Early life and education.

Wayne was born in Cleveland, Ohio, United States on May 17, 1934.<ref name="ronaldgwayne.com/bio"></ref> He trained as a technical draftsman at the School of Industrial Art in New York.

Career.

In 1956, aged 22, he moved to California. In 1971, Wayne started his first business, a company selling slot machines. The company failed, with Wayne reflecting in 2014 that, "I discovered very quickly that I had no business being in business. I was far better working in engineering."

Apple.

In 1976, Ronald Wayne built the internal corporate documentation systems at the three-year-old Atari, where he met coworkers Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. To help settle one of their typical intense discussions about the design of computers and the future of the industry, Wayne invited the two to his home to facilitate and advise them. In the ensuing two-hour conversation about technology and business, Jobs proposed the founding of a computer company led by him and Wozniak. Those two would each hold a 45% stake so that Wayne could receive a 10% stake to act as a tie-breaker in their decisions. As the venture's self-described "adult in the room" at age 41, Wayne wrote a partnership agreement and the three founded Apple Computer on April 1, 1976. Wayne illustrated the first Apple logo, and wrote the Apple I manual.  Wayne's business attitude was already risk-averse due to his experience five years prior with the "very traumatic" failure of his slot machine business, the debt of which he had spent one year voluntarily repaying. Jobs secured a line of credit to buy product materials for Apple's first order which had been placed by The Byte Shop, whose reputation as a notoriously slow paying vendor gave Wayne great concern for his future. Legally, all members of a partnership are personally responsible for any debts incurred by any partner; unlike Jobs and Wozniak, then 21 and 25, Wayne had personal assets that potential creditors could possibly seize. Furthermore, his passion was in original product engineering and in slot machines, and not in the documentation systems he assumed Jobs and Wozniak probably wanted him to do indefinitely at Apple. Believing he was "standing in the shadow of giants" of product design talent and avoiding financial risk, he quit the company. Reportedly, "Twelve days after Wayne wrote the document that formally created Apple, he returned to the registrar's office and renounced his role in the company", therefore relinquishing his equity in exchange for on April 12, 1976.  Wayne has stated in following decades that he does not regret selling his share of the company as he made the "best decision with the information available to me at the time". He said he had originally believed that the Apple enterprise "would be successful, but at the same time there would be significant bumps along the way and I couldn't risk it. I had already had a rather unfortunate business experience before. I was getting too old and those two were whirlwinds. It was like having a tiger by the tail and I couldn't keep up with these guys." Although Apple ended up becoming one of the most valuable companies in the world, he said that with the stress of staying with Apple he "probably would have wound up the richest man in the cemetery." He summarized, "What can I say? You make a decision based on your understanding of the circumstances, and you live with it."

After Apple.

After leaving Apple, Wayne resisted Jobs's attempts to get him to return, remaining at Atari until 1978, when he joined Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and later an electronics company in Salinas, California.  In the late 1970s, Wayne had run a stamp shop in Milpitas, California for a short time, Wayne's Philatelics. After a number of break-ins, he moved his stamp operations to Nevada. The logo for the business was a wood-cut style design, with a man sitting under an apple tree, with the "Wayne's Philatelics" name written in a flowing ribbon curved around the tree. This had the same basis as the original logo he designed for Apple Computer.  Steve Jobs approached him again as a business contact for Apple, but Wayne refused to even forward Jobs's proposal to purchase a friend's company. Wayne's principle was that his friend should retain ownership under exclusive license to Apple instead of selling, but he would later express regret for having blocked the contact instead of allowing the decision to be made directly.  In the early 1990s, Wayne sold the original Apple partnership contract paper, signed in 1976 by Jobs, Wozniak, and himself, for. In 2011, the contract was sold at auction for $1.6 million. Wayne has stated that he regrets that sale.  Wayne retired to a mobile home park in Pahrump, Nevada, where he sells stamps and rare coins, and plays penny slots at a casino. Wayne never owned an Apple product until 2011, when he was given an iPad 2 at the Update Conference in Brighton, England. He holds a dozen patents.

Media.

In July 2011, Wayne published a memoir titled "Adventures of an Apple Founder". His plan for initial exclusivity on the Apple iBooks store did not materialize. He wrote a socio-economic treatise titled "Insolence of Office", released on October 1, 2011 which he describes as this:  He appeared in the documentary "Welcome to Macintosh" in 2008, where he describes some of his early experiences with Jobs and Wozniak.

Ronald Wayne (born May 17, 1934) is a retired American electronics industry businessman. He co-founded Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) as a partnership with Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, providing administrative oversight and documentation for the new venture. Twelve days later, he sold his 10% share of the new company back to Jobs and Wozniak for, and one year later accepted a final to forfeit any potential future claims against the newly incorporated Apple, totaling.

Ronald Gerald Wayne (* 17. Mai 1934 in Cleveland, Ohio) ist der dritte Gründer von Apple (zusammen mit Steve Jobs und Steve Wozniak). Er zeichnete das erste Apple-Logo und schrieb das Benutzerhandbuch für den Apple I. Aus seiner Feder stammt auch der erste Gesellschaftervertrag der Apple-Gründer.


History.

Potentially five or more teams have been called Chesterfield Football Club at different times. A "Derbyshire Times" newspaper report from 2 January 1864 noted a scheduled game between "Chesterfield and Norton football clubs", suggesting that a Chesterfield FC, whether loosely or formally organised, was active from at least 1863.  A second Chesterfield FC was formally created as an offshoot of Chesterfield Cricket Club in October 1867. The cricket and football clubs moved to the Recreation Ground at Saltergate in 1871, the same year that they became separate entities. However, a souring of the relationship between the two led to the closure of the football club in 1881, when it found itself homeless. Many players joined other local sides, notably Chesterfield Livingstone, a club that took up using the Saltergate site, and Chesterfield Spital, a team which competed in the early years of the FA Cup.  Three years later, in 1884, a third entity called Chesterfield Football Club was formed, again making its home at Saltergate. It drew in players from the preceding club and both Chesterfield Livingstone and Chesterfield Spital, though records show Spital continued as a separate club. After changing its name to Chesterfield Town, the club turned professional in 1891 and won several local trophies in the following two seasons, entering the FA Cup for the first time in 1892. For the 1892–93 season, the club wore an extraordinary playing strip of all dark blue with the Union Jack emblazoned across the front of the shirt. Chesterfield joined the Midland League in 1896, and successfully applied for a place in the Second Division of the Football League at the start of the 1899–1900 season, finishing seventh. After finishing bottom of the League three years in a row, the club failed to gain re-election to the League in 1909, returning to the Midland League.  In 1915 Chesterfield Town was put into voluntary liquidation and a new club with the same name was formed by a local restaurateur to play wartime football using locally based ’guests’ from Football League clubs. It lasted only two years before its management and players were suspended by the FA for illegal payments and the club shut down.  The current Chesterfield FC was formed on 24 April 1919 by Chesterfield Borough Council, seeing it as a way to spearhead improvements in local recreational provision. Initially called Chesterfield Municipal, the club made great strides on the pitch in its first season, lifting the Midland League title – and did so despite three changes of management. However, The Football Association and the Football League had already made clear their vehement opposition to a council-run club and ultimately forced it to cut its ties and become independent, reflected in a name change to Chesterfield FC in December 1920.  In 1921–22, Chesterfield became a founder member of the new Football League Third Division North. Following the arrival of new manager Ted Davison in 1926 and chairman Harold Shentall in 1928, the club won the Third Division North title in the 1930–31 season with an 8–1 victory over Gateshead on the final day, and were promoted to the Second Division. Relegation followed in 1933, but the Third Division North title was again won in 1936.  After the war the club achieved their best League position, finishing fourth in the Second Division in 1946–47. However, the sale of several players at the end of the season reduced their overall quality, and Chesterfield were relegated at the end of the 1950–51 season. They were placed in the Third Division on its formation at the start of the 1958–59 season; future England international goalkeeper Gordon Banks made his professional debut in a Third Division game in November 1958, but was sold to Leicester City for a then-club record £7,000 fee at the end of the season. In 1961 Chesterfield were relegated to the Fourth Division for the first time.  Chesterfield spent eight seasons in the Fourth Division, earning promotion as champions in 1969–70 under manager Jimmy McGuigan. The Anglo-Scottish Cup was won in 1981. The club was relegated in 1983–84, and won the Fourth Division title the following season. Financial difficulties forced Chesterfield Borough Council to bail out the club in 1985 and the club's training ground to be sold. Relegation followed in 1988–89; Chesterfield reached the play-off competition a year later, but were beaten by Cambridge United in the play-off final. The arrival of John Duncan as manager in 1993 was followed in the 1994–95 season by play-off victories over local rivals Mansfield Town and Bury to earn promotion to the redesignated Second Division. The 1996–97 season saw Chesterfield beat six clubs including Premier League side Nottingham Forest to reach the semi-final of the FA Cup for the first time. The semi-final match against Middlesbrough was contentiously drawn 3–3 after extra time; Chesterfield lost the replay 3–0.  The club were relegated to the Third Division in 2000 following a run of 21 games without a win, and chairman Norton Lea was replaced by Darren Brown. The following year, Chesterfield were deducted nine points for financial irregularities after Brown attempted to avoid paying Chester City the fee agreed by the FA for Luke Beckett. Amid mounting evidence of fraud, he relinquished control of the club in March 2001 and ownership passed to a hastily organised fans' group, the Chesterfield Football Supporters Society. Massive debts run up by Brown forced the club into administration, but the team still secured the division's final automatic promotion place. (Brown was later sentenced to four years in prison following a Serious Fraud Office investigation that led to charges including false accounting, furnishing false information and theft).  Chesterfield were relegated to League Two at the end of the 2006–07 season, although they did reach the regional semi-final of the League Trophy and the fourth round of the League Cup in the same year. The club departed its historic home at Saltergate at the end of the 2009–10 season, and moved to newly built B2net Stadium. Chesterfield were promoted to League One after winning the League Two title in 2010–11 season. They went on to win the EFL Trophy for the first time in March 2012, defeating Swindon Town 2–0 in the final. However they were relegated out of League One the following month, before again returning to the third tier as League Two champions at the end of the 2013–14 season.  Chesterfield secured sixth-place in League One at the end of the 2014–15 campaign, and went on to lose 4–0 on aggregate to Preston North End in the two-legged play-off semi-final. On 14 November 2016, majority shareholder Dave Allen resigned from his roles as chairman and director of the club. This signalled a crisis, and four days later a further four directors resigned from their roles. It was announced that Chesterfield was openly up for sale, and desperately needed some kind of investment in order to avoid administration. Mike Warner was installed as chairman on 19 November. On 8 January 2017, manager Danny Wilson was sacked, with Gary Caldwell being announced as his replacement nine days later. On 16 September 2017, manager Caldwell was sacked after three wins in 29 competitive games, giving him the worst win record of any Spireites manager. On 29 September 2017, club legend Jack Lester was appointed the club's new manager, bringing with him Nicky Eaden as his assistant and former caretaker manager Tommy Wright as a first team coach. However he was unable to prevent the club being relegated out of the English Football League at the end of the 2017–18 season. In the Spireites first season in the national league they achieved a disappointing 14th place finish.

Stadium.

Chesterfield's historic ground was Saltergate, officially named the Recreation Ground, which was in use from 1872 to 2010. Saltergate's record attendance was 30,561, which was set when Chesterfield hosted Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup Fifth Round in February 1938.  Since the 2010–11 season, Chesterfield have played their home games at the £13 million B2net Stadium. The first match was against Derby County in a pre-season friendly which Derby won 5–4, Craig Davies becoming the first goalscorer at the stadium. The first competitive fixture was against Barnet, which ended in a 2–1 win after Dwayne Mattis scored the opening League goal at the ground in the first half. Chesterfield suffered their first home league defeat at the B2net Stadium after a 2–1 loss at Burton Albion on 13 November 2010. The highest attendance at the B2net Stadium was 10,089 at home to Rotherham United which they won 5–0 with Jack Lester getting a hat-trick. On 13 August 2012, it was announced that the Stadium was to be renamed the Proact Stadium.

Rivalries.

Chesterfield's geographical position means that the club holds many local derbies. Their main rival is considered to be the Nottinghamshire club Mansfield Town, with the club contending a number of fiery encounters. The last fixture between the sides finished in a 1–0 win for Mansfield at the Proact Stadium in April 2018. Chesterfield also have strong rivalries with nearby South Yorkshire clubs Rotherham United, Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United. The fiercest of the three rivalries comes with Rotherham, with whom the Spireites have much animosity and mutual dislike. Chesterfield supporters' fondest memory of the fixture is a 5–0 victory over the Millers in March 2011. The rivalries with Sheffield United and Sheffield Wednesday both came to the fore with the two former Premier League clubs' descent into League One. The Spireites have encountered United much more in recent years, continuing to do battle in the third tier of English football until 2017.  A slight rivalry with Grimsby Town intensified with a number of fiesty encounters over the years. Supporters of both clubs often used to cause disturbances at the fixture, leading to the fixture becoming a slight grudge match. Other smaller rivalries include Barnsley, Doncaster Rovers, Derby County, Notts County and Lincoln City.

Honours and achievements.

Third Division North (third tier):  Fourth Division / League Two (fourth tier):  Midland League:  League Trophy:  Anglo-Scottish Cup:  Derbyshire Senior Cup:

Chesterfield Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England. The team competes in the National League, the fifth tier of the English football league system. Chesterfield play their home games at the 10,504 capacity Proact Stadium, having moved from their historic home of Saltergate during the summer of 2010. Notable players include record appearance holder Dave Blakey, who played in 617 of Chesterfield's league games, and 162 league goal club record holder Ernie Moss. The club contests numerous local rivalries, though Nottinghamshire club Mansfield Town are their main rivals.

Der FC Chesterfield (offiziell: "Chesterfield Football Club") ist ein englischer Fußballverein aus Chesterfield, der seine Heimspiele im Proact Stadium austrägt. Der Klub wird wegen der berühmten schiefen Kirchturmspitze der Chesterfield Parish Church auch "The Spireites" () genannt.


Overview and history.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman began work on a series of papers examining "heuristic and biases" used in the judgment under uncertainty. Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of human judgment was that humans are rational actors. Kahneman and Tversky explained that judgment under uncertainty often relies on a limited number of simplifying heuristics rather than extensive algorithmic processing. Soon, this idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, medicine, and political science. This research questioned the descriptive adequacy of idealized models of judgment, and offered insights into the cognitive processes that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. One simplifying strategy people may rely on is the tendency to make a judgment about the frequency of an event based on how many similar instances are brought to mind. In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first studied this phenomenon and labeled it the "availability heuristic". An availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. As follows, people tend to use a readily available fact to base their beliefs about a comparably distant concept. There has been much research done with this heuristic, but studies on the issue are still questionable with regard to the underlying process. Studies illustrate that manipulations intended to increase the subjective experience of ease of recall are also likely to affect the amount of recall. Furthermore, this makes it difficult to determine if the obtained estimates of frequency, likelihood, or typicality are based on participants' phenomenal experiences or on a biased sample of recalled information.  However, some textbooks have chosen the latter interpretation introducing the availability heuristic as "one's judgments are always based on what comes to mind". For example, if a person is asked whether there are more words in the English language that begin with a t or k, the person will probably be able to think of more words that begin with the letter t, concluding that t is more frequent than k.

Research.

Chapman (1967) described a bias in the judgment of the frequency with which two events co-occur. This demonstration showed that the co-occurrence of paired stimuli resulted in participants overestimating the frequency of the pairings. To test this idea, participants were given information about several hypothetical mental patients. The data for each patient consisted of a clinical diagnosis and a drawing made by the patient. Later, participants estimated the frequency with which each diagnosis had been accompanied by various features of the drawing. The subjects vastly overestimated the frequency of this co-occurrence (such as suspiciousness and peculiar eyes). This effect was labeled the illusory correlation. Tversky and Kahneman suggested that availability provides a natural account for the illusory-correlation effect. The strength of the association between two events could provide the basis for the judgment of how frequently the two events co-occur. When the association is strong, it becomes more likely to conclude that the events have been paired frequently. Strong associations will be thought of as having occurred together frequently.  In Tversky & Kahneman's first examination of availability heuristics, subjects were asked, "If a random word is taken from an English text, is it more likely that the word starts with a K, or that K is the third letter?" They argue that English-speaking people would immediately think of many words that begin with the letter "K" (kangaroo, kitchen, kale), but that it would take a more concentrated effort to think of any words in which "K" is the third letter (acknowledge, ask). Results indicated that participants overestimated the number of words that began with the letter "K" and underestimated the number of words that had "K" as the third letter. Tversky and Kahneman concluded that people answer questions like these by comparing the availability of the two categories and assessing how easily they can recall these instances. In other words, it is easier to think of words that begin with "K", more than words with "K" as the third letter. Thus, people judge words beginning with a "K" to be a more common occurrence. In reality, however, a typical text contains twice as many words that have "K" as the third letter than "K" as the first letter. There are three times more words with "K" in the third position than words that begin with "K".  In Tversky and Kahneman's seminal paper, they include findings from several other studies, which also show support for the availability heuristic. Apart from their findings in the "K" study, they also found:

Explanations.

Many researchers have attempted to identify the psychological process which create the availability heuristic.  Tversky and Kahneman argue that the number of examples recalled from memory is used to infer the frequency with which such instances occur. In an experiment to test this explanation, participants listened to lists of names containing either 19 famous women and 20 less famous men or 19 famous men and 20 less famous women. Subsequently, some participants were asked to recall as many names as possible whereas others were asked to estimate whether male or female names were more frequent on the list. The names of the famous celebrities were recalled more frequently compared to those of the less famous celebrities. The majority of the participants incorrectly judged that the gender associated with more famous names had been presented more often than the gender associated with less famous names. Tversky and Kahneman argue that although the availability heuristic is an effective strategy in many situations, when judging probability use of this heuristic can lead to predictable patterns of errors.  Schwarz and his colleagues, on the other hand, proposed the ease of retrieval explanation, in which is the ease with which examples come to mind, not the number of examples, is used to infer the frequency of a given class. In a study by Schwarz and colleagues to test their explanation, participants were asked to recall either six or twelve examples of their assertive or very unassertive behavior. Participants were later asked to rate their own assertiveness. Pretesting had indicated that although most participants were capable of generating twelve examples, this was a difficult task. The results indicated that participants rated themselves as more assertive after describing six examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior condition, but rated themselves as less assertive after describing twelve examples of assertive compared with unassertive behavior condition. The study reflected that the extent to which recalled content impacted judgment was determined by the ease with which the content could be brought to mind (it was easier to recall 6 examples than 12), rather than the amount of content brought to mind.  Research by Vaugh (1999) looked at the effects of uncertainty on the use of the availability heuristic. College students were asked to list either three or eight different study methods they could use in order to get an A on their final exams. The researchers also manipulated the time during the semester they would ask the students to complete the questionnaire. Approximately half of the participants were asked for their study methods during the third week of classes, and the other half were asked on last day of classes. Next, participants were asked to rate how likely they would be to get an A in their easiest and hardest classes. Participants were then asked to rank the difficulty they experienced in recalling the examples they had previously listed. The researchers hypothesized that students would use the availability heuristic, based on the number of study methods they listed, to predict their grade only when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. Students were not expected to use the availability heuristic to predict their grade at the end of the semester or about their easiest final. The researchers predicted this use of availability heuristic because participants would be uncertain about their performance throughout the semester. The results indicated that students used the availability heuristic, based on the ease of recall of the study methods they listed, to predict their performance when asked at the beginning of the semester and about their hardest final. If the student listed only three study methods, they predicted a higher grade at the end of the semester only on their hardest final. If students listed eight study methods, they had a harder time recalling the methods and thus predicted a lower final grade on their hardest final. The results were not seen in the easy final condition because the students were certain they would get an A, regardless of study method. The results supported this hypothesis and gave evidence to the fact that levels of uncertainty affect the use of the availability heuristic.

Applications.

Media.

After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater. Media coverage can help fuel a person's example bias with widespread and extensive coverage of unusual events, such as homicide or airline accidents, and less coverage of more routine, less sensational events, such as common diseases or car accidents. For example, when asked to rate the probability of a variety of causes of death, people tend to rate "newsworthy" events as more likely because they can more readily recall an example from memory. Moreover, unusual and vivid events like homicides, shark attacks, or lightning are more often reported in mass media than common and un-sensational causes of death like common diseases.  For example, many people think that the likelihood of dying from shark attacks is greater than that of dying from being hit by falling airplane parts, when more people actually die from falling airplane parts. When a shark attack occurs, the deaths are widely reported in the media whereas deaths as a result of being hit by falling airplane parts are rarely reported in the media.  In a 2010 study exploring how vivid television portrayals are used when forming social reality judgments, people watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world than those not exposed to vivid television. These results suggest that television violence does in fact have a direct causal impact on participants' social reality beliefs. Repeated exposure to vivid violence leads to an increase in people's risk estimates about the prevalence of crime and violence in the real world. Counter to these findings, researchers from a similar study argued that these effects may be due to effects of new information. Researchers tested the new information effect by showing movies depicting dramatic risk events and measuring their risk assessment after the film. Contrary to previous research, there were no effects on risk perception due to exposure to dramatic movies.

Health.

Researchers examined the role of cognitive heuristics in the AIDS risk-assessment process. 331 physicians reported worry about on-the-job HIV exposure, and experience with patients who have HIV. By analyzing answers to questionnaires handed out, researchers concluded that availability of AIDS information did not relate strongly to perceived risk.  Participants in a 1992 study read case descriptions of hypothetical patients who varied on their sex and sexual preference. These hypothetical patients showed symptoms of two different diseases. Participants were instructed to indicate which disease they thought the patient had and then they rated patient responsibility and interaction desirability. Consistent with the availability heuristic, either the more common (influenza) or the more publicized (AIDS) disease was chosen.

Business and economy.

One study sought to analyze the role of the availability heuristic in financial markets. Researchers defined and tested two aspects of the availability heuristic:  On days of substantial stock market moves, abnormal stock price reactions to upgrades are weaker, than those to downgrades. These availability effects are still significant even after controlling for event-specific and company-specific factors.  Similarly, research has pointed out that under the availability heuristic, humans are not reliable because they assess probabilities by giving more weight to current or easily recalled information instead of processing all relevant information. Since information regarding the current state of the economy is readily available, researchers attempted to expose the properties of business cycles to predict the availability bias in analysts' growth forecasts. They showed the availability heuristic to play a role in analysis of forecasts and influence investments because of this.  In effect, investors are using availability heuristic to make decisions and subsequently, may be obstructing their own investment success. An investor's lingering perceptions of a dire market environment may be causing them to view investment opportunities through an overly negative lens, making it less appealing to consider taking on investment risk, no matter how small the returns on perceived "safe" investments. To illustrate, Franklin Templeton's annual Global Investor Sentiment Survey 1 asked individuals how they believed the S&P 500 Index performed in 2009, 2010 and 2011. 66 percent of respondents stated that they believed the market was either flat or down in 2009, 48 percent said the same about 2010 and 53 percent also said the same about 2011. In reality, the S&P 500 saw 26.5 percent annual returns in 2009, 15.1 percent annual returns in 2010 and 2.1 percent annual returns in 2011, meaning lingering perceptions based on dramatic, painful events are impacting decision-making even when those events are over.  Additionally, a study by Hayibor and Wasieleski found that the availability of others who believe that a particular act is morally acceptable is positively related to others' perceptions of the morality of that act. This suggests that availability heuristic also has an effect on ethical decision making and ethical behavior in organizations.

Education.

A study done by Craig R. Fox provides an example of how availability heuristics can work in the classroom. In this study, Fox tests whether difficulty of recall influences judgment, specifically with course evaluations among college students. In his study he had two groups complete a course evaluation form. He asked the first group to write two recommended improvements for the course (a relatively easy task) and then write two positives about the class. The second group was asked to write ten suggestions where the professor could improve (a relatively difficult task) and then write two positive comments about the course. At the end of the evaluation both groups were asked to rate the course on a scale from one to seven. The results showed that students asked to write ten suggestions (difficult task) rated the course less harshly because it was more difficult for them to recall the information. Most of the students in the group that were asked to fill in 10 suggestions didn't fill in more than two being unable to recall more instances where they were unsatisfied with the class. Students asked to do the easier evaluation with only two complaints had less difficulty in terms of availability of information, so they rated the course more harshly.  A study done was testing the memory of children and the ease of recall. They were asked to learn a list of names and then to recall different amounts. Researchers found that when asked to recall lower amounts compared to larger amounts and then asked what was easier to remember. They responded the shorter list going along with the theory of availability heuristic.

Criminal justice.

The media usually focuses on violent or extreme cases, which are more readily available in the public's mind. This may come into play when it is time for the judicial system to evaluate and determine the proper punishment for a crime. In one study, respondents rated how much they agreed with hypothetical laws and policies such as "Would you support a law that required all offenders convicted of unarmed muggings to serve a minimum prison term of two years?" Participants then read cases and rated each case on several questions about punishment. As hypothesized, respondents recalled more easily from long-term memory stories that contain severe harm, which seemed to influence their sentencing choices to make them push for harsher punishments. This can be eliminated by adding high concrete or high contextually distinct details into the crime stories about less severe injuries.  A similar study asked jurors and college students to choose sentences on four severe criminal cases in which prison was a possible but not an inevitable sentencing outcome. Respondents answering questions about court performance on a public opinion formulated a picture of what the courts do and then evaluated the appropriateness of that behavior. Respondents recalled from public information about crime and sentencing. This type of information is incomplete because the news media present a highly selective and non-representative selection of crime, focusing on the violent and extreme, rather than the ordinary. This makes most people think that judges are too lenient. But, when asked to choose the punishments, the sentences given by students were equal to or less severe than those given by judges. In other words, the availability heuristic made people believe that judges and jurors were too lenient in the courtroom, but the participants gave similar sentences when placed in the position of the judge, suggesting that the information they recalled was not correct.  Researchers in 1989 predicted that mock jurors would rate a witness to be more deceptive if the witness testified truthfully "before" lying than when the witness was caught lying first before telling the truth. If the availability heuristic played a role in this, lying second would remain in jurors' minds (since it was more recent) and they would most likely remember the witness lying over the truthfulness. To test the hypothesis, 312 university students played the roles of mock jurors and watched a videotape of a witness presenting testimony during a trial. Results confirmed the hypothesis, as mock jurors were most influenced by the most recent act.

Perceived risk.

Previous studies have indicated that explaining a hypothetical event makes the event seem more likely through the creation of causal connections. However, such effects could arise through the use of the availability heuristic; that is, subjective likelihood is increased by an event becoming easier to imagine.  A study done asked those participating to pick between two illnesses. Those doing the study wanted to know which disease they thought was more likely to cause death. In the study they asked participants to choose between a stroke and asthma as to which one someone was more likely to die from. The researchers concluded that it depended on what experiences were available to them. If they knew someone or heard of someone that died from one of the diseases that is the one they perceived to be a higher risk to pass away from.

Vividness effects.

Two studies with 108 undergraduates investigated vivid information and its impact on social judgment and the availability heuristic and its role in mediating vividness effects.  In study 1, Subjects listened to a tape recording that described a woman who lived with her 7-year-old son. Subjects then heard arguments about the woman's fitness as a parent and were asked to draw their own conclusions regarding her fitness or unfitness. Concrete and colorful language was found to influence judgments about the woman's fitness as a mother.  In study 2, a series of male and female names was presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual. Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was re-presented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list. The presence of photographs affected judgments about the proportion of male and female students at the two universities. Such effects have typically been attributed to the ready accessibility of vividly presented information in memory—that is, to the availability heuristic.  In both studies, vividness affected both availability (ability to recall) and judgments. However, causal modeling results indicated that the availability heuristic did not play a role in the judgment process.

Judging frequency and probability.

In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatoric outcomes, and of repeated events. The phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias.  In the original Tversky and Kahneman (1973) research, three major factors that are discussed are the frequency of repetition, frequency of co-occurrence, and illusory correlation. The use of frequency of repetition aids in the retrieval of relevant instances. The idea behind this phenomenon, is that the more an instance is repeated within a category or list, the stronger the link between the two instances becomes. Individuals then use the strong association between the instances to determine the frequency of an instance. Consequently, the association between the category or list and the specific instance, often influences frequency judgement. Frequency of co-occurrence strongly relates to Frequency of repetition, such that the more an item-pair is repeated, the stronger the association between the two items becomes, leading to a bias when estimating frequency of co-occurrence. Due to the phenomena of frequency of co-occurrence, illusory correlations also often play a big role.  Another factor that affects the availability heuristic in frequency and probability is exemplars. Exemplars are the typical examples that stand out during the process of recall. If asked what participants thought different set sizes were (how many men and how many women are in the class), participants would use exemplars to determine the size of each set. Participants would derive their answer on ease of recall of the names that stood out. Participants read a list of names of members of a class for 30 seconds, and then participants were asked the male to female ratio of the class. The participant's answer would depend on the recall of exemplars. If the participant reading the list recalled seeing more common male names, such as Jack, but the only female names in the class were uncommon names, such as Deepika, then the participant will recall that there were more men than women. The opposite would be true if there were more common female names on the list and uncommon male names. Due to the availability heuristic, names that are more easily available are more likely to be recalled, and can thus alter judgments of probability.  Another example of the availability heuristic and exemplars would be seeing a shark in the ocean. Seeing a shark has a greater impact on an individual's memory than seeing a dolphin. If someone sees both sharks and dolphins in the ocean, they will be less aware of seeing the dolphins, because the dolphins had less of an impact on their memory. Due to the greater impact of seeing a shark, the availability heuristic can influence the probability judgement of the ratio of sharks and dolphins in the water. Thus, an individual who saw both a shark and a dolphin would assume a higher ratio of sharks in the water, even if there are more dolphins in reality.

Critiques.

Ease of recall as a critique.

One of the earliest and most powerful critiques of the original Tversky and Kahneman study on the availability heuristic was the Schwarz et al. study which found that the ease of recall was a key component in determining whether a concept became available. Many studies since this criticism of the original availability heuristic model have repeated this initial criticism, that the ease of recall factor became an integral facet of the availability heuristic itself (see Research section).

Alternative explanations.

Much of the criticism against the availability heuristic has claimed that making use of the content that becomes available in our mind is not based on the ease of recall as suggested by Schwarz et al. For example, it could be argued that recalling more words that begin with K than words with the third letter being K could arise from how we categorize and process words into our memory. If we categorize words by first letter, and recall them through the same process, this would show more support for the representatives heuristic than the availability heuristic. Based on the possibility of explanations such as these, some researchers have claimed that the classic studies on the availability heuristic are too vague in that they fail to account for people's underlying mental processes. Indeed, a study conducted by Wanke et al. demonstrated this scenario can occur in situations used to test the availability heuristic. Future studies should be conducted to determine if and when this alternative explanation will occur.  A second line of study has shown that frequency estimation may not be the only strategy we use when making frequency judgments. A recent line of research has shown that our situational working memory can access long term memories, and this memory retrieval process includes the ability to determine more accurate probabilities. This finding suggests that more research should be conducted to determine how much memory activation affects the availability heuristic.

The availability heuristic, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that if something can be recalled, it must be important, or at least more important than alternative solutions which are not as readily recalled. Subsequently, under the availability heuristic, people tend to heavily weigh their judgments toward more recent information, making new opinions biased toward that latest news.

Verfügbarkeitsheuristik (englisch "availability heuristic") ist eine verkürzende kognitive Operation, die zu Urteilsfehlern führt. Sie gehört in der Kognitionspsychologie zu den sogenannten Urteilsheuristiken, die gewissermaßen Faustregeln darstellen, um Sachverhalte auch dann beurteilen zu können, wenn kein Zugang zu präzisen und vollständigen Informationen besteht. Sie ersetzt die schwierige Frage nach der Häufigkeit eines Ereignisses oder dem Umfang einer Kategorie durch die einfachere Frage, wie leicht es fällt, sich an passende Beispiele zu erinnern. Zwei häufige Ursachen dafür, dass Beispiele leicht verfügbar sind und so zu einem systematischen Fehler führen, sind eigene Erlebnisse sowie Berichte in den Massenmedien.


History.

The natural lakes of the region were formed about nine thousand years ago as glaciers left Quebec after having scoured the Canadian Shield for ninety thousand years. The prototype of these lakes was an ice dam lake that drained southwards into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at a time when areas further north (Nunavik) were still glaciated. As post-glacial rebound elevated the southern part of the Canadian Shield more rapidly than the north, the region began to drain northward into the Caniapiscau River, a tributary of the Koksoak River, and ultimately into Ungava Bay.  Prior to impoundment, Lake Caniapiscau covered about and was frequented by hunters and fur traders in the 19th century. In 1834, the Hudson's Bay Company opened an outpost there to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay, but closed the Kaniapiskau Post in 1870.  In 1976, "Société d'énergie de la Baie James", a subsidiary of Hydro-Québec, began construction on the Caniapiscau Reservoir, designed to feed the hydro-electric generating stations of the James Bay Project. Filling the reservoir began on October 25, 1981, and over the next three years it flooded numerous lakes such as Lakes Caniapiscau, Delorme, Brisay, Tournon, and Vermouille. It now fills a depression in the highest part of the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield, covering, or about four times the size of the natural lakes prior to impoundment.  Since August 1985, the Caniapiscau River was partially diverted to the west into the Laforge River of the La Grande River watershed, flowing west to James Bay.  Many new islands were created as a result of the lake's impoundment, and in 1997 Quebec's Commission de toponymie published a map naming those islands for significant works of Quebecois literature. The names of the islands attracted controversy not only because they exclusively used French-language works, but also because Cree and Inuit First Nations leaders claimed that the sites already "had" native names, which were ignored and overwritten.

Flora.

The Caniapiscau Reservoir is in the zone of discontinuous permafrost. The area surrounding the reservoir is vegetated entirely with taiga, or boreal forest, characterized by widely spaced Black Spruce with a thick underlayer of yellow-grey lichen and interspersed with muskeg and bogs. In the more moist areas, some closed coniferous forest stands may appear. On the more exposed land, a forest-tundra transition zone occurs where the woodland is replaced by lichen dominated tundra.

The Caniapiscau Reservoir () is a reservoir on the upper Caniapiscau River in the Côte-Nord administrative region of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the largest body of water in Quebec and the second largest reservoir in Canada.

Der Caniapiscau-Stausee () ist ein Stausee in der kanadischen Provinz Québec, in der regionalen Grafschaftsgemeinde Caniapiscau der Verwaltungsregion Côte-Nord. Mit einer Fläche von 4318 km2 handelt es sich um das größte stehende Gewässer in Québec und um den zweitgrößten Stausee Kanadas. Der Stausee liegt am (ehemaligen) Oberlauf des Rivière Caniapiscau (der Fluss oberhalb des Stausees wurde in Rivière René-Lévesque umbenannt). Die Bauarbeiten am Damm begannen 1981 und waren 1984 abgeschlossen. Der Stausee bildet einen Teil des Baie-James-Wasserkraftprojekts des staatlichen Energieversorgungsunternehmens Hydro-Québec.


Background.

Early history (1990–2000).

Exhumed formed in 1990, when founding member Matt Harvey was 15 years old. Exhumed spent much of the ensuing decade releasing numerous demos, split CDs, and EPs. Harvey explained that he was influenced by Carcass, Impetigo, Repulsion and Terrorizer as well as early albums by Entombed.  The band recorded their debut album "Gore Metal" in 1998. The album blended death metal and grindcore and influenced later bands who played the same type of music. Harvey said that "Gore Metal" was the album where Exhumed developed its vision, although he conceded that "we were still very loose and sloppy and didn't really have a handle on recording at all. Listening back to that record, I like most of the songs, but the production is awful sounding." Harvey said the band recorded several songs for the album that were lost when producer James Murphy, then suffering from brain cancer and acting "erratically", was evicted from his studio in Oakland.

Middle period and hiatus (2001–2009).

This led to the band touring the United States and making several festival appearances. The band's line-up continued to change during and after the release of their second album, "Slaughtercult", in August 2000. Harvey said that "Slaughtercult" was "the album where we came closest to achieving our goal – just a brutal, simple, direct group of songs that were very up-front and live sounding." He further noted the band's pride over the lack of double bass on the album, in contrast to contemporary death metal trends. In support of "Slaughtercult", the band did three US tours, and their first proper European tour, including co-headlining festivals like Fuck the Commerce and Obscene Extreme. The band also appeared at the Wacken Open Air festival.  The band evolved further with their third album, "Anatomy Is Destiny" (2003), which added more sophisticated arrangements, production and instrumentation. Bassist Leon del Muerte replaced Bud Burke soon after the album was recorded. Harvey described the album as "a big step forward", but retrospectively criticized the album for its lack of memorable choruses. He said of "Anatomy Is Destiny", "in many ways it's our best album, but in just as many, we missed the mark on a bunch of things."  Co-founder and drummer Col Jones departed Exhumed in 2003, which affected the creative chemistry of the band. Harvey recalled, "After he (Jones) left it was a big adjustment. I was trying to run shit on my own creatively and logistically. The anatomy of the band just dissolved and everything fell apart." As Harvey attempted to rebuild the line-up, Exhumed issued a double CD compilation of their early recordings titled "Platters of Splatter". After touring North America, Europe, Japan, and Australia, guitarist Mike Beams departed and new guitarist Wes Caley and drummer Matt Connell made their debut. Exhumed then completed recording an album of cover songs titled "Garbage Daze Re-Regurgitated". Harvey later explained that the album was intended as a "stopgap" album, although the band's subsequent hiatus put the band on hold longer than planned. Harvey later recalled:  During the hiatus, Harvey played in Dekapitator, Gravehill, and Scarecrow. Harvey, later remarking that "the passion for music didn't go away but my passion for Exhumed went away", came to regret that the band's last recording would be a covers album and, feeling rejuvenated, decided to reform Exhumed to record a new studio album.

Reunion (2010–present).

In an interview conducted shortly after announcing that Exhumed would reform, Harvey remarked that "After a few years off and away from the death metal scene, I feel rejuvenated and ready to hack, maim and kill once again. I wanted this to be a continuation of what the band was doing and was on its way to doing, not a reunion or some weird nostalgia thing."  In 2010, the band recorded "All Guts, No Glory". The album line up was Harvey on guitars and high vocals, del Muerte on bass and low vocals, Caley on guitar and Danny Walker on drums. The musical approach taken on "All Guts, No Glory" was, according to Harvey, intentionally based on the band members' favoured elements of previous Exhumed records: "We all agreed that the period of Exhumed we liked the best was "Slaughtercult" and wanted to mix that with the technicality and melody of "Anatomy"."  The band toured extensively, although del Muerte and Walker left the band to complete Murder Construct's debut album. They were replaced by Bob Babcock and Mike Hamilton (Deeds of Flesh), respectively.  In 2012, guitarist Caley was replaced by Bud Burke, and the band recorded "Necrocracy", which was released by Relapse Records on August 2, 2013. Harvey described the album as being "not quite as fast" as "All Guts, No Glory".  On November 6, 2014, the band appeared on the season 3 premiere of "The Eric Andre Show".  In November 2014 Matt Ferri replaced Rob Babcock on bass.  In 2015 Matt Ferri left and Ross Sewage rejoined the band on bass.  The band released their seventh album "Death Revenge" on October 13, 2017.

Songwriting.

Over the years of their existence, Exhumed's approach to songwriting has become increasingly traditional in its structure and has been greatly influenced by Metal acts such as Visage. Main songwriter Matt Harvey said:

Lyrics.

Exhumed's lyrics focus on gore themes. However, the band uses this thematic lens in an allegorical fashion. Lyricist Matt Harvey said:  On "Necrocracy", Harvey wrote lyrics that applied the gore theme to political subject matter, such as a critique of American corporatism and consumerism.

Exhumed is an American deathgrind band from San Jose, California that is currently signed to Relapse Records and centered around guitarist/vocalist Matt Harvey. The band has released eight albums and eight split 7" singles. They were formed in 1990, went on hiatus in 2005, and reformed in 2010.

Exhumed ist eine Death-Metal-Band aus den USA, deren Musik auch Grindcore- sowie Thrash-Metal-Einflüsse aufweist. Texte und Covergestaltungen beziehen sich exzessiv und ironisch überhöht auf Splatter-Themen. Die Band ist in der San Francisco Bay Area ansässig und folgt damit einer langen Tradition von Thrash- und Death-Metal-Bands wie Metallica, Megadeth, Death Angel, Sadus, Testament oder Possessed.


Club career.

Vahirua was born in Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia. Discovered by legendary club manager Guy Roux, who was vacationing in the island, he moved to AJ Auxerre's youth academy in 1982, aged 16, going on to amass nearly 400 official appearances for the club in nine full professional seasons and making his Ligue 1 debut on 25 September 1984 in a 3–1 home win against Stade Brestois 29.  During the 90s, speedy Vahirua was part of a solid team whose attacking unit also included Gérald Baticle, Christophe Cocard and Corentin Martins, reaching the semi-finals of the 1992–93 UEFA Cup, lost on penalties to Borussia Dortmund. He left the team in 1995 – precisely the year they would go on to conquer a historic double – with only the 1994 edition of the French Cup to his credit.  In the following seven seasons, Vahirua represented Stade Malherbe Caen, Atromitos F.C. in Greece and Tours FC, retiring professionally in 2002. He played amateur football for three more years in the city of Auxerre, with neighbours Stade Auxerrois and AJ's reserves, after which he took charge of football development in the area, which he accumulated with the club's youth sides.

International career.

Vahirua earned his first cap for France on 21 January 1990, in a friendly home with Kuwait (1–0), and scored his only goal in another exhibition game, against Belgium in preparation for the UEFA Euro 1992 (3–3), on 25 March.  Summoned for the final stages by the coach who also gave him his debut, Michel Platini, Vahirua played twice in an eventual group stage exit, and was also part of the nation's infamous 1994 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign, with two home losses in the final two rounds. With a total of 22 internationals, he was the first Polynesian ever to don the French shirt.

Personal life.

Vahirua is cousin to another footballer and winger, Marama Vahirua. He was brought up in another famed academy in France, FC Nantes.

Honours.

Auxerre

Pascal Vahirua (born 9 March 1966) is a French retired footballer who played mostly as a left winger. His career was intimately connected with AJ Auxerre. Vahirua appeared for the France national team at Euro 1992.

Pascal Vahirua (* 9. März 1966 in Papeete auf Tahiti/Französisch-Polynesien) ist ein ehemaliger französischer Fußballspieler. Sein 14 Jahre jüngerer Cousin Marama spielt gleichfalls in der höchsten Liga Frankreichs.


History and profile.

"Fakt" was launched in October 2003 by the Polish outlet of the German publishing company Axel Springer AG, Axel Springer Polska, and modeled on Springer's German tabloid "Bild", the biggest-selling newspaper in Europe. Like its German counterpart "Bild", "Fakt" is characterised by its downmarket, often sensationalist journalism with a populist appeal. However, politically it is by and large centrist. Then the paper supported former prime minister Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz's policies; Marcinkiewicz also regularly contributes invited comments. Other regular contributors of op-ed pieces include Tomasz Lis, a prominent television journalist with political ambitions, TVN anchorman Kamil Durczok, and former "Rzeczpospolita" columnist Maciej Rybiński.  Untypically for a tabloid and in contrast to its usual content, "Fakt" has a weekly supplement entitled "Europa" which contains highbrow (non-original) essays by scholars and public intellectuals, which in 2006 have included Niall Ferguson, Francis Fukuyama, Jürgen Habermas, and Robert Kagan.  The headquarters of "Fakt" is in Warsaw and the paper is published in tabloid format.  The circulation of "Fakt" was 715,000 copies in 2003, making it the best selling newspaper in the country. Its circulation was 373,700 copies in Germany.

Response from competitors.

Within a short time, "Fakt" replaced the upmarket to middle-market "Gazeta Wyborcza" as Poland's biggest-selling newspaper, also putting pressure on "Super Express", until then the only national tabloid. "Gazeta Wyborcza's" publisher Agora S.A. responded with the (failed) launch of a distinct middle-market paper "Nowy Dzień" to compete directly with "Fakt".  When "Fakt" was launched at a price of 1 Polish złoty, "Super Express"'s publisher MediaExpress accused Springer of dumping its daily at a cover-price lower than its production costs. Having lost the lawsuit against Springer, MediaExpress reduced the price of "Super Express" to "Fakt"'s level.

Criticism.

Like "Bild" and other tabloid press products, "Fakt" has been subjected to criticism concerning its style of journalism from media watchdogs. Twice so far, the Association of Polish Journalists awarded "Fakt" with its "Hyena Of The Year" award for "particular unscrupulousness and neglect of the principles of the journalistic work ethic": In 2004, "Fakt" had published a photograph showing the nude dead body of a murder victim; in 2005 it had published the photo of an innocent person with the caption "This sex offender is at large".

Fakt (Polish language for "fact") is a Polish tabloid-style daily newspaper and one of the best-selling papers in the country.

Fakt ist der Name einer seit Oktober 2003 von der polnischen Tochtergesellschaft des deutschen Axel-Springer-Konzerns Axel Springer Polska in Polen täglich herausgegebenen überregionalen Boulevardzeitung.


Gameplay.

The controls consist of a four-position joystick and a tap handle. The game screen features four bars, each with a keg at one end and a door at the other. Customers enter through the doors and slowly advance toward the kegs, demanding service. The player controls a bartender who must pour drinks and slide them down the bar for the customers to catch. Pushing the joystick up or down instantly moves the bartender to the keg at the next bar in the chosen direction, with the top and bottom of the screen wrapping around to one another, while pushing left or right causes him to run along the bar where he is stationed. When the tap handle is pulled down, the bartender instantly moves to the keg (if he is not already standing there) and fills a mug; releasing it causes him to slide the mug along the bar.  Customers slide back toward the doors upon catching a full mug, and disappear through the doors if they are close enough. If not, they stop after a certain distance, consume the drink, and resume their advance while sliding the empty mug back toward the keg. Customers occasionally leave tips on the bar, which the player can pick up for bonus points. Collecting a tip causes a group of female dancers to appear for a few seconds, distracting a portion of the customers so that they will stop advancing. However, distracted customers cannot catch drinks, and any customers who are either drinking or being pushed back at the start of the dancers' show will never be distracted.  One life is lost whenever any of the following occurs:  Each screen is completed when the bar is completely emptied of customers. The bartender then pours/consumes a drink of his own with humorous results involving the empty mug, such as getting it stuck on his head or stubbing his toe when he tries to kick it. As the game progresses, the customers appear more frequently, move faster along the bar, and are pushed back shorter distances when they catch their drinks. In addition, the maximum number of customers per bar gradually increases until every bar can have up to four customers at a time.  The player proceeds through four levels, each with its own theme and appropriately dressed customers, and must complete a set number of screens to advance from one level to the next. The levels are:  A bonus round is played after the end of each level, in which six cans of beer (or root beer) are placed on the bar. A masked figure shakes five of the cans, then pounds the bar to shuffle them. Choosing the one unshaken can awards bonus points, while choosing any other results in the bartender being sprayed in the face (the unshaken can then flashes for a moment to show where it was).  After completing all four levels, the player returns to the start of the sequence and continues the game at a higher difficulty level.

Music.

Music and sound effects for the arcade version of "Tapper" were created Rick Hicaro of Marvin Glass & Associates. He used a Synclavier II synthesizer running with custom software written by Richard Ditton. The system interfaced directly to the arcade game system so sounds were true to the capabilities of the hardware.  The game's score includes "Oh! Susanna" (composed by Stephen Foster), "Buffalo Gals" (traditional American folk song), the Budweiser theme, and "Can-Can" by Jacques Offenbach. The rest of the music was written by Rick Hicaro.

Ports.

"Tapper" was ported to the Apple II, Atari 8-bit family, Atari 5200, Atari 2600, BBC Micro, ColecoVision, Commodore 64, MSX, ZX Spectrum, IBM PC, and Amstrad CPC. Most of the home versions of "Tapper" featured the Mountain Dew logo, while the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC versions had the Pepsi logo, but they retained the bartender character of the original arcade game instead of the soda jerk in "Root Beer Tapper".

Reception.

"Compute!'s Gazette" called the Commodore 64 version of "Tapper" "one of the most addictive games we've seen lately... not only fun to play, but also immensely challenging, graphically entertaining, and full of action". The magazine stated that "it's a very well-designed strategy game", and concluded that it was "near the top in entertainment value".

Legacy.

The art style is almost identical to a previous game called "Domino Man", and the following game "Timber". In fact, the main character in "Timber" is a rework of the main character in "Tapper". The art is based on Mike Ferris, an artist who taught Scott Morrison art.

Re-releases.

"Root Beer Tapper" has been included in several compilations. It was in the Nintendo 64 version of "Midway's Greatest Arcade Hits", "" for the PlayStation, "Midway Arcade Treasures" for PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, and Microsoft Windows, and "Midway Arcade Origins" for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.  A modern reinterpretation of the game for mobile devices, titled "Tapper World Tour", was released in 2011.

Clones.

Novasoft published a clone in 1984 called "Brew Master" for the TRS-80 Color Computer. A clone called "Nuka Tapper" is included in "Fallout 76" as a minigame with "Fallout" themed graphics. A slightly altered version appears under the name "Milk Bar" as a minigame in the "Barnyard" video game.

In popular culture.

"Tapper" is one of the featured games in Disney's computer-animated film "Wreck-It Ralph" (and its sequel "Ralph Breaks the Internet") with the bartender voiced by Maurice LaMarche.

Competition.

Officially recognized competition on Tapper first reached marathon status by Michael Ward whose score of 9,068,625 was verified by Twin Galaxies on July 3, 1985. Ward held the record for 18 years until Gregory Erway, on June 20, 2003, surpassed that record with a score of 9,100,175.  Erway held the record for 2 years until December 5, 2005 when Kelly Tharp of Louisville, KY achieved a score of 9,100,175 in Humble, TX at Totally Amused. This was at a Twin Galaxies sponsored event called "The Golden Age Showdown". This marathon game was authenticated by videotape and also by Twin Galaxies referees Dwayne Richard of Canada and Walter Day of Ottumwa, IA.  Tharp held the record for 10 years until William 'Snowflake' Rosa of Vermilion, OH achieved a score of 10,361,550 on October 18, 2015 which was officially recognized 10 days later on the 8th. The marathon lasted 19 hours, 42 minutes, and 24 seconds and took place at Full Blast Arcade in North Ridgeville, OH. As with previous scores, this was certified by Twin Galaxies.  Rosa held the record for 2 years until the current Lauren Featherstone completed a game with a score of 14,000,600. This game took place at Free Play Arcade in Arlington, TX on July 15, 2017. Rosa reclaimed the world record on February 16, 2019 when he completed a game with a score of 14,826,200.

Tapper, also known as Root Beer Tapper, is a 1983 arcade game developed by Marvin Glass and Associates and released by Bally Midway. "Tapper" puts the player in the shoes of a bartender who must serve eager, thirsty patrons (before their patience expires) while collecting empty mugs and tips.

Tapper ist ein Arcade-Spiel, das 1983 von Bally Midway vertrieben wurde. Der Spieler muss virtuell Bier zapfen. Das Spiel war in der Goldenen Ära der Arcade-Spiele sehr erfolgreich.


Design and development.

United States Navy.

In 1935, the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a carrier-based fighter intended to replace the Grumman F3F biplane. The Brewster XF2A-1 monoplane, designed by a team led by Dayton T. Brown, was one of two aircraft designs that were initially considered. The XF4F-1 with a double-row radial engine was a "classic" biplane. The U.S. Navy competition was re-opened to allow another competitor, the XFNF-1, a navalized Seversky P-35 eliminated early on when the prototype could not reach more than 267 mph (430 km/h). The XF2A-1 first flew on 2 December 1937 and early test results showed it was far in advance of the Grumman biplane entry. While the XF4F-1 would not enter production, it would later re-emerge as a monoplane, the Wildcat.  The Buffalo was manufactured at the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York. The new Brewster fighter had a modern look with a stubby fuselage, mid-set monoplane wings and a host of advanced features. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum construction, although control surfaces were still

Operational history.

The first unit to be equipped with the F2A-1 was Lt. Cdr. Warren Harvey's VF-3, assigned to air group. On 8 December 1939, VF-3 received 10 of the 11 Buffalos delivered to the U.S. Navy. The remaining 43 F2A-1s were declared surplus and sold to Finland. Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the Buffalo and other American aircraft "cannot compete with either the existing English or German fighters", so Britain used them "either as advanced trainers --or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in the Middle East. That is all they are good for". Even the Eagle Squadrons's American pilots used Hawker Hurricanes instead of the Buffalo. Early in the war all modern monoplane fighter types were in high demand, however. Consequently, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Netherlands East Indies purchased several hundred export models of the Buffalo.

Finland.

In April 1939, the Finnish government contacted the Roosevelt administration, requesting the supply of modern combat aircraft as quickly as possible. On 17 October, the Finnish Embassy in Washington, D.C., received a telegram clearing the purchase of fighter aircraft. The only strict requirements laid down by Finnish authorities were that the aircraft be already operational and able to use 87-octane fuel. Part of an F2A-1 shipment – 44 aircraft originally intended for the US Navy – was diverted to Finland, by the US State Department, after the USN agreed to instead accept a later shipment of F2A-2 variants.  On 16 December, the Finnish government signed a contract to purchase 44 aircraft: a F2A-1 variant designated Model B-239E by Brewster. Unlike other fighters already in service, the F2A-1 and B-239E lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and cockpit armor. However, the B-239E was built with a more powerful engine than the F2A-1, in the form of the Wright R-1820-G5, producing 950 hp (708 kW), and the capacity to carry four machine guns (rather than the two carried by the F2A-1). The B-239E was also "de-navalized" before shipment: equipment such as

Belgium.

Just before the start of the war, Belgium sought more modern aircraft to expand and modernize its air force. Belgium ordered 40 Brewster B-339 aircraft, a de-navalized F2A-2, fitted with the Wright R-1820-G-105 engine approved for export use. The G-105 engine had a power output of (peak) on takeoff, some 200 hp (149 kW) less than the engine fitted to the

British Commonwealth (Malaya).

Facing a shortage of combat aircraft in January 1940, the British government established the British Purchasing Commission to acquire U.S. aircraft that would help supplement domestic production. Among the U.S. fighter aircraft that caught the Commission's attention was the Brewster. The remaining 32 B-339 aircraft ordered by the Belgians, suspended at the fall of France, were passed on to the United Kingdom. Appraisal by Royal Air Force acceptance personnel criticized it on numerous points including inadequate armament and lack of pilot armor, poor high-altitude performance, engine overheating, maintenance issues, and cockpit controls, while it was praised for its handling, roomy cockpit, and visibility. With a top speed of about 323 mph (520 km/h) at 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but with fuel starvation issues over 15,000 ft (4,600 m), it was considered unfit for duty in western Europe. Still desperately in need of fighter aircraft in the Pacific and Asia for British and Commonwealth air forces, the UK ordered an additional 170 aircraft under the type specification B-339E. The aircraft were sent to Royal Australian Air Force, RAF and Royal New Zealand Air Force fighter squadrons in Singapore, Malaya and Burma, shortly before the outbreak of war with Japan.  The B-339E, or Brewster Buffalo Mk I as it was designated in British service, was initially intended to be fitted with an export-approved Wright R-1820-G-105 Cyclone engine with a (peak takeoff) engine. The Brewster aircraft delivered to British and Commonwealth air forces were significantly altered from the B-339 type sold to the Belgium and French forces in accordance with their purchase order. The Brewster factory removed the Navy life raft container and arrestor hook, while adding many new items of equipment, including a British Mk III reflector gun sight, a gun camera, a larger fixed pneumatic tire tail wheel, fire extinguisher, engine shutters, a larger battery, and reinforced armor plating and armored glass behind the canopy windshield.  The Brewster Model B-339E, as modified and supplied to Great Britain was distinctly inferior in performance to the F2A-2 (Model B-339) from the original order. It had a less powerful () engine compared to the F2A-2's 1,200 hp (895 kW) Cyclone, yet was substantially heavier due to all of the additional modifications (some 900 lb/400 kg). The semi-retractable tail wheel had been exchanged for a larger fixed model, which was also less aerodynamic. Top speed was reduced from 323 mph (520 km/h) to 313 mph (504 km/h) at combat altitudes.  In its original form, the B-339 had a theoretical maximum speed of 323 mph (520 km/h) at a rather unrealistic 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but fuel starvation problems and poor supercharger performance at

Netherlands East Indies.

The "Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger" ("Military Air Service of the Royal Netherlands East Indian Army", ML-KNIL) had ordered 144 Brewster B-339C and 339D models, the former with rebuilt Wright G-105 engines supplied by the Dutch and the latter with new 1,200 hp (895 kW) Wright R-1820-40 engines Brewster purchased from Wright. At the outbreak of war, only 71 had arrived in the Dutch East Indies, and not all were in service. A small number served briefly at Singapore before being withdrawn for the defense of Borneo and Java.  As the Brewster B-339 aircraft used by the ML-KNIL were lighter than the modified B-339E Brewster Mark Is used by British, Australian, and New Zealand air forces, they were able to successfully engage the Japanese Army Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar", although both the "Oscar" and the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero still out-climbed the B-339 at combat altitudes (the Zero was faster as well). After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammo load in the wing, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns. In February 1942 they received

USAAF/RAAF in Australia.

Following the surrender of the Netherlands East Indies on 8 March 1942, 17 B339-23 belonging to the ML-KNIL (diverted to Australia because of late delivery) were transferred to the U.S. Fifth Air Force in Australia. All of these USAAF aircraft were lent to the RAAF, with which they were used

U.S. Marine Corps.

At Midway Island, United States Marine Corps fighter squadron VMF-221 operated a mixed group of 20 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats. They were originally assigned to as part of a relief force bound for Wake Island, but were diverted to Midway instead after the force was controversially recalled on 22 December 1941. Wake Island fell on the following day. The squadron first saw action on 10 March 1942 when a Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boat was shot down by Captain James L. Neefus near Midway, the Buffalo's first kill in U.S. service.  During the Battle of Midway in 1942, VMF-221 was destined to participate in one of the few aerial combats involving the Buffalo in U.S. military service. The initial Buffalo interception of the first Japanese

Buffalo aces.

The Finnish Air Force produced 36 Buffalo aces. The top three were Capt. Hans Wind, with 39 Buffalo air victories (out of 75), WO Eino Ilmari Juutilainen, with 34 (out of 94) and Capt. Jorma Karhunen, with 25.5 (out of 31.5). First Lt Lauri Nissinen also had victories

Surviving aircraft and replicas.

No American-spec F2A's have survived, but a few export models are known to exist. There is currently one extant complete Finnish B-239 (BW-372), a variant VL Humu (HM-671 at the Central Finland Aviation museum), and two static replicas - one in ML-KNIL markings and the other in U.S. Navy markings.  Finnish B-239 (serial no. BW-372) flown by Lt. Lauri Pekuri was damaged by a Soviet Hawker Hurricane and crashed in 1942 on Lake Big Kolejärvi, about 31 mi (50 km) from Segezha, Russia and was rediscovered in 1998.  The aircraft was transported to the National Naval Aviation Museum at NAS Pensacola, Florida, USA on 18 August 2004. In early 2008 the aircraft was sent to the Aviation Museum of Central Finland for the 90th anniversary of the Finnish Air Force.  In addition to BW-372, the hood and fin of FAF BW-393 (credited with 41 kills) survive in a Finnish museum; FAF BW-372 is on display at the Keski-Suomen Ilmailumuseo (Aviation Museum of Central Finland).  In July 2008, a static full-scale replica B-339C was completed by the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Long Island, New York. The aircraft carries the markings of an ML-KNIL fighter flown by Lt. Gerard Bruggink (two kills). It was built for the "Militaire-Luchtvaartmuseum" (Military Aviation Museum) at Soesterberg, the Netherlands. The Cradle of Aviation Museum houses a static full-scale replica/model F2A-2, carrying the markings of unit "201-S-13" from VS-201, aboard USS "Long Island".  In June 2012, divers discovered the partial wreckage of a Buffalo in shallow water just off Midway Atoll. The aircraft had been ditched during February 1942, after an aborted landing attempt in bad weather by 1stLt Charles W. Somers Jr., USMC (later Colonel, USMC Ret). Officials at the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, where the wreckage was found, have not decided whether to recover any of the parts or leave them in place.

The Brewster F2A Buffalo is an American fighter aircraft which saw service early in World War II. Designed and built by the Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, it was one of the first U.S. monoplanes with an arrestor hook and other modifications for aircraft carriers. The Buffalo won a competition against the Grumman F4F Wildcat in 1939 to become the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter aircraft. Although superior to the Grumman F3F biplane it replaced, and the early F4Fs, the Buffalo was largely obsolete when the United States entered the war, being unstable and overweight, especially when compared to the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero.

Die Brewster F2A Buffalo der Brewster Aeronautical Corporation war der erste bei Kampfeinheiten der US Navy eingesetzte Jagd-Eindecker. Die Maschine wurde bei vielen Luftstreitkräften eingesetzt. Sie war trotz ihrer Schwächen in Konstruktion und Leistung relativ erfolgreich im Luftkampf. Die Maschinen wurden schon im April bzw. Juni 1942 wegen ihrer Verluste aus den Luftkampfverbänden der USA zurück gezogen.


Discovery.

"Ithaka" was discovered on 8 September 1929, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. Five nights later, it was independently discovered by Soviet astronomer Grigory Neujmin at Simeiz Observatory on the Crimean peninsula. Only the first discoverer is acknowledged by the Minor Planet Center. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.

Orbit and classification.

"Ithaka" is a non-family asteroid from the background population. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.7–3.1 AU once every 3 years and 9 months (1,364 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.28 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic.

Physical characteristics.

"Ithaka" is an assumed carbonaceous C-type asteroid, untypical for inner-belt asteroids.

Rotation period.

In 2011, three rotational lightcurves of "Ithaka" were obtained from photometric observations. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period between 4.93115 and 4.932 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.12 to 0.15 magnitude ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Ithaka" measures between 8.97 and 20.46 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.02 and 0.13. A collaboration of Italian and American photometrists estimate a diameter of kilometers, and the "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and derives a diameter of 14.37 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.94.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after the Greek Ionian Island of Ithaca located in the Ionian Sea. In Greek mythology, the legendary hero Odysseus was the King of Ithaca "(also see 1143 Odysseus)". The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

1151 Ithaka, provisional designation, is a carbonaceous asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 14 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in 1929, and later named for the Greek island of Ithaca.

(1151) Ithaka ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 8. September 1929 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


History.

Originally called Robinsons Ferry, it was renamed Bridgeport when a bridge was built across the Van Duzen River in 1875. The post office rejected Bridgeport as a name because of another Bridgeport (in Mono County), and the Bridgeville post office opened in 1877. Robinsons Ferry was named in honor of William Slaughter Robinson, local rancher.  The town became famous in 2002 for being the first in history to be put up for auction on eBay. It was originally sold for $1.77m but the buyer backed out of the deal only for it to be bought by businessman Bruce Krall for $700,000.  Krall put the town up for sale again in 2006 for a starting price of $1.75m. According to the BBC News website, the price included three cows, eight houses, and a post office.  Los Angeles-based entertainment manager and college student Daniel Thomas La Paille, 25, purchased the town on August 3, 2006 from Krall. La Paille paid $1.25 million, the money coming from his own entertainment management work as well as from his mother and grandmother.  In an interview with the Times-Standard, La Paille said, “(Community) is very important in every aspect. We all have to live together. Bridgeville is going to be an example. We're going to... show that we can be environmentally conscious, good neighbors and just create a special little community.”  According to the Los Angeles County Coroner's Office, Daniel La Paille committed suicide November 9, 2006. The cause of death was a single gunshot wound to the chest.  On June 29, 2007, Bridgeville was on the market with a $1.3 million price tag for at least several months. This was the third time that Bridgeville had been listed for sale within five years.  In June 2013, Steve Farzam the COO of the prominent Shore Hotel in Santa Monica California and entrepreneur offered to purchase Bridgeville for $900,000 from Daniel La Paille's mother. Steve Farzam had his development team visit the town where they met with the County Board of Supervisors. Steve Farzam had vast plans to redevelop this town as "America's Greenest City" since sustainability is at his forefront as it was when he developed and operates Shore Hotel which currently holds a Gold LEED certification. Steve Farzam stopped the deal since the owner wanted over $1,000,000 and the economics didn't pencil out.  However, according to Humboldt County Supervisor, Estelle Fennell, Farzam wanted to start his own police force in Bridgeville, for which he would need the approval of the county sheriff. According to one of Farzam's colleagues, Farzam said he would not buy the town if he was unable to start a police department. According to Fennell, the sheriff was adamant that there would be no changes to law enforcement in Bridgeville and the deal never materialized.

Geography.

The Van Duzen River flows through Bridgeville.  The ZIP Code is 95526. The community is inside area code 707.

Climate.

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Bridgeville has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.

Education.

Bridgeville is the seat of the Bridgeville Elementary School District, and home of the Bridgeville School, a public K-8 school.

Politics.

In the state legislature, Bridgeville is in, and.  Federally, Bridgeville is in.

Bridgeville (formerly Robinsons Ferry and Bridgeport) is an unincorporated community in Humboldt County, California. It is located north-northeast of Weott, at an elevation of 636 feet (194 m). Bridgeville is north of San Francisco, with a population of about 25.

Bridgeville ist ein kleines US-amerikanisches Dorf in Humboldt County im Norden Kaliforniens. Der Ort hat 25 Einwohner. Bridgeville hat eine Größe von ca. 33 ha, war ehemals Station für eine lokale Kutschenlinie und Anlaufpunkt des Ponyexpress. Derzeit stehen dort acht Häuser, ein funktionierendes Postamt und ein Kaffeehaus. Die Stadt liegt 12 Meilen nord-nordöstlich von Weott. Das Postamt wies wegen einer anderen Stadt Bridgeport diesen Namen zurück, das Postamt von Bridgeville öffnete 1877. Robinsons Ferry wurde zu Ehren von William Slaughter Robinson, einem örtlichen Rancher benannt.


Career.

Seymour was born in Fremantle, Western Australia. His father was killed in a wharf accident when Alan was nine, and his mother, a Cockney from London, died a few months later. After that he was brought up by his sister May and her husband, Alfred Chester Cruthers. He was educated at Perth Modern School, leaving at 15 after failing to complete the Junior Certificate. He found work as a radio announcer in a commercial radio station 6PM. During his two years there he wrote a number of short radio plays that were broadcast live. In 1945 he moved to Sydney, New South Wales, where he worked as an advertising copy-writer with 2UE.  He returned to Perth after the war where he worked as a free-lance writer for ABC Radio. Seymour became ABC Radio's film critic. He joined a commercial radio station 6KY as an announcer and copy-writer and after six months was offered an announcing post at the ABC. In 1949 he met Ron Baddeley, a RAAF veteran, and they were to become life partners.  In November 1949, Seymour returned to Sydney where he became an educational and freelance drama writer for ABC Radio and later television. From 1953 to 1957 he was theatrical director for the Sydney Opera Group. His first play, "Swamp Creatures", premièred by the Canberra Repertory Society, was a finalist in the London "Observer" play competition in 1957.  Seymour left Australia in 1961 and worked in London as a television writer, producer and commissioning editor with the BBC, and as a theatre critic for "The London Magazine". From 1966 to 1971 he lived in İzmir, Turkey, where Ron Baddeley had gained employment as an English teacher. There Seymour wrote a novelisation of "The One Day of the Year", and another novel "The Coming Self-Destruction of the United States of America", as well as stage plays and magazine articles. From 1974 to 1981, he was a script editor and occasional producer with BBC Television, after which he returned to freelance writing. He won a BAFTA award for his adaptation of John Masefield's novel "The Box of Delights" (1984).  Seymour and Baddeley returned to Australia in 1995 and lived in Darlinghurst, Sydney. In 2003, after a partnership of almost 55 years, Ron Baddeley died, aged 80. Seymour was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 2007, and died in an aged care facility in Elizabeth Bay in 2015, aged 87.

"The One Day of the Year".

His best-known play, "The One Day of the Year" was written in 1958 for an amateur playwriting competition, inspired by an article in the University of Sydney newspaper "Honi Soit" lambasting Anzac Day.  The play met with huge controversy on its release. Initially it was rejected by the Adelaide Festival of Arts Board of Governors in 1960, but was first performed on 20 July 1960 as an amateur production by the Adelaide Theatre Group. In April 1961, at the first professional season at the Palace Theatre in Sydney, a bomb scare during a dress rehearsal forced police to clear the theatre. Later that year the production was staged at the Theatre Royal Stratford East, in London. Since then it has been staged regularly throughout Australia and internationally. It is also studied in various school curricula.

Alan Seymour (6 June 192723 March 2015) was an Australian playwright and author. He is best known for the play "The One Day of the Year" (1958). His international reputation rests not only on this early play, but also on his many screenplays, television scripts and adaptations of novels for film and television.

Alan Seymour (* 6. Juni 1927 in Perth, Western Australia; † 23. März 2015 in Sydney) war ein australischer Drehbuchautor.