadıköy, especially since the pedestrianisation of "Bahariye Street", which many say has become the Kadıköy equivalent of İstiklal Avenue, including its nostalgic trams, on the European side of Istanbul.

Education.

Marmara University has most of its buildings in Kadıköy, including the large and elegant Haydarpaşa Campus, while the largest private university in İstanbul, Yeditepe University, is located on the hill named "Kayışdağı" at the easternmost edge of the borough (Which later connected to Ataşehir). A new state university, İstanbul Medeniyet University, opened in 2010. It has its main building in Göztepe, Merdivenköy, and has begun to develop campuses in both Kadıköy and Üsküdar. The campuses are divided by the D-100 Highway. Each have a metro station close by.  Another private institution for higher education, the Doğuş University, is situated in the Acıbadem neighborhood of Kadıköy.  There are also remarkable high schools such as Atatürk Fen Lisesi, Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi, Mustafa Saffet Anadolu Lisesi, İstanbul Anadolu Lisesi, İstanbul Kadıköy Lisesi, FMV Özel Erenköy Işık Lisesi, Saint-Joseph Fransız Lisesi and Göztepe İhsan Kurşunoğlu Anadolu Lisesi.

Shopping.

Kadıköy is a busy shopping district, with a wide variety of atmospheres and architectural styles. The streets are varied, some being narrow alleyways and others, such as "Bahariye Caddesi", being pedestrian zones. Turkey's biggest food market is there, starting next to the Osman Ağa Mosque, and has an immense turnover of fresh foods and other products from all around Turkey, including a wide range of fresh fish and seafood, olive oil soap, and so on. There are also modern shopping centres, most notably the large Tepe Nautilus Shopping Mall behind the center of Kadıköy, and pavements crowded with street vendors selling socks, unlicensed copies of popular novels, and other products. In the streets behind the main post office, there is a large number of well-known bookshops selling both new and second-hand books, craft-shops and picture-framers, and a number of shops selling music CDs and related ephemera such as film posters and T-shirts. Hard Rock and Heavy Metal music is sold in the arcade named "Akmar Pasajı", where associated items are also sold. On Sundays this area becomes a large second-hand book and music street market. Being a crowded shopping district, Kadıköy has many buskers, shoe shine boys, glue sniffers and schoolchildren in the streets selling flowers, chewing gum and packets of tissues.  At the top of the shopping district there is an intersection, with a statue of a bull, called "Altıyol" ("Six Ways"), where a road leads to the civic buildings and a huge street market called "Salı Pazarı" ("Tuesday Market"). The working-class residential districts of Hasanpaşa and Fikirtepe are located behind the civic buildings.

Housing.

There is a lot of residential property in the centre of Kadıköy, mostly somewhat dilapidated today, but there are still quiet suburban streets. The area is home to many students as well as a small number of foreign residents.

Attractions, entertainment and eating.

Kadıköy has many narrow streets filled with cafés, bars and restaurants, as well as many cinemas. Süreyya Opera House is a recent redevelopment of the same named historic movie theatre.  The market area is mostly closed to traffic and contains a wide variety of fast food restaurants serving toasted sandwiches, hamburgers and döner. There are also traditional Turkish restaurants and patisseries, bridge schools, wine houses, bars with jazz, folk and rock music, as well as working class tea and backgammon houses.  Behind the coast, lies a large shopping and residential district winding uphill to the "Bahariye Caddesi" pedestrian zone. This area was transformed during the economic boom of the 1990s and shops were opened and bars at surrounding.  Kadıköy's entertainment is generally not of the affluent type. It has a more working class ambiance; therefore, it is easier to find food of the like of kebab and fried mussels than haute cuisine, although one of İstanbul's most traditional Turkish cuisine representatives, Yanyalı Fehmi Lokantası and the foreign tourist attracting Çiya is found here. Also oldest candy maker Hacı Bekir and chocolate maker Baylan located in Kadıköy.  Kadıköy does not have as much nightlife as Beyoğlu (where nightlife also continues much later into the night), nor does it have Nişantaşı's style of shopping or the Bosphorus for nightlife. Instead, it is often considered a modest alternative but may still be regarded as vibrant and cosy. Residents like to frequent the seaside to walk or sit in the grass with a view of the European side of Istanbul across the Bosporus.  İstanbul Toy Museum in Göztepe has on display 4,000 toys and miniatures, from Turkey and abroad; many of the exhibits are antiques, some of which date back nearly 200 years. The first floor of the museum is actually the site of the Eyüp Toy Shop, a famous toy shop that had closed down in the 1950s.

Surrounding residential areas.

Coastal areas.

Along the coast, away from the centre of Kadıköy, there are many expensive shops and the area becomes more upmarket in neighbourhoods such as Moda and Fenerbahçe, which are attractive, long-established residential areas. These both lie within the bounds of the borough of Kadıköy, and have many restaurants, cafés and bars by the sea. There is a path here along the sea-front from Kadıköy; the tram to Moda calls here.  Moda is an old, quiet, cosmopolitan İstanbul neighbourhood, but is beginning to experience economic and aesthetic problems, with there being a lack of car parking and some run-down shops and other buildings. As elsewhere in İstanbul, many historic houses have been demolished and replaced with apartment buildings; however, Moda is generally considered one of the more pleasant residential districts in the city. There are numerous churches in Moda with active congregations, and well-known schools, such as the Lycée Saint-Joseph and Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi. There is a small, attractive theatre in Moda named "Oyun Atölyesi", founded by actor Haluk Bilginer. The area is also well-known for its multiple modern cafes, bars, shops and is very popular among Istanbul's creative class and tourists.  Another smart new district is Acıbadem. This area has one of the best-known private hospitals in the city and a long avenue of smart cafés, restaurants and ice cream parlours.  Beyond this area, the huge stadium of Fenerbahçe Football Club dominates the skyline. From here, the long shopping street named Bağdat Caddesi (Baghdad Avenue) heads east and there are many affluent neighbourhoods between the avenue and the coast. Until the 1950s these areas, such as Kalamış, Göztepe, Caddebostan, Bağdad Avenue, Erenköy, and Suadiye, were full of summer houses and mansions for the city's wealthy upper middle class. Since the Bosphorus Bridge was built, it has become easier to commute from here to the European side of İstanbul, and most of these summer houses have been demolished and replaced with modern apartment buildings; however, these districts many still be considered among the most beautiful residential areas of the city. The coast here has a long stretch of seaside parks and yacht marinas, and the streets behind the coast in areas such as Caddebostan are lined with numerous bars and cafés.  From Bostancı onwards the economic level progressively lessens, so there are more retired and working-class residents here. There are no more villas, excepting some on the coast at Dragos, and the apartment buildings are narrower and less widely spaced. Bostancı itself is a busy shopping district built around a railway station.

Inland areas.

Inland from the coast there is a great deal of housing development: some of this has little infrastructure, while most is more expensive, especially in areas such as Kozyatağı and İçerenköy. These districts house many of İstanbul's upper-middle class residents. These neighbourhoods are mainly built around wide avenues and tree-lined streets, with four to six-storey apartment buildings that have sizable gardens and car-parking around them. Especially in Kozyatağı, there are old Ottoman houses nearly in every houses' garden (Each house or apartment has a big garden with parking lots and arbours while these gardens used to be the old house's). Kozyatağı, Suadiye and Kazasker used to be one of the most popular summer areas for wealthy İstanbul residents. Today, Kozyatağı has tree-lined streets, especially magnolia, linden and fruit trees such as medlar trees, plum trees, cherry, mulberry and quince trees, lots of large greenfields, parks, children parks. These areas, Suadiye, Bağdat Caddesi, Kalamış, Kozyatağı, Fenerbahçe have today, upper-middle or upper class residents. There are many schools, hospitals, shops and restaurants in these areas. There is also a large Carrefour and Bauhaus store on the E5 highway in this part of Kadıköy.  In the late 1990s, new luxury housing developments such as Ataşehir began to be constructed in the previously undeveloped area north of the E5 highway. These have their own shops, private colleges, sports centres and other facilities. Ataşehir separated from Kadıköy in 2009 elections.

Architecture.

Kadıköy has many houses from the Ottoman and some from Roman period which are hidden in its side streets. Some of them have been turned into cafés, pubs and restaurants, particularly serving seafood and rest of them waiting for restoration.

Sport.

The district is home to the major Turkish multi-sport club Fenerbahçe SK and their football stadium, the Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium. Following important victories, all neighbourhoods of Kadıköy are crowded with celebrating people. The stadium hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final. The area also has a rugby union team, Kadıköy Rugby, which was the first official rugby club in Turkey.  The multi-purpose arena of Caferağa Sport Hall, located in the center of Kadıköy's shopping district, is home to the basketball teams of Alpella (men team) and Fenerbahçe İstanbul (women team), volleyball teams (Fenerbahçe Men's Volleyball and Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball).  The district was also home to KadıköySpor, a basketball club that evolved into the current top-level club Anadolu Efes.

Religion.

Kadıköy has been always a place with population belonging to the three main religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. There are still many examples of mosques, Greek or Armenian churches and synagogues, As with the rest of İstanbul. The city is the see of the Metropolis of Chalcedon, one of the four remaining metropolises of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey today.  Hemdat Israel Synagogue, situated in Yeldeğirmeni neighbourhood close to Haydarpaşa Terminal, is one of the oldest Jewish houses of prayer in İstanbul.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Kadıköy is twinned with:

Kadıköy (; known in classical antiquity and during the Roman and Byzantine eras as Chalcedon, in ), is a large, populous, and cosmopolitan district in the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey, on the northern shore of the Sea of Marmara, facing the historic city centre on the European side of the Bosporus. Kadıköy is also the name of the most prominent neighbourhood of the district, a residential and commercial area that, with its numerous bars, cinemas and bookshops, is the cultural centre of the Anatolian side of Istanbul. Kadıköy became a district in 1928 when it was separated from Üsküdar district. The neighbourhoods of İçerenköy, Bostancı and Suadiye were also separated from the district of Kartal in the same year, and eventually joined the newly formed district of Kadıköy. Its neighbouring districts are Üsküdar to the northwest, Ataşehir to the northeast, Maltepe to the southeast, and Kartal beyond Maltepe. The population of Kadıköy district, according to the 2007 census, is 509,282.

Kadıköy (zu deutsch: "Richterdorf") liegt auf der asiatischen Seite Istanbuls und ist als Gemeinde Mitgliedsgemeinde der Großstadtkommune Istanbul. Das Gemeindegebiet ist zugleich ein gleichnamiger Unterbezirk der türkischen Provinz Istanbul.


Early life.

Dapkūnaitė was born in Vilnius, Lithuanian SSR, Soviet Union. Her father was a diplomat and her mother was a meteorologist. For many years her parents worked in Moscow, and she saw them only on holidays. She was cared for by her grandparents and an uncle and aunt, musicians in a theatre orchestra, during her parents' long absences.  At the age of four, she first appeared on the stage in the Puccini opera "Madam Butterfly," watched by her grandmother, the administrator of the Vilnius opera theatre. After her opera debut, she at first seemed to have little interest in the dramatic arts, dance, singing, or music. For her childhood and youth, it seemed she might pursue a career in sports; she figure-skated and played basketball, popular in Lithuania. She graduated from the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre under Jonas Vaitkus in 1985 and joined the Kaunas State Drama Theatre.

Career.

She has had a number of minor roles in some top Hollywood movies including "" (1996) and "Seven Years in Tibet" (1997), the latter of which featured her as the wife of Heinrich Harrer (played by Brad Pitt). She is best known for her portrayal of Maroussia, the wife of Colonel Sergei Kotov (portrayed by Nikita Mikhalkov) in Mikhalkov's Academy Award-winning film "Burnt by the Sun" (1994). In 2001 she was a member of the jury at the 23rd Moscow International Film Festival.  She also portrayed the Russian Tsaritsa Imperatritsa Aleksandra Fyodorovna Romanova in the 2003 British mini-series "The Lost Prince", and was mother to Thomas Harris's fictional cannibal and serial killer, also known to be of Lithuanian origin, Hannibal Lecter, in "Hannibal Rising" (2007).  On television, she plays the role of top Russian diplomat Irina Sidorova in the Norwegian hit show "Okkupert", broadcast in the US by Netflix. She was featured as a skating partner to Alexander Zhulin in "Ice Age". In the first season of the BBC series "Bodies", she played nurse Katya Bredova. In addition, she portrays a Bosnian refugee named Jasmina Blekic in "Prime Suspect 6", co-starring Helen Mirren and in 2012 played Kenneth Branagh's love interest in the "Wallander" TV episode "Dogs of Riga". She also starred in "Branded". She also portrayed the role of Mrs Hudson in Russia's "Sherlock Holmes".

Personal life.

Dapkūnaitė has been married three times. Her second husband was a British director, whom she divorced in 2009. Dapkūnaitė is a United Kingdom citizen. Her current husband is a Russian lawyer and businessman, who is 12 years her junior.

Ingeborga Edmundovna Dapkūnaitė (born 20 January 1963) is а Lithuanian and Russian theatre and cinema actress, who plays mostly in Russian films. She is a winner of the prize "Nika" in 1994 for Best Actress.

Ingeborga Dapkūnaitė (* 20. Januar 1963 in Vilnius) ist eine litauische Schauspielerin. Dapkūnaitė gehört zu den populärsten Schauspielerinnen ihres Landes und hat auch außerhalb des Baltikums internationalen Erfolg. Sie begann ihre Filmkarriere 1986 noch in der Sowjetunion. 1994 spielte sie neben Oleg Menschikow in Nikita Michalkows Oscar-preisgekröntem Film "Die Sonne, die uns täuscht". Daraufhin wurde sie auch erstmals in internationalen Produktionen besetzt. 1996 spielte sie eine kleine Rolle in "" von Brian De Palma und 1997 die Ehefrau von Heinrich Harrer (Brad Pitt) in "Sieben Jahre in Tibet" von Jean-Jacques Annaud. In ihrer Heimat Litauen spielt sie neben der Filmarbeit im Theater. Im Jahr 2010 gehört Dapkūnaitė der Jury der 67. Internationalen Filmfestspiele von Venedig an. 2011 spielte sie an der Seite von John Malkovich bei den Ruhrfestspielen in der Kammeroper The Giacomo Variations von Michael Sturminger.


Etymology.

The name "Hän" or "Han" is a shortening of their own name as "Hwëch'in / Han Hwech’in", and of the Gwich’in word "Hangwičʼin" for the Hän, both literally meaning "People of the River, i.e. the Yukon River". This word has been spelled variously as "Hankutchin", "Han-Kootchin", "Hun-koo-chin", "Hong-Kutchin", "An Kutchin", "Han Kutchin", "Han-Kutchín", "Hăn-Kŭtchin ́", "Hän Hwëch'in", and "Hungwitchin".  The Hän were often mistaken for just another Gwich'in (Kutchin) band, especially as part of the Dagoo Gwich'in / Tukudh Gwich'in and Teetł'it Gwich'in / Teetl'it Zheh Gwich'in. The French traders called the Hän "Gens du fou", "Gens de Fou", "Gens de Foux", "Gens des Foux", or "Gens-de-fine". The name "Gens de Foux" (and variants) has also been used to refer to the Northern Tutchone (Dan or Huč’an). The Hankutchin were then known as "Gens de Bois" or "Gens des Bois," in association with their forested territory.

History of the Hän.

The Hän were one of the last Northern Athabascan groups to have contact with European peoples. In 1851 Robert Campbell from the Hudson's Bay Company was the first known white man to enter Han territory, when he traveled from Fort Selkirk to Fort Yukon. It was not until 1873 and 1874 (after the United States purchase of Alaska), that two trading posts were set up. One was established by Moses Mercier, a former employee of the Hudson's Bay Company, in Belle Isle across the Eagle River. The other, Fort Reliance, was established on the Yukon, just below the mouth of the Klondike River, near Dawson, by two Alaska Commercial Company traders, Leroy N. McQuesten and Frank Bonifield. Gradually trading with whites resulted in the Han shifting from their traditional fishing-hunting economy to a fur-trapping economy, as they grew increasingly reliant on such European goods as guns, clothing, and canvas from 1887 to 1895.  Bishop William Bompas established the first Anglican Church mission in Hän territory, and gradually the people shifted away from traditional religion. They also combined it with Christianity in a syncretic fashion. The Han suffered high mortality during several epidemics of new infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity.

Culture.

Food.

Historically, fish, especially salmon, comprised the main part of the Hän diet. King salmon was caught along the Yukon River in June and chum salmon in August. Fishing tools included weirs, traps, gill nets, dip nets, spears, and harpoons. Salmon was dried and stored for winter consumption.  Between the salmon runs from June–September, the river camps were abandoned. The Han men sought other fish, moose, caribou, birds, bears, and small game. Men hunted game (once after the salmon run and later for caribou in February and March) while women fished (for fish other than salmon.) The women traditionally cooked by stone boiling in woven spruce-root baskets.

Housing.

A square half-recessed house was made of wooden poles and moss insulation (called a "moss house"). This served as the main type of housing.  The people erected temporary domed houses made of skin stretched over tied branches when they were traveling.

Language.

The Hän language is most similar to Gwich’in (Kutchin). It is more distantly related to Upper Tanana and Northern Tutchone. The language was used as a lingua franca by Gwich’in, Tutchone, Tagish, and Upper Tanana peoples toward the end of the 19th century during the Gold Rush in the Yukon. The language is now the most endangered language of Alaska, with only a few speakers (all are over 60 years of age).

The Hän, Han or Hwëch'in / Han Hwech’in (meaning "People of the River, i.e. Yukon River", in English also Hankutchin) are a First Nations people of Canada and an Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the United States; they are part of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group. Their traditional lands centered on a heavily forested area around the Upper Yukon River (Chu Kon'Dëk), Klondike River (Tr'on'Dëk), Bonanza Creek (Gàh Dëk) and Sixtymile River (Khel Dëk) and straddling what is now the Alaska-Yukon Territory border. In later times, the Han population became centered in Dawson City, Yukon and Eagle, Alaska.

Die Hän oder Han, richtig Hän Hwëch'in ("Volk, das am Fluss [dem Yukon River] lebt") sind ein indianisches Volk, dessen ursprüngliches Siedlungsgebiet sich beiderseits des Yukon River im Yukon-Territorium im Nordwesten Kanadas sowie in Alaska erstreckte. Im Norden leben die Gwich’in (Kutchin), im Süden die Northern Tutchone und im Westen die Upper Tanana (Kohtʼiin).