Life and career.

1954–1983: Early life and career beginnings.

Dieter Bohlen was born as the eldest son of building contractor Hans Bohlen (born 1928) and his wife Edith (born 1936), and grew up in East Frisia. His maternal grandmother is originally from Königsberg. He has a younger brother named Uwe. The family later moved to (Oldenburg). In his youth, Bohlen was a member of the Socialist German Workers Youth for a while and shortly of the German Communist Party, though he is not a member of any party nowadays. After getting his Abitur at the Wirtschaftsgymnasium der Berufsbildenden Schulen in Oldenburg-Haarentor, he moved to Göttingen. There, he studied business administration at his parents' request at the Georg-August-Universität, finishing his studies in 1978 with a degree.  Bohlen was still in school when he started writing music. In the late 1970s, he worked as a songwriter at the Hamburg-based label Intersong for numerous schlager singers. In 1978, he founded the short-lived duo Monza with Holger Garbode. Their first single, "Hallo Taxi Nummer 10", written and produced by Tony Hendrik, was Bohlen's first record and was unsuccessful. Monza released a second single, "Heiße Nacht in der City", a German-language cover of Nick Gilder's "Hot Child in the City", which also was unsuccessful. In 1980, he began working for the Berlin-based label Hansa. That same year, he released the solo single in English "Don't Throw My Love Away" under the pseudonym Steve Benson. It was followed in 1981 by two other singles under that name, "Love Takes Time", and "(You're A Devil With) Angel Blue Eyes". None of them reached the top 100, which led to the abandonment of the project in 1981. Soon after, he joined the band Sunday, with which he appeared on the "ZDF-Hitparade" in early 1982 with the song "Halé, hey Louise". The song was covered by artists such as Ricky King. In 1983, Bohlen wrote the song "Mit 17" for Bernd Clüver, which reached the third place of the German preselection for the Eurovision Song Contest.

1984–present: Successes as a producer.

After Bohlen produced six unsuccessful singles in German for schlager singer Thomas Anders from 1982 to 1984, they founded the pop duo Modern Talking. The band topped the German singles chart five times in a row with "You're My Heart, You're My Soul", "You Can Win If You Want", "Cheri, Cheri Lady", "Brother Louie", and "Atlantis Is Calling (S.O.S. For Love)", and were also successful in other European countries as well as in Asia and Africa. In 1987, the band split up and Bohlen founded his solo project Blue System, which he ended ten years later. He also continued writing and producing for other artists, including C. C. Catch (whom he discovered), Sheree (whom he signed when she was fifteen years old), and boy band Touché.  In 1986, Bohlen wrote the title song "Midnight Lady" of "Tatort" episode ', which was performed by former Smokie singer Chris Norman and was major hit in Central Europe, topping several charts. The song appeared on Norman's second solo album "Some Hearts Are Diamonds", which was produced by Bohlen. In 1988, he wrote the title song of "Tatort" episode ', "Silent Water", which he performed himself as Blue System. In 1989, two songs written and produced by him were sent to the Eurovision Song Contest: Nino de Angelo represented Germany with the song "Flieger" and reached place 14, while Thomas Forstner represented Austria with the song "Nur ein Lied" and reached place 5. Also in 1989, Bohlen wrote the soundtrack to the ZDF series "Rivalen der Rennbahn", which was certified platinum in Germany that same year and reached the top 5 in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.  In 1991, Bohlen produced Roy Black's final album "Rosenzeit". From 1991 to 1993, he worked with Bonnie Tyler on the albums "Bitterblue", "Angel Heart", and "Silhouette in Red". The collaboration spawned a number of successful singles, such as "Bitterblue", "Against the Wind" (which was used as the title song of "Tatort" episode ""), and "Fools Lullaby". In 1992, another Bohlen composition represented Austria at the Eurovision Song Contest. Titled "Zusammen geh'n", it was performed by Tony Wegas and reached place 10. In 1998, Modern Talking made a successful comeback, releasing singles such as "You're My Heart, You're My Soul '98, "You Are Not Alone", or Formula One songs "Win the Race" and "Ready for the Victory", but split up again in 2003.  In 2002, "Deutschland sucht den Superstar" (often shortened as "DSDS"), the German version of "Pop Idol" and "American Idol", was launched with Bohlen as one of the judges. While the jury around him is regularly modified, he has been present on all seasons. He has produced most of the winners, yielding several hits such as "We Have a Dream". That same year, he published his first book, an autobiography titled "Nichts als die Wahrheit", written in collaboration with "Bild" journalist, which sold over a million copies in Germany and got a. A second autobiography written with Kessler, "Hinter den Kulissen", was published the next year. It was criticised for its unfairness and earned Bohlen charges pressed by his former bandmate Thomas Anders. Frank Farian published the book "Stupid Dieser Bohlen: Die Wahrheit und nichts als die Wahrheit über den Pop-Hochstapler" as a response, in which he tried to expose Bohlen as a fraud. Both "Nichts als die Wahrheit" and "Hinter den Kulissen" were also released as audiobooks read by Bohlen. In 2004, he won the ECHO for Producer of the Year, while "We Have a Dream" earned the ECHO for Rock/Pop Single of the Year (National).  In March 2006, "", a satirical cartoon film based on "Nichts als die Wahrheit", premiered. Bohlen did not voice his own role, but voiced the narrator. He wrote and produced the entirety of the film's, which includes the previously unreleased Modern Talking song "Shooting Star". Later that year, he produced the song "Be My Boyfriend" for the duo Indiggo, which reached the seventh place of the Romanian preselection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. Also in 2006, he published his third book, "Meine Hammer-Sprüche". In 2007, the German instalment of the "Got Talent" franchise, "Das Supertalent", was launched with Bohlen as one of the judges. Similarly to "Deutschland sucht den Superstar", the jury around him changes regularly but he has been present on all seasons. In 2008, he published two more books, "Nur die Harten kommen in den Garten! Der Weg zum Superstar" and "Der Bohlenweg: Planieren statt Sanieren". In 2010, he began working with schlager singer Andrea Berg. All of her albums produced by him ("Schwerelos", "Abenteuer", "Atlantis", and "Seelenbeben") topped the German and Austrian album charts. He ended their collaboration per email on 17 March 2018. On 3 April 2019, Bohlen and Berg announced they would publish two new songs together.

Personal life.

From 1983 to 1989, Dieter Bohlen was married to Erika Sauerland, who he had met in 1974 in Göttingen. They have three children: Marc, Marvin, and Marielin. From 1989 to 1996, he was in a relationship with television personality and singer Nadja Abd el Farrag, also known under the stage name Naddel. On 13 May 1996, he married model Verona Feldbusch in Las Vegas, but they separated after four weeks. The divorce was finalised on 27 May 1997. From 1997 to 2001, he was in a relationship with Abd el Farrag again.  From 2001 to 2006, Bohlen lived with model and dancer Estefania Küster. Their son Maurice Cassian was born on 7 July 2005. Since 2006, he has been in a relationship with Fatma Carina Walz, who he met in Mallorca, where one of the casting events for "Deutschland sucht den Superstar" was held. They have a daughter named Amelie (born 22 March 2011) and a son named Maximilian (born 7 September 2013).  Bohlen lives in the village of Tötensen near Hamburg. He is left-handed, but was forced to learn how to write with his right hand at grammar school. He plays tennis with his left hand because he started tennis after his school years. According to an article by the "Manager Magazine" in 2018, Bohlen has a net worth of 250 million Euros, making him one of the thousand richest Germans.

Artistry.

Dieter Bohlen's productions are characterised by simply structured compositions. In the 1980s and 1990s, often working in the studio with Spanish producer Luis Rodríguez, he produced Euro disco and Eurodance songs for Modern Talking, Blue System, and C. C. Catch with falsetto choruses. Those choruses were achieved with the help of session singers, such as Rolf Köhler, Michael Scholz, and Detlef Wiedeke. With "Deutschland sucht den Superstar" winners, Bohlen tends to focus on pop ballads.  Copyright expert Paul Hertin from Berlin repeatedly claimed that Bohlen "stole" several songs and thus breached copyright. For example, Hertin says that Bohlen used the melody of Babyface's "What If" for the production of Yvonne Catterfeld's "Für dich". Based on Hertin's expert assessment regarding the plagiarism allegations, the Berlin prosecutor's office initiated a preliminary investigation against Bohlen, which was dropped.

Other ventures.

Casting shows.

Dieter Bohlen has been present on "Deutschland sucht den Superstar", the German version of "Pop Idol" and "American Idol", since the show was launched in 2002. He often makes blunt and controversial comments, including insults and wisecracks about contestants and their singing abilities (such as "You sing like a garden gnome on ecstasy" or "Your voice sounds like Kermit getting his arse kicked"), which led to comparisons with Simon Cowell in the German-speaking press. He earns 1.2 million euros per season. He has worked with most of the winners and occasionally with other candidates, such as first season third-placer Daniel Küblböck, yielding several major hits. Since the show was launched in 2007, Bohlen has also been a judge on "Das Supertalent", the German instalment of the "Got Talent" franchise, being the only judge to have been present in every season.

Products and endorsements.

Dieter Bohlen has signed numerous advertising deals with companies such as Müller Milch,, S.Oliver, O2,,, the Deutsche Bahn, and Unilever. He has been a longtime advertising partner of Camp David. In 2020, he has been the face of Camp David for 10 years.  Between 2002 and 2008, Bohlen published five books, ranging from autobiographies to advice books. In 2005, he released a fragrance named "Provocation". In 2011, he founded the clothing label "Needs Clothing" along with Felix Werner. In 2013, he released a line of wallpapers through P+S.

Dieter Bohlen (; born Dieter Günter Bohlen on 7 February 1954) is a German musician, songwriter, record producer, and television personality. Often referred to as the "Pop-Titan" in the German-speaking press, he first achieved fame as a member of pop duo Modern Talking in the 1980s, and has since produced numerous German and international artists. He is also a judge on casting shows "Deutschland sucht den Superstar" and "Das Supertalent", having been present on all seasons of both shows.

Dieter Günter Bohlen (* 7. Februar 1954 in Berne) ist ein deutscher Musikproduzent, Komponist, Songwriter, Multiinstrumentalist und Sänger. Er wurde in den 1980er-Jahren als Mitglied des Pop-Duos Modern Talking bekannt. Neben erfolgreichen Produktionen nationaler und internationaler Künstler ist er ständiges Jurymitglied der Casting-Sendungen "Deutschland sucht den Superstar" und "Das Supertalent".


Statements.

The classical form of Jensen's inequality involves several numbers and weights. The inequality can be stated quite generally using either the language of measure theory or (equivalently) probability. In the probabilistic setting, the inequality can be further generalized to its "full strength".

Finite form.

For a real convex function formula_6, numbers formula_7 in its domain, and positive weights formula_8, Jensen's inequality can be stated as:  and the inequality is reversed if formula_6 is concave, which is  Equality holds if and only if formula_12 or formula_6 is linear on a domain containing formula_14.  As a particular case, if the weights formula_8 are all equal, then (1) and (2) become  For instance, the function is "concave", so substituting formula_18 in the previous formula (4) establishes the (logarithm of the) familiar arithmetic-mean/geometric-mean inequality:  A common application has formula_20 as a function of another variable (or set of variables) formula_21, that is, formula_22. All of this carries directly over to the general continuous case: the weights are replaced by a non-negative integrable function, such as a probability distribution, and the summations are replaced by integrals.

Measure-theoretic and probabilistic form.

Let formula_23 be a probability space, such that formula_24. If formula_25 is a real-valued function that is formula_26-integrable, and if formula_6 is a convex function on the real line, then:  In real analysis, we may require an estimate on  where formula_30, and formula_31 is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function. In this case, the Lebesgue measure of formula_32 need not be unity. However, by integration by substitution, the interval can be rescaled so that it has measure unity. Then Jensen's inequality can be applied to get  The same result can be equivalently stated in a probability theory setting, by a simple change of notation. Let formula_34 be a probability space, "X" an integrable real-valued random variable and a convex function. Then:  In this probability setting, the measure is intended as a probability formula_36, the integral with respect to as an expected value formula_37, and the function formula_25 as a random variable "X".  Notice that the equality holds if and only if "X" is constant (degenerate random variable) or if is almost surely linear (that is, if there is a Borel-measurable set formula_39 of full measure such that is a linear function on formula_40, i.e., there exist formula_41 such that formula_42, for all formula_43).

General inequality in a probabilistic setting.

More generally, let "T" be a real topological vector space, and "X" a "T"-valued integrable random variable. In this general setting, "integrable" means that there exists an element formula_44 in "T", such that for any element "z" in the dual space of "T": formula_45, and formula_46. Then, for any measurable convex function and any sub-σ-algebra formula_47 of formula_48:  Here formula_50 stands for the expectation conditioned to the σ-algebra formula_47. This general statement reduces to the previous ones when the topological vector space is the real axis, and formula_47 is the trivial -algebra (where is the empty set, and is the sample space).

A sharpened and generalized form.

Let "X" be a one-dimensional random variable with mean formula_26 and variance formula_54. Let formula_55 be a twice differentiable function, and define the function  Then  In particular, when formula_55 is convex, then formula_59, and the standard form of Jensen's inequality immediately follows.

Proofs.

Jensen's inequality can be proved in several ways, and three different proofs corresponding to the different statements above will be offered. Before embarking on these mathematical derivations, however, it is worth analyzing an intuitive graphical argument based on the probabilistic case where is a real number (see figure). Assuming a hypothetical distribution of values, one can immediately identify the position of formula_44 and its image formula_61 in the graph. Noticing that for convex mappings the corresponding distribution of values is increasingly "stretched out" for increasing values of, it is easy to see that the distribution of is broader in the interval corresponding to and narrower in for any ; in particular, this is also true for formula_62. Consequently, in this picture the expectation of will always shift upwards with respect to the position of formula_61. A similar reasoning holds if the distribution of covers a decreasing portion of the convex function, or both a decreasing and an increasing portion of it. This "proves" the inequality, i.e.  with equality when is not strictly convex, e.g. when it is a straight line, or when follows a degenerate distribution (i.e. is a constant).  The proofs below formalize this intuitive notion.

Proof 1 (finite form).

If and are two arbitrary nonnegative real numbers such that then convexity of implies  This can be easily generalized: if are nonnegative real numbers such that, then  for any. This "finite form" of the Jensen's inequality can be proved by induction: by convexity hypotheses, the statement is true for "n" = 2. Suppose it is true also for some "n", one needs to prove it for. At least one of the is strictly positive, say ; therefore by convexity inequality:  Since  one can apply the induction hypotheses to the last term in the previous formula to obtain the result, namely the finite form of the Jensen's inequality.  In order to obtain the general inequality from this finite form, one needs to use a density argument. The finite form can be rewritten as:  where "μ" is a measure given by an arbitrary convex combination of Dirac deltas:  Since convex functions are continuous, and since convex combinations of Dirac deltas are weakly dense in the set of probability measures (as could be easily verified), the general statement is obtained simply by a limiting procedure.

Proof 2 (measure-theoretic form).

Let "g" be a real-valued μ-integrable function on a probability space Ω, and let be a convex function on the real numbers. Since is convex, at each real number we have a nonempty set of subderivatives, which may be thought of as lines touching the graph of at, but which are at or below the graph of at all points (support lines of the graph).  Now, if we define because of the existence of subderivatives for convex functions, we may choose "a" and "b" such that for all real and But then we have that for all. Since we have a probability measure, the integral is monotone with so that  as desired.

Proof 3 (general inequality in a probabilistic setting).

Let "X" be an integrable random variable that takes values in a real topological vector space "T". Since formula_76 is convex, for any formula_77, the quantity  is decreasing as approaches 0. In particular, the "subdifferential" of formula_6 evaluated at in the direction is well-defined by  It is easily seen that the subdifferential is linear in (that is false and the assertion requires Hahn-Banach theorem to be proved) and, since the infimum taken in the right-hand side of the previous formula is smaller than the value of the same term for, one gets  In particular, for an arbitrary sub--algebra formula_82 we can evaluate the last inequality when formula_83 to obtain  Now, if we take the expectation conditioned to formula_82 on both sides of the previous expression, we get the result since:  by the linearity of the subdifferential in the "y" variable, and the following well-known property of the conditional expectation:

Applications and special cases.

Form involving a probability density function.

Suppose is a measurable subset of the real line and "f"("x") is a non-negative function such that  In probabilistic language, "f" is a probability density function.  Then Jensen's inequality becomes the following statement about convex integrals:  If "g" is any real-valued measurable function and formula_89 is convex over the range of "g", then  If "g"("x") = "x", then this form of the inequality reduces to a commonly used special case:

Example: even moments of a random variable.

If "g"("x") = "x", and "X" is a random variable, then "g" is convex as and so  In particular, if some even moment "2n" of "X" is finite, "X" has a finite mean. An extension of this argument shows "X" has finite moments of every order formula_94 dividing "n".

Alternative finite form.

Let and take to be the counting measure on, then the general form reduces to a statement about sums:  provided that and  There is also an infinite discrete form.

Statistical physics.

Jensen's inequality is of particular importance in statistical physics when the convex function is an exponential, giving:  where the expected values are with respect to some probability distribution in the random variable.  The proof in this case is very simple (cf. Chandler, Sec. 5.5). The desired inequality follows directly, by writing  and then applying the inequality to the final exponential.

Information theory.

If is the true probability density for, and is another density, then applying Jensen's inequality for the random variable and the convex function gives  Therefore:  a result called Gibbs' inequality.  It shows that the average message length is minimised when codes are assigned on the basis of the true probabilities "p" rather than any other distribution "q". The quantity that is non-negative is called the Kullback–Leibler divergence of "q" from "p".  Since is a strictly convex function for, it follows that equality holds when equals almost everywhere.

Rao–Blackwell theorem.

If "L" is a convex function and formula_47 a sub-sigma-algebra, then, from the conditional version of Jensen's inequality, we get  So if δ("X") is some estimator of an unobserved parameter θ given a vector of observables "X"; and if "T"("X") is a sufficient statistic for θ; then an improved estimator, in the sense of having a smaller expected loss "L", can be obtained by calculating  the expected value of δ with respect to θ, taken over all possible vectors of observations "X" compatible with the same value of "T"("X") as that observed. Further, because T is a sufficient statistics, formula_104 does not depend on θ, hence, becomes a statistics.  This result is known as the Rao–Blackwell theorem.

In mathematics, Jensen's inequality, named after the Danish mathematician Johan Jensen, relates the value of a convex function of an integral to the integral of the convex function. It was proved by Jensen in 1906. Given its generality, the inequality appears in many forms depending on the context, some of which are presented below. In its simplest form the inequality states that the convex transformation of a mean is less than or equal to the mean applied after convex transformation; it is a simple corollary that the opposite is true of concave transformations.

Die jensensche Ungleichung ist eine elementare Ungleichung für konvexe und konkave Funktionen. Sie ist wegen ihrer Allgemeinheit Grundlage vieler bedeutender Ungleichungen, vor allem in der Analysis und Informationstheorie. Die Ungleichung ist nach dem dänischen Mathematiker Johan Ludwig Jensen benannt, der sie am 17. Januar 1905 bei einer Konferenz der Dänischen Mathematischen Gesellschaft präsentierte. Unter etwas anderen Voraussetzungen findet sie sich bereits 1889 bei Otto Hölder.


History.

In 1787, Swedish part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby, Sweden (part of the Stockholm Archipelago). Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten, he named it ytterbite. Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794; in 1797, the new oxide was named "yttria". In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been "yttrium". Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol "Yt" was used for the element, after which "Y" came into common use. Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium(III) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride.  In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium. Mendeleev made several predictions on the upper neighbor of yttrium, which he called "eka-boron". Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team discovered the missing element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium(III) oxide of high purity. He named it scandium, from the Latin "Scandia" meaning "Scandinavia". Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev's suggestions were correct; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law. Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev. Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides.  In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Vilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named "ceria" after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier. Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth. Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius: he separated out two other oxides which he named "lanthana" and "didymia". He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid. Since lanthanum's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium, and occurred along with it in its salts, he named it from the Ancient Greek "λανθάνειν" [lanthanein] (lit. "to lie hidden"). Relatively pure lanthanum metal was

Characteristics.

Chemical.

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations, especially the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior. However, lawrencium is an exception, since its last electron is transferred to the 7p subshell due to relativistic effects.<ref name="7p1/2"></ref>  Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group; chemical properties of both actinium and especially

Physical.

Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas (scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, actinium) show a clear trend in their physical properties, such as hardness. At the same time, if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium, several trends are broken. For example, scandium and yttrium are both soft metals. Lanthanum is soft as well; all these

Composition of group 3.

Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3, the identity of the next two elements is not completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the "f" block elements start and end.  The detachment of the lanthanides from the main body of the periodic table has been attributed to the Czech chemist Bohuslav Brauner who, in 1902, allocated all of them ("Ce etc.") to one position in group 4, below zirconium. This arrangement was referred to as the "asteroid hypothesis", in analogy to asteroids occupying a single orbit in the solar system. Before this time the lanthanides were generally (and unsuccessfully) placed throughout groups I to VIII of the older 8-column form of periodic table. Although predecessors of Brauner's 1902 arrangement are recorded from as early as 1895, he is known to have referred to the "chemistry of asteroids" in an 1881 letter to Mendeleev. Other authors assigned all of the lanthanides to either group 3, groups 3 and 4, or groups 2, 3 and 4. In 1922 Niels Bohr continued the detachment process by locating the lanthanides between the s- and d-blocks. In 1949 Glenn T. Seaborg (re)introduced the form of periodic table that is popular today, in which the lanthanides and actinides appear as footnotes. Seaborg first published his table in a classified report dated 1944. It was published again by him in 1945 in "Chemical and Engineering News," and in the years up to 1949 several authors commented on, and generally agreed with, Seaborg's proposal. In that year he noted that the best method for presenting the actinides seemed to be by positioning them below, and as analogues of, the lanthanides.  It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the [periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks". A third common variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by the lanthanides and the actinides. A fourth variant shows group 3 bifurcating after Sc-Y, into an La-Ac branch, and an Lu-Lr branch.  In 1895, even before the discovery of lutetium, Hans Peter Jørgen Julius Thomsen considered lanthanum to ytterbium to form a 14-element series. Since 1921, many chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium but the majority of authors seem either unconvinced by them or unaware of them. Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy. In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter, considering only the first two alternatives as possibilities.

Occurrence.

Scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and lutetium tend to occur together with the other lanthanides (except promethium) in the Earth's crust, and are often harder to extract from their ores. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust for group 3 is quite low—all the elements in the group are uncommon, the most abundant being yttrium with abundance of approximately 30 parts per million (ppm); the abundance of scandium is 16 ppm, while that of lutetium is about 0.5 ppm. The abundance of lanthanum is greater, being about 35 ppm. For comparison, the abundance of copper is 50 ppm, that of chromium is 160 ppm, and that of molybdenum is 1.5

Production.

The most available element in group 3 is yttrium, with annual production of 8,900 tonnes in 2010. Yttrium is mostly produced as oxide, by a single country, China (99%). Lutetium and scandium are also mostly obtained as oxides, and their annual production by 2001 was about 10 and 2 tonnes, respectively.  Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct

Biological chemistry.

Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility, and have low availability to the biosphere. No group 3 element has any documented biological role in living organisms. The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells, causing radiation poisoning.  Scandium has no biological role, but it is found in living organisms. Once reached a human, scandium concentrates in the liver and is a threat to it; some its compounds are possibly carcinogenic, even through in general scandium is not toxic. Scandium is known to have reached the food chain, but in trace amounts only; a typical human takes in less than 0.1 micrograms per day. Once released into the environment, scandium gradually accumulates in soils, which leads to increased concentrations in soil particles, animals and humans. Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment, due to the fact that damps and gases can be inhaled with air. This can cause lung embolisms, especially during long-term exposure. The element is known to damage cell membranes of water animals, causing several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system.  Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans. There is normally as little as 0.5 milligrams found within the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm. Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount. With up to 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.  Lutetium has no biological role as well, but it is found even in the highest known organism, the humans, concentrating in bones, and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys. Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides. Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content, so it is not known how much the average human takes in, but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year, all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants. Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble ones are not. Lanthanum is not essential for humans and has a low to moderate level of toxicity. However, it is essential for the methanotrophic bacterium "Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum" SolV, although the general similarity of the rare earths means that it may be substituted by some of the other early lanthanides with no ill effects.  The high radioactivity of lawrencium would make it highly toxic to living cells, causing radiation poisoning. The same is true for actinium.

Group 3 is a group of elements in the periodic table. This group, like other d-block groups, should contain four elements, but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group. Scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are always included, but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or by lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements (with all the lanthanides and actinides included) or bifurcated to include both La-Ac and Lu-Lr. When the group is understood to contain all of the lanthanides, it subsumes the rare-earth metals. Yttrium, and less frequently scandium, are sometimes also counted as rare-earth metals.

Zur 3. Gruppe (Scandiumgruppe) (III. Nebengruppe) im Periodensystem der Elemente gehören die Elemente Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthan (La) und Actinium (Ac). Scandium und Yttrium werden zu den Leichtmetallen gezählt. Die auf das Lanthan in der 6. Periode folgenden Elemente werden als Lanthanoide, die auf Actinium in der 7. Periode folgenden als Actinoide bezeichnet.


Biography.

Marriage and children.

He was married to Queen Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe (1926–2017), and the couple had four children:

Life and reign.

The King's full baptismal name was Siaosi Tāufaʻāhau Tupoulahi, but he was soon better known by the traditional title reserved for Crown Princes: Tupoutoʻa (bestowed in 1937), later replaced by the title he inherited from his father: Tungī (or using both: Tupoutoʻa-Tungī, in that time written as Tuboutoʻa-Tugi). He kept the Tungī title until his death. From a traditional point of view he was not only the Tungī, which is the direct descendant from the Tuʻi Haʻatakalaua, but he was also, on becoming king, the 22nd Tuʻi Kanokupolu. The link with the Tuʻi Tonga, was more indirect. He was not a Tuʻi Tonga too (as that office has gone over into the Kalaniuvalu line), but his grandmother Lavinia Veiongo (wife of George Tupou II) was the great-granddaughter of Laufilitonga, the last Tuʻi Tonga, and his wife Halaevalu Mataʻaho (not to be confused with the King's wife of the same name and same family), who was the daughter of Tupou ʻAhomeʻe, who was the daughter of Lātūfuipeka, the Tamahā (sister of the Tuʻi Tonga). By consequence, the King's daughter, Pilolevu, was the first woman in Tongan culture to really have the blood of the three major Royal dynasties in her veins and become the highest-ranking person ever.  The King was a keen sportsman and religious preacher in his youth. He was educated at Newington College and studied Law at Sydney University while resident at Wesley College in Sydney, Australia. He was appointed Minister of Education by Queen Sālote in 1943, Minister of Health in 1944, and in 1949, Premier. He remained a lay preacher of the Free Wesleyan Church until his death, and in some circumstances, was empowered to appoint an acting church president. In the 1970s, he was the heaviest monarch in the world, weighing in at over 200 kg (440 pounds or 31 stone). For his visits to Germany, the German Government used to commission special chairs that could support his weight. The King used to take them home, considering them as state presents. In the 1990s, he took part in a national fitness campaign, losing a third of his weight.  The King was also very tall, standing. Shoemaker Per-Enok Kero reported that "He weighed 180 kilos and had shoe size 47 in length and 52 in breadth."  He wielded great political authority and influence in Tonga's essentially aristocratic system of government, together with the country's nobles, who control 70% of the Legislative Assembly of Tonga. His involvement in an investment scandal, however, involving his appointed court jester Jesse Bogdonoff, had in his last years embroiled the King in controversy, and led to calls for greater government transparency and democratisation. In 2005, the government spent several weeks negotiating with striking civil service workers before reaching a settlement. The king's nephew, Tuʻi Pelehake (ʻUluvalu), served as mediator. A constitutional commission presented a series of recommendations for constitutional reform to the King a few weeks before his death.

Death and funeral.

On 15 August 2006, Tongan Prime Minister Feleti Sevele interrupted radio and television broadcasts to announce that the King was gravely ill in the Mercy Hospital in Auckland and to ask the 104,000 people of the island chain to pray for their King, He died 26 days later, at 23:34 on 10 September 2006 (New Zealand time: it was just after midnight on 11 September in Tongan time). He was 88 and had reigned for 41 years.  Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV was buried on 19 September 2006 at Malaʻe Kula (the Royal cemetery) in the Tongan capital, Nukuʻalofa. Thousands of Tongans watched the funeral and mourners included many foreign dignitaries, including Japanese Crown Prince Naruhito, New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark, Fijian Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase, Vanuatu president Kalkot Mataskelekele, the American Samoan Governor Togiola Tulafono, Niue Premier Vivian Young, and the Duke of Gloucester, a cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. The funeral blended Christian and ancient Polynesian burial rites. The funeral was overseen by the Royal undertaker Lauaki and his men of the Haʻatufunga (clan), also known as the "nima tapu" (sacred hands).  According to the "International Herald Tribune", "Tupou IV's 41-year reign made him one of the world's longest-serving sovereigns", after Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej; Queen Elizabeth II, as queen of Australia, Barbados, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom, specifically; and Samoa's head of state, Malietoa Tanumafili II.

Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV (4 July 1918 – 10 September 2006), son of Queen Sālote Tupou III and her consort Prince Viliami Tungī Mailefihi, was the king of Tonga from the death of his mother in 1965 until his own death in 2006.

Taufa’ahau Tupou IV. (* 4. Juli 1918 in Nukuʻalofa; † 10. September 2006 in Auckland, Neuseeland) war von 1965 bis zu seinem Tod der König von Tonga.


Origin.

The word "parvenu" typically describes a person who recently ascended the social ladder, especially a "nouveau riche" or "new money" individual. The famous Margaret Brown, who survived the "Titanic" sinking in 1912, was portrayed as a "new money" individual in the "climbing social classes" musical "The Unsinkable Molly Brown" because of her impoverished Irish immigrant roots and lack of social pedigree.  The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines a "parvenu" as: "A person from a humble background who has rapidly gained wealth or an influential social position; a nouveau riche; an upstart, a social climber. Also in extended use. Generally used with the implication that the person concerned is unsuited to the new social position, esp. through lacking the necessary manners or accomplishments."  The term designates individuals not socially accepted by individuals already established in their new class. It expresses a form of classism.

Social climber.

A social climber is a derogatory term that denotes someone who seeks social prominence through aggressive, fawning, or obsequious behavior. The term is sometimes used as synonymous with parvenu, and may be used as an insult, suggesting a poor work ethic or disloyalty to roots.

Examples.

Several examples might include athletic and entertainment professionals born and raised in poverty and suddenly finding themselves with significantly higher income due to their new-found celebrity status.  Established royal families of Europe regarded the Bonaparte family as "parvenu" royalty. Napoleon III tried to marry into Swedish and German royalty, but was unsuccessful because he was a "parvenu". For instance, his plan to marry Anna Pavlovna, one of the sisters of the Emperor Alexander, did not push through because the Empress Mother objected to the union on account of Napoleon's status as a parvenu. The reason given for the misalliance was difference of religion. This was also said to be the case with the marriage of Egyptian Princess Fawzia to the future Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. One of the reasons speculated for their divorce is that Fawzia's family, including King Farouk I, viewed the Pahlavis as "parvenus". Though the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt and Sudan, to which Fawzia belonged, had humble beginnings, it had solidified its status in Egypt and the Arab World since 1805. In contrast, the Pahlavis were a far more recent dynasty, owing their position entirely to the "coup d'état" of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's father, Reza Khan, in 1921.  Many "parvenus" in the United States arrived there as poor immigrants, then worked their way up the social ladder. Beginning as laborers, they took advantage of better economic opportunities in the U.S., moving on to become civil servants, "white collar" (business/office) workers and finally members of respectable society. Such an example might be John Jacob Astor, whose family once skinned rabbits for a living. With his brother, he went on to build such icons of New York City as the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. His grandson moved to England, where he eventually became the first Viscount Astor.  In the 19th century, the French aristocracy viewed Jewish women who converted to Christianity upon marriage as parvenus. Professor Catherine Nicault of the University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne has argued that this exemplified the way in which the French aristocracy was hostile toward Jews.

Literature.

"Vanity Fair"'s Becky Sharp is considered an archetype of the social climber, having flirted her way up the British upper class. The character was not born to affluence or the aristocracy but, on the strength of personal ambition, have climbed the social ladder through opportunism.

A parvenu is a person who is a relative newcomer to a socioeconomic class. The word is borrowed from the French language; it is the past participle of the verb "parvenir" (to reach, to arrive, to manage to do something).

Ein Parvenü (von französisch: "parvenir" „zu etwas gelangen“) oder ein Emporkömmling ist eine in der ersten Generation zu Reichtum gekommene (bzw. in einen höheren gesellschaftlichen Stand/Status aufgestiegene) Person, der die Unfähigkeit unterstellt wird, sich an die Umgangsformen und Konventionen sogenannter besserer Kreise (Milieus der Mittel- oder Oberschicht) anzupassen, von der also behauptet wird, teils noch den Umgangsformen ihres Herkunftsmilieus verhaftet zu sein und somit „in der Bedürftigkeit nicht mehr und im Überfluss noch nicht zu Hause“ zu sein. Hannah Arendt verwandte den Begriff als Bezeichnung für einen nach Aufstieg durch Assimilation strebenden Juden in einem antijüdischen nichttotalitären politischen Umfeld.


Origins.

Spear manufacture and use is not confined to humans. It is also practiced by the western chimpanzee. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal have been observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches, and sharpening one end with their teeth. They then used the weapons to hunt galagos sleeping in hollows.

Prehistory.

Archaeological evidence found in present-day Germany documents that wooden spears have been used for hunting since at least 400,000 years ago, and a 2012 study from the site of Kathu Pan in South Africa suggests that hominids, possibly "Homo heidelbergensis", may have developed the technology of hafted stone-tipped spears in Africa about 500,000 years ago. Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at the University of Southern California, has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago.  Neanderthals were constructing stone spear heads from as early as 300,000 BP and by 250,000 years ago, wooden spears were made with fire-hardened points.  From circa 200,000 BCE onwards, Middle Paleolithic humans began to make complex stone blades with flaked edges which were used as spear heads. These stone heads could be fixed to the spear shaft by gum or resin or by bindings made of animal sinew, leather strips or vegetable matter. During this period, a clear difference remained between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand-to-hand combat. By the Magdalenian period (c. 15,000–9500 BCE), spear-throwers similar to the later atlatl were in use.

Military.

Ancient history.

Europe.

Greeks.

The spear is the main weapon of the warriors of Homer's "Iliad". The use of both a single thrusting spear and two throwing spears are mentioned. It has been suggested that two styles of combat are being described; an early style, with thrusting spears, dating to the Mycenaean period in which the Iliad is set, and, anachronistically, a later style, with throwing spears, from Homer's own Archaic period.  In the 7th century BCE, the Greeks evolved a new close-order infantry formation, the phalanx. The key to this formation was the hoplite, who was equipped with a large, circular, bronze-faced shield (aspis) and a spear with an iron head and bronze butt-spike (doru). The hoplite phalanx dominated warfare among the Greek City States from the 7th into the 4th century BCE.  The 4th century saw major changes. One was the greater use of peltasts, light infantry armed with spear and javelins. The other was the development of the sarissa, a two-handed pike in length, by the Macedonians under Phillip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. The pike phalanx, supported by peltasts and cavalry, became the dominant mode of warfare among the Greeks from the late 4th century onward until Greek military systems were supplanted by the Roman legions.

Romans.

In the pre-Marian Roman armies, the first two lines of battle, the "hastati" and "principes", often fought with a sword called a "gladius" and "pila", heavy javelins that were specifically designed to be thrown at an enemy to pierce and foul a target's shield. Originally the "principes" were armed with a short spear called a "hasta", but these gradually fell out of use, eventually being replaced by the gladius. The third line, the "triarii", continued to use the "hasta".  From the late 2nd century BCE, all legionaries were equipped with the "pilum". The "pilum" continued to be the standard legionary spear until the end of the 2nd century CE. "Auxilia", however, were equipped with a simple hasta and, perhaps, throwing spears. During the 3rd century CE, although the "pilum" continued to be used, legionaries usually were equipped with other forms of throwing and thrusting spear, similar to "auxilia" of the previous century. By the 4th century, the "pilum" had effectively disappeared from common use.  In the late period of the Roman Empire, the spear became more often used because of its anti-cavalry capacities as the barbarian invasions were often conducted by people with a developed culture of cavalry in warfare.

Post-classical history.

Muslim world.

Muslim warriors used a spear that was called an "az-zaġāyah". Berbers pronounced it "zaġāya", but the English term, derived from the Old French via Berber, is "assegai". It is a pole weapon used for throwing or hurling, usually a light spear or javelin made of hard wood and pointed with a forged iron tip.The "az-zaġāyah" played an important role during the Islamic conquest as well as during later periods, well into the 20th century. A longer pole "az-zaġāyah" was being used as a hunting weapon from horseback. The "az-zaġāyah" was widely used. It existed in various forms in areas stretching from Southern Africa to the Indian subcontinent, although these places already had their own variants of the spear. This javelin was the weapon of choice during the "Fulani jihad" as well as during the Mahdist War in Sudan. It is still being used by Sikh "Nihang" in the Punjab as well as certain wandering Sufi ascetics "(Derwishes)".

Europe.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the spear and shield continued to be used by nearly all Western European cultures. Since a medieval spear required only a small amount of steel along the sharpened edges (most of the spear-tip was wrought iron), it was an economical weapon. Quick to manufacture, and needing less smithing skill than a sword, it remained the main weapon of the common soldier. The Vikings, for instance, although often portrayed with axe or sword in hand, were armed mostly with spears, as were their Anglo-Saxon, Irish, or continental contemporaries.

Infantry.

Broadly speaking, spears were either designed to be used in melee, or to be thrown. Within this simple classification, there was a remarkable range of types. For example, M. J. Swanton identified thirty different spearhead categories and sub-categories in early Saxon England. Most medieval spearheads were generally leaf-shaped. Notable types of early medieval spears include the "angon", a throwing spear with a long head similar to the Roman "pilum", used by the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, and the winged (or lugged) spear, which had two prominent wings at the base of the spearhead, either to prevent the spear penetrating too far into an enemy or to aid in spear fencing. Originally a Frankish weapon, the winged spear also was popular with the Vikings. It would become the ancestor of later medieval polearms, such as the partisan and spetum.  The thrusting spear also has the advantage of reach, being considerably longer than other weapon types. Exact spear lengths are hard to deduce as few spear shafts survive archaeologically but would seem to have been the norm. Some nations were noted for their long spears, including the Scots and the Flemish. Spears usually were used in tightly ordered formations, such as the shield wall or the schiltron. To resist cavalry, spear shafts could be planted against the ground. William Wallace drew up his schiltrons in a circle at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 to deter charging cavalry; this was a widespread tactic sometimes known as the "crown" formation.  Throwing spears became rarer as the Middle Ages drew on, but survived in the hands of specialists such as the Catalan Almogavars. They were commonly used in Ireland until the end of the 16th century.  Spears began to lose fashion among the infantry during the 14th century, being replaced by pole weapons that combined the thrusting properties of the spear with the cutting properties of the axe, such as the halberd. Where spears were retained they grew in length, eventually evolving into pikes, which would be a dominant infantry weapon in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Cavalry.

Cavalry spears were originally the same as infantry spears and were often used with two hands or held with one hand overhead. In the 12th century, after the adoption of stirrups and a high-cantled saddle, the spear became a decidedly more powerful weapon. A mounted knight would secure the lance by holding it with one hand and tucking it under the armpit (the "couched lance" technique) This allowed all the momentum of the horse and knight to be focused on the weapon's tip, whilst still retaining accuracy and control. This use of the spear spurred the development of the lance as a distinct weapon that was perfected in the medieval sport of jousting.  In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about.) to make it more manageable. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist pole weapons such as the pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased.

Asia.

Chinese.

Spears were used first as hunting weapons amongst the ancient Chinese. They became popular as infantry weapons during the Warring States and Qin era, when spearmen were used as especially highly disciplined soldiers in organized group attacks. When used in formation fighting, spearmen would line up their large rectangular or circular shields in a shieldwall manner. The Qin also employed long spears (more akin to a pike) in formations similar to Swiss pikemen in order to ward off cavalry. The Han Empire would use similar tactics as its Qin predecessors. Halberds, polearms, and dagger axes were also common weapons during this time.  Spears were also common weaponry for Warring States, Qin, and Han era cavalry units. During these eras, the spear would develop into a longer lance-like weapon used for cavalry charges.  There are many words in Chinese that would be classified as a spear in English. The "Mao" is the predecessor of the "Qiang". The first bronze "Mao" appeared in the Shang dynasty. This weapon was less prominent on the battlefield than the "ge" (dagger-axe). In some archaeological examples two tiny holes or ears can be found in the blade of the spearhead near the socket, these holes were presumably used to attach tassels, much like modern day wushu spears.  In the early Shang, the "Mao" appeared to have a relatively short shaft as well as a relatively narrow shaft as opposed to "Mao" in the later Shang and Western Zhou period. Some "Mao" from this era are heavily decorated as is evidenced by a Warring States period "Mao" from the Ba Shu area.  In the Han dynasty the "Mao" and the "Ji" (戟 "Ji" can be loosely defined as a halberd) rose to prominence in the military. Interesting to note is that the amount of iron Mao-heads found exceeds the number of bronze heads. By the end of the Han dynasty (Eastern Han) the process of replacement of the iron "Mao" had been completed and the bronze "Mao" had been rendered completely obsolete. After the Han dynasty toward the Sui and Tang dynasties the "Mao" used by cavalry were fitted with much longer shafts, as is mentioned above. During this era, the use of the "Shuo" (<unk>) was widespread among the footmen. The "Shuo" can be likened to a pike or simply a long spear.  After the Tang dynasty, the popularity of the "Mao" declined and was replaced by the "Qiang" (枪). The Tang dynasty divided the "Qiang" in four categories: "一曰漆枪, 二曰木枪, 三曰白杆枪, 四曰扑头枪。” Roughly translated the four categories are: Qi (a kind of wood) Spears, Wooden Spears, Bai Gan (A kind of wood) Spears and Pu Tou Qiang. The Qiang that were produced in the Song and Ming dynasties consisted of four major parts: Spearhead, Shaft, End Spike and Tassel. The types of Qiang that exist are many. Among the types there are cavalry Qiang that were the length of one "zhang" (eleven feet and nine inches or 3.58 m), Litte-Flower Spears (Xiao Hua Qiang 小花枪) that are the length of one person and their arm extended above his head, double hooked spears, single hooked spears, ringed spears and many more.  There is some confusion as to how to distinguish the "Qiang" from the "Mao", as they are obviously very similar. Some people say that a "Mao" is longer than a "Qiang", others say that the main difference is between the stiffness of the shaft, where the "Qiang" would be flexible and the "Mao" would be stiff. Scholars seem to lean toward the latter explanation more than the former. Because of the difference in the construction of the "Mao" and the "Qiang", the usage is also different, though there is no definitive answer as to what exactly the differences are between the "Mao" and the "Qiang".

India.

Spears in the Indian society were used both in missile and non-missile form, both by cavalry and foot-soldiers. Mounted spear-fighting was practiced using with a ten-foot, ball-tipped wooden lance called a "bothati", the end of which was covered in dye so that hits may be confirmed. Spears were constructed from a variety of materials such as the "sang" made completely of steel, and the "ballam" which had a bamboo shaft.  The Arab presence in Sindh and the Mameluks of Delhi introduced the Middle Eastern javelin into India.  The Rajputs wielded a type of spear for infantrymen which had a club integrated into the spearhead, and a pointed butt end. Other spears had forked blades, several spear-points, and numerous other innovations. One particular spear unique to India was the "vita" or corded lance.  Used by the Maratha army, it had a rope connecting the spear with the user's wrist, allowing the weapon to be thrown and pulled back. The "Vel" is a type of spear or lance, originated in Southern India, primarily used by Tamils.  Sikh Nihangs sometimes carry a spear even today. Spears were used in conflicts and training by armed paramilitary units such as the razakars of Nizams of Hyderabad State as late as the second half of the 20th century. Tribal made spears are used in conflicts and rioting in the Northeastern states of India, such as Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Tripura.

Japan.

The hoko spear was used in ancient Japan sometime between the Yayoi period and the Heian period, but it became unpopular as early samurai often acted as horseback archers. Medieval Japan employed spears again for infantrymen to use, but it was not until the 11th century in that samurai began to prefer spears over bows. Several polearms were used in the Japanese theatres; the naginata was a glaive-like weapon with a long, curved blade popularly among the samurai and the Buddhist warrior-monks, often used against cavalry; the yari was a longer polearm, with a straight-bladed spearhead, which became the weapon of choice of both the samurai and the ashigaru (footmen) during the Warring States Era; the horseback samurai used shorter yari for his single-armed combat; on the other hand, ashigaru infantries used long yari (similar with European pike) for their massed combat formation.

Philippines.

Filipino spears (sibat) were used as both a weapon and a tool throughout the Philippines. It is also called a "bangkaw" (after the Bankaw Revolt.), "sumbling" or "palupad" in the islands of Visayas and Mindanao. Sibat are typically made from rattan, either with a sharpened tip or a head made from metal. These heads may either be single-edged, double-edged or barbed. Styles vary according to function and origin. For example, a sibat designed for fishing may not be the same as those used for hunting.  The spear was used as the primary weapon in expeditions and battles against neighbouring island kingdoms and it became famous during the 1521 Battle of Mactan, where the chieftain Lapu Lapu of Cebu fought against Spanish forces led by Ferdinand Magellan who was subsequently killed.

North America.

Mesoamerica.

As advanced metallurgy was largely unknown in pre-Columbian America outside of Western Mexico and South America, most weapons in Meso-America were made of wood or obsidian. This did not mean that they were less lethal, as obsidian may be sharpened to become many times sharper than steel. Meso-American spears varied greatly in shape and size. While the Aztecs preferred the sword-like macuahuitl for fighting, the advantage of a far-reaching thrusting weapon was recognised, and a large portion of the army would carry the tepoztopilli into battle. The tepoztopilli was a pole-arm, and to judge from depictions in various Aztec codices, it was roughly the height of a man, with a broad wooden head about twice the length of the users' palm or shorter, edged with razor-sharp obsidian blades which were deeply set in grooves carved into the head, and cemented in place with bitumen or plant resin as an adhesive. The tepoztopilli was able both to thrust and slash effectively.  Throwing spears also were used extensively in Meso-American warfare, usually with the help of an atlatl. Throwing spears were typically shorter and more stream-lined than the tepoztopilli, and some had obsidian edges for greater penetration.

Native American.

Typically, most spears made by Native Americans were created with materials surrounded by their communities. Usually, the shaft of the spear was made with a wooden stick while the head of the spear was fashioned from arrowheads, pieces of metal such as copper, or a bone that had been sharpened. Spears were a preferred weapon by many since it was inexpensive to create, could more easily be taught to others, and could be made quickly and in large quantities.  Native Americans used the Buffalo Pound method to kill buffalo, which required a hunter to dress as a buffalo and lure one into a ravine where other hunters were hiding. Once the buffalo appeared, the other hunters would kill him with spears. A variation of this technique, called the Buffalo Jump, was when a runner would lead the animals towards a cliff. As the buffalo got close to the cliff, other members of the tribe would jump out from behind rocks or trees and scare the buffalo over the cliff. Other hunters would be waiting at the bottom of the cliff to spear the animal to death.

Modern history.

Europe.

The development of both the long, two-handed pike and gunpowder in Renaissance Europe saw an ever-increasing focus on integrated infantry tactics. Those infantry not armed with these weapons carried variations on the pole-arm, including the halberd and the bill. Ultimately, the spear proper was rendered obsolete on the battlefield. Its last flowering was the half-pike or spontoon, a shortened version of the pike carried by officers and NCOs. While originally a weapon, this came to be seen more as a badge of office, or "leading staff" by which troops were directed. The half-pike, sometimes known as a boarding pike, was also used as a weapon on board ships until the late 19th century.  At the start of the Renaissance, cavalry remained predominantly lance-armed; gendarmes with the heavy knightly lance and lighter cavalry with a variety of lighter lances. By the 1540s, however, pistol-armed cavalry called reiters were beginning to make their mark. Cavalry armed with pistols and other lighter firearms, along with a sword, had virtually replaced lance armed cavalry in Western Europe by the beginning of the 17th century.

Hunting.

One of the earliest forms of killing prey for humans, hunting game with a spear and spear fishing continues to this day as both a means of catching food and as a cultural activity. Some of the most common prey for early humans were mega fauna such as mammoths which were hunted with various kinds of spear. One theory for the Quaternary extinction event was that most of these animals were hunted to extinction by humans with spears. Even after the invention of other hunting weapons such as the bow the spear continued to be used, either as a projectile weapon or used in the hand as was common in boar hunting.

Modern revival.

Spear hunting fell out of favour in most of Europe in the 18th century, but continued in Germany, enjoying a revival in the 1930s. Spear hunting is still practiced in the United States. Animals taken are primarily wild boar and deer, although trophy animals such as cats and big game as large as a Cape Buffalo are hunted with spears. Alligator are hunted in Florida with a type of harpoon.

In myth and legend.

Symbolism.

Like many weapons, a spear may also be a symbol of power. In the Chinese martial arts community, the Chinese spear (Qiang 槍) is popularly known as the "king of weapons".  The Celts would symbolically destroy a dead warrior's spear either to prevent its use by another or as a sacrificial offering.  In classical Greek mythology Zeus' bolts of lightning may be interpreted as a symbolic spear. Some would carry that interpretation to the spear that frequently is associated with Athena, interpreting her spear as a symbolic connection to some of Zeus' power beyond the Aegis once he rose to replacing other deities in the pantheon. Athena was depicted with a spear prior to that change in myths, however. Chiron's wedding-gift to Peleus when he married the nymph Thetis in classical Greek mythology, was an ashen spear as the nature of ashwood with its straight grain made it an ideal choice of wood for a spear.  The Romans and their early enemies would force prisoners to walk underneath a 'yoke of spears', which humiliated them. The yoke would consist of three spears, two upright with a third tied between them at a height which made the prisoners stoop. It has been suggested that the arrangement has a magical origin, a way to trap evil spirits. The word "subjugate" has its origins in this practice (from Latin "sub" = under, "jugum" = yoke). In Norse mythology, the god Odin's spear (named Gungnir) was made by the sons of Ivaldi. It had the special property that it never missed its mark. During the War with the Vanir, Odin symbolically threw Gungnir into the Vanir host. This practice of symbolically casting a spear into the enemy ranks at the start of a fight was sometimes used in historic clashes, to seek Odin's support in the coming battle. In Wagner's opera "Siegfried", the haft of Gungnir is said to be from the "World-Tree" Yggdrasil.  Other spears of religious significance are the Holy Lance and the Lúin of Celtchar, believed by some to have vast mystical powers.  Sir James George Frazer in "The Golden Bough" noted the phallic nature of the spear and suggested that in the Arthurian legends the spear or lance functioned as a symbol of male fertility, paired with the Grail (as a symbol of female fertility).  The Hindu god of war Murugan is worshipped by Tamils in the form of the spear called "Vel", which is his primary weapon.  The term "spear" is also used (in a somewhat archaic manner) to describe the male line of a family, as opposed to the distaff or female line.

See also.

Related weapons:

A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such as bone, flint, obsidian, iron, steel or bronze. The most common design for hunting or combat spears since ancient times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like a triangle, lozenge, or leaf. The heads of fishing spears usually feature barbs or serrated edges.

Der Speer (auch Wurfspieß) ist eine zu den Stangenwaffen zählende Wurf- und Stichwaffe, die aufgrund ihrer Konstruktion besonders gut zum Werfen geeignet ist. Es gibt verschiedene Versionen, die aus Stein, Knochen, Holz oder Metall bestehen. Als Sportgerät sind sie bis heute in Gebrauch. Sie gehören zu den ältesten von Menschen verwendeten Kampf- und Jagdwaffen. Älteste steinerne Speerspitzen-Funde sind eine halbe Million Jahre alt.


History.

The name Coahuila derives from native terms for the region, and has been known by variations such as Cuagüila and Cuauila. Some historians believe that this means “flying serpent”, “place of many trees”, or “place where serpents creep”. The official name of the state is Coahuila de Zaragoza, in honor of General Ignacio Zaragoza.  The Spanish explored the north of Mexico some decades after their victory in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs. Such exploration was delayed because the northern climate was harsher and there was no gold. The first Spanish settlement in the region now called Coahuila was at Minas de la Trinidad in 1577. Saltillo was settled in 1586, to form part of the province of Nueva Vizcaya of the Vice-royalty of New Spain. Later it became one of the first provinces of Nueva Extremadura to be explored by Europeans. Among the 16th century settlers of Saltillo and other communities in Nueva Vizcaya were Tlaxcalans, who founded an independent community bordering Saltillo, called San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala. "Coahuila and Texas" was one of the constituent states of the newly independent United Mexican States under their 1824 Constitution, and included Texas, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Later in the same year Nuevo León was detached, but Texas remained a part of the state until 1836, when it seceded to form the Republic of Texas. Monclova was the capital of the state from 1833 to 1835.  In 1840 Coahuila briefly became a member of the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande.  On February 19, 1856, Santiago Vidaurri annexed Coahuila to his state, Nuevo León, but it regained its separate status in 1868.  During the Mexican Revolution, Francisco Villa attacked the city of Torreón.  On April 4, 2004, the border city of Piedras Negras was flooded. More than 30 people died and more than 4,000 lost their homes. In 2007 Coahuila became the first state in Mexico to offer civil unions (Pacto Civil de Solidaridad) to same-sex couples.

Geography.

The Sierra Madre Oriental runs northwest to southeast through the State, and the higher elevations are home to the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests. The northernmost fingers of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen, reach to the border with the United States at the Rio Grande.  East of the range, the land slopes gently toward the Rio Grande, and is drained by several rivers, including the Salado and its tributary, the Sabinas River. The Tamaulipan mezquital, a dry shrubland ecoregion, occupies the eastern portion of the State, and extends across the Rio Grande into southern Texas.  The portion of the State west of the Sierra Madre Oriental lies on the Mexican Plateau, and is part of the Chihuahuan Desert. The Bolsón de Mapimí is a large endorheic basin which covers much of the western portion of the State and extends into adjacent portions of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. The Nazas River, which flows east from Durango, and the Aguanaval River, which flows north from Zacatecas, empty into lakes in the Bolsón. Torreón, the most populous city in the State, lies on the Nazas in the irrigated Laguna Region, the "(Comarca Lagunera)", which straddles the border of Coahuila and Durango.  Coahuila contains two biosphere reserves. Maderas del Carmen lies on the northern border of the State, and includes sections of the Chihuahuan desert and sky islands of pine-oak forest in the Sierra del Carmen. The springs, lakes, and wetlands of Cuatro Ciénegas lie west of Monclova on the west slope of the Sierra Madre.  Coahuila is largely arid or semi-arid, but the rivers of the State support extensive irrigated agriculture, particularly cotton. The Parras district in the southern part of the State produces wines and brandies. The pine-oak forests of the Sierra Madre produce timber.

Demographics.

The last population census run across Mexico in the year 2015, reports Coahuila de Zaragoza as having 2,954,915 inhabitants, which, considering its size, means that the state has a very low density, in fact as low as only 15 persons per square kilometer.  Coahuila's population is mainly made up of Criollos along with Mestizos. Fewer than 7,500 natives reside in Coahuila, or merely 0.3% of the total population. The rest of the population is composed of Americans, Canadian, and Japanese communities.  The rest of the demographic particulars in the state are very similar to national averages, such as a high life expectancy (reaching 75 years of age) and a Catholic majority.  Basic public education in Coahuila is mainly managed by the state's Secretary of Education, but federal-sustained schools are also very common. There are also a lot of private schools in the main cities of the state.

Economy.

About 95% of Mexico's coal reserves are found in Coahuila, which is the country's top mining state.  Torreón has Met-Mex Peñoles, a mining company. The city is the world's largest silver producer and Mexico's largest gold producer. It also has Lala, a dairy products company, which produces 40% of Mexico's milk consumption. Saltillo also has a growing automobile industry, hosting General Motors and Chrysler assembly plants.  As of 2005, Coahuila's economy represents 3.5% of Mexico's total gross domestic product or US$22,874 million. Coahuila's economy has a strong focus on export oriented manufacturing (i.e. maquiladora / INMEX). As of 2005, 221,273 people are employed in the manufacturing sector. Foreign direct investment in Coahuila was US$143.1 million for 2005. The average wage for an employee in Coahuila is approximately 190 pesos per day.  On the other hand, Coahuila is the Mexican state with the highest level of public debt in the nation.

Municipalities.

Coahuila is subdivided into five regions and 38 municipalities "(municipios)".

Media.

Newspapers of Coahuila include: "El Diario de Coahuila", "El Guardián", "El Heraldo de Saltillo", "El Siglo de Torreón", "Esto del Norte", "La I (Laguna)", "la I (Saltillo)", "La Opinión Milenio", "La Voz de Coahuila (Monclova)", "Noticias de El Sol de la Laguna", "Vanguardia", "Zócalo (Monclova)", "Zócalo (Piedras Negras)", "Zócalo El Periódico de Saltillo", and "Zócalo Saltillo."

List of governors.

This list is incomplete

Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza (), is one of the 32 states which comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico.

Coahuila [], auch Coahuila de Zaragoza [], offiziell Freier und Souveräner Staat Coahuila de Zaragoza (), ist ein mexikanischer Bundesstaat im Norden des Landes, an der Grenze zu Texas, die der Rio Grande in einem weiten Bogen bildet. Die Grenze ist insgesamt 512 km lang. Die angrenzenden mexikanischen Bundesstaaten sind im Osten Nuevo León, im Süden San Luis Potosí und Zacatecas sowie im Westen Durango und Chihuahua.


Name.

The name 'Tara' is an anglicization of the Irish name "Teamhair" or "Cnoc na Teamhrach" ("hill of Tara"). It is also known as "Teamhair na Rí" ("Tara of the kings"), and formerly also "Liathdruim" ("the grey ridge"). The Old Irish form is "Temair". It is believed this comes from Proto-Celtic *"Temris" and means a "sanctuary" or "sacred space" cut off for ceremony, cognate with the Greek "temenos" and Latin "templum". Another suggestion is that it means "a height with a view".

Features.

Ancient monuments.

The remains of twenty ancient monuments are visible, and at least three times that many have been found through geophysical surveys and aerial photography.  The oldest visible monument is Dumha na nGiall (the Mound of the Hostages), a Neolithic passage tomb built around 3,200 BC. It holds the remains of hundreds of people, most of which are cremated bones. In the Neolithic it was the communal tomb of a single community for about a century, during which there were almost 300 burials. Almost a millennium later, in the Bronze Age, there were a further 33 burials – first in the passage and then in the mound around it. During this time, only certain high-status individuals were buried there. At first it was the tomb of one community, but later multiple communities came together to bury their elite there. The last burial was a full body burial of a young man of high status, with an ornate necklace and dagger.  During the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age, a huge double timber circle or "woodhenge" was built on the hilltop. It was 250m in diameter and surrounded the Mound of the Hostages. At least six smaller burial mounds were built in an arc around this timber circle, including those known as "Dall", "Dorcha", "Dumha na mBan-Amhus" (Mound of the Mercenary Women) and "Dumha na mBó" (Mound of the Cow). The timber circle was eventually either removed or decayed, and the burial mounds are barely visible today.  There are several large round enclosures on the hill, which were built in the Iron Age. The biggest and most central of these is Ráth na Ríogh (the Enclosure of the Kings), which measures in circumference, north-south by east-west, with an inner ditch and outer bank. It is dated to the 1st century BC and was originally marked out by a stakewall. Human burials, and a high concentration of horse and dog bones, were found in the ditch. Within the "Ráth na Ríogh" is the Mound of the Hostages and two round, double-ditched enclosures which together make a figure-of-eight shape. One is "Teach Chormaic" (Cormac's House) and the other is the "Forradh" or Royal Seat, which incorporates earlier burial mounds. On top of the "Forradh" is a standing stone, which is believed to be the "Lia Fáil" (Stone of Destiny) at which the High Kings were crowned. According to legend, the stone would let out a roar when the rightful king touched it. It is believed that the stone originally lay beside or on top of the Mound of the Hostages.  Just to the north of "Ráth na Ríogh", is Ráth na Seanadh (the Rath of the Synods), which was built in the middle of the former "woodhenge". It is a round enclosure with four rings of ditches and banks, and incorporates earlier burial mounds. It was re-modelled several times and once had a large timber building inside it, resembling the one at Navan. It was occupied between the 1st and 4th centuries AD, and Roman artifacts were also found there. It was badly mutilated in the early 20th century by British Israelites searching for the Ark of the Covenant.  The other round enclosures are Ráth Laoghaire (Laoghaire's Fort, where the eponymous king is said to have been buried) at the southern edge of the hill, and the Claonfhearta (Sloping Trenches or Sloping Graves) at the northwestern edge, which includes "Ráth Gráinne" and "Ráth Chaelchon". The "Claonfhearta" are burial mounds with ring ditches around them which sit on a slope.  At the northern end of the hill is Teach Miodhchuarta or Banqueting Hall. This was likely the ceremonial avenue leading to the hilltop and seems to have been one of the last monuments built.  Half a mile south of the Hill of Tara is another large round enclosure known as Rath Meave, which refers to the legendary figure Medb or Medb Lethderg.

Church.

A church, called Saint Patrick's, is on the eastern side of the hilltop. The "Rath of the Synods" has been partly destroyed by its churchyard. The modern church was built in 1822–23 on the site of an earlier one. The earliest evidence of a church at Tara is a charter dating from the 1190s. In 1212, this church was "among the possessions confirmed to the Knights Hospitallers of Saint John of Kilmainham by Pope Innocent III". A 1791 illustration shows the church building internally divided into a nave and chancel, with a bell-tower over the western end. A stump of wall marks the site of the old church today, but some of its stonework was re-used in the current church. The building is now used as a visitor centre operated by the Office of Public Works (OPW), an agency of the Irish Government.

Tara's significance.

The 11th-century "Lebor Gabála Érenn" (The Book of the Taking of Ireland) says that Tara was the seat of the high kings of Ireland from the far past until the time of writing. However, there is no evidence that the institution of high kingship conferred authority over the whole island.  The earliest written records say that high kings were inaugurated there, and the ""Senchas Már"" legal text (written some time after 600AD) specified that the king must drink ale and symbolically marry the goddess Maeve (Medb) as part of the ceremony. The last High King to observe the pagan inauguration ritual of marrying Medb, the goddess of the land, was Diarmait mac Cerbaill. He is also seen as the first High King in the Christian era.  The Mound of the Hostages has a passage aligned with the sunrise around the times of Imbolc (the Gaelic festival marking the start of spring) and Samhain (the festival marking the start of winter). The mound's passage is shorter than the long entryways of monuments like Newgrange, which makes it less precise in providing alignments with the Sun. Martin Brennan, in "The Stones of Time", states that the daily changes in the position of a 13-foot (4 m) long sunbeam are more than enough to determine specific dates.  In Irish mythology, Tara is said to have been the capital of the Tuatha Dé Danann, who are based on the gods of pagan Ireland. It says that when the Milesians (the first Gaels) arrived, Tara became the place from which the kings of Mide ruled Ireland. There is much debate among historians as to how far the King's influence spread. The high kingship of the whole island was only established to an effective degree by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid (Malachy I) in the 9th century. Irish pseudohistorians of the Middle Ages made it stretch back into prehistory. Atop the hill stands a stone pillar believed to be the "Lia Fáil" (Stone of Destiny) on which the High Kings were crowned; legends suggest that the stone would roar three times if the chosen one was the rightful king (compare with the Scottish Stone of Scone).  During the rebellion of 1798, United Irishmen formed a camp on the hill but were attacked and defeated by British troops on 26 May 1798 and the "Lia Fáil" was allegedly moved to commemorate the 400 rebels who died on the hill that day. In 1843, the Irish nationalist leader Daniel O'Connell hosted a peaceful political demonstration at Tara in favour of Irish self-governance which drew over 750,000 people, highlighting the lasting importance of Tara.  At the turn of the 20th century, the Tara was vandalised by British Israelists who thought that the British were part of the Lost Tribes of Israel and that the hill contained the Ark of the Covenant. A group of British Israelists, led by retired Anglo-Indian judge Edward Wheeler Bird, set about excavating the site having paid off the landowner, Gustavus Villiers Briscoe. Irish cultural nationalists held a mass protest over the destruction of the national heritage site, including Douglas Hyde, Arthur Griffith, Maud Gonne, George Moore and William Butler Yeats. Hyde tried to interrupt the dig but was ordered away by a man wielding a rifle. Maud Gonne made a more flamboyant protest by relighting an old bonfire that Briscoe had lit to celebrate the coronation of Edward VII. She began to sing Thomas Davis's song "A Nation Once Again" by the fire, much to the consternation of the landlord and the police.  British Prime Minister John Russell inherited the Tara estate during the 19th century. The Irish government bought the southern part of the hill in 1952, and the northern part in 1972.  The religious order Missionary Society of St. Columban had its international headquarters at Dalgan Park, just north of the Hill of Tara. The order was named after the Saint who was born in the Ancient Kingdom of Meath. The land Dalgan Park lies on was once owned by the kings of Tara. The Seminary is also situated on the path of the Slighe Midluachra, one the five ancient roads that meet at tara. The Opus Dei also have its National institute sited at Lismullen next to Tara.  The present day Opus Dei Lismullen institute is located on what used to be known as the Gabhra Valley. According to Irish Mythology during the third century AD a great battle known as the Cath Gabhra took place between the then High King Cairbre Lifechair son of Cormac Mac Airt and the Fianna lead by Fionn Mac Cumhaill. The Fianna were heavily defeated, many of the graves of the Fianna covered the Rath of the Gabhra, most notably the grave of Oscar, son of Oisín.

The Five Roads of Tara.

According to legend, five ancient roads or "slighe" meet at Tara, linking it with all the provinces of Ireland. The earliest reference to the five roads of Tara was in the tale "Togail Bruidne Da Derga" (The Destruction of Da Derga's Hall).  The five roads are said to be:

Motorway development.

The M3 motorway which opened in June 2010, passes through the Tara-Skryne Valley – as did the existing N3 road. Protesters argue that since the Tara Discovery Programme started in 1992, there is an appreciation that the Hill of Tara is just the central complex of a wider landscape. The distance between the motorway and the hill is – it intersects the old N3 at the Blundelstown interchange between the Hill of Tara and the Hill of Skryne. Protesters said that an alternative route about west of Tara would have been straighter, cheaper and less destructive. On Sunday 23 September 2007 over 1500 people met on the Hill of Tara to take part in a human sculpture representing a harp and spelling out the words "SAVE TARA VALLEY" as a call for the re-routing of the M3 motorway away from Tara. Actors Stuart Townsend and Jonathan Rhys Meyers attended this event. There was also a letter writing campaign to preserve the Hill of Tara.  The Hill of Tara was included in the World Monuments Fund's 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world. The following year it was included in a list of the 15 must-see endangered cultural treasures by the Smithsonian Institution.

The Hill of Tara ( or "Cnoc na Teamhrach") is a hill and ancient ceremonial and burial site near Skryne in County Meath, Ireland. According to tradition, it was the inauguration place and seat of the High Kings of Ireland, and it also appears in Irish mythology. Tara consists of numerous monuments and earthworks—from the Neolithic to the Iron Age—including a passage tomb (the "Mound of the Hostages"), burial mounds, round enclosures, a standing stone (believed to be the "Lia Fáil" or "Stone of Destiny"), and a ceremonial avenue. There is also a church and graveyard on the hill. Tara is part of a larger ancient landscape and Tara itself is a protected national monument under the care of The Office of Public Works, an agency of the Irish Government.

Tara (altirischer Name "Temair", Aussprache wahrscheinlich [], modern "Teamhair", [], dt. Erhebung, Hügel, möglicherweise „Ort der schönen Aussicht“) ist ein Hügel im County Meath in Irland, auf dem sich zahlreiche vorzeitliche und frühgeschichtliche Monumente befinden. Die nahegelegene Ortschaft hat 1.135 Einwohner (Stand 2006).


Life.

Stoltenberg was born in northern Germany in Kiel. In 1944 he became a navy assistant (HJ-Marinehelfer), a Hitler Youth auxiliary in the Kriegsmarine. After the war, when he was no longer a prisoner of war, he finished school in 1949 (Abitur). Stoltenberg began to study history, sociology and philosophy at the University of Kiel. In 1954 he graduated as a Doctor of Philosophy and worked as an academic in Kiel. In 1960 he became a professor (Privatdozent). In the years 1965 and again 1969/1970 Stoltenberg was a director of the company Friedrich Krupp GmbH in Essen. In 2001 he died in Bad Godesberg.  Stoltenberg was married and had two children. He was member of the Lutheran church.

Political career.

Since 1947 Stoltenberg had been member of the CDU. In the years 1955–1961 he was federal leader of the Junge Union, the youth' organisation of the CDU. From 1955 Stoltenberg had different positions in the CDU. From 1971 until 1989, he was chairman of the CDU in the state of Schleswig-Holstein. Moreover, Stoltenberg served as vice chairman of the federal CDU since 1969.  Stoltenberg was member of the state parliament of Schleswig-Holstein from 1954 to 1957 and from 1971 to 1982. From 1957 to 1971 and from 1983 until 1998, Stoltenberg also served as a member of the federal German legislature, the Bundestag. As a junior MP and member of the budget committee he was the first to introduce to the 1959 federal budget a flat grant of DM 5,000,000 for political education (training of party activists) to be transferred to federal party headquarters.  Gerhard Stoltenberg looked destined for West Germany's highest office as he made a brilliant start to his political career. On May 24, 1971, Stoltenberg was elected minister-president of the state of Schleswig-Holstein and remained in this position until 1982.  In 1982, he became federal minister of finance under chancellor Helmut Kohl. He left this position when he was appointed minister of defence from 1989 on, replacing Rupert Scholz. He resigned from this position on March 31, 1992.

Gerhard Stoltenberg (September 29, 1928 – November 23, 2001) was a German politician (CDU) and minister in the cabinets of Ludwig Erhard, Kurt Georg Kiesinger and Helmut Kohl. He served as minister-president of the German state (Land) of Schleswig-Holstein from 1971 to 1982 and as such as President of the Bundesrat in 1977/78.

Gerhard Stoltenberg (* 29. September 1928 in Kiel; † 23. November 2001 in Bonn-Bad Godesberg) war ein deutscher Historiker und Politiker (CDU). Er war von 1965 bis 1969 Bundesminister für wissenschaftliche Forschung, von 1971 bis 1982 Ministerpräsident des Landes Schleswig-Holstein, von 1982 bis 1989 Bundesminister der Finanzen und von 1989 bis 1992 Bundesminister der Verteidigung.