History.

Beginnings in England.

During and after the English Civil War (1642–1651) many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man, George Fox, was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and nonconformists. He had a revelation that "there is one, even, Christ Jesus, who can speak to thy condition", and became convinced that it was possible to have a direct experience of Christ without the aid of ordained clergy. In 1652 he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England,

Immigration into North America.

The persecution of Quakers in North America began in July 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and Ann Austin began preaching in Boston. They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner light. They were imprisoned for five weeks and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Their books were burned, and most of their property confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported. In 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged near Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. She was one of the four executed Quakers known as the Boston martyrs. In 1661, King Charles II forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1684, England revoked the Massachusetts charter, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad Toleration Act. Some Friends immigrated to what is now the Northeastern region of the United States in the 1660s in search of economic opportunities

Quietism.

Early Quakerism tolerated boisterous behaviour that challenged conventional etiquette, but by 1700, they no longer supported disruptive and unruly behaviour. During the 18th century, Quakers entered the "Quietist" period in the history of their church, becoming more inward-looking spiritually and less active

Splits.

Around the time of the American Revolutionary War, some American Quakers split from the main Society of Friends over issues such as support for the war, forming groups such as the Free Quakers and the Universal Friends. Later, in the 19th century, there was a diversification of theological beliefs in the Religious Society of Friends, and this led to several larger splits within the Quaker movement.

Hicksite–Orthodox split.

The Hicksite–Orthodox split arose out of both ideological and socioeconomic tensions. Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Hicksites tended to be agrarian and poorer than the more urban, wealthier, Orthodox Quakers. With increasing financial success, Orthodox Quakers wanted to "make the Society a more respectable body — to transform their sect into a church — by adopting mainstream Protestant orthodoxy". Hicksites, though they held a variety of views, generally saw the market economy as corrupting, and believed Orthodox Quakers had sacrificed their orthodox Christian spirituality for material success. Hicksites viewed the Bible as secondary to the individual cultivation of God's

Beaconite controversy.

Isaac Crewdson was a Recorded Minister in Manchester, UK. His 1835 book "A Beacon to the Society of Friends" strongly argued that the inner light was at odds with a

Rise of Gurneyite Quakerism, and the Gurneyite–Conservative split.

"Orthodox" Friends became more evangelical during the 19th century and were influenced by the Second Great Awakening. This movement was led by British Quaker Joseph John Gurney. Christian Friends held Revival meetings in America and became involved in the Holiness movement of churches. Quakers such as Hannah Whitall Smith and Robert Pearsall Smith became speakers in the religious movement and introduced Quaker phrases and practices to it. British Friends became involved with the Higher Life movement, with Robert Wilson from Cockermouth meeting founding the Keswick Convention. From the 1870s it became commonplace in Great Britain to have "home mission meetings" on a Sunday evening with Christian hymns and a Bible-based sermon alongside the silent meetings for worship on Sunday morning.  The

Richmond Declaration.

In 1887, a Gurneyite Quaker of British descent, Joseph Bevan Braithwaite, proposed to Friends a statement of faith known as the Richmond Declaration. This statement of

Missions to Asia and Africa.

Following the Christian revivals in the mid-19th century, Friends in Great Britain wanted to start missionary activity overseas. The first missionaries were sent to Benares (Varanasi), in India, in 1866. The Friends Foreign Mission Association was formed in 1868, and sent missionaries to Madhya Pradesh, India, forming what is now Mid-India Yearly Meeting; and later to Madagascar from 1867, China

Theory of evolution.

The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in "On the Origin of Species" (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the 19th century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and they believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process. For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman said that the theory was "not compatible with

Quaker Renaissance.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century a religious movement known as the "Quaker Renaissance" movement began within London Yearly Meeting. Young Friends in London Yearly Meeting at this time moved away from evangelicalism and towards liberal Christianity. This Quaker Renaissance movement was particularly influenced by Rowntree, Grubb, and Rufus Jones. These

Conscientious objection.

During World War I and World War II, Friends' opposition to war was put to the test. Many Friends became conscientious objectors and some formed the Friends Ambulance Unit with the aim

Formation of Friends World Committee for Consultation.

After the two great wars brought the different kinds of Quakers closer together, Friends from different yearly meetings—many of whom had served together in

Evangelical Friends.

After World War I, a growing desire for a more fundamentalist approach among some Friends began a split among Five Years Meetings. In 1926, Oregon Yearly Meeting seceded from Five

Role of women.

In the 1650s, individual Quaker women prophesied and preached publicly, developing charismatic personas and spreading the sect. This practice was bolstered by the movement's firm concept of spiritual equality for men and women. Moreover, Quakerism initially was propelled by the nonconformist behaviours of its followers, especially women who broke from social norms. By the 1660s, the progress of the movement resulted in more structured organisation, which led to separate women's meetings. Through the women's meeting, women oversaw domestic and community life, including marriage. From the beginning, Quaker women, most notably Margaret Fell, played an important role in defining Quakerism. Others active in proselytising included Mary Penington, Mary Mollineux and Barbara Blaugdone. Quaker women even published at least 220

Friends in business.

Described as "natural capitalists" by the BBC, dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I (which played an important role in the Industrial Revolution that commenced in Britain), and his family; banking, including Lloyds Banking

Friends in international development.

International volunteering organisations such as Service Civil International and International Voluntary Service were founded by leading Quakers.  Eric Baker, a prominent Quaker, was one of the founders of Amnesty International and also the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.  The Quaker

Friends in education.

Initially, Quakers had no ordained clergy, and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. In England, Quaker schools sprang up, with Friends School Saffron Walden being the most prominent. Quaker schools in the UK and Ireland are still supported by The Friends' Schools' Council to this day.  Later, in America, they founded William Penn Charter School (1689), Abington Friends School (1697), Wilmington Friends School (1748), Moses Brown School (1784) Moorestown Friends School (1785), Westtown School (1799), Germantown Friends School (1845), Scattergood Friends School

Friends and slavery.

Some Quakers in America and Britain became known for their involvement in the abolitionist movement. But until the American Revolutionary War, it was fairly common for Friends in Colonial America to own slaves. During the early to mid-1700s, disquiet about this practice arose among Friends, best exemplified by the testimonies of Benjamin Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman, and this resulted in an abolition movement among Friends. By the beginning of the American Revolution few Friends owned slaves. At the war's end in 1783, Yarnall family members along with fellow Meeting House Friends made a failed petition to the Continental Congress to abolish slavery in the United States. In

Theology.

Quakers' theological beliefs vary considerably. Tolerance of dissent widely varies among yearly meetings. Most Friends believe in continuing revelation: that God continuously reveals truth directly to individuals. George Fox, an "early Friend", said, "Christ has come to teach His people Himself." Friends often focus on trying to hear God. As Isaac Penington wrote in 1670, "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing—to feel him to be my root, my life, and my foundation..." Quakers reject the idea of priests, believing in the priesthood of all believers. Some express their concept of God using phrases such as "the inner light", "inward light of Christ", or "Holy Spirit". Diverse theological beliefs, understandings of the "leading of the Holy Spirit", and statements of "faith and practice" have always existed among Friends. Due in part to the emphasis on the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, Quaker doctrines have only sometimes been codified as statements of faith, confessions or theological texts; those that do exist include the "Letter to the Governor of Barbados" (Fox, 1671), "An Apology for the True Christian Divinity" (Barclay, 1678), "A Catechism and Confession of Faith" (Barclay, 1690), "The Testimony of the Society of Friends on the Continent of America" (adopted jointly by all orthodox yearly meetings in U.S., 1830), the "Richmond Declaration of Faith" (adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1887), and "Essential Truths" (Jones and Wood, adopted by Five Years Meeting, 1922). As a public statement of faith, most yearly meetings publish their own Book of Discipline, which expresses Christian discipleship within the experience of Friends in that yearly meeting.

Conservative.

Conservative Friends (also known as "Wilburites" after their founder, John Wilbur), share some of the beliefs of Fox and the Early Friends. Many Wilburites see themselves as the Quakers whose beliefs are truest to original Quaker doctrine, arguing that the majority of Friends "broke away" from the Wilburites in the 19th and 20th centuries (rather than vice versa). Conservative Friends place their trust in the immediate guidance of God. They completely reject all forms of religious symbolism and outward sacraments, such as the Eucharist and water baptism. Conservative Friends do not believe in relying upon the practice

Evangelical.

Evangelical Friends regard Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour, and have similar religious beliefs to other evangelical Christians. They believe in, and hold a high regard for, the penal substitution of the atonement of Christ on the Cross at Calvary, biblical infallibility, and the need for every person to personally experience a relationship with God. They believe that the purpose of the Evangelical Friends Church is to evangelise the unsaved people of the world, to spiritually transform them through God's love and through social service to others. Evangelical Friends regard the Bible as the infallible and

Gurneyite.

Gurneyite Friends (aka Friends United Meeting Friends) are the modern-day followers of the Evangelical Quaker theology first proclaimed by Joseph John Gurney, a 19th-century British Friend. They make up 49% of the total number of Quakers worldwide. They regard Jesus Christ as their Teacher and Lord, and favour working closely with other Protestant Christian churches. Gurneyite Friends balance the authority of the Bible as inspired words of God with personal and direct experience of God in their lives. Both children and adults participate in ongoing religious education which emphasises orthodox Christian teaching from the Bible, and in relationship to both orthodox Christian

Holiness.

Holiness Friends are heavily influenced by the Holiness movement, in particular John Wesley's doctrine of Christian perfection, also called "entire sanctification". This doctrine states that loving God and humanity totally, as exemplified by Christ, enables believers to rid themselves of voluntary sin. This was a predominant view within Quakerism in the United Kingdom and United States in the

Liberal.

Liberal Quakerism generally refers to Friends who have taken ideas from liberal Christianity, often sharing a similar mix of ideas, such as more critical Biblical hermeneutics, often with a focus on the social gospel. The ideas of "That of God in everyone" and the "inner light" were popularised by American Friend Rufus Jones in the early 20th century. He and John Wilhelm Rowntree originated the movement. Liberal Friends were predominant in Great Britain in the 20th century, and among US meetings affiliated to Friends General Conference; and some meetings in Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.  These ideas remain an important part of liberal Friends' understanding of God. Liberal Friends highlight the importance of good works, particularly living a life that upholds the virtues preached by Jesus. They often emphasise pacifism, treating others equally, living simply and telling the truth.  Like Conservative Friends, Liberal Friends reject religious symbolism

Universalist.

Universalist Friends affirm religious pluralism, that there are many different paths to God and that understandings of the divine reached through non-Christian religious experiences are as valid as Christian understandings. This group was founded in the late 1970s by John Linton. Linton had worshipped God with the Delhi Worship Group in India (an independent meeting not affiliated to any yearly meeting or wider Quaker group) with Christians, Muslims and Hindus worshipping together. Following a

Non-theist.

These Friends have views similar to other post-Christian non-theists in other churches such as the Sea of Faith that emerged from the Anglican church. They are predominantly atheists, agnostics, and humanists who nevertheless value membership in a religious organization. The first organisation for non-theist Friends was the "Humanistic Society of Friends", founded in Los Angeles in 1939. This organisation remained small and was absorbed into the American Humanist Association. More recently, interest in non-theism resurfaced, particularly led by British Friend David Boulton, who founded the 40-member "Nontheist Friends Network" in 2011. Non-theism is controversial, leading

Practical theology.

Quakers bear witness or "testify" to their religious beliefs in their spiritual lives, drawing on the James advice that "faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead". This religious witness is rooted in their immediate experience of God and verified by the Bible, especially in Jesus Christ's life and teachings. They may bear witness in many ways, according to how they believe God is leading them. Although Quakers share how they relate to God and the world, mirroring Christian ethical codes, for example the Sermon on the Mount or the Sermon on the Plain, Friends argue that they feel personally moved by God rather than following an ethical code.  Some theologians classify Friends' religious witness into categories—known by some Friends as "testimonies." These Friends believe these principles and practices testify to, witness to, or provide evidence for God's truth. No categorisation is universally accepted.  In East Africa, Friends teach peace and non-violence, simplicity, honesty, equality, humility, marriage and sexual ethics (defining marriage as lifelong between one man and one woman), sanctity of life (opposition to abortion), cultural conflicts and Christian life.  In the United States, the acronym SPICES is often used by many Yearly Meetings (Simplicity, Peace, Integrity, Community, Equality and Stewardship). Stewardship is not recognised as a Testimony by all Yearly Meetings. Rocky Mountain Yearly Meeting Friends put their faith in action through living their lives by the following principles: prayer, personal integrity, stewardship (which includes giving away minimum of 10% income and refraining from lotteries), marriage and family (lifelong commitment), regard for mind and body (refraining from certain amusements, propriety and modesty of dress, abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and drugs), peace and non-violence (including refusing to participate in war), abortion (opposition to abortion, practical ministry to women with unwanted pregnancy and promotion of adoption), human sexuality, the Christian and state (look to God for authority, not the government), capital punishment (find alternatives), human equality, women in ministry (recognising women and men have an equal part to play in ministry). The Southern Appalachian Yearly Meeting and Association lists as testimonies: Integrity, Peace, Simplicity, Equality and Community; Areas of witness lists Children, Education, Government, Sexuality and Harmony with Nature.  In the UK, the acronym STEP or PEST is used (peace, equality, simplicity and truth). In his book "Quaker Speak", British Friend Alastair Heron, lists the following ways in which British Friends testify to God: Opposition to betting and gambling, capital punishment, conscription, hat honour (the largely historical practice of dipping one's hat toward social superiors), oaths, slavery, times and seasons, and tithing. Promotion of integrity (or truth), peace, penal reform, plain language, relief of suffering, simplicity, social order, Sunday observance, sustainability, temperance and moderation.

Worship.

Most groups of Quakers meet for regular worship. There are two main types of worship worldwide: programmed worship and waiting worship.

Programmed worship.

In "programmed worship" there is often a prepared Biblical message, which may be delivered by an individual with theological training from a Bible College. There may be hymns, a sermon, Bible readings, joint prayers and a period of silent worship. The worship resembles the church services of other Protestant denominations, although in most cases does not include the Eucharist. A paid pastor may be responsible for pastoral care. Worship of this kind is celebrated by about 89% of Friends worldwide. It is found in many Yearly Meetings in Africa, Asia and parts of the US (central

Unprogrammed worship.

"Unprogrammed worship" (also known as "waiting worship", "silent worship", or "holy communion in the manner of Friends)" is based on the practices of George Fox and the Early Friends, who based their religious beliefs and practices on their interpretation of how the early Christians worshipped God their Heavenly Father. Friends gather together in "expectant waiting upon God" to experience his still small voice leading them from within. There is no plan on how the meeting will proceed, and actual practice varies widely between Meetings and individual worship services. Friends believe that God plans what will happen, with his spirit leading people to speak. When a participant feels led to speak, he or she will stand and share a spoken message of ("vocal ministry") in front of others. When this happens, Quakers believe that the spirit of God is speaking

Governance and organisation.

Organisational government and polity.

Governance and decision making is conducted at a special meeting for worship—often called a "meeting for worship with a concern for business" or "meeting for worship for church affairs" at which all members can attend, as in a Congregational church. Quakers consider this to be a form of worship, conducted in the manner of meeting for worship. They believe this is the gathering of believers who "wait upon the Lord" to discover God's will, believing that they are not making their own decisions. They seek to understand God's will for the religious community, via the actions

International organization.

Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization that loosely unifies the different religious traditions of Quakers; FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world. Friends World Committee for Consultation is divided into four sections to represent different regions of the world:

Yearly meetings.

Quakers today are organised into independent and regional, national bodies called Yearly Meetings, which have often split from one another because of Christian doctrinal differences. Several associations unite Quakers who share similar religious beliefs—for example Evangelical Friends Church International unites

Membership.

A Friend is a member of a Yearly Meeting, usually beginning with membership in a local monthly meeting. Methods for acquiring membership vary; for example, in most Kenyan yearly meetings, attenders who wish to become members are required to take part in around two years of adult education, memorising key Bible passages, and learning about the history of orthodox Christianity, and of Christian Quakerism. Within Britain Yearly Meeting, membership is acquired through a process of peer review, where a potential member is visited by several members who present a report to the other members of the monthly meeting

Meetings for worship for specific tasks.

Memorial services.

Traditional Quaker memorial services are held as a form of worship and are known as memorial meetings. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the deceased. In some Quaker religious traditions, the coffin or ashes are not present. Memorial meetings may be held

Marriage.

A "meeting for worship for the solemnisation of marriage" in an unprogrammed Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship. The pair exchange vows before God and gathered witnesses, and the meeting returns to open worship. At the rise of meeting, the witnesses, including the youngest children, are asked to sign the wedding certificate as a record. In Great Britain, Quakers keep a separate record of the union and notify the General Register Office.  In the early days of the United States, there was doubt whether a marriage solemnised in that manner was entitled to legal recognition. Over the years, each state has set rules for the procedure. Most US states expect the marriage document to be signed by a single officiant (a priest, rabbi, minister, Justice of the Peace, etc.). Quakers routinely modify the document to allow three or four Friends to sign as the officiant. Often, these are the members of a committee of ministry and oversight, who have helped the couple plan their

National and international divisions and organisation.

Like many religious movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into subgroups.  Quakerism started in England and Wales, and quickly spread to Ireland, the Netherlands, Barbados and North America. In 2012, there were 146,300 Quakers in Kenya, 76,360 in the United States, 35,000 in Burundi and 22,300 in Bolivia. Other countries with over 5,000 Quakers were Guatemala, the United Kingdom, Nepal, Taiwan and Uganda. Although the total number of Quakers is around 377,000 worldwide, Quaker influence is concentrated in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Kaimosi, Kenya; Newberg, Oregon; Greenleaf, Idaho; Whittier, California; Richmond, Indiana; Friendswood, Texas; Birmingham, England; Ramallah, Palestine, and Greensboro, North Carolina.

Africa.

The highest concentration of Quakers is in Africa. The Friends of East Africa were at one time part of a single East Africa Yearly Meeting, then the world's largest yearly meeting. Today, this region is served by several

Australia and New Zealand.

Friends in Australia and New Zealand follow the unprogrammed tradition, similar to Britain Yearly Meeting.  Considerable distances between the colonies and small numbers of Quakers meant that Australia Friends were dependent on London until the 20th century. The Society remained unprogrammed and is named Australia Yearly Meeting, with local organizations around seven Regional Meetings: Canberra (which extends into southern New South Wales), New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia (which extends into Northern

Asia.

Quaker meetings occur in India, Hong Kong, Korea, Philippines, Japan and Nepal.  India has four yearly meetings—the unprogrammed Mid-India Yearly Meeting, programmed Bhopal Yearly Meeting, and the Mahoba

Europe.

In the United Kingdom, the predominantly liberal and unprogrammed Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain, has 478 local meetings, and a total of 14,260 adult members, and an additional 8,560 non-member adults who attend worship and 2,251 children. The number has declined steadily since the mid-20th century. Programmed meetings occur, including in Wem and London. Small groups of Conservative Friends meet in Ripley and Greenwich

Middle East.

Middle East Yearly Meeting has meetings in Lebanon and Palestine. There has been an active and vibrant Palestinian Quaker community in Ramallah since the late 1800s. In 1910 this community built the Ramallah Friends Meetinghouse and later added another building that was used for community outreach.  The Ramallah Friends Meeting has always played a vital role in the community. In 1948 the buildings and grounds became the home to many Palestinian refugees. Throughout the years, the members of the Ramallah Friends Meeting organised numerous community programmes such as the Children's Play Centre, the First Day School, and women's activities.  By the early 1990s the Meetinghouse and Annex, which housed meeting rooms and bathroom facilities, fell into disrepair as a result of damage

North and South America.

Quakers can be found throughout Canada. Some of the largest concentrations are in Southern Ontario.  Friends in the United States have diverse worship styles and differences of theology, vocabulary, and practice.  A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a "meeting", or a "monthly meeting" (e.g., "Smalltown Meeting" or "Smalltown Monthly Meeting"). The reference to "monthly" is because the meeting meets monthly to conduct the group's business. Most "monthly meetings" meet for worship at least once a week; some meetings have several worship meetings during the week. In programmed traditions, local congregations are often referred to as

Relations with other churches and faiths.

Ecumenical relations.

Many Quakers prior to the 20th century considered the Religious Society of Friends to be a Christian movement, but did not feel that their religious faith fit within the categories of Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant. Many Conservative Friends, while fully seeing themselves as orthodox Christians, choose to remain separate from other Christian groups.  Many Friends in Liberal Friends' meetings are actively involved in the ecumenical movement, often working closely with other Mainline Protestant and liberal Christian churches, with whom they share common religious ground. A concern for peace and social justice often brings Friends together with other Christian churches and other Christian groups. Some Liberal Quaker yearly meetings are members of ecumenical pan-Christian organisations, which include Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican churches—for example Philadelphia Yearly

Relations with other faiths.

Relationships between Quakers and non-Christians vary considerably, according to sect, geography, and history.  Early Quakers distanced themselves from practices that they saw as pagan, such as refusing to use the usual names of the days of the week, since they were derived from the names of pagan deities. They refused to celebrate Christmas because they believed it was based on pagan festivities.  Early Friends attempted to convert adherents of other world religions to Christianity. For example, George Fox wrote a number of open letters to Jews and Muslims, in which he

Quakers, also called Friends, are a historically Christian denomination whose formal name is the Religious Society of Friends or Friends Church. Members of the various Quaker movements are all generally united by their belief in the ability of each human being to experientially access the light within, or "that of God in every one".

Quäkertum bezeichnet die Gesamtheit der quäkerischen Weltanschauung, Organisationen und Bräuche. Das Wort Quäker ( „Zitterer“) war ein früher Spottname, der für die Mitglieder der Religiösen Gesellschaft der Freunde (), so der formelle Name der Organisation der Quäker, verwendet wurde. Jedoch wurde der Begriff bald von den Mitgliedern selbst adaptiert und ist heute normaler Sprachgebrauch.


Biography.

Tabakov was born in Saratov into a family of doctors. His paternal great-grandfather, Ivan Ivanovich Utin, came from serfs and was raised in a wealthy peasant family under the Tabakov surname. His grandfather, Kondratiy Tabakov, worked as a locksmith in Saratov where he built himself a house and married a local commoner Anna Konstantinovna Matveeva. Oleg's father, Pavel Kondratievich Tabakov, worked at the in Saratov.  His maternal grandfather, Andrei Frantzevich Piontkovsky, was a Polish nobleman who owned lands in the Podolia Governorate and married a local villager, Olga Terentievna (surname unknown) of Ukrainian origin. Oleg's mother, Maria Andreevna Berezovskaya (née Piontkovskaya), was a radiologist. She had a daughter Mirra from the previous marriage to Gugo Goldstern, a high-ranking Soviet functionary and intelligence officer killed in the line of duty.  During the Great Patriotic War, Oleg's father volunteered for the frontline and served aboard a hospital train while his mother was evacuated to Ural along with children where she also worked in a military hospital. After the war, the parents separated.

Theatre career.

Tabakov studied at the Moscow Art Theatre School. Upon graduating, he became one of the founding fathers of the Sovremennik Theatre. He administrated the Sovremennik until 1982, when he moved to the Moscow Art Theatre, where he has played Molière and Salieri for over 20 years. In 1986, Tabakov persuaded his students to form the "Tabakov Studio" attached to the Moscow Art Theatre. Several notable Russian actors, including Yevgeny Mironov, Sergey Bezrukov, Vladimir Mashkov, Andrey Smolyakov and Alexandre Marine, studied at the studio. Tabakov also worked in numerous foreign countries, spreading his theatre's ideals abroad.

Film career.

Tabakov's movie career paralleled the theatrical. He was featured in Grigori Chukhrai's "Clear Skies" (1961), Sergei Bondarchuk's "War and Peace" (1966–67), TV series "Seventeen Moments of Spring" (1973) and "D'Artagnan and Three Musketeers" (1978), the Academy Award-winning "Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears" (1980), Nikita Mikhalkov's "Oblomov" (1981) and "Dark Eyes" (1986), and the mock red western "A Man from the Boulevard des Capuchines" (1987), among others.

Voice-over work.

Tabakov has lent his distinctive, purr-like voice to a number of animated characters, including the talking cat Matroskin in "Three from Prostokvashino" and its sequels. After the Matroskin role, he dubbed the character of Garfield into Russian in the feature film "Garfield".

Political activism.

During the 2012 Russian presidential election, Tabakov was registered as a "Trusted Representative" (Доверенное Лицо) of Vladimir Putin.  In March 2014, he signed a letter in support of the position of the President of Russia Vladimir Putin on Russia's military intervention in Ukraine. In September 2014, Tabakov claimed that Crimea has no relation to Ukraine and upbraided Ukrainians for discussing it: ""But all happened fairly. If our Ukrainian brothers were smarter, they would not discuss that topic. They had to say: "Forgive us for God's sake! We had encroached the gravy train." Because Crimea has no relation to dependent, nor independent Ukraine."" Crimea is, since March 2014, under dispute by Russia and Ukraine.

Oleg Pavlovich Tabakov (; 17 August 1935 – 12 March 2018) was a Soviet and Russian actor and the Artistic Director of the Moscow Art Theatre.

Oleg Pawlowitsch Tabakow (, wiss. Transliteration "Oleg Pavlovič Tabakov"; * 17. August 1935 in Saratow; † 12. März 2018 in Moskau) war ein sowjetischer bzw. russischer Film- und Theaterschaffender. Seit 2000 leitete er das Tschechow-Künstlertheater in Moskau.


Biography.

Mikhail Alexandrovich Ulyanov spent his childhood and youth in the town of Tara, Omsk Oblast. Although he had failed his exams in Schepkinskoe School and for the Moscow Art Theatre School, he moved to Omsk in 1944 to become an actor. After two years of studies in the studio at Omsk Drama he went to Moscow and entered the Schukin Theatre School in 1946.  Ulyanov worked in the Vakhtangov Theatre from 1950 and directed it from 1987. He played a wide range of characters on stage, with Rogozhin in Dostoevsky’s "Idiot" being the most remarkable of them. In 1979 he staged Vasily Shukshin’s epic novel "I have come to give you freedom", where he starred as Stepan Razin. In 1985 Mikhail Ulyanov staged the satirical pamphlet "The Child Buyer" by the American playwright John Hersey.  As regards movies, he was frequently cast in the parts of staunch Communist leaders like Vladimir Lenin and Marshal Zhukov. His well-known character Yegor Trubnikov in "Predsedatel" (Chairman) (1964) became a Soviet classic and his most emblematic role.  "The Brothers Karamazov", a 1969 film he co-directed, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and was entered into the 6th Moscow International Film Festival. He also starred in "Tema" (1979) and "Private Life" (1982), the films that won top awards at the Berlin Film Festival and Venice Film Festival, respectively.  More recently, he was acclaimed for the roles of Julius Caesar in the screening of Shakespeare's play (1990), Pontius Pilate in the film adaptation of "The Master and Margarita" (1994), and an avenging veteran marksman in "The Rifleman of the Voroshilov Regiment" (1999), directed by Stanislav Govorukhin. He died on March 26, 2007 of intestinal disease].

Mikhail Alexandrovich Ulyanov (; 20 November 1927 – 26 March 2007) was a Soviet and Russian actor who was one of the most recognized persons of the post-World War II Soviet theatre and cinema. He was named a People's Artist of the USSR in 1969 and a Hero of Socialist Labour in 1986 and received a special prize from the Venice Film Festival in 1982.

Michail Alexandrowitsch Uljanow (, wiss. Transliteration "Mihail Aleksandrovič Ul'ânov"; * 20. November 1927 in Bergamak, Rajon Muromzewo, Oblast Omsk; † 26. März 2007 in Moskau) war ein russischer Schauspieler und eine der bedeutendsten Persönlichkeiten des sowjetischen Kinos und Theaters der Nachkriegszeit.


Definitions and terminology.

The terms "alternative medicine", "complementary medicine", "integrative medicine," "holistic medicine", "natural medicine", "unorthodox medicine", "fringe medicine", "unconventional medicine", and "new age medicine" are used interchangeably as having the same meaning, and are almost synonymous in most contexts. Terminology has shifted over time, reflecting the preferred branding of practitioners. For example, the United States National Institutes of Health department studying alternative medicine, currently named the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), was established as the "Office of Alternative Medicine" (OAM) and was renamed the "National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine" (NCCAM) before obtaining its current name. Therapies are often framed as "natural" or "holistic", implicitly and intentionally suggesting that conventional medicine is "artificial" and "narrow in scope".  The meaning of the term "alternative" in the expression "alternative medicine", is not that it is an effective alternative to medical science, although some alternative medicine promoters may use the loose terminology to give the appearance of effectiveness. Loose terminology may also be used to suggest meaning that a dichotomy exists when it does not, e.g., the use of the expressions "Western medicine" and "Eastern medicine" to suggest that the difference is a cultural difference between the Asiatic east and the European west, rather than that the difference is between evidence-based medicine and treatments that do not work.

Alternative medicine.

Alternative medicine is defined loosely as a set of products, practices, and theories that are believed or perceived by their users to have the healing effects of medicine, but whose effectiveness has not been established using scientific methods, or whose theory and practice is not part of biomedicine, or whose theories or practices are directly contradicted by scientific evidence or scientific principles used in biomedicine. "Biomedicine" or "medicine" is that part of medical science that applies principles of biology, physiology, molecular biology, biophysics, and other natural sciences to clinical practice, using scientific methods to establish the effectiveness of that practice. Unlike medicine, an alternative product or practice does not originate from using scientific

Complementary or integrative medicine.

Complementary medicine (CM) or integrative medicine (IM) is when alternative medicine is used together with functional medical treatment, in a belief that it improves the effect of treatments. For example, acupuncture (piercing the body with needles to influence the flow of a supernatural energy) might be believed to increase the effectiveness or "complement" science-based medicine when used at the same time. Instead,

Other terms.

Traditional medicine refers to the pre-scientific practices of a certain culture, in contrast to what is typically practiced in cultures where medical science dominates. "Eastern medicine" typically refers to the traditional medicines

Challenges in defining alternative medicine.

Prominent members of the science and biomedical science community say that it is not meaningful to define an alternative medicine that is separate from a conventional medicine, because the expressions "conventional medicine", "alternative medicine", "complementary medicine", "integrative medicine", and "holistic medicine" do not refer to any medicine at all. Others say that alternative medicine cannot be precisely defined because of the diversity of theories and practices it includes, and because the boundaries between alternative and conventional medicine overlap, are porous, and change. Healthcare practices categorized as alternative may differ

Types.

Alternative medicine consists of a wide range of health care practices, products, and therapies. The shared feature is a claim to heal that is not based on the scientific method. Alternative medicine practices are diverse in their foundations and methodologies. Alternative medicine practices may be classified by their cultural origins or by the types of beliefs upon which they are based. Methods may incorporate or be based on traditional medicinal practices of a particular culture, folk knowledge, superstition, spiritual beliefs, belief in supernatural energies (antiscience), pseudoscience, errors in reasoning, propaganda, fraud, new or different concepts of health and disease, and any bases other than being proven by scientific methods. Different cultures may have their own unique traditional or belief based practices developed recently or over thousands of years, and specific practices or entire systems of practices.

Unscientific belief systems.

Alternative medicine, such as using naturopathy or homeopathy in

Traditional ethnic systems.

Alternative medical systems may be based on traditional medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Ayurveda in India, or practices of other cultures around the world. Some useful applications of traditional medicines have been researched and accepted within ordinary medicine, however the underlying belief

Supernatural energies.

Bases of belief may include belief in existence of supernatural energies undetected by the science of physics,

Herbal remedies and other substances.

Substance based practices use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, non-vitamin supplements and megavitamins, animal and fungal products, and minerals, including use of these products in traditional medical practices that may also incorporate other methods. Examples include healing claims for nonvitamin supplements, fish oil, Omega-3 fatty acid, glucosamine, echinacea, flaxseed oil, and ginseng. Herbal medicine, or phytotherapy,

NCCIH classification.

A US agency, National Center on Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), has created a classification system for branches of complementary and alternative medicine that divides them into five major groups. These groups have some

History.

The history of alternative medicine may refer to the history of a group of diverse medical practices that were collectively promoted as "alternative medicine" beginning in the 1970s, to the collection of individual histories of members of that group, or to the history of western medical practices that were labeled "irregular practices" by the western medical establishment. It includes the histories of complementary medicine and of integrative medicine. Before the 1970s, western practitioners that were not part of the increasingly science-based medical establishment were referred to "irregular practitioners", and were dismissed by the medical establishment as unscientific and as practicing quackery. Until the 1970s, irregular practice became increasingly marginalized as quackery and fraud, as western medicine increasingly incorporated scientific methods and discoveries, and had a corresponding increase in success of its treatments. In the 1970s, irregular practices were grouped with traditional practices of nonwestern cultures and with other unproven or disproven practices that were not part of biomedicine, with the entire group collectively marketed and promoted under the single expression "alternative medicine".  Use of alternative medicine in the west began to rise following the counterculture movement of the 1960s, as part of the rising new age movement of the 1970s. This was due to misleading mass marketing of "alternative medicine" being an effective "alternative" to biomedicine, changing social attitudes about not using chemicals and challenging the establishment and authority of any kind, sensitivity to giving equal measure to beliefs and practices of other cultures (cultural relativism), and growing frustration and desperation by patients about limitations and side effects of science-based medicine. At the same time, in 1975, the American Medical Association, which played the central role in fighting quackery in the United States, abolished its quackery committee and closed down its Department of Investigation. By the early to mid 1970s the expression "alternative medicine" came into widespread use, and the expression became mass marketed as a collection of "natural" and effective treatment "alternatives" to science-based biomedicine. By 1983, mass marketing of "alternative medicine" was so pervasive that the British Medical Journal (BMJ) pointed to "an apparently endless stream of books, articles, and radio and television programmes urge on the public the virtues of (alternative medicine) treatments ranging from meditation to drilling a hole in the skull to let in more oxygen".  An analysis of trends in the criticism of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in five prestigious American medical journals during the period of reorganization within medicine (1965–1999) was reported as showing that the medical profession had responded to the growth of CAM in three phases, and that in each phase, changes in the medical marketplace had influenced the type of response in the journals. Changes included relaxed medical licensing, the development of managed care, rising consumerism, and the establishment of the USA Office of Alternative Medicine (later National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, currently National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health).

Efficacy.

There is a general scientific consensus that alternative therapies lack the requisite scientific validation, and their effectiveness is either unproved or disproved. Many of the claims regarding the efficacy of alternative medicines are controversial, since research on them is frequently of low quality and methodologically flawed. Selective publication bias, marked differences in product quality and standardisation, and some companies making unsubstantiated claims call into question the claims of efficacy of isolated examples where there is evidence for alternative therapies.  "The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine" points to confusions in the general population – a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise-ineffective therapy just because they are taking something (the placebo effect); the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness (the regression fallacy) gets misattributed to an alternative medicine being taken; a person not diagnosed with science-based medicine may never originally have had a true illness diagnosed as an alternative disease category.  Edzard Ernst characterized the evidence for many alternative techniques as weak, nonexistent, or negative and in 2011 published his estimate that about 7.4% were based on "sound evidence", although he believes that may be an overestimate. Ernst has concluded that 95% of the alternative therapies he and his team studied, including acupuncture, herbal medicine, homeopathy, and reflexology, are "statistically indistinguishable from placebo treatments", but he also believes there is something that conventional

Perceived mechanism of effect.

Anything classified as alternative medicine by definition does not have a healing or medical effect. However, there are different mechanisms through which it can be perceived to "work". The common denominator of these mechanisms is that effects are miss-attributed to the alternative treatment.

Placebo effect.

A placebo is a treatment with no intended therapeutic value. An example of a placebo is an inert pill, but it can include more dramatic interventions like sham surgery. The "placebo effect" is the concept that patients will perceive an improvement after being treated with an inert treatment. The opposite of the placebo effect is the "nocebo effect", when patients who expect a treatment to be harmful will perceive harmful effects after taking it.  Placebos do not have a physical effect on diseases or improve overall outcomes,

Regression to the mean.

A patient who receives an inert treatment may report improvements afterwards that it did not cause. Assuming it was the cause without evidence is an example of the regression fallacy.

Other factors.

There are also reasons why a placebo treatment group may outperform a "no-treatment" group in a test which are not related to a patient's experience. These include patients reporting more favourable results than they really felt due to politeness or "experimental subordination", observer bias, and misleading wording of questions.

Use and regulation.

Appeal.

Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions.  In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe, cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning, and the "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" fallacy.

Marketing.

Alternative medicine is a highly profitable industry, with a strong lobby. This fact is often overlooked by media or intentionally kept hidden, with alternative practice being portrayed positively when compared to "big pharma".  The popularity of complementary & alternative medicine

Social factors.

Authors have speculated on the socio-cultural and psychological reasons for the appeal of alternative medicines among the minority using them "in lieu" of conventional medicine. There are several socio-cultural reasons for the interest in these treatments centered on the low level of scientific literacy among the public at large and a concomitant increase in antiscientific attitudes and new age mysticism. Related to this are vigorous marketing of extravagant claims by the alternative medical community combined with inadequate media scrutiny and attacks on critics. Alternative medicine is criticized for taking advantage of the least fortunate members of society.  There is also an increase in conspiracy theories toward conventional

Prevalence of use.

According to recent research, the increasing popularity of the CAM needs to be explained by moral convictions or lifestyle choices rather than by economic reasoning.  In developing nations, access to essential medicines is severely restricted by lack of resources and poverty. Traditional remedies, often closely resembling or forming the basis for alternative remedies, may comprise primary healthcare or be integrated into the healthcare system. In Africa, traditional medicine is used for 80% of primary healthcare, and in developing nations as a whole over one-third of the population lack access to essential medicines.  Some have

In the US.

In the United States, the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) required that for states to receive federal money, they had to grant religious exemptions to child neglect and abuse laws regarding religion-based healing practices. Thirty-one states have child-abuse religious exemptions.  The use of alternative medicine in the US has increased, with a 50 percent increase in expenditures and a 25 percent increase in the use of alternative therapies between 1990 and 1997 in America. Americans spend many billions on the therapies annually. Most Americans used CAM to treat and/or prevent musculoskeletal conditions or other conditions associated with chronic or recurring pain. In America, women were

Prevalence of use of specific therapies.

The most common CAM therapies used in the US in 2002 were prayer (45%), herbalism (19%), breathing meditation (12%), meditation (8%), chiropractic medicine (8%), yoga (5–6%), body work (5%), diet-based therapy (4%), progressive relaxation (3%), mega-vitamin therapy (3%) and Visualization (2%)  In Britain, the most often used alternative therapies were Alexander technique, Aromatherapy, Bach and other

In palliative care.

Complementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Integrative medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of care for the dying, palliative care took for granted the necessity of placing patient values and lifestyle habits at the core of any design and delivery of quality care at the end of life. If the patient desired complementary therapies, and as long as such treatments provided additional support and did not endanger the patient, they were considered acceptable." The non-pharmacologic interventions of complementary medicine can employ mind-body interventions designed to "reduce pain and concomitant mood disturbance and increase quality of life."

Regulation.

The alternative medicine lobby has successfully pushed for alternative therapies to be subject to far less regulation than conventional medicine. Some professions of complementary/traditional/alternative medicine, such as chiropractic, have achieved full regulation in North America and other parts of the world and are regulated in a manner similar to that governing science-based medicine. In contrast, other approaches may be partially recognized and others have no regulation at all. In some cases, promotion of alternative therapies is allowed when there is demonstrably no effect, only a tradition of use. Despite laws making

Risks and problems.

Negative outcomes.

Adequacy of regulation and CAM safety.

Many of the claims regarding the safety and efficacy of alternative medicine are controversial. Some alternative therapies have been associated with unexpected side effects, which can be fatal.  A commonly voiced concerns about complementary alternative medicine (CAM) is the way it's regulated. There have been significant developments in how CAMs should be assessed prior to re-sale in the United Kingdom and the European Union (EU) in the last 2 years. Despite

Interactions with conventional pharmaceuticals.

Forms of alternative medicine that are biologically active can be dangerous even when used in conjunction with conventional medicine. Examples include immuno-augmentation therapy, shark cartilage, bioresonance therapy, oxygen and ozone therapies, and insulin potentiation therapy. Some herbal remedies can cause dangerous interactions with chemotherapy drugs, radiation therapy, or

Side-effects.

Conventional treatments are subjected to testing for undesired side-effects, whereas alternative therapies, in general, are not subjected to such testing at all. Any treatment – whether conventional or alternative – that has a biological or psychological effect on a patient may also have potential to possess dangerous biological or psychological side-effects. Attempts to refute this fact with regard to alternative therapies sometimes use the "appeal to nature" fallacy, i.e., "That which is natural cannot be harmful." Specific groups of patients such

Treatment delay.

Alternative medicine may discourage people from getting the best possible treatment. Those having experienced or perceived success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness. For this reason, critics argue that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very

Unconventional cancer "cures".

There have always been "many therapies offered outside of conventional cancer treatment centers and based on theories not found in biomedicine. These alternative cancer cures have often been described as 'unproven,' suggesting that appropriate clinical trials have not been conducted and that the therapeutic value of the treatment is unknown." However, "many alternative cancer treatments have been investigated in good-quality clinical trials, and they have been shown to be ineffective...The label 'unproven' is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been 'disproven'."  Edzard Ernst has stated:

Rejection of science.

"CAM", meaning "complementary and alternative medicine", is not as well researched as conventional medicine, which undergoes intense research before release to the public. Practitioners of science-based medicine also discard practices and treatments when they are shown ineffective, while alternative practitioners do not. Funding for research is also sparse making it difficult to do further research for effectiveness of CAM. Most funding for CAM is funded by government agencies. Proposed research for CAM are rejected by most private funding agencies because the results of research are not reliable. The research for CAM has to meet certain standards from research ethics committees, which most CAM researchers find almost impossible to meet. Even with the little research done on it, CAM has not been proven to be effective. Studies that have been done will be cited by CAM practitioners in an attempt to claim a basis in science. These studies tend to have a variety of problems, such as small samples, various biases, poor research design, lack of controls, negative results, etc. Even those with positive results can be better explained as resulting in false positives due to bias and noisy data.  Alternative medicine may lead to a false understanding of the body and of the process of science. Steven Novella, a neurologist at Yale School of Medicine, wrote that government-funded studies of integrating alternative medicine techniques into the mainstream are "used to lend an appearance of legitimacy to treatments that are not legitimate." Marcia Angell considered that critics felt that healthcare practices should be classified based solely on scientific evidence, and if a treatment had been rigorously tested and found safe and effective, science-based medicine will adopt it regardless of whether it was considered "alternative" to begin with. It is possible for a method to change categories (proven vs. unproven), based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. A prominent supporter of this position is George D. Lundberg, former editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).  Writing in 1999 in "CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians" Barrie R. Cassileth mentioned a 1997 letter to the US Senate Subcommittee on Public Health and Safety, which had deplored the lack of critical thinking and scientific rigor in OAM-supported research,

Conflicts of interest.

Some commentators have said that special consideration must be given to the issue of conflicts of interest in alternative medicine. Edzard Ernst has said that most researchers into alternative medicine are at risk of "unidirectional bias" because of a generally uncritical belief in their chosen subject. Ernst cites as evidence the phenomenon whereby 100% of a sample of acupuncture trials originating in China

Use of health and research resources.

Research into alternative therapies has been criticized for "...diverting research time, money, and other resources from more fruitful lines of investigation in order to pursue a theory that has no basis in biology." Research

Alternative medicine describes any practice that aims to achieve the healing effects of medicine, but which lacks biological plausibility and is untested, untestable or proven ineffective. Complementary medicine (CM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), integrated medicine or integrative medicine (IM), and holistic medicine are among many rebrandings of the same phenomenon. Alternative therapies share in common that they reside outside medical science, and rely on pseudoscience. Traditional practices become "alternative" when used outside their original settings without proper scientific explanation and evidence. Frequently used derogatory terms for the alternative are new-age or pseudo, with little distinction from quackery.

Alternativmedizin (auch Alternative Medizin) und Komplementärmedizin (auch komplementäre Medizin) sind Sammelbezeichnungen für Behandlungsmethoden und diagnostische Konzepte, die sich als Alternative oder Ergänzung zu wissenschaftlich begründeten Methoden der Medizin verstehen.


Features.

Home to an ivy-clad ruinous 13th-century Kennedy tower house, public harbour and other facilities, it is a destination for some tourists, including those interested in boating on the lake. The name Dromineer in Irish is "Drom Inbhir", meaning the back or the ford of the river.  Amenities in Dromineer include a pub with restaurant, holiday accommodation, a café, a children's playground, public marina, private marina and boating clubs.  Dromineer is home to the Lough Derg Lifeboat, which is the RNLI's third inland lifeboat station and was the first inland station in the Republic of Ireland. During 2013 the Lough Derg Lifeboat launched 20 times and rescued 33 people.

Buildings of note.

In addition to the O'Kennedy towerhouse (ruined), structures listed as being protected by Tipperary County Council in the area include Dromineer Quay and Canal store. Both of these date from around 1845 (RPS Refs S568 and S569).  Two corrugated iron roofed houses summer houses from the 1920s overlook the lake (RPS Refs S571 and S572).

Dromineer Castle (tower house).

This castle/towerhouse began as a 13th-century hall house, and was later converted into a tower house in the 15th/16th century. It was built by followers of Thomas Butler Esq. in the 13th century. The hall house was originally only two storeys high, but two additional storeys were later added, and vaults added to the ground floor. A base batter is present, and can be attributed to the earlier structure. The conversion to a castle/towerhouse has resulted in a rectangular shape to the castle which is 11×15 metres. By 1299, the Cantwell family were tenants, with Thomas Cantwell paying taxes on the castle.  The building then fell into Gaelic hands, and the Ormond O’Kennedys were responsible for the remodelling of the building into a tower house. Many of the windows were modified during the conversion from hall to tower house.  In 1582 the Butler Earls of Ormond re-captured the castle/towerhouse, and the Cantwells returned as tenants until c. 1640.  In the Civil Survey of 1654–56 the castle was described as the "Mannor of Dromineer &c appertaineth a Courte Leete & Courte Barron with all the Rights privileges & immunities belonging to a mannor. Uppon the sd lands stands an old castle, six thatch houses, and fowerteene cottages." The proprietor of the castle in 1640 was John Cantwell, of Cantwells Court, in Kilkenny.  In 1650, the castle was seized by Cromwellian forces and garrisoned. It was returned the Earl of Ormond following the occupation by Cromwell. It was occupied until 1688. The castle/towerhouse fell into ruin in the late 17th century and was sold by the Earl of Ormond in the late 19th century.  A bawn wall also surrounds the castle in places. Many of the large quadrangular windows are 17th-century features.

Dromineer Church.

This church may have been built in 10th century. The tradition states that the monks from Holy Island built it.  It is located in the parish of Puckane & Carrig, which consists of a total of 71 townlands and is 18,310 statute acres or approximately 28.6 square miles in extent. The parish has a number of sites which have Early Christian religious associations, including Dromineer. Folklore recalls four places in the parish where Mass was secretly celebrated during the Penal Days.  The parish was traditionally known as ‘Monsea’, ‘Monsea & Kilodiernan’ or ‘Monsea & Cloughprior’. These names reflect its origins because the present parish is an amalgamation of five medieval parishes, Cloughprior, Dromineer, Kilodiernan, Knigh and Monsea. The ruined churches at Dromineer was built in the Romanesque style, while those at Cloughprior, Knigh and Monsea were built in the Gothic style of the fifteenth century. The graveyards surrounding those churches are still used for burials and Mass is celebrated in each annually.  Church construction employed exceptionally large blocks of stone. It was extended in 12th century in the Celtic romanesque style. The west doorway was still standing in the 1830s when John O'Donovan was here. Carvings include dogs' heads with bulging eyes. The church is located in the graveyard adjoining the public house.

Sport and recreation.

The local GAA club is Kildangan GAA. Fishing is also a popular activity in the area, both on the lake and the nearby Nenagh River.  Boating in Dromineer is served by both public and private marinas. The area is home to Nenagh Boat Club, Shannon Sailing Club and the Lough Derg Yacht Club which is the twenty third-oldest yacht club in the world, and seventh oldest in Ireland having been founded in 1835 and one of two remaining yacht clubs with a fleet of Shannon-One-Design sailing dinghies, The North Shannon Yacht Club having folded.  Dromineer is on one of the North Tipperary Cycle Routes. The 65 km route starts at Banba Square, Nenagh and is listed as a half day cycle.  The Lough Derg Way is a long-distance walking trail between Limerick City and Dromineer. It is designated as a National Waymarked Trail by the National Trails Office of the Irish Sports Council and is managed by Shannon Development, Tipperary County Council and Tipperary Integrated Development Company. The trail was reconfigured and relaunched in 2011 with many sections taken off road aided by an investment of €115,000 under the Comhairle na Tuaithe Walks Scheme, which supports landowners to maintain trails that cross their land. The trail connects with the East Clare Way at Killaoe. "Sli Eala" ("The Way of the Swan" in Irish) is a public walkway between Nenagh and Dromineer. For much of its length it follows the Nenagh River where mute swans can be seen. The route passes Annaghbeg bridge and Ballyartella Mills on its way upstream, a spur off the main route leads to Ballycommon.

Dromineer () is a small village and townland in County Tipperary, Ireland. It is situated on the shores of Lough Derg on the River Shannon. The village is located 10 km north of Nenagh on the R495 road. It is a civil parish in the historical barony of Ormond Lower. Historic documents describe the places as "Dromynnyre".

Dromineer (irisch : "Drom Inbhir") ist ein kleines Dorf mit 118 Einwohnern (Stand 2006) im Norden des County Tipperary in der Republik Irland. Es liegt am Ufer des Lough Derg am Fluss Shannon. Der Ort besitzt ein Turmhaus aus dem 11. Jahrhundert, einen Hafen sowie andere Einrichtungen. Dromineer ist ein bekannter Ausflugsort für Bootstouristen. Der Name Dromineer kommt von dem irischen "Drom Inbhir" und bedeutet die Hinterseite oder die Furt des Flusses.


Life and career.

Ellin was born in Brooklyn, New York, the son of June and Marvin Ellin. He grew up in Merrick, New York and graduated from John F. Kennedy High School (Bellmore, New York).  Before producing and writing for "Entourage", Ellin served as a staff writer for "Life with Bonnie", which starred Bonnie Hunt. The series ran from 2003-2004. Ellin has also written screenplays for two films, "Kissing a Fool" and "Phat Beach". He moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s to be a stand-up comedian and soon got a job in the mail room at New Line Cinema. It was there where he befriended film producer Mike DeLuca who funded Ellin's first short film "The Pitch", starring then unknown actor David Schwimmer. That short film got Ellin accepted to the American Film Institute, where he graduated from in 1994. In 1996, he directed the independent comedy film "Phat Beach". The film was made on a very low budget, and Ellin has called it "Probably the worst movie ever made". Two years later, Ellin made another independent comedy film "Kissing a Fool", starring David Schwimmer, who was now known due to his role on "Friends" which was in its fourth season.  "Kissing a Fool" was sold for distribution and Ellin subsequently sold a few screenplays to Miramax. One, "The Pledge" was never produced although Ellin was paid seven figures for the script and was set to direct. He sold another unproduced screenplay for mid-six figures.  Ellin's real success came in 2004 with "Entourage". The HBO show ran for eight seasons and Ellin made an eight-figure pact with HBO to continue producing television.  Additionally, Ellin serves on the board of the Greenwich International Film Festival.  Ellin wrote and directed the 2015 film adaptation of "Entourage".

Awards and nominations.

Ellin has been nominated for three Emmy Awards, four Writers Guild of America Awards, three PGA Awards and a BAFTA, and has won a BAFTA and a PGA award.

Personal life.

Ellin married Melissa Dana Hecht in 1996 and together have two children. The two divorced in 2009. Ellin has said the character of Ari Gold's wife in "Entourage" was based on Hecht.  Ellin dated Maddie Diehl and proposed to her in 2014, but the couple broke up in March 2016.  Ellin married Andrea Adler in September, 2017 and filed for divorce shortly thereafter in April 2018.

Douglas Reed "Doug" Ellin (born April 6, 1968) is an American screenwriter and film and tv director, known best for creating the HBO television series "Entourage". Ellin also served as executive producer, director, head writer and supporting actor for the series, and wrote, directed and produced its 2015 film adaptation. He attended Tulane University.

Doug Ellin (* 6. April 1968 in Merrick, Hempstead, New York) ist der Urheber der HBO-Serie "Entourage". Ellin war auch als Executive Producer und Head Writer für die Serie tätig. Er besuchte die Tulane University.


Biography.

Bigelow was born in Sudbury, Massachusetts on February 27, 1787 (other sources claim 1786). Bigelow graduated from Harvard College in 1806 and then studied under John Gorham. He then graduated from the University of Pennsylvania medical school in 1810. He also studied under botanist Benjamin Barton. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1812.  Bigelow taught medicine and botany at Harvard and published numerous books, including one of America's first botanical books, "American Medical Botany". His interest in mechanics led to his appointment as Rumford Professor, a position endowed at Harvard for the purpose of teaching the application of science to the useful arts, which he held from 1816 to 1827. His interest in mechanics and non-biological sciences was also illustrated by the publication of his "Elements of Technology" in 1829.  Bigelow came up with the idea for Mount Auburn Cemetery as early as 1825, though a site was not acquired until five years later. Bigelow was concerned about the unhealthiness of burials under churches as well as the possibility of running out of space. With help from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mount Auburn Cemetery was founded on of land authorized by the Massachusetts Legislature for use as a garden or rural cemetery. It was dedicated in 1831 by Joseph Story, first president of the Mount Auburn Association.  Bigelow died on January 10, 1879 and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Critique of Benjamin Rush and Heroic Medicine.

Bigelow came to prominence also by challenging the effectiveness of the therapeutics of the day. His "Discourse on Self-Limited Diseases" in which he attacked physicians' blind allegiance to drugs and medical intervention that were embodied in [heroic medicine] practice. To establish support, Bigelow wrote on how the outcomes among treated and untreated patients were similar, regarding the use of heroic therapies. Interventions had little effect. Bigelow's deprecations helped form a new conceptual nucleus around which medical orthodoxy could begin to redefine itself. (Paul Starr: "Transformations in American Medicine")

Jacob Bigelow (February 27, 1787January 10, 1879) was an American physician, botanist and botanical illustrator. He was architect of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the father of physician Henry Jacob Bigelow.

Jacob Bigelow (* 27. Februar 1787 in Sudbury, Massachusetts; † 10. Januar 1879 in Boston) war ein US-amerikanischer Mediziner und Botaniker. Sein botanisches Autorenkürzel lautet „Bigelow“.


Membership and governance.

Membership.

IPC members represent postal operators from Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific region. IPC Shareholding Members are allocated a minimum number of shares based on their total addressed mail volumes (i.e. total letter mail handled and delivered inside and outside the organisation’s home country, excluding unaddressed mail and newspapers but including magazines). All IPC members should have a universal service obligation for the provision of mail services although the Board is authorised to admit members without such an obligation. IPC’s current members are:

Governance.

IPC is a cooperative company governed by a Board, composed of the chief executive officers from eleven IPC members plus IPC's president and chief executive. The board is chaired by Dag Medjell. IPC’s current CEO is Holger Winklbauer.

Mission and activities.

International Post Corporation was founded in 1989 and is headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. IPC was founded with a double role: provide a platform to exchange intelligence between its member posts, and develop and support systems to improve international mail services through quality of service and interoperability.  IPC’s main activities include:

Mail quality.

IPC’s core activity is to develop and provide technological solutions to support member postal operators in achieving quality of service performance requirements. These services focus on upgrading and maintaining member posts’ end-to-end performance for cross-border mail through monitoring and streamlining international mail processes.  IPC deploys a number of technology infrastructures and systems such as radio frequency identification (RFID), item monitoring and a harmonised customer service system (CSS), which provide transparency in international mail movements, provision of full operational information and data for calculating intercompany payments, detailed enquiry processing and quality of service performance results.  IPC also focuses on key areas for the postal sector like, e-commerce, intercompany pricing and sustainability. In 2009, the company launched its sector-wide sustainability programme, which aimed at reducing the carbon emissions of its participants by 20% by 2020 - a target which was attained in 2018. The company is also a signatory to the UN Global Compact.

Market research.

IPC’s marketing function focuses on creating intelligence on market developments and sharing best practice between posts. Through the close relation with the postal industry, IPC carries out research and gathers intelligence within the postal industry. Some the areas analysed are direct marketing, e-commerce, digital business and environmental sustainability.

Collaboration.

IPC is a cooperative member organisation and as such one of its goals is to provide a framework for networking and knowledge sharing by establishing platforms. These platforms bring together senior postal executives across a range of functions and facilitate further postal operator cooperation by leading groups dedicated to developing solutions to specific cross-border market requirements.

International Post Corporation (IPC) is a cooperative association of 25 national postal services from major countries in Europe, Asia Pacific and North America. IPC's main activities are providing assistance to its postal members, whose businesses activities include mail, parcels, express, logistics, retail and banking services.

Die Coöperatieve Vereniging International Post Corporation U.A. (International Post Corporation [IPC]) ist eine internationale Organisation von Postunternehmen mit Sitz in Brüssel, Belgien, die 1989 gegründet wurde.


Description.

A hairless, slim climber with bulbous roots and lignescented base, its leaves are stalked with 2 to 6 cm long petioles. The leaf blade is ovate to circular in outline, 3 to 10 cm long and 6 to 9 cm wide. It is divided into five to seven segments, these are lanceolate, ovate or elliptic, entire and pointed at the tip and base. Often pseudo side-leaves are formed.  The lavender-coloured inflorescences are one to a little bloody cymes. The flower stalks are 12 to 20 mm long, the sepals are 6 to 8 mm long, ovate and sting-pointed. The crown is funnel-shaped, 4 to 6 cm long and violet colored. The stamens and the stylus do not protrude beyond the crown. The ovary is hairless. The fruits are spherical capsules approximately 1 cm in diameter containing one or two hairy seeds. Each fruit matures at about 1 cm across and contains hairy seeds.

Range.

Its native range is uncertain, though it is believed to originate from a rather wide area, ranging from Cape Verde to the Arabian Peninsula, including northern Africa, the Mediterranean and the tropics. It covers walls, fences or trees, with stems that can measure more than 10 m in length. The altitude at which it has been recorded ranges from 250 to 2250 m. It blooms throughout the year, especially when it is well cared for.

Invasive species.

Because of human dispersal, it occurs today on most continents as an introduced species and is sometimes a noxious weed and an invasive species, such as along the coast of New South Wales. As well as in the United States, where it occurs in Hawaii, California, all the gulf coast states, as well as Arkansas and Missouri.

Cultivation.

Some plant nurseries sell this plant as an ornamental plant thanks to its showy purple flowers and as well for its fast growth to quickly cover unsightly fences or walls. It can grow as a separate plant if snapped during attempted removal process. The plant causes respiratory symptoms if ingested.

Ipomoea cairica is a vining, herbaceous, perennial plant with palmate leaves and large, showy white to lavender flowers. A species of morning glory, it has many common names, including mile-a-minute vine, Messina creeper, Cairo morning glory, coast morning glory and railroad creeper.

Ipomoea cairica ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Prunkwinden ("Ipomoea") aus der Familie der Windengewächse (Convolvulaceae). Die Art ist weltweit in tropischen Gebieten verbreitet.


Gameplay.

Aside from being a basic drawing utility, "Mario Paint" allows the creation of custom stamps pixel-by-pixel. Several publications, such as "Nintendo Power", released guides on how to create iconic Nintendo related stamps for use within "Mario Paint". In addition to just creating static pictures, simple looping animations can then be set to music created in the music generator. These custom animations can only be viewed on a television screen, and can only be recorded to a video cassette recorder.  In addition, the standard features include 60 different textures and patterns, 75 different stamps, 15 customizable stamps, and 9 different special eraser transition effects between scenes.  "Mario Paint" contains a fly-swatting mini-game, "Gnat Attack", which is a fast-paced action game that takes full advantage of the mouse peripheral. The player controls a gloved hand similar to the one seen on the title screen, holding a flyswatter. It must swat flying insects on the screen, before the insect stings the player's hand in one way or another. There are three levels, each with 100 insects and a boss. When the final boss is defeated, the game returns to level one and adds a small icon in the top left corner of the screen. There is no final level or reward, as the game will loop endlessly.  The title screen for "Mario Paint" is an Easter egg mini-game. Each letter in the title can be clicked to trigger a certain action. Certain letters cause the music to change, have Yoshi run across the screen, make Mario shrink and grow, allow the player to temporarily paint the background, and other features.

Successors.

A downloadable version was released in Japan via the Satellaview broadcast service in 1997. Titled, this version was modified to use a standard controller without the need of a mouse device.  A sequel to "Mario Paint" was titled "Mario Paint 64" in development, and then released in 1999 as the Japan-exclusive "" launch title for the 64DD. Nintendo had commissioned the joint developer Software Creations, who described the game's original 1995 design idea as "a sequel to "Mario Paint" in 3D for the N64". "Paint Studio" has been described by IGN and Nintendo World Report respectively, as being "Mario Paint" "direct follow-up" and "spiritual successor". Likewise bundled with its system's mouse, "Paint Studio" includes minigames such as a fly swatting game reminiscent of that in "Mario Paint".

Reception.

Calling "Mario Paint" "perhaps the most ingenious and inspired idea Nintendo ever came up with for a product", AllGame rated it 5 out of 5 stars. In 2006, it was rated the 162nd best game made on a Nintendo system in "Nintendo Power"'s Top 200 Games list. In 2014, IGN ranked it as the 105th best Nintendo game in its list of "The Top 125 Nintendo Games of All Time". IGN editor Peer Schneider cited the game's "smart and playful interface" as a "game changer" and commented that "It effectively erased the barriers between creating and playing, making it one of the most memorable and unique games to ever be released on a console."  "US Gamer" calls "Mario Paint" "an era-appropriate solution to graphics programs on expensive PCs" which is "at least somewhat responsible for our modern era of 2D indie throwback games". It says, "Every single element... is engineered to make the act of creation fun in and of itself, even if you're just aimlessly doodling."

Legacy.

In video games.

Prominent video game developers have cited "Mario Paint" as an inspiration. Masahito Hatakeyama, one of the designers of 2009's "WarioWare D.I.Y." for Nintendo DS, cites "Mario Paint"s drawing and music creation tools as inspiration for the drawing and music creation tools in "D.I.Y.", while several staff members of the development team cited it as the game that taught them the joy of developing video games. "WarioWare D.I.Y." allows players to record notes via the DS microphone, and apply noises and animals sounds to them, similar to "Mario Paint"'s music creation. "WarioWare D.I.Y." uses a paint program based upon the idea of "Mario Paint" when the player makes a comic or graphics for their custom microgame. When "Mario Paint" is entered as the name for a microgame or comic, the "Mario Paint" theme will play. Some of "Mario Paint"s sound effects and musical instruments appear in this game.  Another counterpart appears in 2004's "" as "Wario Paint", allowing the player to use the Nintendo DS stylus to color various characters in the game. "Totaka's Song" can be played with the toy Turntable in the Toy Room. The fly-swatting game makes an additional appearance in the preceding game, "". The Wii Photo Channel features editing functionality similar to "Mario Paint", and includes several of the special erasers.  Takashi Tezuka, producer of "Super Mario Maker" for Wii U, stated that he "was inspired to bring the fun of "Mario Paint" into this course editor to make something fun and creative for people to enjoy". It includes the interactive title screen Easter eggs and the fly swatting minigame. "US Gamer" called "Mario Paint" an essential part of "the road to "Super Mario Maker"".  A member of the sound staff of "Mario Paint", Hirokazu Tanaka, later worked on "EarthBound", where some of "Mario Paint"s sound effects and instrument patches appear.  A remixed "Mario Paint" song medley can be played in the Miiverse stage in "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U".

In movies.

The first episode of "Homestar Runner" in 1996 was animated using "Mario Paint". A primitive introduction video made with "Mario Paint" can be found in the museum of the site. A later short in the series, "Strong Bad is a Bad Guy", was made using "Mario Paint".

Mario Paint is a video game released in 1992 by Nintendo for use with the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is packaged with the Super NES Mouse peripheral. The game was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1 and Intelligent Systems.

Mario Paint (jap., "Mariopeinto") ist ein Computerspiel von der Firma Nintendo für das von ihr veröffentlichte SNES. Das Computerspiel ist vor allem für die Benutzung der SNES-Maus bekannt.


Plot introduction.

Like its predecessor, "All the Pretty Horses" (1992), "The Crossing" is a coming-of-age novel set on the border between the southwest United States and Mexico. The plot takes place before and during the Second World War and focuses on the life of the protagonist Billy Parham, a teenage cowboy; his family; and his younger brother Boyd. The story tells of three journeys taken from New Mexico to Mexico. It is noted for being a more melancholic novel than the first of the trilogy, without returning to the hellish bleakness of McCarthy's early novels. Most of the protagonists are people of few words; thus the dialogues are few and concise. Additionally, since much of the interaction is with Mexican people, many parts of dialogues are written in untranslated Spanish.  Although the novel is not overtly satirical or humorous, it has many of the qualities of a picaresque: a realistic portrayal of a destitute hero embarking on a series of loosely connected, arguably doomed quests.

Plot summary.

The first sojourn details a series of hunting expeditions conducted by Billy, his father, and to a lesser extent, his brother Boyd. They are attempting to locate and trap a pregnant female wolf which has been preying on cattle near the family's homestead. McCarthy explores themes throughout the action such as the mystical passage on page 22, describing his father setting a trap: Crouched in the broken shadow with the sun at his back and holding the trap at eyelevel against the morning sky he looked to be truing some older, some subtler instrument. Astrolabe or sextant. Like a man bent at fixing himself someway in the world. Bent on trying by arc or chord the space between his being and the world that was. If there be such space. If it be knowable. When Billy finally catches the animal, he harnesses her and, instead of killing her, determines to return her to the mountains of Mexico where he believes her original home is located. He develops a deep affection for and bond with the wolf, risking his life to save her on more than one occasion.  Critics disagree about the greater significance of Billy's encounters with the wolf. Wallis Sanborn argues that “[a]lthough noble, Parham’s mission to return the captured she-wolf to Mexico is abjectly flawed... [it is] nothing more than a man violently controlling a wild animal through the guise of pseudo-nobility” (143). Raymond Malewitz argues that the wolf's "literary agency" becomes visible when Billy's way of thinking about the wolf conflicts with the way the narrator describes the creature.  Along the way, Billy encounters many other travelers and inhabitants of the land who relate in a sophisticated dialogue their deepest philosophies. Take, for example, a Mormon who converts to Catholicism and describes his vision of reality in this way: Things separate from their stories have no meaning. They are only shapes. Of a certain size and color. A certain weight. When their meaning has become lost to us they no longer have even a name. The story on the other hand can never be lost from its place in the world for it is that place. And that is what was to be found here. The corrido. The tale. And like all corridos it ultimately told one story only, for there is only one to tell. He also meets an opera troupe performing Pagliacci in the wilds, the characters of which curiously parallel Billy and Boyd's relationship with a girl they save along their route. He watched the play with interest but could make little of it... in the end the man in buffoon's motley slew the woman and slew another man perhaps his rival with a dagger In the second border crossing, Billy and Boyd have set out to recover horses stolen from his family's spread. Their relationship is a strained one, with Boyd displaying a more stubborn nature than that of his brother, a characteristic which hinders Billy's attempts to protect him. Boyd is eventually shot through the chest in a squabble. After he is nursed back to health, he disappears with a young girl.  The third crossing features Billy alone attempting to discover his brother's whereabouts. He learns Boyd has been killed in a gunfight and sets out to find his dead brother's remains, and return them to New Mexico. After finding Boyd's grave and exhuming the body, Billy is ambushed by a band of men who desecrate Boyd's remains and stab Billy's horse through the chest. Billy, with the help of a gypsy, nurses the horse back to riding condition.  The last scene shows Billy alone and desolate, coming across a terribly beat up dog that approaches him for help. In marked contrast to his youthful bond with the wolf, he shoos the dog away angrily, meanly. Later, he feels a flood of remorse: he goes after the dog, calling for it to come back—but it has gone. He breaks down in tears.

The Crossing () is a novel by American author Cormac McCarthy, published in 1994 by Alfred A. Knopf. The story is the second installment of McCarthy's "Border Trilogy".

Grenzgänger (englischer Originaltitel: "The Crossing") ist ein Roman des US-amerikanischen Autors Cormac McCarthy aus dem Jahr 1994, die deutschsprachige Übersetzung von Hans Wolf erschien 1995. Das Buch ist nach seinem Vorgänger "All die schönen Pferde" der mittlere Teil der Reihe "The Border Trilogy", die mit "Land der Freien" endet.


Formation of Armenian mythology.

The pantheon of Armenian gods, initially worshipped by Proto-Armenians, inherited their essential elements from the religious beliefs and mythologies of the Proto-Indo-Europeans and peoples of the Armenian Highlands. Historians distinguish a significant body of Indo-European language words which were used in Armenian pagan rites. The oldest cults are believed to have worshipped a creator called Ar (or possibly Ara), embodied as the sun (Arev or Areg); the ancient Armenians called themselves "children of the sun". Also among the most ancient types of Indo-European-derived worship are the cults of eagles and lions, and of the sky.  After the establishment of Iranian dominance in Armenia in the 1st millennium BCE, Zoroastrianism had a major influence on Armenian religion. Until the late Parthian period, the Armenian lands adhered to a syncretic form of Mazdaism, which mixed Iranian religious concepts with traditional Armenian beliefs. For example, the supreme god of the Armenian pantheon, Vanatur, was later replaced by Aramazd (the Parthian form of Ahura Mazda). However, the Armenian version of Aramazd preserved many native Armenian aspects. Similarly, the traditional Armenian goddess of fertility, Nar, was replaced by Anahit, which may derived from Persian Anahita, although the Armenian goddess was entirely distinct from her Iranian counterpart.  In the Hellenistic age (3rd to 1st centuries BCE), ancient Armenian deities were identified with ancient Greek deities: Aramazd with Zeus, Anahit with Artemis, Vahagn with Heracles, Astłik with Aphrodite, Nane with Athena, Mihr with Hephaestus, Tir with Apollo.  After the formal adoption of Christianity in the 4th century CE, ancient myths and beliefs transformed to adhere more closely to Christian beliefs. Biblical characters took over the functions of the archaic gods and spirits. For example, John the Baptist inherited certain features of Vahagn and Tir, and the archangel Gabriel took on elements of Vahagn.  Basic information about Armenian pagan traditions were preserved in the works of ancient Greek authors such as Plato, Herodotus, Xenophon and Strabo, Byzantine scholar Procopius of Caesarea, as well as medieval Armenian writers such as Movses Khorenatsi, Agathangelos, Eznik of Kolb, Sebeos, and Anania Shirakatsi, as well as in oral folk traditions.

Pantheon.

The pantheon of pre-Christian Armenia changed over the centuries. Originally native Armenian (from Proto-Indo-European) in nature, the pantheon was modified through Anatolian, Hurro-Urartian, Semitic, Iranian, and Greek influences.  One common motif that spanned many or all pagan Armenian pantheons was the belief in a ruling triad of supreme gods, usually comprising a chief, creator god, his thunder god son, and a mother goddess.

Early Armenian.

These gods are believed to have been native Armenian gods, worshipped during the earliest eras of Armenian history (Proto-Armenian). Many, if not all, of them are believed to have derived from Proto-Indo-European religion. There is also likely influence from the indigenous beliefs of the Armenian Highlands.

Hayasan.

While the exact relationship between the Bronze Age kingdom of Hayasa-Azzi and Armenians is uncertain, many scholars believe that there is a connection (compare Hayasa with the Armenian endonyms Hayastan and Hay). Not much is known about the Hayasan pantheon but some names survive via Hittite records. The triad may have comprised U.GUR, INANNA, and Tarumu.

Urartian.

The gods of the Urartian pantheon were mostly borrowed from Hittite and Luwian, Hurrian, Semitic, and possibly Armenian and Indo-Iranian religions.

Iranian influence.

Zoroastrian influences penetrated Armenian culture during the Achaemenid Empire, though conversion was incomplete and syncretistic, and the Persians and Armenians never appeared to identify with each other as co-religionists despite both referring to themselves as "Mazda worshipers."

Heroes and legendary monarchs.

These figures are mainly known through post-Christian sources, but may have belonged to the pre-Christian mythology. Many seem to be derived from Proto-Indo-European mythologies and religious traditions. It is suspected that Hayk, Ara, and Aram were originally deities, possibly from the oldest Armenian pantheon.

Armenian mythology originated in ancient Indo-European traditions, specifically Proto-Armenian, and gradually incorporated Anatolian, Hurro-Urartian, Mesopotamian, Iranian, and Greek beliefs and deities.

Über die vorchristliche armenische Mythologie ist wenig bekannt. Sie wurde stark durch den Zoroastrismus (z. B. die Gottheiten Aramazd, Mitra und Anahit) und durch assyrische Traditionen (z. B. die Gottheit Barsamin) beeinflusst. Darüber hinaus lassen sich vereinzelte Spuren einheimischer Traditionen entdecken (z. B. die Gottheiten Hayk, Vahagn und Astlik). Eine der ältesten Quellen ist die Legende „Xorenatsi’s History“.