Playing career.

Nasheim spent the early stages of his career in his native Canada, playing for the Cowichan Valley Capitals in the BCJHL, followed by stints in the WHL with the Spokane Chiefs and Regina Pats. He then spent the 1985-86 season at the University of Regina.  He began his pro career at German second-division side EHC Klostersee, but would spend almost the remainder of his playing days in Austria. He played a total of 13 years for VEU Feldkirch and also had stints at Swiss EHC Uzwil, and two other Austrian clubs Wiener EV and EHC Linz. In the course of his career he won five Austrian championships with Feldkirch and one with Linz. He also captured four Alpenliga titles as well as the 1997-98 European Hockey League championship in 1997-98. Nasheim retired in 2004.

International career.

Nasheim became an Austrian citizen in 1990 and was eligible to play for the Austrian national team. He played at the 1994 and 1998 Olympic Winter Games and attended nine World Championships.

Coaching career.

Nasheim began his coaching career at assistant at EHC Linz in Austria’s top-flight. He remained in that position until the end of the 2009-10 season and then accepted an offer from ERC Ingolstadt of the German elite league Deutsche Eishockey Liga. When the Ingolstadt team sacked Rich Chernomaz in December 2012, Nasheim took over as head coach on an interim basis. For the 2007 World Championships, he joined the coaching staff of the Austrian national team as an assistant.  In the 2015-16 season, he served as assistant coach of Austrian EBEL side Vienna Capitals. He then worked as analyst for the Austrian TV channel Sky. In June 2017, Nasheim was named assistant coach of EBEL team Dornbirner EC, after having worked as a pro scout for the team the previous months.

Richard "Rick" Nasheim (born January 15, 1963 in Regina, Saskatchewan) is a Canadian-Austrian professional ice hockey coach and a former professional ice hockey player. He has been serving as assistant coach of Austrian team Dornbirner EC since June 2017.

Richard „Rick“ Nasheim (* 15. Januar 1963 in Regina, Saskatchewan) ist ein ehemaliger österreichisch-kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit 2004 als Eishockeytrainer arbeitet. Die meiste Zeit seiner Karriere spielte er in der österreichischen Eishockey-Liga für die VEU Feldkirch.


Hydrography.

Okanagan Lake is called a fjord lake as it has been carved out by repeated glaciations. Although the lake contains numerous lacustrine terraces, it is not uncommon for the lake to be 100 m deep only 10 m offshore. Major inflows include Mission, Vernon, Trout, Penticton, Equesis, Kelowna, Peachland and Powers Creeks. The lake is drained by the Okanagan River, which exits the lake's south end via a canal through the city of Penticton to Skaha Lake, whence the river continues southwards into the rest of the South Okanagan and through Okanogan County, Washington to its confluence with the Columbia.  The lake's maximum depth is near Grant Island (Nahun Weenox). There is one other island known as Rattlesnake Island, much farther south by Squally Point. Some areas of the lake have up to of glacial and post-glacial sediment fill which were deposited during the Pleistocene Epoch.  Notable features of the Okanagan Valley include terraces which were formed due to the periodic lowering of the lake's predecessor, glacial Lake Penticton. These terraces are now used extensively for agriculture such as fruit cultivation.

Geographical context.

Cities bordering the lake include Vernon in the north, Penticton in the south, and Kelowna, as well as the municipalities of Lake Country (north of Kelowna), West Kelowna (west of Kelowna), Peachland (south of West Kelowna), and Summerland (north-west of Penticton). Unincorporated communities include Naramata (north-east of Penticton).  Various lake features include Rattlesnake Island (a small island east of Peachland), Squally Point (a popular cliff-diving area) & Fintry Delta on the west side.  The five-lane William R. Bennett Bridge, a floating bridge with a high boat passage arch connects Kelowna to the city of West Kelowna and the community of Westbank. This bridge replaced the three-lane floating Okanagan Lake Bridge on May 30, 2008, which had a lift span for passage of large boats.

Steamboats of Lake Okanagan.

During the early days of settlement and development of the Okanagan region, the lack of roads in the region made the lake a natural corridor for passenger travel and freight. The Canadian Pacific Railway Lake and River Service was the main carrier on the lakes, providing freight and passenger connections between Penticton, on the Kettle Valley Railway (the Southern Mainline) and Okanagan Landing (Vernon) for connections to the CPR Mainline at Sicamous via the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway. Smaller vessels such as the SS "Naramata" provided passenger service to smaller settlements around the lake, as well as excursions for tourists.

Recreation.

Many parks and beaches are found along the shores of the lake, which make boating and swimming very popular activities.  The lake is home to several species of fish, including rainbow trout and kokanee. It is said by some to be home to its own lake monster – a giant serpent-like creature named Ogopogo.

Okanagan Lake is a large, deep lake in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, Canada. The lake is long, between wide, and has a surface area of 348 km.

Okanagan Lake ist ein langer, schmaler Binnensee in der kanadischen Provinz British Columbia. Der rund 135 km lange und 4–5 km breite See mit einer Oberfläche von 351 km2 schlängelt sich im südlichen Teil von British Columbia durch das Okanagan-Becken und geht rund 55 km vor der Grenze zum US-Bundesstaat Washington in den gleichnamigen Fluss über.


Periods and materials.

In general, Bremen Cathedral is a medieval building. The oldest visible structures are the two crypts. The last parts built in romanesque style and in sandstone were the lower storeys of the western façade and the western towers. Since the late 1220s, vaults and walls were erected in bricks, partly hidden by sheets of sandstone. Only the outer wall of the southern row of chapels shows unhidden bricks. St Peter's is one of the largest historic brick structures in Europe, but it comprises too many stone structures to be subsumed to Brick Gothic. During the great restoration of 1888 to 1901, the western towers and most of the western façade were rebuilt relatively close to previous structures. The crossing tower was a new addition, using the medieval crossing tower of Worms Cathedral as an example. The roofs above the transepts and the northern aisle were redesigned.

History.

Early buildings.

The first church structure that can be verified on the site of St Peter's Cathedral in Bremen was a timber church on a high point overseeing the Weser River built by Saint Willehad, an early missionary to the Frisians. The church was built about 789 in conjunction with the creation of the Diocese of Bremen, with Willehad as the first bishop. Willehad died the same year.  Just three years later Saxons attacked and burned Bremen and its tiny timber cathedral. No trace of it remains. The see remained vacant for thirteen years until it was reestablished under Bishop Willerich in 805. St Peter's was built as the cathedral church of local sandstone in several stages by Bishop Willerich.  After the sack of Hamburg by the Danes in 845, Bremen became the seat of the combined Bremen and Hamburg Archdiocese under Archbishop Saint Ansgar who held the see from 848 to his death in 865. He was one of the most prominent missionaries to northern Europe and is credited with the beginnings of the conversion of the Danes and Swedes to Christianity. He was succeeded by Archbishop Rimbert.  It is believed that during Ansgar's time the cathedral had a central nave and two side aisles with a choir at each end of the nave, a typical Carolingian church form. There was a cathedral school and cloister.  Early in the tenure of Archbishop Adalbrand (1035-1043) the church was in the process of being rebuilt and enlarged, but in 1041 most of Bremen including the cathedral was destroyed by a terrible fire. The fire also destroyed much of the cathedral library. Bishop Adalbrand ordered the building rebuilt in 1042, but died before it could be completed.

Oldest parts of the present building.

Most of the rebuilding fell to Archbishop Adalbert (1043-1072). The cathedral was rebuilt as a pillared basilica with rounded Romanesque style arches and a flat timber ceiling. Two stubby, flat-topped towers were added to the west front. A crypt was built under the west part of the nave. The building plan was based on the cruciform shape of the cathedral at Benevento in Campania, Italy which Adalbert was familiar with. He also brought craftsmen from Lombardy to make repairs and embellish the cathedral, much to the consternation of local builders and artists. Adalbert ignored the criticism and forced his vision for the cathedral. On Adalbert's orders parts of the fortification of (not the unwalled market town beside) were torn down to provide low-cost stone for the cathedral. Adalbert's short-sightedness resulted in Saxons sacking the city and the cathedral in 1064. Under Adalbert's rule the oldest visible part of nowaday's cathedral was built, the western crypt.  Under his successor, Liemar (1072–1102), the eastern crypt was built and the cathedral reached almost present-day extent on the ground.  In 1104, the archidiocese lost most of his administrative power to the newly established archbishopric of Lund.

Dominant structures of the present building.

During the rule Prince-Archbishop Gerhard II (1219-1258), the conditions for works on the cathedral improved: On Christmas 1223 the rivalry of Bremen and Hamburg was finished by a papal decision, Bremen became the only see of the archbishopric. In March 1224, another papal decree authorized an indulgence campaign to subsidize a "repair" of the cathedral. The construction of the lower storeys of the western façade and towers – in pure romanesque style – may have begun before the decree and even before the onset of Gerhard's rule.  Between the towers, a rose window was added, it has already been depicted in Bremen's first municipal seal, cut in 1230. Than, successively and most of it under the same rule, at first the two westernmost bays of the nave were vaulted (still almost Romance style), then the aisles in very early Gothic architecture, then central nave, choir, crossing and transept in advanced early Gothic style. Differing from the Romance parts, the vaults and new walls were constructed in brick as were many other large ecclesiastic and public buildings in northern Europe.  Central nave and choir have double bays with six sections each. The pilars at their corners are supported by flying buttresses (since 1502–'22 only on the southern side). The pilars of the middling ribs, carrying only one fourth (or eighth) of the weight, have none, except of the choir, where they were added as late as in 1911. At Easter 1334 Prince-Archbishop Burchard Grelle claimed to have found the skulls of the Saints Cosmas and Damian. He "personally'miraculously' retrieved the relics of the holy physicians Cosmas and Damian, which were allegedly immured and forgotten in the quire of Bremen Cathedral. In celebration of the retrieval Prince-Archbishop and cathedral chapter arranged a feast at Pentecost 1335, when the relics were translated from the wall to a more dignified place." (For the original quotation see the note) Grelle claimed the relics were those Archbishop Adaldag brought from Rome in 965. In about 1400 the cathedral master-builder Johann Hemeling commissioned a shrine for the relics, which has been accomplished until after 1420. The shrine from carved oak wood covered with gilt rolled silver is considered an important mediaeval gold work. In 1649 Bremen's Chapter, meanwhile Lutheran, sold the shrine with the alleged relics to Elector Maximilian I of Bavaria. It is now shown in the Jesuit church of St Michael in Munich.  Under Prince-Archbishop Johann Rode, officiating between 1497 and 1511, the basilica style church was further transformed into a German "High Gothic" style church with a new northern nave. Several chapels were added and even more ambitious plans were made for the church.  While the municipality of Bremen had gained more and more independence from the archbishopric, the cathedral remained under the control of the chapter and the archbishops. The municipality was divided in four parishes. Even the laic inhabitants of the cathedral immunity had a special parish church, Saint Willehadus chapel. The cathedral was the church of the clergy and for special religious celebrations and special events of the archbishopric. The cathedral and its district were included by the municipal fortifications, but politically they formed an exclave.

Protestantism in Bremen.

When the Protestant Reformation swept through northern Germany, the first Reformed sermon in Bremen was held in 1522, and in 1534 the city established a Protestant rule of churches. The cathedral chapter was still catholic and closed St Peter's cathedral, after on Palm Sunday of 1532 a delegation of Bremen's revolutionary Council of the 104 men had forcefully interrupted a Catholic mass and prompted a pastor to hold a Lutheran service. The Roman Catholic Church was condemned as a symbol of the abuses of a long Catholic past by most local citizens and the building fell into disuse and then disrepair. In 1547 the chapter, meanwhile prevailingly Lutheran, appointed the Dutch Albert Hardenberg, called Rizaeus, as the first Cathedral preacher of Protestant affiliation. Rizaeus turned out to be a partisan of the rather Zwinglian understanding of the Lord's Supper, which was rejected by the then Lutheran burghers, city council, and chapter. So in 1561 - after tremendous quarrels - Rizaeus was dismissed and banned from the city and the cathedral shut again its doors.  While the majority of Bremen's burghers and city council adopted Calvinism until the 1590s, the chapter, being simultaneously the body of secular government in the neighbouring Prince-Archbishopric, clung to Lutheranism.

Tower disasters.

On 27 January 1638, the southern belfry, that already had looked instable since more than a century, collapsed causing severe damage to surrounding buildings and killing eight people. Its lower storeys received a flat roof.  Also in 1638, the Prince-Archbishopric's Lutheran Administrator Frederick II reopened St Peter's as a Lutheran place of worship, while meanwhile all other churches in town had become Calvinist. In 1642, a Lutheran Latin School opened at St Peter's. Just eighteen years later, a lightning struck the northern tower and burned the roof, which collapsed into the nave destroying the roof. The walls of northern tower were quickly rebuilt, covered with a simple pyramidal roof. The southern tower suffered a second collapse and remained an open ruin for almost two and a half centuries.

Interior development.

Though the outer appearance of the Building remained quite poor for more than two centuries, the importance of the church increased. The Lutheran community in the walls of Bremen lacked the status of a parish, but due to immigration from the Lutheran states around Bremen, time by time it became the largest religious group in the city. In administrative matters, the Lutherans that joined the services in the cathedral, at the same time were members of the Calvinist parishes of the municipal districts, where they lived.  To get space for the increasing audience of the services, some galleries were built inside the central nave and the northern aisle. Between 1693 and 1698, Arp Schnitger installed a huge organ that would be played until 1847, one of the most valuable equipment, Bremen Cathedral ever had. in the same period, in 1694/96, the Lutheran church received a new main altar with a canopy, resembling St. Peter's Baldachin in Vatican Basilica. About 80 years later, the western rose window had to be changed (for a simpler one), in order to prevent damages of the organ caused by humidity.

Municipal rule.

In 1803 the cathedral immunity district with St Peter's, meanwhile an extraterritorial enclave of the Electorate of Hanover, which had gained the duchy of Bremen-Verden in, was incorporated into the Free Imperial City of Bremen. Its burgomaster Johann Smidt, a devout member of the Reformed (Calvinist) church, confiscated the considerable estates of the Lutheran congregation. The representatives of the Lutheran congregation, led by the cathedral preacher Johann David Nicolai, started to fight for its right to exist. In 1810, facing the annexion of Bremen by the French Empire, the city council agreed to the establishment of a cathedral parish, this way preventing a French confiscation of the church's properties. But the new parish wouldn't gain full equality of right with the Calvinist parishes before 1830, asserted by a majority of Bremen's Calvinist senators (government members) against the expressed will of Smidt.  <nowiki>[</nowiki>In 1873 the Calvinist and Lutheran congregations in Bremen reconciled and founded a united administrative umbrella, the still existing Bremian Evangelical Church, comprising the bulk of Bremen's citizens.<nowiki>]</nowiki>  In 1817, the city council ordered the withdrawal of some small houses, attached to the northern wall of the cathedral. But the consequent reparations of the wall had to be paid by the parish's construction fund. After more than two centuries of economic decline, for the free city of Bremen investments in its nautic and other transport infrastructure had priority to the reconstruction of the cathedral. Therefore, during the 3rd to 9th decades of the 19th century, urgent renovations had to be paid from the construction fund, and embellishments from gifts. Since 1822, some innovations of the interior were done. The abundance of stalls was reduced to a functional density. Unfortunately, some most valuable medieval stalls were destroyed that way. In 1839/40, a new main altar in Gothic Revival style was installed, and 1847 to 1849 a new organ. In the 1860s, the cathedral got its first coloured stained glass windows after the Reformation.

Restoration.

By the 1880s the citizens of Bremen decided that the cathedral should be restored to its medieval glory. The idea was predominantly promoted by Franz Schütte. Money was raised for the restoration of the building and work began in 1888. Reconstruction continued off and on until 1901 when the church reopened. The restoration was done close to the status before and old pictures, but with a few additions in Romanesque Revival and Gothic Revival style. The whole concept was developed by Max Salzmann. The towers were raised to their present height and completed in 1892. The interior of the church was restored in the Gothic style making it difficult to see the changes in style that occurred over time.  The northern tower that had collapsed in the 17th century was newly erected from its foundations, but using recent structures of the northern tower and old depictions of the cathedral as an example. Of the northern tower it is unknown even to the authorities concerned today, if the lower four storeys were kept or pulled down and rebuilt almost identically. The upper storeys were redesigned a bit. The mosaics in the two central arcs of the façade were new. The gallery above the entrances was restored a bit more solid, and the rose window a bit more decorated than they had been.  On the northern façade the gables of the transept and above the "Brautportal" ("Bride Door") were new, and the Bride Door itself was redecorated, now it has Gothic Revival design.  The addition of the crossing tower was a challenge of engineering, the four columns of the crossing had to be displaced by more stable pillars, but the medieval vaults were kept.  Inside, the walls were repainted in a Neo-Byzantine style.

World War II and new repairs.

The church was struck by a fire bomb during an Allied air raid in 1943 and damaged repeatedly until 1945 when a high explosive bomb caused the collapse of parts of the vaults of the northern aisle. Due to that gap, it was feared that the building could collapse totally. However, all roofs and windows were closed quite soon, and by 1950 the vaults were reconstructed and the whole building stabilized. From 1972 to 1981 the church was restored once again. During those works, the chance was used for an intensive archaeological examination of the foundations and the graves under the floor. The only change of structures was the new rose window of the northern transept, but many of the Neo-Byzantine paintings disappeared. The design of the stained glass windows is totally new.

Interior.

Altars and pulpit.

On the eve of the reformation, the cathedral contained fifty altars. Now, there are four altars and one pulpit. The main altar is in the choir. For smaller services, there is a central altar beside the pulpit in the middle of the northern side of the central nave. It is decorated with a torso of a sculpture of Christ, carrying his cross, saved from northern façade. The two other altars are in the crypts. In the western crypt, nowadays used as baptismal chapel, it is decorated with the oldest sculpture of the cathedral, Jesus Christ as a ruler with Saint Peter's key.  The pulpit installed in 1638 was a gift to the people of Bremen from Queen Christina of Sweden, whose troops - in the course of the Thirty Years' War - had already captured the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, and aimed at gaining the city too. The pulpit remains in its original location.

Organs.

Bremen has a long-standing tradition of fine organ music. As early as in 1244, the cantor was ordered to take care of the organ. Notations are preserved since 1526. In 1528, the construction of a new "large organ" was begun. From 1698 to 1843 the famous organ built by Arp Schnitger, one of the Baroque period's best known organ makers was the main organ. Its replacements, the Schulze organ and then the Wilhelm Sauer organ, one of the largest in northwest Germany. The cathedral today has five organs in different parts of the cathedral and continues the long tradition of great organs and organists.

Choir stalls.

Up to the nineteenth century, the cathedral choir, which still exists today, was situated in the crossing and divided from the transepts by lateral walls. On both sides of this choir, there were two files of choir stalls. In 1826, they were withdrawn, as they had no view to the pulpit. Unfortunately, most of them were used as firewood. But nine of the carved stall wings were saved by the cathedral's "structurer". They had been created in the 1360s. Now they are exposed in one of the chapels. Each of them has a program, showing connected stories from the bible.

Crypts and tombs.

Two crypts reveal the lower portions of the early Romanesque state of the cathedral. Consecrated in 1068, the western crypt is the oldest room on Bremen. Its altar is decorated by a Christ Pantocrator, the oldest sculpture of the cathedral. Nowadays this room is used for baptisms. Therefore, it contains the bronze baptismal font from 1229 that had been moved to all parts of the cathedral before.  The eastern crypt contains the bodies of almost ninety graves of bishops, archbishops, and other notables. Furthermore, it contains two sculptures from the western façade, the coronation of Saint Mary from the attic and the relic of the crucifixion from the southern central arch.  St Peter's has several fine examples of artistic epitaphs for individuals that have survived the many restorations of the cathedral. The three finest are for Chapter Senior Segebade II von der Hude (ca. 1500–1578; Provost of Himmelpforten Convent), Dr. Gerhard Brandis (1518), and Cathedral Provost Sigebade Clüver (1547). St Peter's was the original resting place of St Emma of Lesum, a wealthy benefactress of the church, who lived in outside the city in the early 11th century. When her tomb was opened, her body had crumbled to dust except for her right hand; the one that gave aid to the poor. The relic was moved to the church at Werden.

Museum.

The cathedral museum was established in one of the side chapels in the 1970s cathedral restoration.

Bleikeller.

An unusual "Bleikeller" or lead basement is located beneath the nave, but has no more direct access from it. Originally, the roofs of the cathedral were covered with lead. As it had to be repaired very often, a huge amount of that metal was stored in a basement. Even before the Reformation, it was found that this cellar was an excellent place to preserve corpses amazingly well. Eight mummies in glass-topped coffins can be seen there. Their identity is displayed: two Swedish officers from the Thirty Years' War, an English countess, a murdered student, and a local pauper. That basement has become the cathedral's most visited attraction for more than 300 years.

Towers.

The cathedral has twin 89 meter towers (with weather-vanes 92.31 m) referred to as the north tower and the south tower. Like several major romanesque churches, Bremen Cathedral has a second choir in the west. The towers were constructed flanking this western choir, forming the west front of the church since 1215 and 1253. In 1346 the towers were strengthened and given pyramidal tops of uneven heights. When the towers were restored and raised in the 1890s they were given Rhenish "helmets," which still cap the towers today. It is possible to climb the south tower for a view of the city. The north tower has no public access. The crossing tower is a completely new addition of end 19th century. For several centuries, the outside design of the crossing had been modest.  When the southern tower collapsed in 1638, it contained eight bells. Today both western towers together house the cathedral's four bells. The northern tower has three bells. The oldest surviving bell is the "Maria Gloriosa" cast in 1433 by the famous bell maker Ghert Klinghe. The other bells were removed and melted down for the war effort in World War II. In 1951 two bells, "Hansa" and "Felicitas", were donated to the cathedral by former residents living abroad. In 1962, a prominent Bremen family donated a fourth bell, the "Brema," which hangs in the southern tower. The Brema weighs 7000 kg.

Connected Themes.

Adam of Bremen.

11th century archbishop Adalbert also wanted to improve the reputation of the cathedral school and invited Magister Adam of Magdeburg Cathedral School to come to Bremen and eventually become its director. After 1072 Adam wrote The Deeds of the Bishops of the Hamburg Church, a history of the missionary efforts in northern Germany and Scandinavia in four volumes. Adam of Bremen, as he became known, used the earlier works of others available to him at what was left of the cathedral library to describe the events and people in the Christianization of north Germany, Frisia, and Scandinavia, for which Hamburg had authority to send missionaries. Adam of Bremen continued to revise and update his writing until his death in 1080. His fourth book was mainly written, it is believed, as a guide to the geography and customs of the peoples of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden for future missionaries in the conversion of the pagans of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. In his work is found the first reference to Vinland.

Customs.

There is a tradition with a connection to the cathedral. When a man reaches the age of 30 and still is not married, he must sweep the cathedral steps until a young woman gives him a kiss and then he is released from his duty. Women who reach their thirtieth birthday unmarried go to polish the cathedral doorknobs in the company of friends and family until they are released by the kiss of a young man.

Bremen Cathedral (), dedicated to St. Peter, is a church situated in the market square in the center of Bremen, in northern Germany. The cathedral belongs to the Bremian Evangelical Church, a member of the Protestant umbrella organization named Evangelical Church in Germany. It is the previous cathedral of the former Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen. Since 1973, it is protected by the monument protection act.

Der St.-Petri-Dom in Bremen ist ein aus Sandstein und Backstein gestalteter romanischer Kirchenbau, der vom 11. Jahrhundert an über den Fundamenten älterer Vorgängerbauten errichtet und seit dem 13. Jahrhundert im Stil der Gotik umgebaut wurde. Im 14. Jahrhundert gab es Erweiterungen um seitliche Kapellen. 1502 begann die Umgestaltung in eine spätgotische Hallenkirche, die aber über ein neues Nordseitenschiff nicht hinauskam, als die Reformation weitere Ausbauten stoppte. Im späten 19. Jahrhundert erfolgte eine umfangreiche Renovierung des innen durchaus gepflegten, äußerlich aber schäbig wirkenden Baus, dessen einer Turm von zweien eingestürzt war. Die Gestaltung orientierte sich überwiegend am Vorhandenen und an alten Darstellungen, jedoch gestaltete man auch einige Neuerungen wie den neoromanischen Vierungsturm. Das Gotteshaus gehört heute zur evangelisch-lutherischen Domgemeinde St. Petri. Es steht seit 1973 unter Denkmalschutz.


History of study.

Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the third century BC. In the sixteenth century, Nicolaus Copernicus' "De revolutionibus" presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the second century. This "Copernican revolution" resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus's groundbreaking book... had been [printed more than] a century earlier, [the Dutch mapmaker] Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world."

Influence on Earth.

Because of Earth's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. North of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year, and continuous daylight during the opposite time of year. This is called polar night and midnight sun, respectively. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons.

Events in the orbit.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices (the two points in the Earth's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth's axis, toward the Sun or away from the Sun) and the equinoxes (the two points in the Earth's orbit where the Earth's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another). The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23. The effect of the Earth's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).  In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9% in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.  The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately four times the average distance to the Moon. This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they may become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.  The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis — nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis — farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23. The diagram shows a very exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is virtually circular. Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).

Future.

Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs" of stability for the Solar System. By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.  In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time. Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n-body problem.

Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi). Ignoring the influence of other solar system bodies, Earth's orbit is an ellipse with the Earth-Sun barycenter as one focus and a current eccentricity of 0.0167; since this value is close to zero, the center of the orbit is close, relative to the size of the orbit, to the center of the Sun.

Die Erdbahn ist die Umlaufbahn (oder Revolution) der Erde um die Sonne. Sie ist somit der Weg, den die Erde bei ihrem jährlichen Umlauf um die Sonne beschreibt.


Political career.

Bosbach was a directly elected member of the Bundestag from 1994 until 2017, representing Rheinisch-Bergischer Kreis, and the deputy parliamentary group leader of his party from 2000 until 2009. From 1994 until 2002 and from 2009 until 2017, he served on the Committee on Internal Affairs.  In August 2011, Bosbach became the first senior CDU MP to say he would not vote for legal changes to allow the European Financial Stability Facility to buy sovereign bonds on the market. He later criticized the permanent rescue mechanism – called European Stability Mechanism – was a step toward a European transfer union. In 2012, he told German business magazine "Wirtschaftswoche" that Greece should leave the euro region to overhaul its economy.  In 2013, Bosbach rejected calls to grant Muslims living in Germany two days of official holiday a year to mark important religious festivals, saying there was "no Islamic tradition in Germany" and that religious holidays here reflected the country's Christian heritage.  Following the 2013 federal elections, Bosbach was part of the CDU/CSU team in the negotiations with the SPD on a coalition agreement.  On 27 February 2015 Bosbach voted against the Merkel government’s proposal for a four-month extension of Greece's bailout; in doing so, he joined a record number of 29 dissenters from the CDU/CSU parliamentary group who expressed skepticism about whether the Greek government under Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras could be trusted to deliver on its reform pledges. On 17 July he voted against the government’s proposal to negotiate a third bailout for Greece; in response to the resulting discussions with fellow conservative MPs, he resigned from his office as Chairman of the Committee on Internal Affairs.  In August 2016 Bosbach announced that he would not stand in the 2017 federal elections but instead resign from active politics by the end of the parliamentary term due to his deteriorating health. That same month, he agreed to serve as columnist for German tabloid "Bild" from 2017 on.

Career after politics.

In 2017, Minister-President Armin Laschet of North Rhine-Westphalia appointed Bosbach as chair of a commission to advise the state government on criminal justice reforms.

Wolfgang Walter Wilhelm Bosbach (born 11 June 1952) is a German politician and member of the conservative party, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which he joined in 1972. A lawyer by profession, Bosbach is a partner at Winter, Jansen & Lamsfuß in Bergisch Gladbach.

Wolfgang Walter Wilhelm Bosbach [] (* 11. Juni 1952 in Bergisch Gladbach) ist ein deutscher Politiker (CDU) und Rechtsanwalt. Bosbach war von Februar 2000 bis November 2009 stellvertretender Vorsitzender der Bundestagsfraktion der Union und von November 2009 bis Juli 2015 Vorsitzender des Innenausschusses des Deutschen Bundestages. Am 22. August 2016 teilte er mit, 2017 nicht mehr für den Bundestag kandidieren zu wollen. Mit Ablauf der 18. Wahlperiode am 24. Oktober 2017 beendete er seine politische Arbeit im Deutschen Bundestag.


Operation.

The Mellotron uses the same concept as a sampler, but generates its sound using analogue samples recorded on audio tape rather than digital samples. When a key is pressed, a tape connected to it is pushed against a playback head, as in a tape deck. While the key remains depressed, the tape is drawn over the head, and a sound is played. When the key is released, a spring pulls the tape back to its original position. A variety of sounds are available on the instrument. On earlier models, the instrument is split into "lead" and "rhythm" sections. There is a choice of six "stations" of rhythm sounds, each containing three rhythm tracks and three fill tracks. The fill tracks can also be mixed together. Similarly, there is a choice of six lead stations, each containing three lead instruments which can be mixed. In the centre of the Mellotron, there is a tuning button that allows a variation in both pitch and tempo. Later models do not have the concept of stations and have a single knob to select a sound, along with the tuning control. However, the frame containing the tapes is designed to be removed, and replaced with one with different sounds.  Although the Mellotron was designed to reproduce the sound of the original instrument, replaying a tape creates minor fluctuations in pitch (wow and flutter) and amplitude, so a note sounds slightly different each time it is played. Pressing a key harder allows the head to come into contact under greater pressure, to the extent that the Mellotron responds to aftertouch.  Another factor in the Mellotron's sound is that the individual notes were recorded in isolation. For a musician accustomed to playing in an orchestral setting, this was unusual, and meant that they had nothing against which to intonate. Noted cellist Reginald Kirby refused to downtune his cello to cover the lower range of the Mellotron, and so the bottom notes are actually performed on a double bass. According to Mellotron author Nick Awde, one note of the string sounds contains the sound of a chair being scraped in the background. The original Mellotrons were intended to be used in the home or in clubs and were not designed for touring bands. Even the later M400, which was designed to be as portable as possible, weighed over. Smoke, variations in temperature, and humidity were also detrimental to the instrument's reliability. Moving the instrument between cold storage rooms and brightly lit stages could cause the tapes to stretch and stick on the capstan. Leslie Bradley recalls receiving some Mellotrons in for a repair "looking like a blacksmith had shaped horseshoes on top". Pressing too many keys at once caused the motor to drag, resulting in the notes sounding flat. Robert Fripp stated that "[t]uning a Mellotron doesn't". Dave Kean, an expert Mellotron repairer, recommends that older Mellotrons should not be immediately used after a period of inactivity, as the tape heads can become magnetised in storage and destroy the recordings on them if played.

History.

Although tape samplers had been explored in research studios, the first commercially available keyboard-driven tape instruments were built and sold by California-based Harry Chamberlin. The concept of the Mellotron originated when Chamberlin's sales agent, Bill Fransen, brought two of Chamberlin's Musicmaster 600 instruments to England in 1962 to search for someone who could manufacture 70 matching tape heads for future Chamberlins. He met Frank, Norman and Les Bradley of tape engineering company Bradmatic Ltd, who said they could improve on the original design. The Bradleys subsequently met bandleader Eric Robinson, who agreed to help finance the recording of the necessary instruments and sounds. Together with the Bradleys and television celebrity David Nixon, they formed a company, Mellotronics, in order to market the instrument. Robinson was particularly enthusiastic about the Mellotron, because he felt it would revitalise his career, which was then on the wane. He arranged the recording sessions at IBC Studios in London, which he co-owned with George Clouston.  The first model to be commercially manufactured was the Mk I in 1963. An updated version, the Mk II, was released the following year which featured the full set of sounds selectable by banks and stations. The instrument was expensive, costing £1,000, at a time when a typical house cost £2,000–£3,000.  Fransen failed to explain to the Bradleys that he was not the owner of the concept, and Chamberlin was unhappy with the fact that someone overseas was copying his idea. After some acrimony between the two parties, a deal was struck between them in 1966, whereby they would both continue to manufacture instruments independently. Bradmatic renamed themselves Streetly Electronics in 1970. In 1970, the model M400 was released, which contained 35 notes (G–F) and a removable tape frame. It sold over 1,800 units. By the early 1970s, hundreds of the instruments were assembled and sold by EMI under exclusive licence. Following a financial and trademark dispute through a US distribution agreement, the Mellotron name was acquired by American-based Sound Sales. Streetly-manufactured instruments after 1976 were sold under the name Novatron. The American Mellotron distributor, Sound Sales, produced their own Mellotron model, the 4-Track, in the early 1980s. At the same time Streetly Electronics produced a road-cased version of the 400 – the T550 Novatron. By the mid-1980s, both Sound Sales and Streetly Electronics suffered severe financial setbacks, losing their market to synthesizers and solid-state electronic samplers, which rendered the Mellotron essentially obsolete. The company folded in 1986, and Les Bradley threw most of the manufacturing equipment into a skip. From 1963 until Streetly's closure, around 2,500 units had been built.  Streetly Electronics was subsequently reactivated by Les Bradley's son John and Martin Smith. After Les Bradley's death in 1997, they decided to resume full-time operation as a support and refurbishment business. By 2007, the stock of available instruments to repair and restore was diminishing, so they decided to build a new model, which became the M4000. The instrument combined the features of several previous models, and featured the layout and chassis of an M400 but with a digital bank selector that emulated the mechanical original in the Mk II.

Notable users.

The first notable musician to use the Mellotron was variety pianist Geoff Unwin, who was specifically hired by Robinson in 1962 to promote the use of the instrument. He toured with a Mk II Mellotron and made numerous appearances on television and radio. Unwin claimed that the automatic backing tracks on the Mk II's left-hand keyboard allowed him to provide more accomplished performances than his own basic skills on the piano could provide.  The earlier 1960s Mk II units were made for the home and the characteristics of the instrument attracted a number of celebrities. Among the early Mellotron owners were Princess Margaret, Peter Sellers, King Hussein of Jordan and Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard (whose Mellotron is now installed in the Church of Scientology's head UK office at Saint Hill Manor). According to Robin Douglas-Home, Princess Margaret "adored it; (Lord Snowdon) positively loathed it".  After Mellotronics had targeted them as a potential customer, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop became interested in the possibilities of the instrument, hoping it would allow them to increase throughput. The corporation used two custom-made models that employed recorded sound effects throughout 1963 and 1964, but had problems with fluctuating tape speed and found the sound wasn't up to professional broadcast quality. The Mellotron was eventually dropped in favour of electronic oscillators and synthesizers.  British multi-instrumentalist Graham Bond is considered the first rock musician to record with a Mellotron, beginning in 1965. The first hit song to feature a Mellotron Mk II was "Baby Can It Be True", which Bond performed live with the machine in televised performances, using solenoids to trigger the tapes from his Hammond organ. This was followed by Manfred Mann, who used its reed sound on their late 1966 single "Semi-Detached Suburban Mr James". The band then included multiple Mellotron parts on their follow-up single, "Ha! Ha! Said the Clown". Mike Pinder worked at Streetly Electronics for 18 months in the early 1960s as a tester, and was immediately excited by the possibilities of the instrument. After trying piano and Hammond organ, he settled on the Mellotron as the instrument of choice for his band, the Moody Blues, purchasing a second-hand model from Fort Dunlop Working Men's Club in Birmingham and using it extensively on every album from "Days of Future Passed" (1967) to "Octave" (1978). Pinder says he introduced John Lennon and Paul McCartney to the Mellotron, and convinced each of them to buy one. The Beatles hired a machine and used it on their single "Strawberry Fields Forever", recorded in various takes between November and December 1966. Author Mark Cunningham describes the part in "Strawberry Fields Forever" as "probably the most famous Mellotron figure of all-time". Though producer George Martin was unconvinced by the instrument, describing it "as if a Neanderthal piano had impregnated a primitive electronic keyboard", they continued to compose and record with various Mellotrons for the albums "Magical Mystery Tour" (1967) and "The Beatles" (1968, also known as "the White Album"). McCartney went on to use the Mellotron sporadically in his solo career.  The instrument became increasingly popular among rock and pop bands during the psychedelic era, adding what author Thom Holmes terms "an eerie, unearthly sound" to their recordings. Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones played a Mellotron on several of his band's songs over 1967–68. These include "We Love You", where he used the instrument to create a Moroccan-sounding horn section, "She's a Rainbow", "2000 Light Years from Home" and "Jigsaw Puzzle". The Mellotron became a key instrument in progressive rock. King Crimson bought two Mellotrons when forming in 1969. They were aware of Pinder's contributions to the Moody Blues and did not want to sound similar, but concluded there was no other way of generating the orchestral sound. The instrument was originally played by Ian McDonald, and subsequently by Robert Fripp on McDonald's departure. Later member David Cross recalled he did not particularly want to play the Mellotron, but felt that it was simply what he needed to do as a member of the band. Tony Banks bought a Mellotron from Fripp in 1971, which he claimed was previously used by King Crimson, to use with Genesis. He decided to approach the instrument in a different way to a typical orchestra, using block chords, and later stated that he used it in the same manner as a synth pad on later albums. His unaccompanied introduction to "Watcher of the Skies" on the album "Foxtrot" (1972), played on a Mk II with combined strings and brass, became significant enough that Streetly Electronics provided a "Watcher Mix" sound with the M4000. Banks claims to still have a Mellotron in storage, but does not feel inclined to use it as he generally prefers to use up-to-date technology. Barclay James Harvest's Woolly Wolstenholme bought an M300 primarily to use for string sounds, and continued to play the instrument live into the 2000s as part of a reformed band. Jethro Tull used a Mellotron on their last standalone single, "The Witch's Promise", to emulate a string section.  Rick Wakeman played Mellotron on David Bowie's 1969 hit song "Space Oddity". Having previously found it difficult to keep in tune, Wakeman had discovered a way to do so using a special fingering technique.  The Mellotron was used by German electronic band Tangerine Dream through the 1970s, on albums such as "Atem" (1973), "Phaedra" (1974), "Rubycon" (1975), "Stratosfear" (1976), and "Encore" (1977). In 1983, the band's Christopher Franke asked Mellotronics if they could produce a digital model, as the group migrated towards using samplers.  Though the Mellotron was not extensively used in the 1980s, a number of bands featured it as a prominent instrument. One of the few UK post-punk bands to do so was Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, who featured it heavily on their platinum-selling 1981 album "Architecture & Morality". Andy McCluskey has stated they used the Mellotron because they were starting to run into limitations of the cheap monophonic synthesizers they had used up to that point. He bought a second-hand M400 and was immediately impressed with the strings and choir sounds. XTC's Dave Gregory recalls seeing bands using Mellotrons when growing up in the 1970s, and thought it would be an interesting addition to the group's sound. He bought a second-hand model in 1982 for £165, and first used it on the album "Mummer" (1983). IQ's Martin Orford bought a second-hand M400 and used it primarily for visual appeal rather than musical quality or convenience.  The Mellotron resurfaced in 1995 on Oasis' album "(What's the Story) Morning Glory?" The instrument was played by both Noel Gallagher and Paul Arthurs on several tracks, but a particularly prominent use was the cello sound on the hit single "Wonderwall", played by Arthurs. Radiohead asked Streetly Electronics to restore and repair a model for them in 1997, and recorded with it on several tracks for their album "OK Computer" (1997). The French electronic duo AIR extensively used a M400 on their two first albums "Moon Safari" in 1998 and "The Virgin Suicides" in 1999.  Spock's Beard's Ryo Okumoto is a fan of the Mellotron, saying it characterises the sound of the band. Porcupine Tree's Steven Wilson has acquired one of King Crimson's old Mellotrons and, in 2013, gave a demonstration of the instrument in celebration of its 50th anniversary.

Competitors.

Alternative versions of the Mellotron were manufactured by competitors in the early to mid-1970s. The Mattel Optigan was a toy keyboard designed to be used in the home, which played back sounds using optical discs. This was followed by the Vako Orchestron in 1975, which used a more professional-sounding version of the same technology. It was popularised by Patrick Moraz.

The Mellotron is an electro-mechanical musical instrument developed in Birmingham, England, in 1963. It evolved from the similar Chamberlin, but could be mass-produced more efficiently. The instrument is played by pressing its keys, each of which pushes a length of magnetic tape against a capstan, which pulls it across a playback head. Then as the key is released, the tape is retracted by a spring to its initial position. Different portions of the tape can be played to access different sounds.

Das Mellotron ist ein elektromechanisches Tasteninstrument, das als analoge Urform des Samplers gilt. Es arbeitet mit 3/8 Zoll breiten, mit drei Spuren bespielten Tonbändern, auf denen individuelle Töne als aufgenommene Klänge von bestimmten Musikinstrumenten wie zum Beispiel Violine oder Trompete gespeichert sind. Jeder Taste ist dazu ein eigener Tonbandstreifen zugeordnet, der beim Druck auf die Taste über einen Tonkopf abgespielt wird. Wird die Taste losgelassen, wird das in einer Reihe von Bandkassetten befindliche Tonband über eine Feder schnell in seine Ausgangsposition zurückgezogen.


US military service academies.

Presently, some of the most notable and most stringent honor codes exist at the Federal Service Academies and Senior Military Colleges.  The military academy honor codes not only govern the cadets' and midshipmen's lives at the academies but also are deemed essential to the development of military officers who are worthy of the public trust. As such, the codes are not limited merely to academic situations or to conduct on campus; cadets and midshipmen are expected to live by the codes' ethical standards at all times. The codes are as old as the academies themselves and simply state that cadets and midshipmen do not lie, cheat or steal, nor tolerate those who do. A single-sanction Honor Code, in which any offense results in expulsion regardless of severity, exists at Virginia Military Institute, which features a "drum out" ceremony which is still carried out upon a cadet's dismissal. Outside of the military, Washington and Lee University and the University of Virginia also have single sanction codes.  At three of the service academies and at Virginia Military Institute, anyone who learns of an honor code violation is required to report it. Failure to do so is considered "toleration," which itself violates the code. That also holds true at schools with combined cadet and traditional student programs, such as Norwich University, Texas A&M, and The Citadel, whose honor codes specifically provide that all students, both cadets and civilians, do not "tolerate those who do." It is notable that the three Senior Military Colleges have two honor codes, one for cadets and one for civilians, whether on-campus or through distance online programs, etc. The Honor Concept of the Brigade of Midshipmen at the United States Naval Academy allows the observer of an honor violation to confront the accused without formally reporting. It was found that it was more constructive at developing the honor of midshipmen. A non-toleration clause, on the other hand, is believed to make enemies of classmates. Additionally, it is thought that one's true honor, if other than utmost, was not able to be formally remediated when hidden from public view. Under the academies' honor codes, violators can face severe punishment, up to being forwarded for expulsion by the Secretary of the Army, Navy, or Air Force.  Stringent honor codes, however, are not limited to military institutions. The all-male Hampden–Sydney College is reputed for an honor code system on a par with military systems, which extends to all student activities both on and off campus (off-campus violations can be prosecuted), and also like the military system, it considers tolerance of a violation itself a violation. Like the Naval Academy, however, those who witness a violation are encouraged to confront the violator and convince them to turn themselves in before resorting to reporting the violation. Another school with a very strict honor code is Brigham Young University. The university not only mandates honest behavior but also incorporates various aspects of Mormon religious law: drinking, smoking, drug use, and premarital sex are all banned. Also, the code includes standards for dress and grooming. Men must be clean-shaven, and men and women cannot wear short shorts or other revealing clothing.

Notable American academic honor systems.

Many military academies have strict Honor systems, such as the following:  In addition, the following colleges with a Corps of Cadets maintain an honor code for both the cadets and civilian students:  There are also traditional liberal arts and technical universities that maintain Honor systems:

An academic honor code or honor system is a set of rules or ethical principles governing an academic community based on ideals that define what constitutes honorable behaviour within that community. The use of an honor code depends on the notion that people (at least within the community) can be trusted to act honorably. Those who are in violation of the honor code can be subject to various sanctions, including expulsion from the institution.

Der Ehrenkodex (auch ) ist ein oftmals ungeschriebenes Regelwerk über Wohlverhalten. Der Duden bezeichnet ihn als „Gesamtheit der in einer Gesellschaft oder Gruppe geltenden, die Ehre und das ehrenhafte Verhalten betreffenden Normen“.


Hierarchy of proteases.

Based on catalytic residue.

Proteases can be classified into seven broad groups:  Proteases were first grouped into 84 families according to their evolutionary relationship in 1993, and classified under four catalytic types: serine, cysteine, aspartic, and metallo proteases. The threonine and glutamic-acid proteases were not described until 1995 and 2004 respectively. The mechanism used to cleave a peptide bond involves making an amino acid residue that has the cysteine and threonine (proteases) or a water molecule (aspartic acid, metallo- and acid proteases) nucleophilic so that it can attack the peptide carboxyl group. One way to make a nucleophile is by a catalytic triad, where a histidine residue is used to activate serine, cysteine, or threonine as a nucleophile. This is not an evolutionary grouping, however, as the nucleophile types have evolved convergently in different superfamilies, and some superfamilies show divergent evolution to multiple different nucleophiles.

Peptide lyases.

A seventh catalytic type of proteolytic enzymes, asparagine peptide lyase, was described in 2011. Its proteolytic mechanism is unusual since, rather than hydrolysis, it performs an elimination reaction. During this reaction, the catalytic asparagine forms a cyclic chemical structure that cleaves itself at asparagine residues in proteins under the right conditions. Given its fundamentally different mechanism, its inclusion as a peptidase may be debatable.

Evolutionary phylogeny.

An up-to-date classification of protease evolutionary superfamilies is found in the MEROPS database. In this database, proteases are classified firstly by 'clan' (superfamily) based on structure, mechanism and catalytic residue order (e.g. the PA clan where P indicates a mixture of nucleophile families). Within each 'clan', proteases are classified into families based on sequence similarity (e.g. the S1 and C3 families within the PA clan). Each family may contain many hundreds of related proteases (e.g. trypsin, elastase, thrombin and streptogrisin within the S1 family).  Currently more than 50 clans are known, each indicating an independent evolutionary origin of proteolysis.

Classification based on optimal pH.

Alternatively, proteases may be classified by the optimal pH in which they are active:

Enzymatic function and mechanism.

Proteases are involved in digesting long protein chains into shorter fragments by splitting the peptide bonds that link amino acid residues. Some detach the terminal amino acids from the protein chain (exopeptidases, such as aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidase A); others attack internal peptide bonds of a protein (endopeptidases, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, pepsin, papain, elastase).

Catalysis.

Catalysis is achieved by one of two mechanisms:

Specificity.

Proteolysis can be highly promiscuous such that a wide range of protein substrates are hydrolysed. This is the case for digestive enzymes such as trypsin which have to be able to cleave the array of proteins ingested into smaller peptide fragments. Promiscuous proteases typically bind to a single amino acid on the substrate and so only have specificity for that residue. For example, trypsin is specific for the sequences...K\... or...R\... ('\'=cleavage site).  Conversely some proteases are highly specific and only cleave substrates with a certain sequence. Blood clotting (such as thrombin) and viral polyprotein processing (such as TEV protease) requires this level of specificity in order to achieve precise cleavage events. This is achieved by proteases having a long binding cleft or tunnel with several pockets along it which bind the specified residues. For example, TEV protease is specific for the sequence...ENLYFQ\S... ('\'=cleavage site).

Degradation and autolysis.

Proteases, being themselves proteins, are cleaved by other protease molecules, sometimes of the same variety. This acts as a method of regulation of protease activity. Some proteases are less active after autolysis (e.g. TEV protease) whilst others are more active (e.g. trypsinogen).

Biodiversity of proteases.

Proteases occur in all organisms, from prokaryotes to eukaryotes to viruses. These enzymes are involved in a multitude of physiological reactions from simple digestion of food proteins to highly regulated cascades (e.g., the blood-clotting

Plants.

Protease containing plant-solutions called vegetarian rennet has been in use for hundreds of years in Europe and middle-east for making kosher and halal Cheeses. Vegetarian rennet from "Withania coagulans" has been in use for thousands of years as Ayurvedic remedy for digestion and diabetes in the Indian subcontinent. It is also used to make Paneer.  Plant genomes encode hundreds of proteases, largely of unknown function. Those with known function are largely involved in developmental regulation. Plant proteases also play a role in regulation of photosynthesis.

Animals.

Proteases are used throughout an organism for various metabolic processes. Acid proteases secreted into the stomach (such as pepsin) and serine proteases present in duodenum (trypsin and chymotrypsin) enable us to digest the protein in food. Proteases present in blood serum (thrombin, plasmin, Hageman factor, etc.) play important role in blood-clotting, as well as lysis of the clots, and the correct action of the immune system. Other proteases are present in leukocytes (elastase, cathepsin G) and play several different roles in metabolic control. Some snake venoms are also proteases, such as pit viper haemotoxin and interfere with the victim's blood clotting cascade. Proteases determine the lifetime of other proteins playing important physiological role like hormones, antibodies, or other enzymes. This is one of the fastest "switching on" and "switching off" regulatory mechanisms in the physiology of an organism.  By complex cooperative action the proteases may proceed as cascade reactions, which result in rapid and efficient amplification of an organism's response to a physiological signal.

Bacteria.

Bacteria secrete proteases to hydrolyse the peptide bonds in proteins and therefore break the proteins down into their constituent amino acids. Bacterial and fungal proteases are particularly important to the global carbon and nitrogen cycles in the recycling of proteins, and such activity tends to be regulated by nutritional signals in these organisms. The net impact of nutritional regulation of protease activity among the thousands of species present in soil can be observed at the overall microbial community level as proteins are broken down in response to carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur limitation.  Bacteria contain proteases responsible for general protein quality control (e.g. the AAA+ proteasome) by degrading unfolded or misfolded proteins.  A secreted bacterial protease may also act as an exotoxin, and be an example of a virulence factor in bacterial pathogenesis (for example, exfoliative toxin). Bacterial exotoxic proteases destroy extracellular structures.

Viruses.

Some viruses express their entire genome as one massive polyprotein and use a protease to cleave this into functional units (e.g. polio, norovirus, and TEV proteases). These proteases (e.g. TEV protease) have high specificity and only cleave a very restricted set of substrate sequences. They are therefore a common target for protease inhibitors.

Uses.

The field of protease research is enormous. Since 2004, approximately 8000 papers related to this field were published each year. Proteases are used in industry, medicine and as a basic biological research tool.  Digestive proteases are part of many laundry detergents and are also used extensively in the bread industry in bread improver. A variety of proteases are used medically both for their native function (e.g. controlling blood clotting) or for completely artificial functions ("e.g." for the targeted degradation of pathogenic proteins). Highly specific proteases such as TEV protease and thrombin are commonly used to cleave fusion proteins and affinity tags in a controlled fashion.

Inhibitors.

The activity of proteases is inhibited by protease inhibitors. One example of protease inhibitors is the serpin superfamily. It includes alpha 1-antitrypsin (which protects the body from excessive effects of its own inflammatory proteases), alpha 1-antichymotrypsin (which does likewise), C1-inhibitor (which protects the body from excessive protease-triggered activation of its own complement system), antithrombin (which protects the body from excessive coagulation), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (which protects the body from inadequate coagulation by blocking protease-triggered fibrinolysis), and neuroserpin.  Natural protease inhibitors include the family of lipocalin proteins, which play a role in cell regulation and differentiation. Lipophilic ligands, attached to lipocalin proteins, have been found to possess tumor protease inhibiting properties. The natural protease inhibitors are not to be confused with the protease inhibitors used in antiretroviral therapy. Some viruses, with HIV/AIDS among them, depend on proteases in their reproductive cycle. Thus, protease inhibitors are developed as antiviral means.  Other natural protease inhibitors are used as defense mechanisms. Common examples are the trypsin inhibitors found in the seeds of some plants, most notable for humans being soybeans, a major food crop, where they act to discourage predators. Raw soybeans are toxic to many animals, including humans, until the protease inhibitors they contain have been denatured.

A protease (also called a peptidase or proteinase) is an enzyme that catalyzes (increases the rate of) proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids. They do this by cleaving the peptide bonds within proteins by hydrolysis, a reaction where water breaks bonds. Proteases are involved in many biological functions, including digestion of ingested proteins, protein catabolism (breakdown of old proteins), and cell signalling.

Peptidasen (Kurzform von Peptidbindungshydrolasen) sind Enzyme, die Proteine oder Peptide spalten können. Dabei katalysieren sie die Hydrolyse von Peptidbindungen. Peptidasen werden häufig auch, insbesondere wenn größere Proteine gespalten werden, als Proteasen, Proteinasen oder proteolytische Enzyme bezeichnet.


19th century.

Studies, lessons, and other didactic instrumental pieces composed before the 19th century are extremely varied, without any established genres. Domenico Scarlatti's "30 Essercizi per gravicembalo" ("30 Exercises for harpsichord", 1738) do not differ in scope from his other keyboard works, and J.S. Bach's four volumes of "Clavier-Übung" ("keyboard practice") contain everything from simple organ duets to the extensive and difficult "Goldberg Variations".  The situation changed in the early 19th century. Instruction books with exercises became very common. Of particular importance were collections of "studies" by Johann Baptist Cramer (published between 1804 and 1810), early parts of Muzio Clementi's "Gradus ad Parnassum" (1817–26), numerous works by Carl Czerny, Maria Szymanowska's "Vingt exercises et préludes" (c. 1820), and Ignaz Moscheles' "Studien" Op. 70 (1825–26). However, with the late parts of Clementi's collection and Moscheles' "Charakteristische Studien" Op. 95 (1836–37) the situation began to change, with both composers striving to create music that would both please the audiences in concert and serve as a good teaching tool. Such a combination of didactic and musical value in a study is sometimes referred to as a concert study. The technique required to play Chopin's "Études", Op. 10 (1833) and Op. 25 (1837) was extremely novel at the time of their publication; the first performer who succeeded at mastering the pieces was the renowned virtuoso composer Franz Liszt (to whom Chopin dedicated the Op. 10). Liszt himself composed a number of études that were more extensive and even more complex than Chopin's. Among these, the most well-known is the collection "Études d'Execution Transcendante" (final version published in 1852). These did not retain the didactic aspect of Chopin's work, however, since the difficulty and the technique used varies within a given piece. Each of the études has a different character, designated by its name: Preludio; Molto Vivace; Paysage / Landscape; Mazeppa; Feux Follets - Irrlichter/ Will-o'-the-wisp ; Vision; Eroica; Wilde Jagd/ Wild Hunt; Ricordanza; Allegro Molto Agitato; Harmonies du Soir/ Evening Harmonies; and Chasse-neige / Snow-whirls.  The 19th century also saw a number of étude and study collections for instruments other than the piano. Guitarist composer Fernando Sor published his 12 Studies, op. 6 for guitar in London as early as 1815. These works all conform to the standard definition of 19th-century étude in that they are short compositions, each exploiting a single facet of technique. Collections of studies for flute were published during the second half of the 19th century by Ernesto Köhler, Wilhelm Popp and Adolf Terschak.

20th century.

The early 20th century saw the publication of a number of important collections of études. Claude Debussy's "Études" for piano (1915) conform to the "one facet of technique per piece" rule, but exhibit unorthodox structures with many sharp contrasts, and many concentrate on sonorities and timbres peculiar to the piano, rather than technical points. Leopold Godowsky's "53 Studies on the Chopin Études" (1894–1914) are built on Chopin's études: Godowsky's additions and changes elevated Chopin's music to new, hitherto unknown levels of difficulty. Other important études of this period include Heitor Villa-Lobos' virtuoso "12 Études" for guitar (1929) and pieces by Russian composers: Sergei Rachmaninoff's "Études-Tableaux" (1911, 1917) and several collections by Alexander Scriabin (all for piano).  By mid-century the old étude tradition was largely abandoned. Olivier Messiaen's "Quatre études de rythme" ("Four studies in rhythm", 1949–50) were not didactic compositions, but experiments with scales of durations, as well as with dynamics, figurations, coloration, and pitches. John Cage's études—"Études Australes" (1974–75) for piano, "Études Boreales" (1978) for cello and/or piano and "Freeman Études" (1977–80, 1989–90) for violin—are indeterminate pieces based on star charts, and some of the most difficult works in the repertory. The three books of Études by György Ligeti (1985, 1988–94, 1995) are perhaps closest to the old tradition in that they too concentrate each on a particular technique. Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji's "Études transcendantes (100)" (1940–44), which take Godowsky and Liszt as their starting point, frequently focus on particular technical elements, as well as various rhythmical difficulties. William Bolcom was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his "Twelve New Etudes for Piano" in 1988.

An étude (;, meaning'study') is an instrumental musical composition, usually short, of considerable difficulty, and designed to provide practice material for perfecting a particular musical skill. The tradition of writing études emerged in the early 19th century with the rapidly growing popularity of the piano. Of the vast number of études from that era some are still used as teaching material (particularly pieces by Carl Czerny and Muzio Clementi), and a few, by major composers such as Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt and Claude Debussy, achieved a place in today's concert repertory. Études written in the 20th century include those related to traditional ones (György Ligeti) and those that require wholly unorthodox technique (John Cage).

Eine Etüde (französisch étude: Studie) ist in ihrem ursprünglichen Wortsinn ("les études" = „Studium“; "étudier" = „studieren“) ein Instrumentalwerk für ein Soloinstrument, das dem Musizierenden zu größeren Fertigkeiten auf seinem Instrument verhelfen soll. Im Mittelpunkt steht ein kurzes spieltechnisches Problem, das häufig wiederholt und in Sequenzen auftritt. Im Gegensatz zu den Übungen sind die Etüden harmonisch strukturiert und können auch die Tonarten wechseln.


Terminology.

Eastern traditions.

In Eastern Orthodoxy this day, known as Holy and Great Saturday, is also called The Great Sabbath since it is on this day that Christ "rested" physically in the tomb. But it is also believed that it was on this day he performed in spirit the Harrowing of Hell and raised up to Paradise, having liberated those who had been held captive. In the Coptic, Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, this day is known as Joyous Saturday, otherwise known as the night of light and joy.

Western traditions.

In Western traditions, the day is usually called Holy Saturday, although in the Moravian Church, the day is referred to as the Great Sabbath and in the Anglican Communion, the Book of Common Prayer refers to the day as Easter Even. Although the term Easter Saturday is usually applied to the Saturday in Easter week, in English-speaking countries it is sometimes applied to Holy Saturday, including in legislation in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland, and by Australian government agencies. In the Catholic tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Sorrows is on this day assigned the title "Our Lady of Solitude", referring to her solace and grief at the death of her son Jesus. However, nowhere in Catholic liturgical documents is this day referred to as the feast of Our Lady of Solitude.

Religious and cultural practices.

Eastern traditions.

Matins of Holy and Great Saturday (in parishes usually held on Friday evening) takes the form of a funeral service for Christ. The entire service takes place around the "Epitaphios", an icon in the form of a cloth embroidered with the image of Christ prepared for burial. The first part of the service consists of chanting Psalm 118, as usual at both Saturday matins and at funerals, but interspersed with hymns ("enkomia" or "lamentations") between the verses. The predominant theme of the service is not so much one of mourning, but of watchful expectation:  Today Thou dost keep holy the seventh day,
 Which Thou has blessed of old by resting from Thy works.
 Thou bringest all things into being and Thou makest all things new,
 Observing the Sabbath rest, my Saviour, and restoring strength.  Near the end of matins, at the end of the Great Doxology, the Epitaphios is taken up and carried in procession around the outside of the church, while the Trisagion is sung, as is done when carrying the body to the cemetery in an Orthodox burial. On Saturday, a vesperal Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great is celebrated, called the First Resurrection Service (Greek: ), named so because chronologically it was composed earlier than the Paschal Canon by St John Damascene, rather than because it occurs earlier liturgically. This is the longest Divine Liturgy of the entire year and the latest. After the Little Entrance there are 15 Old Testament readings which recall the history of salvation. In the Russian tradition, just before the Gospel reading () the hangings, altar cloths and vestments are changed from dark to bright and the deacon performs a censing of the church. In the Greek tradition, the clergy strew laurel leaves and flower petals all over the church to symbolize the shattered gates and broken chains of hell and Jesus' victory over death. While the liturgical atmosphere changes from sorrow to joy at this service, the faithful continue to fast and the Paschal greeting, "Christ is risen!", is not exchanged until after midnight during the Paschal Vigil since this service represents the proclamation of Jesus' victory over death to those in Hades, but the Resurrection has not yet been announced to those on earth which takes place during the Paschal Vigil. Great Lent was originally the period of catechesis for new converts in order to prepare them for baptism and chrismation and when there are converts received, that occurs during the Old testament readings during the vesperal divine liturgy. Before the midnight service, the faithful gather in church for the reading of the Acts of the Apostles in its entirety. Preceding midnight the Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, during which the Canon of Holy Saturday is repeated, toward the end of which the epitaphios is removed from the center of the church and placed on the altar table where it remains until the Ascension. Then, all of the candles and lights in the church are extinguished, and all wait in darkness and silence for the proclamation of the Resurrection of Christ.  Prior to the composition of the current Paschal Vigil of St. John of Damascus, this day's vesperal liturgy was the main Easter celebration.

Western traditions.

In the Roman Catholic Church, the chancel remains stripped completely bare (following the Mass on Maundy Thursday). All Masses are severely limited; no Mass at all appears in the normal liturgy for this day, although Mass can be said on Good Friday and on Holy Saturday for an extremely grave or solemn situation with a dispensation from the Vatican or the local bishop. The celebration of the Sacraments is extremely limited: Holy Communion is given only as Viaticum to the dying; while Penance, and Anointing of the Sick may be administered because they, like Viaticum, are helpful to ensuring salvation for the dying. The day is the second day of the Paschal fast as outlined in Sacrosanctum Concilium, Article 110, although fasting may not be as stringent as on Good Friday.  Many of the churches of the Anglican Communion as well as Lutheran, Methodist, and some other Churches observe most of the same customs of the Catholic Church; however, their altars may be covered in black instead of being stripped. In some Anglican churches, including the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, provision is made for a simple Liturgy of the Word on this day, with readings commemorating the burial of Christ. Daily Offices are still observed. In the Moravian Church, the day is known as Great Sabbath. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer uses Easter Even to designate the day. In the Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist traditions, Holy Saturday lasts until nightfall, after which the Easter Vigil is celebrated, marking the official start of the Easter season. The rubrics state that the Easter Vigil must take place in the night; it must begin after nightfall and end before dawn. The service may start with a fire and the lighting of the new Paschal candle. In Roman Catholic and some Anglican observance, the Mass is the first Mass since that of Maundy Thursday, and during it, the "Gloria" — which has been absent during Lent — is used as the statues and icons, covered with purple veils during Passiontide, are dramatically unveiled. Some Anglican churches prefer to celebrate Easter and the lighting of the new Paschal candle at dawn on Easter Day. Baptisms may take place in this service and Baptismal vows are often renewed.  In the predominantly Roman Catholic Philippines, the day is legally and colloquially known in English as "Black Saturday", given the colour's role in mourning. Traditional taboos from the previous day are carried over and are sometimes broken; swimming is allowed in the afternoon. Most commercial establishments resume operations, with smaller enterprises remaining closed until Easter. Television and radio stations broadcast on shorter hours with special programming or remain off-air. After the liturgical changes of the Second Vatican Council, the term "Sábado de Gloria" (Spanish for "Gloria" Saturday) became widely used, referring to the return of chanting the "Gloria in Excelsis Deo" during the Easter Vigil. In predominantly Roman Catholic Poland, Święconka (), meaning "the blessing of the Easter baskets", on Holy Saturday, is one of the most enduring and beloved traditions.

Holy Saturday (), the Saturday of Holy Week, also known as Holy and Great Saturday, the Great Sabbath, Black Saturday, Joyous Saturday, Hallelujah Saturday (in Portugal and Brazil), Glorious Saturday (in the Philippines) or Easter Eve, and called "Joyous Saturday" or "the Saturday of Light" among Coptic Christians, is the day after Good Friday. It is the day before Easter and the last day of Holy Week in which Christians prepare for Easter. It commemorates the day that Jesus' body lay in the tomb and the Harrowing of Hell.

Der Karsamstag ( ‚Klage‘, ‚Kummer‘, ‚Trauer‘) ist der letzte Tag der Karwoche und der zweite Tag des österlichen Triduums. Auf ihn folgt der Ostersonntag. Der Karsamstag wird regional auch als "Karsonnabend" oder "stiller Samstag" bezeichnet. Die Christen gedenken am Karsamstag, dem Tag der Grabesruhe Jesu Christi, seines Abstiegs in die Unterwelt, bei dem er nach seiner Kreuzigung im Limbus, dem „Schoß Abrahams“, die Seelen der Gerechten seit Adam befreit habe (). Die vorkommende umgangssprachliche Bezeichnung des Karsamstags als „Ostersamstag“ oder „Ostersonnabend“ weicht von der kirchlichen Tradition ab: Der Ostersamstag ist im christlichen Sprachgebrauch der Samstag der Osteroktav und damit der Tag vor dem Weißen Sonntag, eine Woche nach Ostern.


Club career.

In his club career, Haller played from 1948 until 1962 for BC Augsburg, before being lured to Italy by a one off fee of 750,000 Marks and an annual salary of 200,000 Marks.<ref Name="Spiegel 47/1973"></ref> Back then in Germany player salaries were officially limited to 500 Marks per month – an amount that rose to 2500 Marks after the introduction of the Bundesliga as unified first division in 1963. In Italy Haller encountered with Albert Brülls, Karl-Heinz Schnellinger and Horst Szymaniak three more German World Cup participants of 1962. Initially Haller played for Bologna, winning in 1964 under coach Fulvio Bernardini the first Italian league title for the club in 23 years and the hitherto last in the club's history. From 1968 until 1973 he played for Juventus where he won the league in 1972 and 1973. In 1973 Juventus – with Dino Zoff in goal, Franco Causio, Fabio Capello and the Brazilian José Altafini – reached the European Champions Cup final in Belgrade against AFC Ajax. The Johan Cruijff led title holder went into the lead by a fourth minute Johnny Rep header. Haller was brought on by coach Čestmír Vycpálek in the 49th minute for Roberto Bettega, but the result stood. Two years earlier Juventus narrowly missed out in the finals of the 1970–71 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, having to concede the title to the Billy Bremner led Leeds United after results of 2–2 and 1–1 on the away goal rule.  In 1973, he returned to his hometown and joined FC Augsburg, then newly created through a merger of his former club BC Augsburg with local rivals TSV Schwaben and just promoted to the second division Regionalliga. The club had paid just DM 44,000 for the transfer of Haller and Haller renounced a fixed salary, settling for 5% of the revenue. ""Haller-Haller-Hallerluja"" became the new battlecry of the team. In late summer 1973, it was not the least due to his popularity that a match in the Munich Olympic Stadium against hosts TSV 1860 attracted an audience of estimated up to 90,000, a world record for second division matches. Augsburg finished that season first in the southern division of the Regionalliga. In the promotion the club missed out on ascension to the Bundesliga by one point to Tennis Borussia Berlin.  Haller retired as player in 1979.

International career.

After made his international debut at age 19 in 1958, he played at the World Cups 1962 in Chile, the 1966 in England and 1970 in Mexico, earning a total of 33 caps and scoring 13 goals.  At the World Cup 1962, Haller was a regular of the German side that drew against Italy and overcame hosts Chile and Switzerland in the group phase, but in the quarterfinals Yugoslavia prevailed 1–0. At the World Cup 1966 he formed the West German midfield together with Wolfgang Overath and the young Franz Beckenbauer. West Germany reached the final of competition and Haller scored the opening goal of the game which Germany lost 2–4 to England. Along with his medal, Haller also got the match ball, though more than 30 years later he returned to England to present it to Geoff Hurst, who had scored a hat-trick in the contest and was therefore by tradition considered to be entitled to the ball. After Portugal's Eusébio, who scored nine goals, he was with six goals the second best marksman of the tournament. At the 1970 World Cup, where West Germany attained third place, Haller was only used in the first group match against Morocco, being replaced by Jürgen Grabowski at halftime. Haller was plagued by injury problems in the run-up to the tournament.

Style of play.

Both a playmaker and goalscorer, Haller was noted for his exceptional technique and finesse as a striker, yet also for his weight problems, which troubled him throughout his career. In Italy Haller is considered as one of the great wingers of the sixties and the defining player of Bologna. He remains famed for his "irresistible dribbling, his innate genius, his great eye for goal, his charisma."

After retirement.

In later years Haller did some coaching of amateur level clubs, including FC Augsburg, and ran a fashion shop.

Personal life.

On Boxing Day 2006, Haller suffered a serious heart attack and was reported to be recovering well after treatment. Later he also suffered from dementia and Parkinson's disease. Haller died on 11 October 2012. He was survived by his third wife, the native Cuban Noraimy Rodriguez Guiterrez, whom he married in 2003 when she was aged just 21, two sons and a daughter. Haller was also an uncle of Christian Hochstätter, a long-serving Borussia Mönchengladbach player and twice West German international.

Honours.

Club.

Bologna  Juventus  Augsburg

International.

Germany

Helmut Haller (; 21 July 1939 – 11 October 2012) was a German footballer who played as a forward. At international level, he represented West Germany at three World Cups. At club level, he played in both Germany and Italy, and won Italian league titles with Bologna and Juventus.

Helmut Haller (* 21. Juli 1939 in Augsburg; † 11. Oktober 2012 ebenda) war ein deutscher Fußballspieler. Der Halbstürmer beziehungsweise Mittelfeldspieler kam in der deutschen Fußballnationalmannschaft von 1958 bis 1970 in 33 Länderspielen zum Einsatz und erzielte dabei 13 Tore. Der aus dem BC Augsburg hervorgegangene Edeltechniker spielte von 1957 bis 1962 mit dem BCA 85 Ligaspiele in der damals erstklassigen Fußball-Oberliga Süd (24 Tore), ehe er Profifußballer beim FC Bologna (1962–68) und Juventus Turin (1968–73) wurde und danach wieder nach Augsburg zurückkehrte. Er wurde dreimal in den Jahren 1964 (Bologna) sowie 1972 und 1973 (Turin) italienischer Meister. Mit der Nationalmannschaft nahm der international gefeierte Star an den drei Weltmeisterschaften 1962, 1966 und 1970 teil. Er war neben Karl-Heinz Schnellinger, Albert Brülls, Robert Huth und Shkodran Mustafi einer der nur fünf Spieler, die nach dem August 1963 in der Nationalmannschaft zum Einsatz kamen, ohne jemals in der Bundesliga gespielt zu haben.


Design.

Sombreros, like the cowboy hats invented later, were designed in response to the demands of the physical environment. The concept of a broad-brimmed hat worn by a rider on horseback can be seen as far back as the Mongolian horsemen of the 13th century. In hot, sunny climates hats evolved to have wide brims, which provided shade. The exact origin of the Mexican sombrero is unknown, but it is usually accepted that the hat originated with Mestizo cowboys in Central Mexico. Although "sombrero" is usually taken to refer to the traditional Mexican headwear, the term "sombrero" predates this item of clothing, and is and has been applied to several differing styles of hat, since it is simply the word for hat in Spanish. Other types of hats known as "sombrero" can be found in South America and Spain, including the "sombrero calañés, sombrero cordobés" and "sombrero de catite" (Spain)", sombrero vueltiao" (Colombia).

Cultural influence.

Many early Texan cowboys adopted the Spanish and Mexican sombrero with its flat crown and wide, flat brim. Also called the these hats came from Spain.  The Mexican variation of the sombrero added an even wider brim and a high, conical crown. These are the hats worn by mariachi musicians and Both types of sombreros usually include a or chin strap.  In the Western United States, the sombrero had a high conical or cylindrical crown with a saucer-shaped brim, highly embroidered and made of plush felt.  In the Philippines, due to the influence from Spain brought about by the Manila galleon trade, the term has been assimilated into the Tagalog language in the form of and now refers to any hat – from actual sombreros to baseball caps.  The galaxy Messier 104 is known as the Sombrero Galaxy due to its appearance. Similarly, Tampa Stadium was also known as "The Big Sombrero."

Sombrero (; Spanish for "hat", literally "shadower") in English refers to a type of wide-brimmed hat from Mexico, used to shield from the sun. Known as a Sombrero de Charro in Spanish, it usually has a high pointed crown, an extra-wide brim (broad enough to cast a shadow over the head, neck and shoulders of the wearer) that's slightly upturned at the edge, and a chin strap to hold it in place. In Spanish, sombrero refers to any wide-brimmed hat.

Herostratos (, seltener ;, auch "Herostrates"; deutsch Herostrat; † ca. 356 v. Chr.) steckte den Tempel der Artemis in Ephesos, eines der sieben Weltwunder der Antike, absichtlich in Brand, um dadurch seinen Namen unsterblich zu machen.