Project.

The LBT was originally named the "Columbus Project". It is a joint project of these members: the Italian astronomical community represented by the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, the University of Arizona, University of Minnesota, University of Notre Dame, University of Virginia, the LBT Beteiligungsgesellschaft in Germany (Max Planck Institute for Astronomy in Heidelberg, Landessternwarte in Heidelberg, Leibniz Institute for Astrophysics Potsdam (AIP), Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Munich and Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy in Bonn); The Ohio State University; and the Research Corporation for Science Advancement based in Tucson, AZ. The cost was around 100 million Euro.  The telescope design has two 8.4 m (330 inch) mirrors mounted on a common base, hence the name "binocular". LBT takes advantage of active and adaptive optics, provided by Arcetri Observatory. The collecting area is two 8.4 meter aperture mirrors, which works out to about 111 m combined. This area is equivalent to an circular aperture, which would be greater than any other single telescope, but it is not comparable in many respects since the light is collected at a lower diffraction limit and is not combined in the same way. Also, an interferometric mode will be available, with a maximum baseline of for aperture synthesis imaging observations and a baseline of for nulling interferometry. This feature is along one axis with the LBTI instrument at wavelengths of 2.9–13 micrometres, which is the near infrared.  The telescope was designed by a group of Italian firms, and assembled by Ansaldo in its Milanese plant.

Mountain controversy.

The choice of location sparked considerable local controversy, both from the San Carlos Apache Tribe, who view the mountain as sacred, and from environmentalists who contended that the observatory would cause the demise of an endangered subspecies of the American red squirrel, the Mount Graham red squirrel. Environmentalists and members of the tribe filed some forty lawsuits – eight of which ended up before a federal appeals court – but the project ultimately prevailed after an act of the United States Congress.  The telescope and mountain observatory survived two major forest fires in thirteen years, the more recent in the summer of 2017. Likewise the squirrels continue to survive. Some experts now believe their numbers fluctuate dependent upon nut harvest without regard to the observatory.

First light.

The telescope was dedicated in October 2004 and saw first light with a single primary mirror on October 12, 2005 which viewed NGC 891. The second primary mirror was installed in January 2006 and became fully operational in January 2008. The first light with the second primary mirror was on September 18, 2006, and for the first and second together it was on January 11–12, 2008.  The first binocular light images show three false-color renditions of the spiral galaxy NGC 2770. The galaxy is 88 million light years from our Milky Way, a relatively close neighbor. The galaxy has a flat disk of stars and glowing gas tipped slightly toward our line of sight.  The first image taken combined ultraviolet and green light, and emphasizes the clumpy regions of newly formed hot stars in the spiral arms. The second image combined two deep red colors to highlight the smoother distribution of older, cooler stars. The third image was a composite of ultraviolet, green and deep red light and shows the detailed structure of hot, moderate and cool stars in the galaxy. The cameras and images were produced by the Large Binocular Camera team, led by Emanuele Giallongo at the Rome Astrophysical Observatory.  In binocular aperture synthesis mode LBT has a light-collecting area of 111 m, equivalent to a single primary mirror in diameter, and will combine light to produce the image sharpness equivalent to a single telescope. However, this requires a beam combiner that was tested in 2008, but has not been a part of regular operations. It can take images with one side at 8.4 m aperture, or take two images of the same object using different instruments on each side of the telescope.

Adaptive optics.

In the summer of 2010, the "First Light Adaptive Optics" (FLAO) – an adaptive optics system with a deformable secondary mirror rather than correcting atmospheric distortion further downstream in the optics – was inaugurated. Using one 8.4 m side, it surpassed Hubble sharpness (at certain light wavelengths), achieving a Strehl ratio of 60–80% rather than the 20–30% of older adaptive optic systems, or the 1% typically achieved without adaptive optics for telescopes of this size. Adaptive optics at a telescope's secondary (M2) was previously tested at MMT Observatory by the Arcetri Observatory and University of Arizona team.

In the media.

The telescope has also made appearances on an episode of the Discovery Channel TV show "Really Big Things", National Geographic Channel "Big, Bigger, Biggest", and the BBC program "The Sky At Night". The BBC Radio 4 radio documentary "The New Galileos" covered the LBT and the JWST.

Discoveries and observations.

LBT, with the XMM-Newton, was used to discover the galaxy cluster 2XMM J083026+524133 in 2008, over 7 billion light years away from Earth. In 2007 the LBT detected a 26th magnitude afterglow from the gamma ray burst GRB 070125.  In 2017, LBT observed the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft, an unmanned asteroid sample return spacecraft, in space while it was en route.

Instruments.

Some current or planned LBT telescope instruments:

LUCI.

LUCI (originally LUCIFER: Large Binocular Telescope Near-infrared Spectroscopic Utility with Camera and Integral Field Unit for Extragalactic Research) is the near-infrared instrument for the LBT. The name of the instrument was changed to LUCI in 2012. LUCI operates in the 0.9–2.5 μm spectral range using a 2048 x 2048 element Hawaii-2RG detector array from Teledyne and provides imaging and spectroscopic capabilities in seeing- and diffraction-limited modes. In its focal plane area, long-slit and multi-slit masks can be installed for single-object and multi-object spectroscopy. A fixed collimator produces an image of the entrance aperture in which either a mirror (for imaging) or a grating can be positioned. Three camera optics with numerical apertures of 1.8, 3.75 and 30 provide image scales of 0.25, 0.12, and 0.015 arcsec/detector element for wide field, seeing-limited and diffraction-limited observations. LUCI is operated at cryogenic temperatures, and is therefore enclosed in a cryostat of 1.6 m diameter and 1.6 m height, and cooled down to about −200 °C by two closed-cycle coolers.

LBTO collaboration.

Partners in the LBT project

The Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) is an optical telescope for astronomy located on Mount Graham, in the Pinaleno Mountains of southeastern Arizona, United States. It is a part of the Mount Graham International Observatory.

Das Large Binocular Telescope (abgekürzt LBT, zu deutsch „großes binokulares Teleskop“) ist ein Teleskop für astronomische Beobachtungen. Es steht auf dem 3221 Meter hohen Mount Graham in Arizona und ist Teil des Mount Graham International Observatory. Das LBT ist das zur Zeit größte optische Teleskop und verfügt über zwei 8,4 Meter große Hauptspiegel, welche die gleiche Lichtsammelleistung wie ein einzelnes 11,8 Meter großes Teleskop erreichen. Zudem erreicht es die optische Auflösung eines 22,8-Meter-Spiegels. Bei Testaufnahmen erreichte es eine Strehl-Zahl von 0,6 bis 0,8 (ein Wert von 1 entspräche einem perfekten Abbild). Weitere Tests ergaben Werte von 0,82 bis 0,84.


History.

Conrad Gesner described a lead holder pencil in 1565, but the lead had to be manually adjusted to sharpen it. The earliest extant example of a mechanical pencil was found aboard the wreckage of HMS "Pandora", which sank in 1791.  The first patent for a refillable pencil with lead-propelling mechanism was issued to Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in Britain in 1822. After buying out Hawkins' patent rights, Mordan entered into a business partnership with Gabriel Riddle from 1823 to 1837. The earliest Mordan pencils are thus hallmarked SMGR. After 1837, Mordan ended his partnership with Riddle and continued to manufacture pencils as "S. Mordan & Co". His company continued to manufacture pencils and a wide range of silver objects until World War II, when the factory was bombed.  Between 1822 and 1874, more than 160 patents were registered pertaining to a variety of improvements to mechanical pencils. The first spring-loaded mechanical pencil was patented in 1877 and a twist-feed mechanism was developed in 1895. The 0.9 mm lead was introduced in 1938, and later it was followed by 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 sizes. Eventually, 1.3 and 1.4 mm mechanisms were available, and 0.4 and 0.2 versions are now produced.  The mechanical pencil became successful in Japan with some improvements in 1915 by Tokuji Hayakawa, a metalworker who had just finished his apprenticeship. It was introduced as the "Ever-Ready Sharp Pencil". Success was not immediate since the metal shaft—essential for the pencil's long life—was unfamiliar to users. The Ever-Ready Sharp began selling in huge numbers after a company from Tokyo and Osaka made large orders. Later, Tokuji Hayakawa's company got its name from that pencil: Sharp.  At nearly the same time in the US, Charles R. Keeran was developing a similar pencil that would be the precursor of most of today's pencils. Keeran's design was ratchet-based, whereas Hayakawa's was screw-based. These two development histories – Hayakawa and Keeran – are often mistakenly combined into one. Keeran patented his lead pencil in 1915 and soon afterwards arranged production. After some improvements, his design was marketed as the "Eversharp" pencil by the Wahl Adding Machine Company; by the early 1920s, Wahl had sold more than 12,000,000 Eversharps.  Some of the manufacturers are: Pentel, Pilot, Tombow, Uni-ball and Zebra of Japan; Faber-Castell, Lamy, Rotring and Staedtler of Germany; Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth of the Czech Republic; Bic of France; Monami of South Korea; PaperMate and Parker of USA; Caran d'Ache of Switzerland and numerous Chinese as well as other Asian and European manufacturers.

Mechanism types.

Mechanical pencils can be divided into two basic types: those that both hold the lead and can actively propel it forward, and those that only hold the lead in position.  Screw-based pencils advance the lead by twisting a screw, which moves a slider down the barrel of the pencil. This was the most common type in the earlier part of the twentieth century. Many of these have a locking mechanism one way to allow the lead to be pushed back into the pencil.  A clutch pencil (or leadholder) tends to use thicker leads (2.0–5.6 mm) and generally holds only one piece of lead at a time. A typical clutch pencil is activated by pressing the eraser cap on the top, to open the jaws inside the tip and allow the lead to freely drop through from the barrel (or back into it when retracting). Because the lead falls out freely when the jaws are opened, its forward movement cannot be controlled except by external means. This can be easily done by keeping the tip of the pencil a few millimeters above a work surface or the palm of one's hand. Some clutch pencils do have mechanisms which incrementally advance the lead, such as the Alvin Tech-Matic leadholder, but these are not normally considered to be in the same category as most pencils with propelling mechanisms.  Ratchet-based pencils are a variant of the clutch pencil, in which the lead is held in place by two or three small jaws inside a ring at the tip. The jaws are controlled by a button on the end or the side of the pencil. When the button is pushed, the jaws move forward and separate, allowing the lead to advance. When the button is released and the jaws retract, the "lead retainer" (a small rubber device inside the tip) keeps the lead in place, preventing the lead from either falling freely outward or riding back up into the barrel until the jaws recover their grip. Other designs use a precisely-fitted metal sleeve to guide and support the lead, and do not need a rubber retainer.  In one type of ratchet-based pencil, shaking the pencil back and forth causes a weight inside the pencil to operate a mechanism in the cap. A button may be present on the top or side of the pencil, to allow the user to advance the lead manually when necessary. Another variation advances the lead automatically. In this design, the lead is advanced by a ratchet but only prevented from going back into the pencil, just held from falling by a small amount of friction. The nib is a spring-loaded collar that, when depressed as the lead is worn away, extends out again when pressure is released.  An advanced ratchet type has a mechanism that rotates the pencil lead 9° counter-clockwise every time the lead is pressed on to the paper (which counts as one stroke), to distribute wear evenly. This "auto-rotation" mechanism keeps the lead 50% narrower than in the common propelling mechanical pencils, resulting in uniform thickness of the lines written onto the paper. The design was first patented by Schmidt of Germany, and later developed by Mitsubishi Pencil Company of Japan, and named "Kuru Toga" under the Uni brand. This type of pencil is most suited for Asian languages that have multiple strokes per letter or word, where the pencil is frequently lifted off the paper. The mechanism is not suitable for cursive writing used in western scripts. Another recent auto-rotation movement by Uni rotates the lead 18 degrees per stroke (or 20 strokes per complete revolution), which is better suited for western scripts.  There exist protection mechanisms that prevent the lead from breaking (within certain limits) when excessive pressure is exerted while writing. A mechanism employed in the "DelGuard" system by Zebra of Japan causes the lead sleeve to extend outward when excessive pressure is applied at an angle. When excess vertical pressure is applied on the lead, the lead is automatically retracted inwards.  Higher-end mechanical pencils often feature a lead hardness grade indicator and sometimes feature a retractable lead guide pipe. This allows the lead guide pipe to retract back into the pencil body, which will keep it protected in storage and during transit and makes it 'pocket-safe'.

Lead variations.

In spite of the name, pencil leads do not contain the toxic chemical element lead, but are typically made with graphite and clay, or plastic polymers. Compared to standard pencils, mechanical pencils have a smaller range of marking types, though numerous variations exist. Most mechanical pencils can be refilled, but some inexpensive models are meant to be disposable and are discarded when empty.

Diameter.

Mechanical pencil mechanisms use only a single lead diameter. Some pencils, such as the Pentel Function 357, place several mechanisms within the same housing, so as to offer a range of thicknesses (in this case three: 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 mm). 1.00 mm leads also exist, but they are very rare. (See table below.).  Different sizes of lead diameters are available to accommodate various preferences and pencil builds, as shown in the table below. The more common lead sizes are 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm, whose line widths provide a favourable balance between precision and strength. Less common lead sizes can range from 0.2 mm up to 5.6 mm. Pentel has also previously demonstrated a prototype 0.1 mm pencil. Pencils with sub-millimeter leads can usually hold multiple leads at the same time, reducing the frequency of refills. One exception was the Pentel 350 E, possibly Pentel's first mechanical pencil, which could only hold a single stick of 0.5 mm lead. Refill leads can be bought in small tubes and inserted into the barrel as needed.  The bracketed values in inches were found by calculation and rounded to 3 decimal places.

Hardness.

As with non-mechanical pencils, the leads of mechanical pencils are available in a range of hardness ratings, depending on the user's desired balance between darkness and durability. A commonly-used mechanical pencil lead is identical in density, but not in thickness to a traditional HB (US#2) pencil lead.

Pigments.

Mechanical pencils with colored leads are less common, but do exist. Crayola's "Twistable" product line includes two different types of colored pencils (erasable and non-erasable) with mechanical feed mechanisms, but does not offer refill leads. Several companies such as Pentel, Pilot, and Uni-ball (Mitsubishi Pencil Co.) currently manufacture colored refill leads in a limited range of diameters (0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, or 2.0 mm) for their own products. Koh-i-Noor makes mechanical colored pencils with replaceable leads in 2.0, 3.15 and 5.6 mm sizes.

A mechanical pencil, also clutch pencil, is a pencil with a replaceable and mechanically extendable solid pigment core called a "lead". The lead, often made of graphite, is not bonded to the outer casing, and can be mechanically extended as its point is worn away as it is being used. Other names include microtip pencil, automatic pencil, drafting pencil, technical pencil, click pencil, pump pen, pump pencil, leadholder, pacer (Australian English), propelling pencil (Australian English), pen pencil (Indian English), and lead pencil (Bangladeshi and American English).

Ein Druckbleistift, Fallbleistift oder Minenschreiber (selten auch mechanischer Stift) verwendet statt des durch Anspitzen regelmäßig abzutragenden Holzmantels für die Schreibmine einen wiederverwendbaren Mantel aus Kunststoff oder Metall. Im Gegensatz zu Bleistiften und Farbstiften mit Holzmantel wird daher nie ein Bleistiftverlängerer benötigt, denn die Handhabbarkeit bleibt bei beliebiger Minenlänge stets gleich.


Early life.

Benflis was born on 8 September 1944 in Batna, which is the fifth largest city in Algeria. When he was 13 years old, Benflis lost his father and older brother during the Algerian War. This revolution, which started in 1954 and ended in 1962, led to Algeria gaining its independence from France. But it was a complex war that involved guerilla warfare, torture and counter-terrorism operations. Benflis went to primary school in Batna, before earning his high school diploma from Hihi El Mekki High School in Constantine.

Political career.

Benflis successively held the positions of General Secretary at the office of the Algerian President, as well as Chief of Staff at the Presidential Cabinet. After that, he was appointed as Head of the Government and Secretary-General of the FLN Party, and it was during this post when he ran for president in the 8 April 2004 election. The results of that election were largely seen as distorted by fraud.  Ali Benflis is a veteran human rights activist. He is a founding member of the Algerian Human Rights League, which was set up on 11 November 1987 by the Minister of the Interior and Major-General Larbi Belkheir, with the aim of counteracting the. This organization states that it aims to defend and promote human rights in Algeria, as well as educate citizens about democracy and good governance. Benflis was a member of the executive committee of the Algerian Human Rights League, as well as a delegate for the country's eastern area. His mandate ended on 9 November 1998.  He obtained his law degree in 1968 from The Faculty of Law and Economic Sciences University in Algeria. He became a magistrate and was appointed judge at the Court of Blida in October 1968. It was shortly after this appointment, that he was posted in the central administration of the Ministry of Justice, where he became a sub-director of juvenile delinquency until the end of 1969. After that, he was appointed as prosecutor at the Court of Batna until 1971. From 1971 – 1974 Benflis was acting General-Attorney at the Court of Constantine. It was during this time that he decided to cement his place in legal work, and join the bar.  In 1974, he quickly proved to be one of the most influential lawyers of his generation. So much so, that his peers elected him President of the Lawyers for the Batna area from 1983 – 1985. He was also elected as a member of the executive committee of the National Council of Lawyers during the same period. In 1987, Benflis’ stature catapulted him the position of President of the Bar for Batna. These influential posts were what led Ali Benflis to be appointed Minister of Justice in Algeria, in November 1988.  As minister of Justice (1988 – 1991), the justice system witnessed its deepest and most daring reforms. One such measure was known as the Status of the Judicial Authorities, which established, for the first time, the independence of the judiciary. Several other laws were passed under Benflis: The law governing the lawyers’ profession which reinforced the rights of the defence, the laws related to the professions of notaries and bailiffs as well as texts relating to the clerk’s office. He initiated the adoption of texts consolidating freedom and human rights such as the abolition of the banishment sentence and the elimination of the State Security Court. He improved the prison conditions.  Minister of Justice in three different governments, he will be remembered as the one who required from the authorities that certain judiciary guarantees be respected, such as the right of recourse and the right to a defending counsel for the people subjected to a measure of internment without trial taken in application of the 1991 decree instituting the Emergency State. He will also be remembered because he resigned from the government when his request was not taken into account.

Prime Minister (2000-2003).

Ali Benflis was appointed Prime Minister of Algeria in August 2000. His mandate was renewed in June 2002. During this time, he implemented a new style of governance based on dialogue and consultation. His judicial expertise and open-mindedness allowed him to be able to defuse many social conflicts. He obtained support from his social and economic partners for his legislative initiatives on economic and social reforms. Ali Benflis left the post of Prime Minister in May 2003.  "Al Monitor" claimed that the Benflis prime minister ship was "marked by high-profile scandals".  Benflis' political career was prompted by his election to the Central Committee and the Political Bureau of the FLN in December 1989. He was successively re-elected in 1991, 1996, 1998 and 2000. His political career was further catapulted in September 2001, when he was elected the General-Secretary of the party, and then re-elected in March 2003 during the party’s 8th Congress.  According to "Al Monitor", "many voters" were "turned off" Benflis because of the killing by authorities of 126 (or 127) protesters during the Black Spring that took place in 2001 during his prime ministership. The Black Spring consisted of protests in Kabylie in favour of Berber cultural rights.

2004 presidential election.

Benflis was a main candidate in opposition to Abdelaziz Bouteflika during the 2004 Algerian presidential election, but came a distant second as Bouteflika won with 85.0% of the vote against just 6.4% for Benflis. The turnout was 58.1%.  Four months after the results of the 8 April 2004 presidential election were announced, Benflis retired his mandate as Secretary-General of the FLN Party. He denounced the election results, which were seen by many as marred with fraud. But Ali Benflis made it very clear that just because he was giving up his post, did not mean he was leaving the political scene. He insists he remains loyal to his ideas.  Benflis did not present his candidacy during the 2009 presidential election again won by Bouteflika by 90.24% of the vote.

2014 presidential election.

On 19 January 2014, Benflis announced his intention to stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election. Candidate website.  Algerian Interior Minister Taieb Belaiz announced on 18 April that Bouteflika had won 81.53% of the vote, while Benflis was second placed with 12.18%. The turnout was 51.7%, down from the 75% turnout in 2009.  After the polls closed, Benflis criticised the election as having been marked by "fraud on a massive scale." The turnout figures were also criticised for allegedly being inflated.

2019 presidential election.

Ali Benflis is a candidate in the third attempted date for organising the 2019 Algerian presidential election, on 12 December 2019. "Al Jazeera English" described Benflis and the other four candidates as "all part of the political establishment".

Marriage, family, and personal life.

Ali Benflis is married, and is the father of four children.

Ali Benflis (; born 8 September 1944) is an Algerian politician who was Head of Government of Algeria from 2000 to 2003. In 2003, he became the general secretary of the National Liberation Front party. Benflis was a candidate in the 2004 presidential election, but the poll resulted in the re-election of Abdelaziz Bouteflika. Benflis ran yet again as an independent candidate in the 2014 Algerian presidential elections held on 17 April 2014. The result was that Abdelaziz Bouteflika was reelected as president with 81.53% of the votes, with Benflis ending as runner-up with 12.18%.

Ali Benflis (; * 8. September 1944 in Batna) ist ein algerischer Politiker und ehemaliger Premierminister Algeriens. Nach seinem Jurastudium eröffnete Benflis zuerst eine Rechtsanwaltskanzlei in seiner Heimatstadt Batna. 1987 gründete er die Algerische Liga für Menschenrechte mit und war von 1988 bis 1991 mehrfach Justizminister in verschiedenen Kabinetten. 1995 stieg er ins Zentralkomitee der früheren Einheitspartei FLN auf und übernahm 2003 den Posten des Generalsekretärs. 1999 setzte er sich im Präsidentenwahlkampf für Abdelaziz Bouteflika ein und wurde selbst als dessen enger Vertrauter nach dem Rücktritt Ahmed Benbitours am 26. August 2000 zum neuen Regierungschef ernannt. Am 8. April 2004 trat Benflis schließlich gegen den Amtsinhaber Bouteflika bei den Präsidentschaftswahlen an, musste aber eine herbe Niederlage hinnehmen und wurde hinter Bouteflika (84,99 %) mit nur 6,42 % Zweiter.


Drinks.

The Rheingau, which overlaps with western Hessen, is one of the main wine-growing regions in Germany, and the smaller Hessische Bergstraße region produces dry wines popular in South Hesse. Cider is also widely drunk, especially in the Frankfurt-am-Main area. The local Apfelwein ("apple wine", known as "Ebbelwei" or "Ebbelwoi" in the Hessian dialect) is traditionally served from a large clay jug called a "Bembel" and drunk from a glass with a diamond pattern called a "Geripptes" ("ribbed"). Other popular sour drinks include "Speierling" – Apfelwein with service tree berries added – and "Mispelchen", a glass of calvados or apple brandy served with a medlar. Hessen also includes a number of breweries, with local brands tending to dominate the market in each area.

Food.

Handkäse, a strong sour milk cheese, is associated with the Frankfurt area, where it is often served "mit Musik" ("with music")—a dressing of vinegar, onions and often a bit of caraway—the "music" referring to the flatulence brought about by the raw onions. Outside the Rhine-Main area, the north Hesse town of Kassel has its Ahle Wurst, an air-dried or smoked sausage; Speckkuchen, a bacon quiche; Weckewerk, a brawn sausage.

Sauces.

Another dish traditional to Frankfurt is "Grüne Soße" (or locally "Grie Soß") (meaning green sauce). It's a mixture of herbs, eggs, oil, and vinegar—which might be served with boiled eggs, potatoes or meat. Kassel and northern Hesse are known to have their own variety of or special recipe for "Grüne Soße", which is prepared with seven different chopped herbs, usually with sour cream, quark and/or yoghurt, and sliced boiled eggs. It differs in both appearance and taste.  "Duckefett" is a simple sauce and a regional specialty in northern Hesse, particularly in Kassel. It is made of bacon, onions, sour cream, and occasionally cooked and condensed milk is added. As for side dishes, they are usually Duckefett potatoes, potato dumplings, served occasionally. Because of the low-cost ingredients Duckefett was long considered peasant food.

Sweets.

Although the area is not known for its sweet recipes, Bethmännchen are popular in Frankfurt at Christmas time, and Haddekuche, a form of hard gingerbread scored like a Geripptes, is a traditional accompaniment to Apfelwein. Schmandkuchen, a flat tray-baked cake consisting of a sponge-mixture bottom topped with a thick layer of sour cream/smetana (called ""Schmand"" in German) and traditional whipped full-fat cream, spread generously with loose sugar and cinnamon before being served, is a favored and well-known dessert all over the state, in Northern as much as in Southern Hesse.

Hessian cuisine is based on centuries-old recipes, and forms a major part of the Hesse identity. Reflecting Hesse's central location within Germany, Hessian cuisine fuses north German and south German cuisine, with heavy influence from Bavarian cuisine and Rhenish Hesse. Sour tastes dominate the cuisine, with wines and ciders, sauerkraut and handkäse with onions and vinegar popular.

Die hessische Küche ist die traditionelle Kochkunst und Gastronomie, die man in den Landstrichen findet, die heute dem deutschen Bundesland Hessen angehören.


Effectiveness.

Even though crisis hotlines are common, they have not been well studied. One study found that people's thoughts of suicide decreased during a call to a crisis line, and were lessened for several weeks after their call.  One criticism of suicide hotlines was that those who were determined to kill themselves were unlikely to call one. Also, those with social anxiety may not have the emotional resources to do so. Some callers frequently call crisis helplines.

History.

Such services began in 1953, when Chad Varah, an English vicar, founded The Samaritans service, which soon established branches throughout the United Kingdom. The first Samaritans branch in the United States was established in Boston in 1974. In addition to Boston, there are currently Samaritan branches in Falmouth, Massachusetts (serving the Cape Cod and Islands area), the Merrimack Valley, and the Fall River/New Bedford area. Outside of Massachusetts, there are branches in New York City, Providence, Hartford, Albany, and Keene, New Hampshire.  In the United States, the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Center was founded in 1958 and was the first in the country to provide a 24-hour suicide prevention crisis line and use community volunteers in providing hotline service. San Francisco Suicide Prevention started a hotline named "Call Bruce" in 1962. A similar service, Lifeline, was established in Australia in 1963.  Another service, the volunteer-run crisis helpline Lifelink Samaritans Tas. Inc, originally called Launceston Lifelink, was established in Tasmania in 1968 by concerned citizens of Launceston, Tasmania who decided to create a phone service based on the principles of The Samaritans. The rationale was that people often become suicidal because they cannot discuss their emotional pain with family and friends.  This service provides emotional support 24 hours a day to people throughout Tasmania and does not have any religious affiliations. The organization is a member of Befrienders Worldwide and has a "twinning" relationship with Northampton Samaritans in the UK. Lifelink Samaritans is the oldest telephone befriending service in Tasmania and the fourth oldest in Australia and receives at least 5,000 calls a year.

Telephone counseling.

Some countries regulate the use of the term "counselor". Telephone counseling and crisis hotlines provide a similar telephone support service, and both usually accept crisis and non-crisis calls. In the United States, many college campuses have established telephone counseling lines serviced by student volunteers to compensate for the high demand placed on college mental health services. These hotlines serve callers in crisis, but also serve to provide a listening ear for people who "just need to talk." Typically, hotlines are staffed by volunteers, and are not intended to replace professional, long-term counseling services. They are rather intended to carry callers through an immediate situation. Such hotlines exist at the University of Maryland, the University of Minnesota, Tufts University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Drexel University, Caldwell University, and Texas A&M University.  The term "emotional support helpline" is sometimes used – which does not imply crisis or counseling, and can include email and text messaging. Such services have allowed for the wider dissemination of resources for people facing mental health crises.  With developments in mobile telephony, the use of text or SMS (short message service) has been utilized by counseling services. Youthline, a youth-oriented crisis helpline in New Zealand, began providing a text messaging counseling support line in 2004.

Contact details.

The Volunteer Emotional Support Helplines (VESH) represents 1200 member centres in 61 countries. It has been formed by:

A crisis hotline is a phone number people can call to get immediate emergency telephone counseling, usually by trained volunteers. The first such service was founded in England in 1953 and such hotlines have existed in most major cities of the English speaking world at least since the mid-1970s. Initially set up to help those contemplating suicide, many have expanded their mandate to deal more generally with emotional crises. Similar hotlines operate to help people in other circumstances, including rape, bullying, runaway children, human trafficking, and people who identify as LGBT or intersex. Despite crisis hotlines being common, their effectiveness in reducing suicides is unclear.

Die Telefonseelsorge (Schweiz: Die Dargebotene Hand, englisch: „telephone emergency services“, „crisis hotline“ oder „Samaritans“) ist eine vorwiegend ehrenamtlich betriebene Hilfseinrichtung zur telefonischen Beratung von Menschen mit Sorgen, Nöten und Krisen, die in vielen Ländern besteht. Sie dient als Krisendienst unmittelbar der Suizidprävention und ist in den meisten Ländern rund um die Uhr erreichbar. Über das telefonische Angebot hinaus bietet sie in vielen Ländern zusätzlich ein Beratungsangebot per Mail oder Chat an. Die Telefonseelsorge Deutschland nahm im Jahr 1956 in Berlin ihren Anfang.


Early life.

Hill was born in Long Beach, California, the younger of two sons. His paternal grandfather was a wildcat oil driller; his father worked at Douglas Aircraft as a supervisor on the assembly line. Hill has said that his father and grandfather were "smart, physical men who worked with their heads and their hands" and had "great mechanical ability". Hill's family had originally come from Tennessee and Mississippi, "one of those fallen Southern families, shirtsleeves to shirtsleeves in three generations". "I got along with both my parents very well," Hill said. "I admired them enormously."  Growing up in Southern California, Hill was asthmatic as a child and, as a result, missed several years of school.Despite the discomfort, it made you comfortable being alone with yourself. You weren't as surrounded by your peers as everybody else your age was... In my case it meant tremendous amount of reading at an early age... I read, listened to radio... I became utterly besotted with daytime serials... it enabled me to live in an imaginary world where one is comfortable with abstract ideas, dominated by stories, narrative, and characters. Hill became a film fan at an early age, and the first film he remembers seeing was "Song of the South" (1948). He later described his taste as "juvenile", stating: "I liked adventure, westerns, but I liked everything. Musicals. But the general, I remember not liking kid movies... still don't, I think that's hung on." His asthma

Early career.

Assistant director.

After this contract to make historical documentaries finished, Hill worked for a time in the mail room at Universal ("Somebody told me that was a good way to meet people"). He then got into the training program of the Directors Guild of America, which enabled him to work in television as an apprentice. He observed and worked for over a year on such shows as "Gunsmoke", "Wild Wild West", "Bonanza" and "Warning Shot". "I did a lot of shows for a couple of weeks, they would rotate you through," he says.  Hill wound up as second assistant director on "The Thomas Crown Affair"

Screenwriter.

During this time Hill was writing screenplays at night and on the weekend.  "I began to read screenplays that were being made, and I hesitate to say this, but I guess I read them and said: 'Christ, I could do that.'" It took him "four to five years to write my first screenplay writing at night, while I still had another day job."  He says one of his earlier works "was intensely personal about a love affair I

"Hickey and Boggs".

Hill's first completed screenplay, a Western called "Lloyd Williams and His Brother", was optioned by Joe Wizan. It was never made but the script was admired at Warner Bros who asked Hill to pitch some projects. He came up with a detective story, "Hickey & Boggs" and the studio agreed to finance a draft. "Detective films were very old hat, not the kind of

"The Getaway".

Meanwhile, Peter Bogdanovich's ex-wife Polly Platt, a film editor, had read Hill's script for "Hickey & Boggs" and recommended him to co-write "The Getaway", which Bogdanovich was going to make with Steve McQueen. Bogdanovich and Hill worked on the script together in San Francisco while Bogdanovich was directing "What's Up, Doc?" Hill says that Bogdanovich was interested in making the film a more Hitchcock-type film. They had completed 25 pages when they went back to L.A., whereupon McQueen fired Bogdanovich without reading any of their work. Sam Peckinpah came on to direct; Hill

Two with Paul Newman.

Hill went on to write a pair of Paul Newman films, "The Mackintosh Man" and "The Drowning Pool". By Hill's own admission, his work on "The Mackintosh Man" "wasn't much" and he did it to settle a lawsuit with Warner Bros, with whom he was angry for selling "Hickey & Boggs"—Warners offered to settle the suit if Hill wrote them a screenplay, giving him the chance to adapt his choice of several novels that the studio owned the film rights to. He picked "The Freedom Trap", by Desmond Bagley.  "I wrote a quick script which I was not particularly enamored with myself," Hill said. However it attracted the interest of Paul Newman and

Film director.

"Hard Times".

By the early 1970s, Hill wanted to direct. I think in casual conversation I would have told anybody I wanted to direct. At the same time I knew Hollywood was a closed off place... It was much harder to get in. To be an older director was a very positive thing. It meant you had survived, knew your way, could make things and make them meet your economic responsibilities. It was always paramount in studio minds, especially in those days... If I was going to direct I was going to write my way in. No TV, no play, I was simply somebody who said I have a sensibility, I think I can do this, based on nothing other than my scripts basically. Hill met producer Lawrence Gordon in 1973. He agreed to let Hill direct a film if he wrote a screenplay for

"The Driver".

Hill's second film as a director was "The Driver" starring Ryan O'Neal as a laconic getaway driver for hire and Bruce Dern as a driven cop pursuing him. No character in the film has a name; they are merely The Driver, The Detective, and so forth. Hill originally had wanted to cast Steve McQueen, but he turned down the role because he did not want to do another car film.  "This Walter Hill is a force to be reckoned with," said O'Neal, "a first rate writer and an even better director. And he's fast. Most young directors today think they are David Lean."  "The Driver"

"Alien".

Around this time Hill set up his own production company, Brandywine Productions, to develop and produce films. A script came to him, "Alien", which he optioned and rewrote with his partner, David Giler. Hill and

"The Warriors".

Hill was going to make "The Last Gun" with Larry Gordon but when the financing on the project failed to materialize, Gordon showed Hill a copy of the novel "The Warriors" by Sol Yurick. They took it to Paramount Pictures because they were interested in youth films at the time and succeeded in getting the project financed. Hill remembers "it came together very quickly. Larry had a special relationship with Paramount and we promised to make the movie very cheaply, which we did. So it came

"The Long Riders".

James Keach had developed a script about the Jesse James Gang, "The Long Riders", which United Artists were willing to finance if a suitable director were to be found. Hill was approached and eagerly agreed to film his first Western. The film is remembered for casting real-life acting brothers

"Southern Comfort".

Hill's next film was going to be adaptations of "The Last Good Kiss" (by James Crumley) and then "Red Harvest" (by Dashiel Hammett). However neither were made. Instead Hill did "Southern Comfort", originally written in 1976. It was an intense "Deliverance"-style thriller about a group of U.S. Army National Guardsmen (including Keith Carradine, Powers Boothe and Fred Ward) on weekend maneuvers in the Louisiana bayou who find themselves fighting for survival in the swamps after offending some local Cajuns. The film was seen by many as an allegory for America's involvement in the Vietnam War, although Hill denies this is

"48 Hrs.".

Larry Gross later recalled meeting Hill in the early 1980s: He'd had some success, but then he had a series of setbacks. And there was also the scandal around "The Warriors"; any success had been eclipsed by the killings in the theaters. So there was that, as well as the noncommercial success of "Southern Comfort" and "Long Riders" and the fact that there was a writer's strike. All of that meant that Walter hadn't worked in a while. Meaning a year or

"Streets of Fire".

Hill's box office success with "48 Hrs." enabled him to raise the money for a stylish "rock 'n' roll fable", "Streets of Fire". He almost set this up at Paramount but they changed their mind; Universal decided to finance instead. While initially a box office failure, it gained a greater following in subsequent years (as many of Hill's

"Brewster's Millions".

Hill's success directing Eddie Murphy in "48 Hrs." saw him receive an offer to work with Richard Pryor in a new version of "Brewster's Millions" (1985). This was Hill's first—and, as of 2016, only—full-fledged comedy. He says he purposefully made the film "to improve his bank account and success quotient", and admitted it was "an aberration in the career line".

"Crossroads", "Blue City" and "Aliens".

Hill followed "Brewster's Millions" with "Crossroads" (1986), a music-themed drama from an original script by John Fusco inspired by the life and music of Robert Johnson. The score was done by Ry Cooder, who had been Hill's most regular composer since "The Long Riders". The film performed poorly at the box office, despite the presence of Ralph Macchio in the lead.  He also co-wrote (with Lukas Heller) and executive produced "Blue City" (1986) from a 1947 novel by Ross Macdonald. Hill developed this

"Extreme Prejudice".

In 1987, he returned to hard-edged action with "Extreme Prejudice", a contemporary Western for Carolco Pictures about the War on Drugs based on a story by John Milius and Fred Rexer, which had been originally written in the

"Red Heat".

Hill returned to the buddy-cop genre with "Red Heat" (1988), a sort of Glasnost-era reworking of "48 Hrs." with Arnold Schwarzenegger as a stoic Soviet cop who travels to Chicago to catch a Russian drug-dealer (Ed O'Ross). Schwarzenegger is partnered with a wisecracking American cop (Jim Belushi), who is as laid-back and mouthy as his Soviet counterpart is

"Johnny Handsome".

Hill ended the 1980s with "Johnny Handsome" (1989) starring Mickey Rourke. It was based on a 1972 novel by Morton Freedgood, about a criminal who has plastic surgery and seeks revenge on his colleagues who betrayed him. The project had been developed for a number of years—Hill says he turned down the job four times before

"Another 48 Hrs.".

Hill began the 1990s with the only sequel he has directed to date, "Another 48 Hrs.", with Murphy this time top-billed over Nolte. The sequel to his biggest commercial success was thought by many critics to be merely a retread of the original, but became the highest-grossing film that Hill has directed. The

Later films.

"Trespass" and "Alien 3".

In 1992, Hill directed a film originally called "Looters" about two firemen who cross paths with criminals while searching for stolen loot in an abandoned East St. Louis, Illinois tenement building. However, the 1992 Los Angeles riots broke out shortly before the film's release

"Geronimo" and "Wild Bill".

Hill planned to direct Alec Baldwin in a new version of "The Getaway" based on Hill's original script. Then there was a dispute over the budget and Hill left the project in order to make "". The film was well received by the critics, but fared poorly at the box office. This also happened to "The Getaway" (1994), which ended up being directed by Roger Donaldson from Hill's script.  In 1994, Hill and his wife, agent Hildy Gottlieb, signed

"Last Man Standing".

His 1996 effort "Last Man Standing" with Bruce Willis, a Prohibition-era Western update of "Yojimbo" (and thus reminiscent of that film's inspiration, Dashiell Hammett's "Red Harvest", and its western incarnation, "A Fistful of Dollars") saw him return to his earlier style to some extent: a gruff antihero and

"Supernova".

Hill then directed the 2000 film "Supernova" for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. When the studio did not agree with his vision, they brought in Francis Ford Coppola to re-cut the film. This caused Hill to withdraw from the project and credit himself with the pseudonym "Thomas Lee" (a variation of Alan Smithee), and chose

"Undisputed".

In 2002, Hill directed the prison boxing film "Undisputed" starring Wesley Snipes, Ving Rhames and Peter Falk.  In 2002 he said he wanted to make "Vengeance is Mine", an original contemporary thriller set in Las Vegas, which he had written with Giler. It was not made. "We almost had together a couple of times and financing always slipped away at the

"Deadwood" and "Broken Trail".

Hill served as a director and consulting producer for the pilot episode of the HBO Western drama television series "Deadwood" in 2004. The series was created by David Milch and focused on a growing town in the Western United States. Hill's work on "Deadwood" has seen him return to favour in critical circles to some extent, earning him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series in 2004 and a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series in 2004. However Hill had a falling out with Milch during the editing of the pilot

2010s: "Bullet to the Head" and "The Assignment".

In the 2010s Hill described his status as "semi retired" and said he had a number of projects fall over. Hill: The desirability of hiring directors over 60 is fairly diminished in this marketplace. At the same time, I hadn't had a good-sized hit in quite a while. And, frankly, I went through a couple of experiences that left me pretty disgusted with it all, and I was thinking the time had passed. I was just sitting at home reading magazines and looking out the window — a couple of projects I had had just fallen apart — when I got a call from Sly, who

2019: "The Cowboy Iliad - A Legend Told In The Spoken Word".

In 2019 Hill made his recording debut at age 77 with "The Cowboy Iliad: A Legend Told In The Spoken Word". Written and performed by Hill, the spoken word record tells the story of a deadly shootout that occurred in Newton, Kansas in 1871 and its legendary aftermath of violence

Personal life.

Hill married Hildy Gottlieb, a talent agent at International Creative Management, in

Filmography.

Film.

Walter Hill (born January 10, 1942) is an American film director, screenwriter, and producer. He is widely known for his action films and revival of the Western genre. He has directed such films as "The Warriors", "Hard Times", "The Driver", "Southern Comfort", "48 Hrs." and its sequel "Another 48 Hrs.", "Red Heat", "Last Man Standing", "Undisputed", and "Bullet to the Head", as well as writing the screenplay for the Jim Thompson crime drama "The Getaway" starring Steve McQueen and directed by Sam Peckinpah. He has also directed several episodes of television series such as "Tales from the Crypt" and "Deadwood" and produced the "Alien" films.

Walter Hill (* 10. Januar 1942 in Long Beach, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Filmregisseur. Seine größten Erfolge konnte er in den 1980er Jahren als Regisseur von Actionfilmen verbuchen.


Biography.

He was born in Weimar, the eldest son of Karl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, heir to the Grand Duke, and his wife Princess Pauline of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.  He succeeded his grandfather Karl Alexander as Grand Duke on 5 January 1901, as his father had predeceased him.  His heir was a distant cousin, Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, until his disinheritance in 1909. Hermann's younger brother subsequently served as heir presumptive to the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach until the birth of William Ernest's eldest son.  Wilhelm Ernst created the new Weimar town centre under the direction of Hans Olde, Henry van de Velde, and Adolf Brütt. He also had the University of Jena rebuilt by Theodor Fischer, and also reconstructed Weimar's theatres. The improvements to the city included a marble statue of his predecessor Charles Alexander, which was completed in 1911. It was placed in a setting designed by Brütt. The placement of the setting was designed to distinguish the "old town" from the newly built area. A preservation law for the "old town" barred it to the "art nouveau"-style which was used in the new area.

The Dutch throne.

According to the Dutch constitution, Wilhelm Ernst was in the line for the throne of the Netherlands (as the grandson of Princess Sophie of the Netherlands) after Queen Wilhelmina. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Dutch feared the possibility of German influence or even annexation of the Netherlands. In order to prevent this, some lawyers tried to change the constitution to exclude Wilhelm Ernst from the succession. Another proposal, however, was this: if Wilhelmina would die childless, then he or his offspring would have to choose between the Dutch and the Weimar throne. The birth of Wilhelmina's daughter Juliana in 1909 lessened the chance for any member of the House of Wettin (Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach branch) to inherit the Dutch throne. With the amendment to the constitution of 1922, which restricted the right of succession to the offspring of Wilhelmina, the possibility disappeared entirely.

Abdication.

On 9 November 1918, Grand Duke Wilhelm Ernst - along with the rest of the German monarchs following the defeat of Germany in World War I - was forced to abdicate. His throne and all his lands were relinquished and he fled with his family to the family estate in Silesia, where he died five years later.  Despite all his work for Weimar during his government, Wilhelm Ernst was a hated ruler. This was for his private life, where he was known to be a sadist; the day of his abdication, he was called the ""most unpopular prince in all Germany"".  He died in Heinrichau in Silesia.

Family and children.

In Bückeburg on 30 April 1903 Wilhelm Ernst married firstly with Princess Caroline Reuss of Greiz, a daughter of Prince Heinrich XXII Reuss of Greiz. This marriage was childless and ended in 1905 with the death of Caroline under mysterious circumstances. The official cause of death was pneumonia following influenza; other sources have suggested suicide.  In Meiningen on 21 January 1910, Wilhelm Ernst married secondly with Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen, daughter of Prince Friedrich Johann of Saxe-Meinigen.  They had four children:

William Ernest, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Wilhelm Ernst Karl Alexander Friedrich Heinrich Bernhard Albert Georg Hermann, ""; 10 June 1876 – 24 April 1923), was the last Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

Wilhelm Ernst Karl Alexander Friedrich Heinrich Bernhard Albert Georg Hermann von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach (* 10. Juni 1876 in Weimar; † 24. April 1923 in Heinrichau, Schlesien) war vom 7. Januar 1901 bis zur Novemberrevolution 1918 der letzte "Großherzog von Sachsen". Die volle Titulatur lautete: "Seine Königliche Hoheit Wilhelm Ernst, von Gottes Gnaden Großherzog zu Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach" (ab 1903: "„Großherzog zu Sachsen“), Landgraf in Thüringen, Markgraf zu Meissen, gefürsteter Graf zu Henneberg, Herr zu Blankenhayn, Neustadt und Tautenburg" etc.


Classification.

Twill weaves can be classified from four points of view:

Structure.

In a twill weave, each weft or filling yarn floats across the warp yarns in a progression of interlacings to the right or left, forming a pattern of distinct diagonal lines. This diagonal pattern is also known as a "wale". A "float" is the portion of a yarn that crosses over two or more perpendicular yarns.  A twill weave requires three or more harnesses, depending on its complexity and is the second most basic weave that can be made on a fairly simple loom.  Twill weave is often designated as a fraction, such as, in which the numerator indicates the number of harnesses that are raised (and thus threads crossed: in this example, two), and the denominator indicates the number of harnesses that are lowered when a filling yarn is inserted (in this example, one). The fraction is read as "two up, one down" (the fraction for plain weave is.). The minimum number of harnesses needed to produce a twill can be determined by totaling the numbers in the fraction; for the example described, the number of harnesses is three. Twill weave can be identified by its diagonal lines.

Characteristics.

Twill fabrics technically have a front and a back side, unlike plain weave, whose two sides are the same. The front side of the twill is called the "technical face" and the back the "technical back". The technical face side of a twill weave fabric is the side with the most pronounced wale; it is usually more durable and more attractive, is most often used as the fashion side of the fabric, and is the side visible during weaving. If there are warp floats on the technical face (i.e. if the warp crosses over two or more wefts), there will be filling floats (the weft will cross over two or more warps) on the technical back. If the twill wale goes up to the right on one side, it will go up to the left on the other side. Twill fabrics have no "up" and "down" as they are woven.  Sheer fabrics are seldom made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface already has interesting texture and design, printed twills (where a design is printed on the cloth) are much less common than printed plain weaves. When twills are printed, this is typically done on lightweight fabrics.  Soiling and stains are less noticeable on the uneven surface of twills than on a smooth surface, such as plain weaves, and as a result twills are often used for sturdy work clothing and for durable upholstery. Denim, for example, is a twill.  The fewer interlacings in twills as compared to other weaves allow the yarns to move more freely, and therefore they are softer and more pliable, and drape better than plain-weave textiles. Twills also recover from creasing better than plain-weave fabrics do. When there are fewer interlacings, the yarns can be packed closer together to produce high-count fabrics. With higher counts, including high-count twills, the fabric is more durable, and is air- and water-resistant.  Twills can be divided into "even-sided" and "warp-faced". Even-sided twills include foulard or surah, herringbone, houndstooth, serge, sharkskin, and twill flannel. Warp-faced twills include cavalry twill, chino, covert, denim, drill, fancy twill, gabardine, and lining twill.

Twill is a type of textile weave with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs. It is one of three fundamental types of textile weaves along with plain weave and satin. It is made by passing the weft thread over one or more warp threads then under two or more warp threads and so on, with a "step," or offset, between rows to create the characteristic diagonal pattern. Because of this structure, twill generally drapes well.

Die Köperbindung (auch kurz Köper oder Twill) ist – neben der Leinwand- und der Atlasbindung – eine der drei Grundbindungsarten für gewebte Stoffe. Köperbindungen sind am schräg verlaufenden "Grat" zu erkennen. Das bekannteste Gewebe in Köperbindung ist der Denim, der blau-weiße Jeansstoff. Verläuft der Grat von links oben nach rechts unten, spricht man von einem S-Grat-Köper; verläuft er von links unten nach rechts oben, handelt es sich um einen Z-Grat-Köper, entsprechend der Ausrichtung des Mittelteils der beiden Buchstaben.


Geography.

The episcopal seat was in Havelberg near the confluence of the Elbe and Havel rivers. The bishopric roughly covered the western Prignitz region, between the Altmark in the west and the Brandenburgian core territory in the east. While the episcopal territory was supervised by nine Archdeacons ("Pröpste"), the bishop's—considerably smaller—secular estates were subdivided into four "Ämter":

History.

King Henry the Fowler in 929 marched against the Polabian Slavs settling east of the Elbe River and defeated them in a battle near Lenzen. Occupying the eastern riverbank, Henry had a fortification built on a hill above the Havel tributary, near its mouth into the Elbe. His son Otto I continued the expeditions and in 936/37 established the Saxon Eastern March ("Marca Geronis") on the conquered territories. In 948 he founded the dioceses of Havelberg and Brandenburg, initially suffragans to the Archbishops of Mainz, from 968 to the newly established Archdiocese of Magdeburg. Part of the Northern March from 968, Havelberg diocese was occupied by revolting Lutici tribes in the Great Slav Rising of 983 and merely remained a titular see.  Not until 150 years later, King Lothair III of Germany re-occupied Havelberg in 1130; the eastern Elbe bank was finally reconquered by the Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear in 1136/37. Its first and most famous Prince-Bishop was the Premonstratensian canon Anselm of Havelberg, who had been anointed already in 1129 by the Magedeburg archbishop Norbert of Xanten. Anselm first took his seat at Jerichow in 1144. Upon the Wendish Crusade in 1147, he was able to found a cathedral chapter at Havelberg and to begin the building of Havelberg Cathedral, which was consecrated in 1170.  The diocesan and secular territory were already separated in 1151. However, the bishops held no secular rights in the town of Havelberg itself, which was enfeoffed to the Brandenburg margraves. A charter issued by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to declare the residence an episcopal city was never carried out, and in the following centuries, the Havelberg bishops gradually moved their residence to their "Amt" Wittstock about to the northeast. In 1383 the Holy Blood of Wilsnack became a famous pilgrimage site, while Dietrich Man was bishop. From the 14th century onwards, the Havelberg bishops also used Plattenburg Castle as a summer residence.  After long-lasting quarrels with the mighty Brandenburg prince-electors, the Premonstratensian chapter finally gave in to transform Havelberg into a collegiate church ("Stift"). From 1514 onwards the deans of the cathedral were appointed by the Margraves of Brandenburg. In the course of the Protestant Reformation, the Bishopric of Havelberg turned Lutheran and from 1554 was administrated by Joachim Frederick of Hohenzollern, son of Elector John George of Brandenburg. The Bishopric was finally secularised and incorporated into Brandenburg in 1571. Its annexation was complete, when Joachim Frederick succeeded his father as Brandenburg elector in 1598.

The Bishopric of Havelberg () was a Roman Catholic diocese founded by King Otto I of Germany in 946, from 968 a suffragan to the Archbishops of Magedeburg. A Prince-bishopric ("Hochstift") from 1151, Havelberg as a result of the Protestant Reformation was secularised and finally annexed by the margraves of Brandenburg in 1598.

Das Bistum Havelberg wurde angeblich im Jahre 948 durch König Otto I. begründet. Es unterstand als Suffragandiözese dem Erzbistum Magdeburg. Das Territorium des Hochstifts wurde 1571 nach der Säkularisation vom Kurfürstentum Brandenburg vereinnahmt.


Plot summary.

The book comprises a preface, 25 chapters, and an afterword, with a total of around 72,000 words.

On board the "Ariel" (Chapter I).

Arthur Gordon Pym was born on the island of Nantucket, famous for its fishing harbor and whaling. His best friend, Augustus Barnard, is the son of the captain of a whaling ship. One night, the two boys become drunk and decide, on Augustus's whim, to take advantage of the breeze and sail out on Pym's sailboat, the "Ariel". The breeze, however, turns out to be the beginnings of a violent storm. The situation gets critical when Augustus passes out drunk, and the inexperienced Pym must take control of the dinghy. The "Ariel" is overtaken by the "Penguin", a returning whaling ship. Against the captain's wishes, the crew of the "Penguin" turns back to search for and rescue both Augustus and Pym. After they are safely back on land, they decide to keep this episode a secret from their parents.

On board the "Grampus" (Chapters II – XIII).

His first ocean misadventure does not dissuade Pym from sailing again; rather, his imagination is ignited by the experience. His interest is further fueled by the tales of a sailor's life that Augustus tells him. Pym decides to follow Augustus as a stowaway aboard the "Grampus", a whaling vessel commanded by Augustus's father that is bound for the southern seas. Augustus helps Pym by preparing a hideout in the hold for him and smuggling Tiger, Pym's faithful dog, on board. Augustus promises to provide Pym with water and food until the ship is too far from shore to return, at which time Pym will reveal himself.  Due to the stuffy atmosphere and vapors in the dark and cramped hold, Pym becomes increasingly comatose and delirious over the days. He can't communicate with Augustus, and the promised supplies fail to arrive, so Pym runs out of water. In the course of his ordeal, he discovers a letter written in blood attached to his dog Tiger, warning Pym to remain hidden, as his life depends on it.  Augustus finally sets Pym free, explaining the mysterious message, as well as his delay in retrieving his friend: a mutiny had erupted on the whaling ship. Part of the crew was slaughtered by the mutineers, while another group, including Augustus's father, were set adrift in a small boat. Augustus survived because he had befriended one of the mutineers, Dirk Peters, who now regrets his part in the uprising.  Peters, Pym, and Augustus hatch a plan to seize control of the ship: Pym, whose presence is unknown to the mutineers, will wait for a storm and then dress in the clothes of a recently dead sailor, masquerading as a ghost. In the confusion sure to break out among the superstitious sailors, Peters and Augustus, helped by Tiger, will take over the ship again. Everything goes according to plan, and soon the three men are masters of the "Grampus": all the mutineers are killed or thrown overboard except one, Richard Parker, whom they spare to help them run the vessel. (At this point, the dog Tiger disappears from the novel; his unknown fate is a loose end in the narrative.) The storm increases in force, breaking the mast, tearing the sails and flooding the hold. All four manage to survive by lashing themselves to the hull. As the storm abates, they find themselves safe for the moment, but without provisions. Over the following days, the men face death by starvation and thirst.  They sight an erratically moving Dutch ship with a grinning red-capped seaman on deck, nodding in apparent greeting as they approach. Initially delighted with the prospect of deliverance, they quickly become horrified as they are overcome with an awful stench. They soon realize that the apparently cheerful sailor is, in fact, a corpse propped up in the ship's rigging, his "grin" a result of his partially decomposed skull moving as a seagull feeds upon it. As the ship passes, it becomes clear that all its occupants are rotting corpses.  As time passes, with no sign of land or other ships, Parker suggests that one of them should be killed as food for the others. They draw straws, following the custom of the sea, and Parker is sacrificed. This gives the others a reprieve, but Augustus soon dies from wounds received when they reclaimed the "Grampus", and several more storms batter the already badly damaged ship. Pym and Peters float on the upturned hull and are close to death when they are rescued by the "Jane Guy", a ship out of Liverpool.

On board the "Jane Guy" (Chapters XIV – XX).

On the "Jane Guy", Pym and Peters become part of the crew and join the ship on its expedition to hunt sea calves and seals for fur, and to explore the southern oceans. Pym studies the islands around the Cape of Good Hope, becoming interested in the social structures of penguins, albatrosses, and other sea birds. Upon his urging, the captain agrees to sail farther south towards the unexplored Antarctic regions.  The ship crosses an ice barrier and arrives in open sea, close to the South Pole, albeit with a mild climate. Here the "Jane Guy" comes upon a mysterious island called Tsalal, inhabited by a tribe of black, apparently friendly natives led by a chief named Too-Wit. The color white is alien to the island's inhabitants and unnerves them, because nothing of that color exists there. Even the natives' teeth are black. The island is also home to many undiscovered species of flora and fauna. Its water is also different from water elsewhere, being strangely thick and exhibiting multicolored veins.  The natives' relationship with the sailors is initially cordial, so Too-Wit and the captain begin trading. Their friendliness, however, turns out to be a ruse and on the eve of the ship's proposed departure, the natives ambush the crew in a narrow gorge. Everyone except Pym and Peters is slaughtered, and the "Jane Guy" is overrun and burned by the malevolent tribe.

Tsalal and farther south (Chapters XXI – XXV).

Pym and Peters hide in the mountains surrounding the site of the ambush. They discover a labyrinth of passages in the hills with strange marks on the walls, and disagree about whether these are the result of artificial or natural causes. Facing a shortage of food, they make a desperate run and steal a pirogue from the natives, narrowly escaping from the island and taking one of its inhabitants prisoner.  The small boat drifts farther south on a current of increasingly warm water, which has become milky white in color. After several days they encounter a rain of ashes and then observe a huge cataract of fog or mist, which splits open to accommodate their entrance upon approach. The native dies as a huge shrouded white figure appears before them.  Here the novel ends abruptly. A short post-scriptural note, ostensibly written by the book's editors, explains that Pym was killed in an accident and speculates his final two or three chapters were lost with him, though assuring the public the chapters will be restored to the text if found. The note further explains that Peters is alive in Illinois but cannot be interviewed at present. The editors then compare the shapes of the labyrinth and the wall marks noted by Pym to Arabian and Egyptian letters and hieroglyphs with meanings of "Shaded", "White", and "Region to the South".

Sources.

In order to present the tale as an authentic exploration, Poe used a number of the travel journals that proliferated at the time he was writing the novel. Poe's most significant source was the explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds, whose work "Address on the Subject of a Surveying and Exploring Expedition to the Pacific Ocean and the South Seas" was reviewed favorably by Poe in January 1837. Poe used about 700 words of Reynolds' address in Chapter XVI, almost half the length of the chapter. In 1843, Poe also praised Reynolds in a review of "A Brief Account of the Discoveries and Results of the United States' Exploring Expedition" printed in "Graham's Magazine". It is unclear whether Poe and Reynolds ever met, but legend has it that shortly before Poe's mysterious death, in his delirium Poe called out the name "Reynolds"; though the incident is possibly apocryphal, one theory says Poe meant Jeremiah Reynolds, reflecting the explorer's influence.  In a footnote to Chapter XIII, Poe refers to the "Polly", a wreck which drifted for six months across the Atlantic Ocean in 1811–1812. Poe probably read this history in an 1836 book by R. Thomas, "Remarkable Events and Remarkable Shipwrecks", from which he quotes verbatim.  In Chapter XVI, Poe recounts Captain James Cook's circumnavigation of the globe aboard the "Resolution" that reached 70°10′ latitude. He also drew from "A Narrative of Four Voyages" (1832), an account by Benjamin Morrell that became a bestseller. "A Narrative of Four Voyages" may have given Poe the idea of the summarized title of his novel. Poe may have used these real-life accounts in an attempt to hoax his readers into believing the novel was an autobiographical narrative by Pym.  In addition to historical sources, Poe was influenced by other writers. "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge was a general influence, and scenes of Pym and Dirk Peters in a cave echo scenes in Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe", which many reviewers noted at the time, including London publications such as the "Court Gazette" and the "Torch". The ship of corpses recalls the legend of the "Flying Dutchman", a ship which is cursed and unable to return home.  Poe also incorporated the theories of Reynolds and John Cleves Symmes Jr. on the Hollow Earth. The theory of these works was that a hole at the South Pole led to the interior of the planet, where undiscovered civilizations prospered. As Symmes wrote, the earth was "hollow, habitable, and widely open about the poles". This theory, which he presented as early as 1818, was taken seriously throughout the nineteenth century. Symmes' theory had already served Poe when he wrote, in 1831, "MS. Found in a Bottle", based partly on "Symmes' Theory of the Concentric Spheres", published in 1826. "MS. Found in a Bottle" is similar to Poe's novel in setting, characterization, and some elements of plot. Other writers who later fictionalized this theory include Edgar Rice Burroughs and L. Frank Baum.  In describing life on a long sea voyage, Poe also drew from personal experience. In 1815, a six-year-old Poe along with his foster-parents traveled from Norfolk, Virginia to Liverpool, England, a journey of 34 days. During the difficult trip, young Poe asked his foster father, John Allan, to include him in a letter he was writing. Allan wrote, "Edgar says Pa say something for me, say I was not afraid of the sea." The family returned to the United States in 1820 aboard the "Martha" and docked in New York after 31 days. Closer to the time Poe wrote his novel, he had sailed during his military career, the longest trip being from Boston to Charleston, South Carolina.

Analysis.

"The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" has defied a universally accepted interpretation. Scholar Scott Peeples wrote that it is "at once a mock nonfictional exploration narrative, adventure saga, bildungsroman, hoax, largely plagiarized travelogue, and spiritual allegory" and "one of the most elusive major texts of American literature." Biographer James M. Hutchisson writes that the plot both "soars to new heights of fictional ingenuity and descends to new lows of silliness and absurdity".  One reason for the confusion comes from many continuity errors throughout the novel. For example, Pym notes that breaking a bottle while trapped in the hold saved his life because the sound alerted Augustus to his presence while searching. However, Pym notes that Augustus did not tell him this until "many years elapsed", even though Augustus is dead eight chapters later. Nevertheless, much of the novel is carefully plotted. Novelist John Barth notes, for example, that the midway point of the novel occurs when Pym reaches the equator, the midway point of the globe.  Scholar Shawn Rosenheim believes that the use of hieroglyphs in the novel served as a precursor to Poe's interest in cryptography. The pictographs themselves were likely inspired by "The Kentuckies in New-York" (1834) by William Alexander Caruthers, where similar writing is the work of a black slave. Unlike the previous sea-voyage tales that Poe had written, such as "MS. Found in a Bottle", Pym is undertaking this trip on purpose. It has been suggested that the journey is about establishing a national American identity as well as discovering a personal identity.  Poe also presents the effects of alcohol in the novel. The opening episode, for example, shows that intoxicated people can sometimes seem entirely sober and then, suddenly, the effects of alcohol show through. Such a depiction is a small version of a larger focus in the novel on contradictions between chaos and order. Even nature seems unnatural. Water, for example, is very different at the end of the novel, appearing either colorful or "unnaturally clear." The sun by the end shines "with a sickly yellow lustre emitting no decisive light" before seemingly being extinguished.

Autobiographical elements.

Elements of the novel are often read as autobiographical. The novel begins with Arthur Gordon Pym, a name similar to Edgar Allan Poe, departing from Edgartown, Massachusetts, on Martha's Vineyard. Interpreted this way, the protagonist is actually sailing away from himself, or his ego. The middle name of "Gordon", in replacing Poe's connection to the Allan family, was turned into a reference to George Gordon Byron, a poet whom Poe deeply admired. The scene where Pym disguises himself from his grandfather while noting that he intends to inherit wealth from him also indicates a desire for Poe to free himself from family obligation and, specifically, scorning the patrimony of his foster-father John Allan.  Dates are also relevant to this autobiographical reading. According to the text, Pym arrives at the island of Tsalal on January 19—Poe's birthday. Some scholars, including Burton R. Pollin and Richard Wilbur, suggest that the character of Augustus was based on Poe's childhood friend Ebenezer Burling; others argue he represents Poe's brother William Henry Leonard Poe, who served in South America and elsewhere as a sailor aboard the USS "Macedonian". In the novel, the date of Augustus's death corresponds to that of the death of Poe's brother. The first chapter features Pym's sloop named the "Ariel", the name of a character once played by Poe's mother Eliza Poe, and also the name of Percy Bysshe Shelley's boat, on which he died, originally named "Don Juan" in honor of Lord Byron.

Race.

One thread of critical analysis of this tale focuses on the possibly racist implications of Poe's plot and imagery. One such plot element is the black cook who leads the mutiny on the "Grampus" and is its most bloodthirsty participant. Dirk Peters, a hybrid of white and Native American ancestry, is described as having a ferocious appearance, with long, protruding teeth, bowed legs, and a bald head like "the head of most negroes." The brilliant whiteness of the final figure in the novel contrasts with the dark-skinned savages and such a contrast may call to mind the escalating racial tensions over the question of slavery in the United States as Poe was writing the novel.  Additionally, the novel drew from prevalent assumptions during the time that dark-skinned people were somehow inherently inferior. One critic of the use of race in "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" is Toni Morrison. In her 1992 book "", Morrison discusses how the Africanist presence in the novel is used as an "Other" against which the author defines "white", "free", and "individual". In her explorations of the depiction of African characters in white American literature, Morrison writes that "no early American writer is more important to the concept of American Africanism than Poe" because of the focus on the symbolism of black and white in Poe's novel. This possible racial symbolism is explored further in Mat Johnson's satirical fantasy "Pym" (2011).

Ending.

The novel ends abruptly with the sudden appearance of a bizarre enshrouded figure having skin hued "of the perfect whiteness of the snow." Many readers were left unsatisfied by this ending because, as Poe relative and scholar Harry Lee Poe wrote, "it didn't match the kind of clear ending they expected from a novel." Poe may have purposely left the ending subject to speculation. Some scholars have suggested that the ending serves as a symbolic conclusion to Pym's spiritual journey and others suggest that Pym has actually died in this scene, as though his tale is somehow being told posthumously. Alternatively, Pym may die in the retelling of the story at precisely the same point he "should" have died during the actual adventure. Like other characters in works by Poe, Pym seems to submit willingly to this fate, whatever it is. Kenneth Silverman notes that the figure radiates ambivalence and it is not clear if it is a symbol of destruction or of protection.  The chasms that open throughout the sea in the final moments of the book derive from the Hollow Earth theory. The area closest to the Pole is also, surprisingly, warm rather than cold, as Symmes believed. Symmes also believed there were civilizations inside this Hollow Earth and the enshrouded figure who appears at the end may indicate one such civilization near the Pole.

Composition and publication history.

Poe had intended to collect a number of his early short stories into a volume titled "Tales of the Folio Club" in the 1830s. The collection would be unified as a series of tales presented by members of a literary club designed as burlesques of contemporary literary criticism. Poe had previously printed several of these stories in the Philadelphia "Saturday Courier" and the "Baltimore Saturday Visiter".  An editor, James Kirke Paulding, tried to assist him in publishing this collection. However, Paulding reported back to Poe that the publishers at Harper & Brothers declined the collection, saying that readers were looking for simple, long works like novels. They suggested, "if he will lower himself a little to the ordinary comprehension of the generality of readers, and prepare... a single work... they will make such arrangements with him as will be liberal and satisfactory." They suggested "if other engagements permit... undertake a Tale in a couple volumes, for that is the magical number." The response from Harper & Brothers inspired Poe to begin a long work and began writing "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket". Poe arranged with his boss at the "Southern Literary Messenger" to publish his novel in several serialized installments at a pay rate of $3 per page.  However, Poe retired from his role at the "Messenger" on January 3, 1837, as the installments were being published; some scholars suggest he was fired and this led him to abandoning the novel. His split with the "Messenger" began a "blank period" where he did not publish much and suffered from unemployment, poverty, and no success in his literary pursuits. Poe soon realized writing a book-length narrative was a necessary career decision, partly because he had no steady job and the economy was suffering from the Panic of 1837. He also set part of the story as a quest to Antarctica to capitalize the public's sudden interest in that topic.  After his marriage to Virginia Clemm, Poe spent the following winter and spring completing his manuscript for this novel in New York. He earned a small amount of money by taking in a boarder named William Gowans. During his fifteen months in New York, amidst the harsh economic climate, Poe published only two tales, "Von Jung, the Mystific" and "Siope. A Fable". Harper & Brothers announced Poe's novel would be published in May 1837, but the Panic forced them to delay.  The novel was finally published in book form under the title "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" in July 1838, although it did not include Poe's name and was instead presented as an account by Pym himself. Poe excused the earlier serialized version by noting that the "Messenger" had mistakenly adapted it "under the garb of fiction". As Harper & Brothers recommended, it was printed in two volumes. Its full subtitle was: The first overseas publication of "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" appeared only a few months later when it was printed in London without Poe's permission, although the final paragraph was omitted. This early publication of the novel initiated British interest in Poe.

Literary significance and reception.

Contemporary reviews for "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" were generally unfavorable. Fifteen months after its publication, it was reviewed by Lewis Gaylord Clark, a fellow author who carried on a substantial feud with Poe. His review printed in "The Knickerbocker" said the book was "told in a loose and slip-shod style, seldom chequered by any of the more common graces of composition." Clark went on, "This work is one of much interest, with all its defects, not the least of which is that it is too liberally stuffed with 'horrid circumstances of blood and battle.  Many reviewers commented on the excess of violent scenes. In addition to noting the novel's gruesome details, a review in "Burton's Gentleman's Magazine" (possibly William Evans Burton himself) criticized its borrowed descriptions of geography and errors in nautical information. The reviewer considered it a literary hoax and called it an "impudent attempt at humbugging the public" and regretted "Mr. Poe's name in connexion with such a mass of ignorance and effrontery". Poe later wrote to Burton that he agreed with the review, saying it "was essentially correct" and the novel was "a very silly book".  Other reviews condemned the attempt at presenting a true story. A reviewer for the "Metropolitan Magazine" noted that, though the story was good as fiction, "when palmed upon the public as a true thing, it cannot appear in any other light than that of a bungling business—an impudent attempt at imposing on the credulity of the ignorant." Nevertheless, some readers believed portions of Poe's novel were true, especially in England, and justified the absurdity of the book with an assumption that author Pym was exaggerating the truth. Publisher George Putnam later noted that "whole columns of these new 'discoveries', including the hieroglyphics (sic) found on the rocks, were copied by many of the English country papers as sober historical truth."  In contrast, the renowned 20th-century Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges, who admitted Poe as a strong influence, praised the novel as "Poe's greatest work". H. G. Wells noted that ""Pym" tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago". Even so, most scholars did not engage in much serious discussion or analysis of the novel until the 1950s, though many in France recognized the work much earlier. In 2013, "The Guardian" cited "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" as the tenth greatest novel ever written in English, and noted its influence on later authors such as Henry James, Arthur Conan Doyle, B. Traven and David Morrell.  The financial and critical failure of "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" was a turning point in Poe's career. For one, he was driven to literary duties that would make him money, notably his controversial role as editor of "The Conchologist's First Book" in April 1839. He also wrote a short series called "Literary Small Talk" for a new Baltimore-based magazine called "American Museum of Science, Literature and the Arts".  In need of work, Poe accepted a job at the low salary of $10 per week as assistant editor for "Burton's Gentleman's Magazine", despite their negative review of his novel. He also returned to his focus on short stories rather than longer works of prose; Poe's next published book after this, his only completed novel, was the collection "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" in 1840.

Influence and legacy.

19th century.

Scholars, including Patrick F. Quinn and John J. McAleer, have noted parallels between Herman Melville's "Moby-Dick" and "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" and other Poe works. Quinn noted that there were enough similarities that Melville must have studied Poe's novel and, if not, it would be "one of the most extraordinary accidents in literature". McAleer noted that Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" inspired "Ahab's flawed character" in "Moby-Dick". Scholar Jack Scherting also noted similarities between "Moby-Dick" and Poe's "MS. Found in a Bottle".  "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" became one of Poe's most-translated works; by 1978, scholars had counted over 300 editions, adaptations, and translations. This novel has proven to be particularly influential in France. French poet and author Charles Baudelaire translated the novel in 1857 as "Les Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym". Baudelaire was also inspired by Poe's novel in his own poetry. "Voyage to Cythera" rewrites part of Poe's scene where birds eat human flesh.  French author Jules Verne greatly admired Poe and wrote a study, "Edgar Poe et ses œuvres", in 1864. Poe's story "Three Sundays in a Week" may have inspired Verne's novel "Around the World in Eighty Days" (1873). In 1897, Verne published a sequel to "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" called "An Antarctic Mystery". Like Poe's novel, Verne attempted to present an imaginative work of fiction as a believable story by including accurate factual details. The two-volume novel explores the adventures of the "Halbrane" as its crew searches for answers to what became of Pym. Translations of this text are sometimes titled "The Sphinx of Ice" or "The Mystery of Arthur Gordon Pym".  An informal sequel to "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" is the 1899 novel "A Strange Discovery" by Charles Romeyn Dake, where the narrator, Doctor Bainbridge, recounts the story his patient Dirk Peters told him of his journey with Gordon Pym in Antarctica, including a discussion of Poe's poem "The Raven".

20th century.

Prince Amerigo in Henry James's novel "The Golden Bowl" (1904) remembered "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket": "He remembered to have read as a boy a wonderful tale by Allan Poe... which was a thing to show, by the way, what imagination Americans "could" have: the story of the shipwrecked Gordon Pym, who... found... a thickness of white air... of the color of milk or of snow."  Poe's novel was also an influence on H. P. Lovecraft, whose 1936 novel "At the Mountains of Madness" follows similar thematic direction and borrows the cry "tekeli-li" or "takkeli" from the novel. Chaosium's role-playing adventure "Beyond the Mountains of Madness" (1999), a sequel to Lovecraft's novel, includes a "missing ending" of Poe's novel, in which Pym encounters some of Lovecraft's creatures at their Antarctic city.  René Magritte's 1937 painting "Not to Be Reproduced" depicts a copy of Poe's book in the lower right of the work.  Another French sequel was "La Conquête de l'Eternel" (1947) by Dominique André.  Georges Perec's 1969 novel "A Void", notable for not containing a single letter "e", contains an e-less rewriting of Poe's "The Raven" that is attributed to Arthur Gordon Pym in order to avoid using the two "e"s found in Poe's name.  On May 5, 1974, author and journalist Arthur Koestler published a letter from reader Nigel Parker in "The Sunday Times" of a striking coincidence between a scene in Poe's novel and an actual event that happened decades later: In 1884, the yacht "Mignonette" sank, with four men cast adrift. After weeks without food, they decided that one of them should be sacrificed as food for the other three, just as in Poe's novel. The loser was a young cabin boy named Richard Parker, coincidentally the same name as Poe's fictional character. Parker's shipmates, Tom Dudley and Edwin Stephens, were later tried for murder in a precedent-setting English common law trial, the renowned "R v Dudley and Stephens."  In Paul Theroux's travelogue "The Old Patagonian Express" (1979), Theroux reads parts of "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" to Jorge Luis Borges. Theroux describes it in this book as being the "most terrifying" story he had ever read.  In Paul Auster's City of Glass (1985), the lead character Quinn has a revelation that makes him think of the discovery of the strange hieroglyphs at the end of Poe's novel.  In a 1988 "Young All-Stars" comic book written by Roy and Dann Thomas, Arthur Gordon Pym is a 19th-century explorer who discovered the lost Arctic civilization of the alien Dyzan. Pym goes on to become Jules Verne's Captain Nemo, eventually sinking the RMS "Titanic". This story also uses elements of Edward Bulwer-Lytton's 1871 novel "Vril".

21st century.

Yann Martel named a character in his Man Booker Prize-winning novel "Life of Pi" (2001) after Poe's fictional character, Richard Parker. Mat Johnson's 2011 novel "Pym," a satirical fantasy exploring racial politics in the United States, draws its inspiration from "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket", and closely models the original.  Funeral doom band Ahab based their 2012 album "The Giant" on "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket".

The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838) is the only complete novel written by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The work relates the tale of the young Arthur Gordon Pym, who stows away aboard a whaling ship called the "Grampus". Various adventures and misadventures befall Pym, including shipwreck, mutiny, and cannibalism, before he is saved by the crew of the "Jane Guy". Aboard this vessel, Pym and a sailor named Dirk Peters continue their adventures farther south. Docking on land, they encounter hostile black-skinned natives before escaping back to the ocean. The novel ends abruptly as Pym and Peters continue toward the South Pole.

The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ("Die Erzählung des Arthur Gordon Pym aus Nantucket") ist der einzige Roman des US-amerikanischen Schriftstellers Edgar Allan Poe. Er wurde erstmals im Jahre 1838 veröffentlicht. Der Erzähler beschreibt darin das Leben des Arthur Gordon Pym von der vor der Nordostküste der USA liegenden Insel Nantucket. Pym suchte von Jugend an Abenteuer auf See, die im Laufe der Jahre seine Einstellung zum Leben veränderten. Die Art der Abenteuer sind zum Teil realistisch (Schiffbruch und Meuterei), zum Teil phantastisch (heiße Strömungen und Stromschnellen im Ozean des Südens). Der Roman ist das längste Prosawerk Poes und gilt als eine seiner rätselhaftesten Arbeiten.