Biography.

Ernst's father, Ferdinand Johann von Bibra, (*1756; † 1807), fought under General Rochambeau in the American Revolutionary War on behalf of the colonies. Later he married his brother's daughter, Lucretia Wilhelmine Caroline von Bibra,(b.1778 - d. + 1857). Ernst's father died when he was 11⁄2 years old and Baron Christoph Franz von Hutten (d. 1830) raised Ernst in Würzburg. He graduated at nineteen from a boarding school in Neuberg on the Danube. Baron Ernst von Bibra started studying law at Würzburg but soon changed over to the natural sciences, especially chemistry. ("Dr. med. & phil." Doctor of medicine & PhD) Martin Haseneier, in his Foreword to the 1995 translation "Plant Intoxicants" relates that Ernst fought in no less than 49 duels as a young man! Many of his works have been reprinted in recent years. Besides the castle and estate at Schwebheim, Ernst was the owner of a half interest in the castle and estate at Willershausen (Herleshausen). Ernst sold his half of the castle and estate of Willershausen (Herleshausen) in 1850 to the Landgrave Carl August of Hesse.  He produced: "Chemical Research on Various Varieties of Pus" (Berlin 1842); "Chemical Research on the Bones and Teeth of Humans and Other Vertebrates" (Schweinfurt 1844) and "Helpful Tables for the Recognition of the Substances of Zoological Chemistry" (Erlangen 1846). Then in cooperation with Geist he published: "Investigations of the Diseases of the Workers in the Phosphorus Match Factories" (Erlangen 1847) as well as with Harleß "The Events of the Investigations of the Effects of Sulphur Fumes" (Erlangen 1847). After he had published "Chemical Fragments Concerning the Liver and Gall-Bladder" (Braunschweig 1849), he went to Brazil and around Cape Horn. He reported on this trip in his "Trips in South America" (Mannheim 1854, 2 vols.). After his return he lived mostly in Nuremberg where he also set up his rich collections of natural history ethnographics and died on 5 June 1878. Here he published "Comparative Investigations of the Human Brain and Those of Other Vertebrates" (Mannheim 1854); "The Narcotic Substances of Enjoyment and the Human Being" (Nuremberg 1855); "Bread and the Various Grains" (Nuremberg 1860); "Coffee and its Substitute" (Reports at the Meetings of the Academy of Sciences in Munich, 1858); "The Bronze and Copper Alloys of the Old and Most Ancient Peoples" (Erlangen 1869) and "Concerning Old Discoveries of Iron and Silver " (Nuremberg 1873).  Ernst work on narcotics is his most famous and was recently translated into English and publish under the name of "Plant Intoxicants". (). This was one of the first books to examine the cultivation, preparation, and consumption of the world’s major stimulants and inebriants. The book includes seventeen chapters : 1) coffee, 2)coffee leaves as a beverage 3) tea, 4) Paraguayan Tea (yerba maté), 5) Guarana, 6) chocolate, 7) Fahan Tea (the orchid Angraecum fragrans Thouars as a source of coumarin), 8) Khat, 9) Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) opiate derived from the "poison lettuce,"10) thorn apple, 11) coca, 12) opium, 13) Lactucarium 14) hashish, 15) tobacco 16) Betel and Related Substances (Areca catechu, areca nut; Piper siriboa, the betel leaf) and 17) arsenous acid or arsenic trioxide (AsO). Because of Ernst's early investigation and writing on coffee, he is occasionally referenced in modern coffee literature.  Starting with travel sketches and culturally historic descriptions rendered in novelistic style ("Memories of South America", Leipzig 1861, 3 vols.; "About Chile, Peru and Brazil", Leipzig 1862, 3 vols. and others) von Bibra preferred to busy himself in his later years with fictional works and developed an astonishing fruitfulness in this field. Of these writings which stand out especially because of successful characterizations and descriptions of beautiful landscapes we mention: "A Jewel" (Leipzig 1863); "A Woman with a Noble Heart" ("Ein edles Frauenherz" was featured in a radio broadcast on 26 August 2006 reading and concert)(2nd ed., Jena 1869); "The Adventures of a Young Peruvian in Germany" (Jena 1870); "The Nine Stations of Mr. von Scherenberg" (2nd ed. Jena 1880); "The Children of the Rogue":(Nuremberg 1872); "Brave Women" (Jena 1876.)

Honors.

Germany:  Bavaria:  Prussia:  Russia:

von Bibra Family.

Ernst was a member of the aristocratic Franconian von Bibra family which among its members were Lorenz von Bibra, Prince-Bishop of Würzburg, Duke in Franconia (1459–1519), Lorenz’ half brother, Wilhelm von Bibra Papal emissary, Conrad von Bibra, Prince-Bishop of Würzburg, Duke in Franconia (1490–1544) and Heinrich von Bibra, Prince-Bishop, Prince-Abbot of Fulda (1711–1788).

Germanisches Nationalmuseum.

Ernst was one of the co-founders of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum (formerly "Germanischen Museums“) located in Nuremberg. Founded in 1852, led by close friend and fellow Franconian baron, Hans von und zu Aufsess, whose goal was to assemble a "well-ordered compendium of all available source material for German history, literature and art". Ernst donated much of his personal collection, which included art, a rich natural history and ethnographic collection, to the museum. The "Bibra-Stube" was installed in the museum in 1887–1888.

"Theory on the action of ether" Anesthesia.

An outdated theory of anaesthetic action, Ernst von Bibra and Emil Harless, in 1847, were the first to suggest that general anaesthetics may act by dissolving in the fatty fraction of brain cells. They proposed that anaesthetics dissolve and remove fatty constituents from brain cells, changing their activity and inducing anaesthesia. Below is the abstract of a recent German scientific paper on their work.  "Abstract of Article:"  "Just three months after the first application of sulphuric ether to a patient in German-speaking countries the monography "Die Wirkung des Schwefeläthers in chemischer und physiologischer Beziehung" was published. In this book Ernst von Bibra and Emil Harless presented their experimental research on the effects of ether on humans and compared it to those on animals. The contents of the book are described. The authors "Theory on the action of ether" will be discussed in the context of contemporary criticism. Their hypothesis affected the discussion on the mechanisms of anaesthetic action up to the twentieth century."

Composition of Barley.

The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) cites the following composition of barley meal according to Ernst von Bibra, omitting the salts:

What others thought about Ernst von Bibra.

Richard Evans Schultes, "Father of Modern Ethnobotany" on Ernst von Bibra.

Richard Evans Schultes, Ph.D., F.L.S. who was the Curator of Economic Botany and Executive Director, Harvard Botanical Museum wrote in "The plant kingdom and hallucinogens" (1970):

Albert Hofmann on Ernst von Bibra.

Albert Hofmann writes and quotes Ernst in his book "LSD — My Problem Child", Chapter 7. "Radiance from Ernst Jünger"

Arthur Schopenhauer on Ernst von Bibra.

The famous philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), was extremely critical of Ernst for his vivisection of animals in "Parerga and Paralipomena" (quoting Payne's translation).  Schopenhauer further on states

The Westminster Review.

The Westminster Review. July and October, 1854. New Series Vol. VI. London: John Chapman History, Biography, Voyages and Travels. page 282  In contrast to other Germans, Ernst was found to be a consummate outdoors man.

Historian Ferdinand Gregorovius.

Ferdinand Gregorovius described vividly his visit to the eccentric Ernst published in 1893. Some of his novels include:

Dr. Ernst Freiherr von Bibra (9 June 1806 in Schwebheim – 5 June 1878 in Nuremberg) was a German Naturalist (Natural history scientist) and author. Ernst was a botanist, zoologist, metallurgist, chemist, geographer, travel writer, novelist, duellist, art collector and trailblazer in ethnopsychopharmacology.

Ernst Freiherr von Bibra (* 9. Juni 1806 in Schwebheim; † 5. Juni 1878 in Nürnberg) war ein deutscher Naturforscher und Schriftsteller.


Units 1 and 2.

Units 1 and 2 consists of two BWRs, each producing 890 MW of electricity. The main contractor was ASEA-Atom, now a part of Westinghouse Electric Sweden AB. Turbine generators were supplied by Stal-Laval. The units' architecture was designed by ASEA-Atom. The reactor pressure vessels were constructed by Uddcomb Sweden AB, and reactor internal parts, mechanical components by Finnatom. The electrical equipment was supplied by Strömberg. Unit 1 was constructed by Atomirakennus and unit 2 by Jukola and Työyhtymä. Unit 1 achieved its initial criticality in July 1978 and it started commercial operations in October 1979. Unit 2 achieved its initial criticality in October 1979 and it started commercial operations in July 1982.  The original power of the reactors was 660 MW. They were uprated to 710 MW in 1983–1984, to 840 MW in 1995–1998, and further to 860 MW in 2005–2006. Major upgrades were carried out to the units in 2010 and 2011, including replacement of turbines and generators, isolation valves, electrical switchgear and seawater pumps. The upgrades increased the net electrical output by 20 MW to 880 MW each.  In 2017, unit 2 was upgraded and modernized, increasing the output further to 890 MW from the beginning of 2018. A similar upgrade to unit 1 was performed in 2018. The extended maintenance was also made to prepare for a license renewal application. The license extension was granted in September 2018 and allows the reactors to operate until 2038.

Unit 3.

In February 2005, the Finnish government gave its permission to TVO to construct a new nuclear reactor, making Finland the first Western European country in 15 years to order one. The construction of the unit began in 2005. The start of commercial operation was planned for 2010, but has been pushed back several times., the estimate for start of regular production is March 2021.  Olkiluoto 3 is the first EPR, which is a type of third generation PWR, to have gone into construction. It will have a nameplate capacity of 1600 MW. Japan Steel Works and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries manufactured the unit's 526-ton reactor pressure vessel.  At the start of construction, the main contractor was Areva NP (now Framatome, after the sell-off mentioned below), a joint venture of Areva and Siemens. However, in 2009, Siemens sold its one-third share of Areva NP to Areva, which is now the main contractor. Siemens remained on the project as the subcontractor with the main responsibility for constructing the turbine hall. Areva sold its majority stake in Framatome (previously Areva NP), its nuclear reactor and fuel business, to Électricité de France.  According to TVO, the construction phase of the project would create a total of about 30,000 person-years of employment directly and indirectly; that the highest number of on-site employees has been almost 4,400; and that the operation phase would create 150 to 200 permanent jobs.

Construction delays.

The first license application for the third unit was made in December 2000 and the date of the unit's entry into service was estimated to be 2010. However, since the start of construction, several delays to the schedule have been announced. In July 2012 TVO announced that the unit would not go into service before 2015, five years after the original estimate. In a statement, the operator said it was "not pleased with the situation" although solutions to various problems were being found and work was "progressing", and that it was waiting for a new launch date from Areva and Siemens. At the end of 2013, TVO said that the Areva-Siemens consortium plans to reduce workers and subcontractors on the construction site and says that it expects the contractor to provide details about the expected impact on the project's schedule. In February 2014, TVO said that it could not give an estimate of the plant's startup date because it was still waiting for the Areva-Siemens consortium to provide it with an updated overall schedule for the project." Later the same month it was reported that Areva was shutting down construction due to the dispute over compensations and unfinished automation planning. According to Kauppalehti, the estimated opening was delayed until 2018–2020. In July 2019 TVO announced that regular electricity generation is expected to start in July 2020. The delay was caused by slower than expected modification works. In December 2019 TVO announced that regular electricity generation is delayed to March 2021 due to slow progress in system testing and delivery time of spare parts to replace faulty components.  The delays have been due to various problems with planning, supervision, and workmanship, and have been the subject of an inquiry by STUK, the Finnish nuclear safety regulator. The first problems that surfaced were irregularities in the foundation concrete, and caused a delay of months. Later, it was found that subcontractors had provided heavy forgings that were not up to project standards and which had to be re-cast. An apparent problem constructing the reactor's unique double-containment structure also caused delays, as the welders had not been given proper instructions.  In 2009, Petteri Tiippana, the director of STUK's nuclear power plant division, told the BBC that it was difficult to deliver nuclear power plant projects on schedule because builders were not used to working to the exacting standards required on nuclear construction sites, since so few new reactors had been built in recent years.  In 2010, Jukka Laaksonen, Director General of STUK at that time, analyzed reasons for the delay:  Construction of the turbine succeeded better under the responsibility of Siemens. Installations of the main turbine equipment were completed about one year behind the original schedule.  After the construction of the unit started in 2005, Areva began constructing EPRs in Flamanville, France, and in Taishan, China. However, as of 2019, the construction of the EPR in France is ten years behind schedule. Taishan 1 in China became the first EPR to start power generation on 29 June 2018, and the second one (Taishan 2) came online in 2019.

Cost.

The main contractor, Areva, is building the unit for a fixed price of €3 billion, so in principle, any construction costs above that price fall on Areva. In July 2012, those overruns were estimated at more than €2 billion, and in December 2012, Areva estimated that the full cost of building the reactor would be about €8.5 billion, well over the previous estimate of €6.4 billion. Because of the delays, TVO and Areva are both seeking compensation from each other through the International Court of Arbitration.  In October 2013, TVO's demand for compensation from Areva had risen to €1.8 billion, and Areva's from TVO to €2.6 billion. In December 2013, Areva increased its demand to €2.7 billion. On March 10, 2018 French newspaper Le Monde announced that Areva and TVO have reached an agreement. A day later, TVO confirmed that Areva would pay it €450 million in compensation over the delays and lost income. The agreement would settle all legal actions between the two companies. With the settlement, TVO disclosed its total investment to be around € 5.5 billion. Areva had accumulated losses of € 5.5 billion. The total cost of the project, therefore, is estimated to be € 11 billion.

Criticism.

In 2009, professor Stephen Thomas wrote, "Olkiluoto has become an example of all that can go wrong in economic terms with new reactors," and that Areva and the TVO "are in bitter dispute over who will bear the cost overruns and there is a real risk now that the utility will default."  The project has also been criticized by STUK because "instructions have not been observed in the welding of pipes and the supervision of welding." STUK has also noted that there have been delays in submitting proper paperwork.  Olkiluoto 3 was supposed to be the first reactor of 3+ generation which would pave the way for a new wave of identical reactors across Europe, safe, affordable, and delivered on time. The delays and cost overruns have had knock-on effects in other countries.  The construction workforce includes about 3,800 employees from 500 companies. 80% of the workers are foreigners, mostly from eastern European countries. In 2012 it was reported that one Bulgarian contracting firm is owned by the mafia, and that Bulgarian workers have been required to pay weekly protection fees to the mafia, wages have been unpaid, employees have been told not to join a union and that employers also reneged on social security payments.

Unit 4.

On 14 February 2008, TVO submitted an environmental impact assessment of unit four to the Ministry of Employment and Economy. On 21 April 2010, the government of Finland decided to grant a decision-in-principle to Teollisuuden Voima for the fourth reactor in Olkiluoto. The decision was approved by the parliament on 1 July 2010. If constructed, the fourth unit would be a PWR or a BWR with a power output of 1,000 to 1,800 MW.  In September 2014, with unit 3 still unfinished, the Finnish government rejected TVO's request for time extension of the unit 4 decision-in-principle. Economic Affairs Minister Jan Vapaavuori referred to the long delay of the 3rd reactor and to unsatisfactory assurances by TVO that the 4th unit would ever be built. Nevertheless PM Stubb stated that the rejection didn't spell the end for the OL4 project, and that TVO would have the opportunity to apply for a construction license before the decision-in-principle expires in June 2015.  In June 2015 TVO decided not to apply for a construction permit for the Olkiluoto 4 unit because of delays with the unit 3, however saying they are prepared to file for a new decision-in-principle later.

Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository.

The "Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository" is a deep geological repository for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel, the first such repository in the world. It is currently under construction at the Olkiluoto plant by the company Posiva, owned by the nuclear power plant operators Fortum and TVO.

Agriculture.

The waste heat, an output common to all thermal power plants, which heats the cooling water (at 13 °C) is utilized for small-scale agriculture before being pumped back to the sea. The power plant hosts the northernmost vineyard in the world, a 0.1 ha experimental plot that yields 850 kg Zilga grapes annually. Another use is a pond for growing crabs, whitefish and sturgeon for caviar.

Incidents.

In April 2014 a turbine steam condenser of unit 1 had a small seawater leak, at a rate of two litres per hour. According to the operator, the leak forced to limit the plant output down to 300 MW, but was not serious and was to be repaired in a day.

The Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant () is one of Finland's two nuclear power plants, the other being the two-unit VVER Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant. The plant is owned and operated by Teollisuuden Voima (TVO), a subsidiary of Pohjolan Voima, and is located on Olkiluoto Island, on the shore of the Gulf of Bothnia, in the municipality of Eurajoki in western Finland.

Das Kernkraftwerk Olkiluoto [] liegt auf der Insel Olkiluoto an der Westküste Finnlands in der Gemeinde Eurajoki rund 25 Kilometer nördlich der Stadt Rauma. Dort befindet sich auch das nukleare Endlager Olkiluoto.


Etymology.

The term originates from "moire" ("moiré" in its French adjectival form), a type of textile, traditionally of silk but now also of cotton or synthetic fiber, with a rippled or "watered" appearance. Moire, or "watered textile", is made by pressing two layers of the textile when wet. The similar but imperfect spacing of the threads creates a characteristic pattern which remains after the fabric dries.  In French, the adjective "moiré" (in use since at least 1823) derives from the earlier verb "moirer", "to produce a watered textile by weaving or pressing". "Moirer", in turn, is a variation of the word "mouaire" which is an adoption of the English "mohair" (in use since at least 1570). "Mohair" comes from the Arabic "mukhayyar" (, "chosen"), a cloth made from the wool of the Angora goat. "Mukhayyar" () descends from "khayyara" (, "he chose"). "Chosen" is meant in the sense of "a choice, or excellent, cloth".

Pattern formation.

Moiré patterns are often an artifact of images produced by various digital imaging and computer graphics techniques, for example when scanning a halftone picture or ray tracing a checkered plane (the latter being a special case of aliasing, due to undersampling a fine regular pattern). This can be overcome in texture mapping through the use of mipmapping and anisotropic filtering.  The drawing on the upper right shows a moiré pattern. The lines could represent fibers in moiré silk, or lines drawn on paper or on a computer screen. The nonlinear interaction of the optical patterns of lines creates a real and visible pattern of roughly parallel dark and light bands, the moiré pattern, superimposed on the lines.  The moiré effect also occurs between overlapping transparent objects. For example, an invisible phase mask is made of a transparent polymer with a wavy thickness profile. As light shines through two overlaid masks of similar phase patterns, a broad moiré pattern occurs on a screen some distance away. This phase moiré effect and the classical moiré effect from opaque lines are two ends of a continuous spectrum in optics, which is called the universal moiré effect. The phase moiré effect is the basis for a type of broadband interferometer in x-ray and particle wave applications. It also provides a way to reveal hidden patterns in invisible layers.

Line moiré.

Line moiré is one type of moiré pattern; a pattern that appears when superposing two transparent layers containing correlated opaque patterns. Line moiré is the case when the superposed patterns comprise straight or curved lines. When moving the layer patterns, the moiré patterns transform or move at a faster speed. This effect is called optical moiré speedup.  More complex line moiré patterns are created if the lines are curved or not exactly parallel.

Shape moiré.

Shape moiré is one type of moiré pattern demonstrating the phenomenon of moiré magnification. 1D shape moiré is the particular simplified case of 2D shape moiré. One-dimensional patterns may appear when superimposing an opaque layer containing tiny horizontal transparent lines on top of a layer containing a complex shape which is periodically repeating along the vertical axis.  Moiré patterns revealing complex shapes, or sequences of symbols embedded in one of the layers (in form of periodically repeated compressed shapes) are created with shape moiré, otherwise called "band moiré" patterns. One of the most important properties of shape moiré is its ability to magnify tiny shapes along either one or both axes, that is, stretching. A common 2D example of moiré magnification occurs when viewing a chain-link fence through a second chain-link fence of identical design. The fine structure of the design is visible even at great distances.

Calculations.

Moiré of parallel patterns.

Geometrical approach.

Consider two patterns made of parallel and equidistant lines, e.g., vertical lines. The step of the first pattern is, the step of the second is, with.  If the lines of the patterns are superimposed at the left of the figure, the shift between the lines increases when going to the right. After a given number of lines, the patterns are opposed: the lines of the second pattern are between the lines of the first pattern. If we look from a far distance, we have the feeling of pale zones when the lines are superimposed (there is white between the lines), and of dark zones when the lines are "opposed".  The middle of the first dark zone is when the shift is equal to. The th line of the second pattern is shifted by compared to the th line of the first network. The middle of the first dark zone thus corresponds to formula_1 that is formula_2 The distance between the middle of a pale zone and a dark zone is formula_3 the distance between the middle of two dark zones, which is also the distance between two pale zones, is formula_4 From this formula, we can see that:  The principle of the moiré is similar to the Vernier scale.

Mathematical function approach.

The essence of the moiré effect is the (mainly visual) perception of a distinctly different third pattern which is caused by inexact superimposition of two similar patterns. The mathematical representation of these patterns is not trivially obtained and can seem somewhat arbitrary. In this section we shall give a mathematical example of two parallel patterns whose superimposition forms a moiré pattern, and show one way (of many possible ways) these patterns and the moiré effect can be rendered mathematically.  The visibility of these patterns is dependent on the medium or substrate in which they appear, and these may be opaque (as for example on paper) or transparent (as for example in plastic film). For purposes of discussion we shall assume the two primary patterns are each printed in greyscale ink on a white sheet, where the opacity (e.g., shade of grey) of the "printed" part is given by a value between 0 (white) and 1 (black) inclusive, with representing neutral grey. Any value less than 0 or greater than 1 using this grey scale is essentially "unprintable".  We shall also choose to represent the opacity of the pattern resulting from printing one pattern atop the other at a given point on the paper as the average (i.e. the arithmetic mean) of each pattern's opacity at that position, which is half their sum, and, as calculated, does not exceed 1. (This choice is not unique. Any other method to combine the functions that satisfies keeping the resultant function value within the bounds [0,1] will also serve; arithmetic averaging has the virtue of simplicity—with hopefully minimal damage to one's concepts of the printmaking process.)  We now consider the "printing" superimposition of two almost similar, sinusoidally varying, grey-scale patterns to show how they produce a moiré effect in first printing one pattern on the paper, and then printing the other pattern over the first, keeping their coordinate axes in register. We represent the grey intensity in each pattern by a positive opacity function of distance along a fixed direction (say, the x-coordinate) in the paper plane, in the form  formula_5  where the presence of 1 keeps the function positive definite, and the division by 2 prevents function values greater than 1.  The quantity represents the periodic variation (i.e., spatial frequency) of the pattern's grey intensity, measured as the number of intensity cycles per unit distance. Since the sine function is cyclic over argument changes of, the distance increment per intensity cycle (the wavelength) obtains when, or.  Consider now two such patterns, where one has a slightly different periodic variation from the other:  formula_6  such that.  The average of these two functions, representing the superimposed printed image, evaluates as follows:  formula_7  where it is easily shown that  formula_8  and  formula_9  This function average,, clearly lies in the range [0,1]. Since the periodic variation is the average of and therefore close to and, the moiré effect is distinctively demonstrated by the sinusoidal envelope "beat" function, whose periodic variation is half the difference of the periodic variations and (and evidently much lower in frequency).  Other one-dimensional moiré effects include the classic beat frequency tone which is heard when two pure notes of almost identical pitch are sounded simultaneously. This is an acoustic version of the moiré effect in the one dimension of time: the original two notes are still present—but the listener's "perception" is of two pitches that are the average of and half the difference of the frequencies of the two notes. Aliasing in sampling of time-varying signals also belongs to this moiré paradigm.

Rotated patterns.

Consider two patterns with the same step, but the second pattern is rotated by an angle. Seen from afar, we can also see darker and paler lines: the pale lines correspond to the lines of nodes, that is, lines passing through the intersections of the two patterns.  If we consider a cell of the lattice formed, we can see that it is a rhombus with the four sides equal to ; (we have a right triangle whose hypotenuse is and the side opposite to the angle is ).  The pale lines correspond to the small diagonal of the rhombus. As the diagonals are the bisectors of the neighbouring sides, we can see that the pale line makes an angle equal to with the perpendicular of each pattern's line.  Additionally, the spacing between two pale lines is, half of the long diagonal. The long diagonal is the hypotenuse of a right triangle and the sides of the right angle are and. The Pythagorean theorem gives: formula_10 that is: formula_11 thus formula_12  When is very small () the following small-angle approximations can be made: formula_13 thus formula_14  We can see that the smaller is, the farther apart the pale lines; when both patterns are parallel (), the spacing between the pale lines is infinite (there is no pale line).  There are thus two ways to determine : by the orientation of the pale lines and by their spacing formula_15 If we choose to measure the angle, the final error is proportional to the measurement error. If we choose to measure the spacing, the final error is proportional to the inverse of the spacing. Thus, for the small angles, it is best to measure the spacing.

Implications and applications.

Printing full-color images.

In graphic arts and prepress, the usual technology for printing full-color images involves the superimposition of halftone screens. These are regular rectangular dot patterns—often four of them, printed in cyan, yellow, magenta, and black. Some kind of moiré pattern is inevitable, but in favorable circumstances the pattern is "tight"; that is, the spatial frequency of the moiré is so high that it is not noticeable. In the graphic arts, the term "moiré" means an "excessively visible" moiré pattern. Part of the prepress art consists of selecting screen angles and halftone frequencies which minimize moiré. The visibility of moiré is not entirely predictable. The same set of screens may produce good results with some images, but visible moiré with others.

Television screens and photographs.

Moiré patterns are commonly seen on television screens when a person is wearing a shirt or jacket of a particular weave or pattern, such as a houndstooth jacket. This is due to interlaced scanning in televisions and non-film cameras, referred to as interline twitter. As the person moves about, the moiré pattern is quite noticeable. Because of this, newscasters and other professionals who appear on TV regularly are instructed to avoid clothing which could cause the effect.  Photographs of a TV screen taken with a digital camera often exhibit moiré patterns. Since both the TV screen and the digital camera use a scanning technique to produce or to capture pictures with horizontal scan lines, the conflicting sets of lines cause the moiré patterns. To avoid the effect, the digital camera can be aimed at an angle of 30 degrees to the TV screen.

Marine navigation.

The moiré effect is used in shoreside beacons called "Inogon leading marks" or "Inogon lights", manufactured by Inogon Licens AB, Sweden, to designate the safest path of travel for ships heading to locks, marinas, ports, etc., or to indicate underwater hazards (such as pipelines or cables). The moiré effect creates arrows that point towards an imaginary line marking the hazard or line of safe passage; as navigators pass over the line, the arrows on the beacon appear to become vertical bands before changing back to arrows pointing in the reverse direction. An example can be found in the UK on the East shore of Southampton water, opposite Fawley oil refinery (). Similar moiré effect beacons can be used to guide mariners to the centre point of an oncoming bridge; when the vessel is aligned with the centreline, vertical lines are visible. Inogon lights are deployed at airports to help pilots on the ground keep to the centreline of taxiways.

Strain measurement.

In manufacturing industries, these patterns are used for studying microscopic strain in materials: by deforming a grid with respect to a reference grid and measuring the moiré pattern, the stress levels and patterns can be deduced. This technique is attractive because the scale of the moiré pattern is much larger than the deflection that causes it, making measurement easier.  The moiré effect can be used in strain measurement: the operator just has to draw a pattern on the object, and superimpose the reference pattern to the deformed pattern on the deformed object.  A similar effect can be obtained by the superposition of a holographic image of the object to the object itself: the hologram is the reference step, and the difference with the object are the deformations, which appear as pale and dark lines.  "See also: theory of elasticity, strain tensor and holographic interferometry."

Image processing.

Some image scanner computer programs provide an optional filter, called a "descreen" filter, to remove Moiré-pattern artifacts which would otherwise be produced when scanning printed halftone images to produce digital images.

Banknotes.

Many banknotes exploit the tendency of digital scanners to produce moiré patterns by including fine circular or wavy designs that are likely to exhibit a moiré pattern when scanned and printed.

Microscopy.

In super-resolution microscopy, the moiré pattern can be used to obtain images with a resolution higher than the diffraction limit, using a technique known as structured illumination microscopy.  In scanning tunneling microscopy, moiré fringes appear if surface atomic layers have a different crystal structure than the bulk crystal. This can for example be due to surface reconstruction of the crystal, or when a thin layer of a second crystal is on the surface, e.g. single-layer, double-layer graphene, or Van der Waals heterostructure of graphene and hBN, or bismuth and antimony nanostructures.  In transmission electron microscopy (TEM), translational moiré fringes can be seen as parallel contrast lines formed in phase-contrast TEM imaging by the interference of diffracting crystal lattice planes that are overlapping, and which might have different spacing and/or orientation. Most of the moiré contrast observations reported in the literature are obtained using high-resolution phase contrast imaging in TEM. However, if probe aberration-corrected high-angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) imaging is used, more direct interpretation of the crystal structure in terms of atom types and positions is obtained.

Materials science and condensed matter physics.

In condensed matter physics, the moiré phenomenon is commonly discussed for two-dimensional materials. The effect occurs when there is mismatch between the lattice parameter or angle of the 2D layer and that of the underlying substrate, or another 2D layer, such as in 2D material heterostructures. The phenomenon is exploited as a means of engineering the electronic structure or optical properties of materials, which some call moiré materials. The often significant changes in electronic properties when twisting two atomic layers and the prospect of electronic applications has lead to the name twistronics of this field. A prominent example is in twisted bi-layer graphene, which forms a moiré pattern and at a particular "magic angle" exhibits superconductivity and other important electronic properties.  In materials science, known examples exhibiting moiré contrast are e.g. thin films or nanoparticles of MX-type (M = Ti, Nb; X = C, N) overlapping with austenitic matrix. Both phases, MX and the matrix, have face-centered cubic crystal structure and cube-on-cube orientation relationship. However, they have significant lattice misfit of about 20 to 24% (based on the chemical composition of alloy), which produces a moiré effect.

In mathematics, physics, and art, moiré patterns (,, ) or moiré fringes are large-scale interference patterns that can be produced when an opaque ruled pattern with transparent gaps is overlaid on another similar pattern. For the moiré interference pattern to appear, the two patterns must not be completely identical, but rather displaced, rotated, or have slightly different pitch.

Der Moiré-Effekt (von frz. "moiré" [], „moiriert, marmoriert“) bezeichnet ein scheinbares grobes Raster, das aufgrund der Überlagerung von regelmäßigen, feineren Rastern entsteht. Das sich ergebende Muster, dessen Aussehen den Mustern aus Interferenzen ähnlich ist, ist ein Spezialfall des Alias-Effekts durch Unterabtastung.


Digedags years.

The East German publisher Verlag Neues Leben, in East Berlin, had wanted to counter Western comics and magazines with a magazine of their own when Hannes Hegen approached them with his ideas for "Mosaik" and the Digedags. Reaching an agreement with Neues Leben, Hegen created the first issue of "Mosaik" for publishing in December 1955. "Mosaik" was published quarterly until July 1957, when it switched to a monthly schedule that has continued uninterrupted to this day. To support the schedule, the publisher hired additional artists, colorists and writers to support Hegen – a team which became known as the "Mosaik-Kollektiv" ("Mosaik Collective"). Only Hegen was credited on the cover, however.

Abrafaxe years.

In 1975, Hegen left the publisher over a disagreement and took the rights to the Digedags characters with him. The Mosaik-Kollektiv, not wanting to end publication of "Mosaik", together created new characters to replace the Digedags. The final versions of the Abrafaxe were created by writer Lothar Dräger and artist Lona Rietschel. During the half-year period of creating the new characters and stories, reprints of old Digedags stories were run in "Mosaik", until the new characters premiered in January 1976.

English-language editions.

The English editions of "Mosaik" have mostly appeared mostly under the name "Mosaic". Of Hannes Hegen's "Mosaik", issue 105, "Die Seeräuberburg", was issued in a limited run in 1965 in English as "The Pirates Castle". According to a former staff member at the publishing house, this was intended as a promotional issue for the United States market. An agreement had been reached to publish the comic books in the US; however, because of the US policy of economic embargo policy against Eastern European states in the Cold War, the contract could not be fulfilled.  Ten anthology volumes of Hegen's "Mosaik" were published in English for the international market under the name Mosaic Comic Books:  In the mid-1980s, 42 "Mosaic" books were published in English in the GDR for India. There is also a promotional flyer for these issues, which states that the "Mosaic" with the Abrafaxe is published in English and Arabic in addition to German, advertises for subscriptions, and includes an order form.

Other known foreign-language publications.

Reissues of "Mosaik" magazines and books have appeared in many different countries, almost always in the respective national language.

Sources.

Mosaik is a German comic book magazine. First published in December 1955, it is the longest-running German (and European) monthly comic book and the only one originating in East Germany that still exists. "Mosaik" also appeared in other countries and other languages. In its English-language edition it was published under the title "Mosaic".

Das Mosaik ist gegenwärtig der älteste und auflagenstärkste Comic deutscher Produktion. Die Zeitschrift wurde 1955 in Ost-Berlin gegründet und erscheint seitdem im Format von 16,4 cm Breite und 24 cm Höhe. Das erste Heft mit den drei Digedags als Haupthelden erschien am 23. Dezember 1955 im Verlag Neues Leben. Zunächst war die Erscheinungsweise vierteljährlich, seit der Nummer 7 im Juni 1957 kam das Heft monatlich heraus. Mit der Nr. 38 im Januar 1960 wechselte das Magazin zum Verlag Junge Welt. Ab dem Heft 10 (Oktober 1991) wurde das Mosaik aufgrund der Abwicklung des Verlags Junge Welt interimistisch von der Procom Gesellschaft für Kommunikation und Marketing in Berlin herausgegeben. Die Reihe wird seit Heft 193 (entspricht wegen der Nummernumstellung chronologisch dem Januarheft 1992) im Mosaik Steinchen für Steinchen Verlag verlegt.


Biography.

By the death of his father in 1734, Hiller was left dependent to a large extent on the charity of friends. He came from a musical family, and also learned the basics of music from a school master in his home town, Wendisch-Ossig. From 1740 to 1745, he was a student at the Gymnasium in Görlitz, where his fine soprano voice earned him free tuition. In 1746 he went to study at the famous Kreuzschule in Dresden. There he took keyboard and basso continuo lessons with Gottfried August Homilius.  In 1751, he enrolled in the University of Leipzig to study law, supporting himself by giving music lessons, and also by performing at concerts both on the flute and as a vocalist. Hiller immersed himself in the rich musical life of the town, and gradually adopted music as his sole profession. He took an active role in the "Großes Concert", which was the leading concert undertaking in Leipzig. During that time he wrote several symphonies, church cantatas, and arias, as well as a fragmentary Singspiel entitled "Das Orackle". Hiller also published an essay on the "Mimesis of Nature in Music" ("Abhandlung über die Nachahmung der Natur in der Musik") in 1754. That year he got his first break when he became steward and tutor to the son of Count Brühl in Dresden. He accompanied the Count to Leipzig in 1758. He remained in that position until 1760 when health problems (depression) forced him to resign. It was during his stay there that he conceived the idea of reviving some subscription concerts, an attempt which ultimately led to the founding of the Leipzig Gewandhaus concerts of which he was the first conductor.  Back in Leipzig, Hiller became the director of the "Großes Concert", a position he held until 1771. That year he founded a singing school. Four years later, Hiller founded his own concert society, the "Musikübende Gesellschaft". In his Leipzig school, he trained young musicians in singing and playing instruments. Two of his most famous students were Corona Schröter and Gertrud Elisabeth Mara née Schmeling, both acclaimed vocalists. He also taught organist and composer Daniel Gottlob Türk. In 1778 Hiller was appointed music director at the Paulinerkirche, the church of the University of Leipzig. During that time he also organized Concerts spirituels for Lent.  To Hiller has been given the credit of being the originator of the Singspiel, the beginning of German comedy opera as distinct from the French and Italian developments. The most important of his operas were: "Lottchen am Hofe" (Lottie at court, 1760), "Der Teufel ist los" (The devil is loose, 1768), and "Poltis, oder Das gerettete Troja" (Poltis, or Troy rescued, 1782). The lyrics of all his Singspiele were of considerable musical value, and were long popular. Among his sacred compositions are: "A Passion Cantata", "Funeral Music in Honor of Hasse", a setting of the one hundredth Psalm; and a few symphonies.  In the 1780s he acquired new positions with increased alacrity. In 1781 he became conductor of the Gewandhaus concerts. During the same year he visited the court of the Duke of Courland in Mitau, a journey that resulted in Hiller's appointment as Kapellmeister there four years later. In addition to his posts at the "Gewandhaus" and the "Paulinerkirche", in 1783 he also became the music director of the "Neukirche" which made him a top authority on music in Leipzig. However, when taking up his new job in Mitau in 1785 he resigned all his posts in Leipzig. Due to the unstable political situation at the court of Courland he resigned from his position there after only one year. Since he no longer had any occupation in Leipzig he had to organize concerts to earn his living, but fortunately he was able to secure for himself the post of music director of the city of Breslau in 1787. He spent two years in Breslau and returned to Leipzig in 1789 to become cantor at the "Thomaskirche", conducting the Thomanerchor, a position filled by Johann Sebastian Bach before. Hiller held the post until 1801 when he resigned due to his age.  In addition, Hiller carried out notable work as an editor and publisher of other composers' output, and wrote considerably concerning musical topics. Indeed, he was one of the most important German musical scholars and writers of the eighteenth century. He was the father of the composer Friedrich Adam Hiller (c. 1767–1812), but he was not related to the musician Ferdinand Hiller.

Operas.

A theme from Hiller's opera "Der Erndtekranz" was the basis for Max Reger's orchestral Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Hiller (1907).

Literary production.

Hiller's major contribution in this field include the "Wöchentliche Nachrichten", a music journal in which he published reviews of performances, new music publications, and essays on various music related topics. From his articles in this journal it becomes clear that Hiller was open to new trends in music, and that he preferred Hasse over J. S. Bach and Gluck. Writings of Hiller on aesthetic issues include the "Abhandlung über die Nachahmung der Natur in der Musik" (1754) and "Über die Musik und deren Wirkungen" (1781), which is a translation from Chabanon’s "Observations sur la musique".  As a historian Hiller published a series of anecdotes and biographies, the "Anecdoten zur Lebensgeschichte großer Regenten und berühmter Staatsmänner and Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Musikgelehrten und Tonkünstler neuerer Zeit" and the "Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Musikgelehrten und Tonkünstler neuerer Zeit".  The majority of his writings concern pedagogy. In these publications Hiller presents himself as a highly competent teacher who regarded knowledge of music an essential part of everyone's education.

Johann Adam Hiller (25 December 1728, in Wendisch-Ossig, Saxony – 16 June 1804, in Leipzig) was a German composer, conductor and writer on music, regarded as the creator of the Singspiel, an early form of German opera. In many of these operas he collaborated with the poet Christian Felix Weiße.

Johann Adam Hiller, bis 1763 "Hüller", (* 25. Dezember 1728 in Wendisch Ossig, heute Osiek Łużycki, bei Görlitz; † 16. Juni 1804 in Leipzig) war ein deutscher Komponist, Musikschriftsteller und Kapellmeister.


Explanation.

An arpeggio is a group of notes played one after the other, up or down in pitch. The player plays the notes of a particular chord individually rather than together. The chord may, for example, be a simple chord with the 1st, (major or minor) 3rd, and 5th scale degrees (this is called a "tonic triad"). An arpeggio for the chord of C major going up two octaves would be the notes (C, E, G, C, E, G, C). An arpeggio is a type of broken chord. Other types of broken chords play chord notes out of sequence or more than one note but less than the full chord simultaneously.  Arpeggios can rise or fall for more than one octave. Students of musical instruments and singers learn how to play and sing scales and arpeggios. Arpeggiated chords are often used in harp and piano music. An arpeggiated chord may be written with a wavy vertical line in front of the chord.  \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c" { </score>  It spreads from the lowest to highest note. Occasionally, composers specify that the musicians play them from top to bottom by adding an arrow pointing down.

Instruments.

Any instrument may employ arpeggiation, but the following instruments use arpeggios most often:  Arpeggios are an important part of the jazz improvisation vocabulary of horns and keyboards, guitars, and bass. In Western classical music, a chord that is played first with the lowest note and then with successive higher notes joining in is called "arpeggiato". Sometimes this effect is reversed, with the highest note coming first. In some modern popular music arpeggiato is called a rolled chord.  In early video game music, arpeggios were often the only way to play a chord since sound hardware usually had a very limited number of oscillators, or voices. Instead of tying them all up to play one chord, one channel could be used to play an arpeggio, leaving the rest for drums, bass, or sound effects. A prominent example was the music of games and demos on Commodore 64's SID chip, which only had three oscillators (see also Chiptune). This technique was highly popular amongst European video game music composers for systems in the 80's like the NES, with many transferring their knowledge from their days of composing with the Commodore 64. However, this technique was rarely used by American and Japanese composers.

Bell chord.

A bell chord, also known colloquially as "bells", is a musical arrangement technique in which a composition has separate instruments (or multiples of the same instrument) play single notes of a chord in sequence, sustaining individual notes to form the chord. It is, in effect, an arpeggio played by several instruments sequentially. This is also known as a "pyramid" or "cascade". It is common in barbershop music.  The technique originated with jazz big bands and is a staple of trad jazz. A good example can be heard in the introduction to "The Charleston" by The Temperance Seven. Additionally, "Bohemian Rhapsody" by the rock band Queen contains two occurrences of this "bell effect" in the middle section, as does the solo in Killer Queen starting at 1:48.

A broken chord is a chord broken into a sequence of notes. A broken chord may repeat some of the notes from the chord and span one or more octaves.

Arpeggio (Mehrzahl: "Arpeggien" oder "Arpeggios") ist der musikalische Fachbegriff für einen Akkord, bei dem die einzelnen Töne nicht gleichzeitig, sondern nacheinander (in kurzen Abständen) erklingen. Man spricht hierbei von einem "arpeggierten", "gebrochenen" oder "aufgelösten" Akkord.


History.

Early 16th century.

Since the beginning of formal deaf education in the 18th century in the United States, manualism and oralism have been on opposing sides of a heated debate that continues to this day. Oralism as the systematic education of deaf people began in Spain in the mid-1500s and was the byproduct of socioeconomic motives. The church barred deaf people from Holy Communion because they could not confess aloud. Deaf people were also prohibited from inheriting their family's wealth; therefore, to preserve the family wealth, deaf heirs in Spain were sent to Pedro Ponce de Leon after hearing that he taught a deaf man to talk in San Salvador Monastery in Oña. Oralism provided members of the privileged classes with deaf children a way to channel their children's education and an opportunity to keep them away from the deaf community. Speaking has been associated with the higher classes and higher intellect, and the perception of signing has been the opposite.

Late 19th century.

Schools.

Before the Clarke School for the Deaf (now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech) made its mark in deaf American education in the 1860s, there was a popular support of manualism. Manual language soon became a less popular choice for deaf education due to the new Darwinist perspective. Clarke School for the Deaf in 1867 became a "mainstream service" for deaf students through creating a "learn to listen" mentality. This was done through the proper training of educators in auditory/oral education. Since its start, Clarke School has expanded and provided support for oral communication within deaf education and policy.  It has been remarked that, in the United States, the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.

Policy.

In relation to the early 16th century oralism in Spain, 19th century oralists viewed oral language as a superior form of communication. Gardiner Green Hubbard, Horace Mann, Samuel Gridley Howe and Alexander Graham Bell were popular supporters of oralism and its impact on deaf education and services. Until the end of the 19th century, many educators of deaf America were deaf themselves. However, oralists like Alexander Graham Bell began to wield increasing influence. Bell and others believed in deaf assimilation with the mainstream hearing world. Bell also believed that sign language was an instrument of imprisonment and that its use prevented the "gesturer" from being a "true American". Bell had no opinion regarding whether or whom deaf people should marry. By contrast, negative eugenicists sought to stop the spread of "bad genes" through invasive measures such as mandatory placement in institutions or sterilization. Bell believed oralism was "an attractive option to sterilization". To Bell, implementation of oralism meant the possibility of a mainstream and "normal" life for deaf individuals.  In 1878, the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) met in Paris to discuss the use of sign language and other issues within deaf education. During the congregation, no Deaf members were allowed to testify. In 1880, the ICED met again in Milan with 164 educators attending with one of them being deaf. This meeting created the solely oralist classroom preventing any form of sign language from being used. After the Milan conference, the Deaf community referred to this time in history as "the dark ages for deaf education in America".

Classroom.

Hearing educators who could not sign replaced deaf teachers and, by the mid-20th century, eighty percent of American secondary schools for the deaf used the oral method exclusively. Some strategies, such as Total Communication or SimCom, saw classes conducted in a mixture of spoken and signed English with the teacher signing along, in English word order as they delivered their lecture. For example, "is" "was" and "the", which are not used in sign, were spelled out by the teachers using the manual alphabet. Students were taught using the articulation method, which taught them how to speak and lip read. Oralists believed that signs were no more than gross holistic gestures, which stood for English words in a one-to-one correspondence. Sentences in sign were thought to have no grammar. The facial expressions, such as exaggerated movements of the mouth, tongue, eyes, and lips, suggesting grimacing or excessive emotional display, triggered horror in hearing people. Students were asked to stop moving their faces when they signed, which would later be described as equivalent to asking hearing people to speak in declarative sentences uttered in monotone.

20th century.

Movement towards manualism.

Even though students were not allowed to use manual signs within the classroom, many deaf students preferred manual signs and used them frequently in their dorm rooms at residential schools for the deaf. Some deaf children were considered "oral failures" because they could not pick up oral language. Others thought that the techniques of oralism actually limited them on what they were taught because they always had to concentrate on the way the words were formed, not what they meant.  Leaders of the manualist movement, including Edward M. Gallaudet, argued against the teaching of oralism because it restricted the ability of deaf students to communicate in what was considered their native language. Moreover, "attempts to eliminate sign language were tantamount to stripping them of their identity, their community, and their culture."

Policy change.

The retraction of laws forbidding the use of sign language in the classroom occurred in 2010 with the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in Vancouver. Deaf grassroots activists and the planning committee of ICED created a solution to provide proper education to the deaf globally.

Modern usage.

Oralism is no longer used to teach language or communication in the United States. Parental use of the oral approach typically stems from parental desire for their child to use a spoken language to communicate with the majority hearing population. They also feel the use of a spoken language will further their child's literacy and written language skills in the classroom. While some researches believed that success of the oral approach in a classroom setting had not been fully evaluated, recent research has demonstrated that oral education using Listening and Spoken Language can provide most deaf children with spoken language skills that are equivalent to those of their hearing peers.

Oral schools.

Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech: Focus on helping deaf and hard of hearing children develop spoken English and listening skills. The school's goal is to prepare students for the mainstream setting.  Cleary School: Focus on ASL and Spoken English in its Elementary, Middle, and High School classrooms. Their Pre-K focuses on spoken English.  Memphis Oral School for the Deaf: Teaching children to develop their spoken and written English skills by teaching children in spoken English.  Tucker Maxon School is a spoken language early intervention and Pre-K thru 5th grade educational institution based in Portland, Oregon. Enrollment includes children who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as children with typical hearing in an inclusive, co-enrolled, mutually beneficial classroom environment. The school's mission is to teach "deaf and hearing children to listen, talk, learn, and achieve excellence together".

Efficacy.

There have been few quantitative evaluations regarding the long-term outcomes of oral programs for deaf individuals, but those that do exist tend to study this in relation to children with cochlear implants. One study compared the English development of deaf children with a cochlear implant versus what the English development might have been without the implant. English development was greater and more successful for the implanted deaf child than that of the non-implanted child based on the implementation of a predictive model. The predictive model employs age, residual hearing, and communication mode used by the child to predict the language development. Although deaf implanted children are already at a disadvantage for English development when compared to their hearing counterparts, the implant, on average, reduced what could have been an even larger deficit had the child not been implanted (based on the predictive model). The authors recommend implanting the child as early as possible.  The studies did not consider how a non-implanted child exposed to a signed language and a bilingual/bicultural education could develop English skills in relation to a hearing child's English development. Multiple studies find that by ensuring a deaf child has access to American Sign Language, their overall academic performance is better than those who are not.  Communication in oral-deaf students without cochlear implants is typically less frequent and less complex than hearing peers of the same age. These expressed communications are less clear than that of their hearing peers. Linguistically, these communications are typical of the language skills seen much earlier in their hearing counterparts. Despite efforts to encourage the sole reliance on speech and spoken language in oral schools, some oral-deaf individuals developed sign systems among themselves in non-supervised settings. Additionally, oral-deaf children often used manual gestures/signs simultaneously or in addition to vocalizations during expressive communications at home.  Some studies have called into question the role of developing spoken language skills in relation to developing reading skills. One study in particular demonstrated that while individuals who became deaf before developing spoken language did show a decreased ability to differentiate between the phonological properties of a language, they showed equal capability of recognizing and understanding the orthographic properties of what they were reading. In fact, compared to their hearing counterparts, the deaf individuals showed an increased rate of written word processing skills as they increased in age. Altogether, this research provided evidence contrary to the belief that spoken skills are critical to the development of reading skills, and further proposes that educational approaches should include a stronger focus on building awareness of written language forms separate from the related aural aspects.  There is little existing research on the social, professional, and mental health of deaf individuals using oral methods in comparison to those using other methods of education and communication. However, some studies suggest that social-emotional outcomes for deaf children who use cochlear implants and spoken language are statistically significantly higher than those of their signing deaf counterparts.  There also was no accurate predictor of oralism's success in the classroom.

Social.

Deaf children growing up in an oral setting are likely to experience cognitive and developmental delays as a result of a deprivation of natural signed-language. The decision to place a child in an oral setting, however, likely stems from pressure parents feel to do so from a doctor or medical practitioner. Pressure is then said to be placed on deaf children, as they are reported to feel embarrassed if they do not master both lip-reading and spoken English. These delays are also not only academic, but also social. Deaf children in an oral setting may feel depressed, anxious and experience aloneness and embarrassment as a result of such language deprivation.

Oralism is the education of deaf students through oral language by using lip reading, speech, and mimicking the mouth shapes and breathing patterns of speech. Oralism came into popular use in the United States around the late 1860s. In 1867, the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton, Massachusetts was the first school to start teaching in this manner. Oralism and its contrast, manualism, manifest differently in deaf education and are a source of controversy for involved communities. Oralism should not be confused with Listening and Spoken Language, a technique for teaching deaf children that emphasizes the child's perception of auditory signals from hearing aids or cochlear implants.

Als Oralismus wird die Methode einer allein auf dem Gebrauch von Lautsprache basierenden Kommunikations-Erziehung von nicht hörenden („tauben“) oder schwerhörigen Kindern bezeichnet, bei der auf den Einsatz von Gebärdensprache weitgehend verzichtet wird und stattdessen die Bildung von Sprechlauten und das Lippenlesen im Vordergrund stehen.


Biography.

Meier attended high schools in Stettin, Rostock and Hamburg. In 1948, Meier passed his Abitur in Hamburg and then studied in Heidelberg history, classical philology and Roman law. In 1956 he received his doctorate under the supervision of Hans Schaefer. He completed in 1963 his habilitation in Frankfurt am Main. There he was a student of Matthias Gelzer. From 1964 he was a "Privatdozent" in Freiburg, followed by professorships for ancient history in Basel (1966), Cologne (1968), and Bochum (1976). In 1981 he was appointed professor of "Ancient History with special reference to social and economic history" in Munich, a position he held until his retirement in 1997. In the academic year 1984/1985 Meier was a Fellow at the "Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin".  Meier was from 1980 to 1988 chairman of the "Verbandes der Historiker Deutschlands" (Association of Historians in Germany), and from 1981 to 1995 curator of the "Historisches Kolleg" (Historical College) in Munich. Meier is also co-founder of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and was from 1996 to 2002 President of the "Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung" (German Academy for Language and Poetry) in Darmstadt. He is also a member of the Norwegian Academy of Sciences. Since 1989 he has been a full member of the Academia Europaea.

Research.

Meier is one of the best-known historians of his generation in Germany, especially since he also addressed the general public with some of his works. He became known far beyond the specialist circles through his two books about Caesar and Athens.  What was special about his approach was that he gave up the classicistic and identificationist perspective, which had been adopted without reflection since the Renaissance, and which had been proclaimed by his academic teacher Hans Schaefer and his school, and which had been based for centuries on the idea of a direct accessibility of ancient culture for the people of European modernity, based on kinship of essence and unbroken tradition. The Antiquity appeared to Meier rather as the "next stranger", whose understanding had to be worked out from scratch and could only be gained through a hermeneutic approach. The focal points of his research are classical Athens and the late Roman Republic, whose time of crisis and decline he described in his study "Res publica amissa" as a "crisis without alternative", meaning that the actors had no idea of a political order other than the existing one. The consequence, he said, was that they destroyed it without intending to do so and without working towards the establishment of a new political order. Rather, there was a consensus that the obvious crisis phenomena should be interpreted as a deterioration of the existing order, which should be countered with the aim of restoring it. In this respect, Meier does not consider it appropriate to apply the concept of revolution in the sense of a theory of revolution to the late republic. Consequently, Augustus could only present his new order, which amounted to the establishment of a monarchy, as a restoration of the old order ("res publica restituta").  As a historian he has claimed to write narrative history. Meier always looks beyond the boundaries of his subject. For example, he dealt with modern democracy and the politics of the Federal Republic of Germany, especially in the course of reunification.  In 1998 he was awarded the "Cicero-Rednerpreis" (Cicero Speaker Prize) for his own eloquence. On the subject of spelling reform, Meier, in his role as President of the German Academy for Language and Poetry, expressed himself in a committed and critical manner. in 2003, he was awarded the "Jacob-Grimm-Preis" for his commitment to the German language. In 2009 and 2015 the Universities of Salzburg and Bern awarded Meier a honorary doctorate.  In 2006, Meier was awarded with the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art by the Austrian Federal President Heinz Fischer. In 2009 he was awarded the Lichtenberg Medal, in 2014 the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art.  In 2015, Meier donated his private archive (manuscripts and correspondence) to the "Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach", including correspondence with Carl Schmitt and Richard von Weizsäcker.

Christian Meier (born 16 February 1929 in Stolp in Pommern) is a German historian and professor emeritus of ancient history at the University of Munich.

Christian Meier (* 16. Februar 1929 in Stolp/Pommern) ist ein deutscher Althistoriker. Meier lehrte von 1981 bis zu seiner Emeritierung im Jahr 1997 als Professor für Alte Geschichte an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.


Early life.

Bonham Carter was born in Islington, London. Her father, Raymond Bonham Carter, who came from a prominent British political family, was a merchant banker and served as the alternative British director representing the Bank of England at the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C., during the 1960s. Her mother, Elena (née Propper de Callejón), is a psychotherapist who is of Spanish and Jewish background, and whose own parents were diplomat Eduardo Propper de Callejón from Spain and painter Baroness Hélène Fould-Springer. Bonham Carter's paternal grandmother was politician and feminist Violet Bonham Carter, daughter of H. H. Asquith, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the first half of the First World War.  Bonham Carter is the youngest of three children, with two brothers, Edward and Thomas. They were brought up in Golders Green and she was educated at South Hampstead High School, and completed her A-levels at Westminster School. Bonham Carter was denied admission to King's College, Cambridge, because the college officials were afraid that she would leave during the course to pursue her acting career.  When Bonham Carter was five, her mother had a serious nervous breakdown, which took three years for recovery. Soon afterwards, her mother's experience in therapy led her to become a psychotherapist herself—Bonham Carter has since paid her to read her scripts and deliver opinions on the characters' psychological motivations. Five years after her mother's recovery, her father was diagnosed with acoustic neuroma. He suffered complications during an operation to remove the tumour that led to a stroke that left him half-paralysed and using a wheelchair. With her brothers at college, Bonham Carter was left to help her mother cope. She later studied her father's movements and mannerisms for her role in "The Theory of Flight". He died in January 2004.

Career.

Early career.

Bonham Carter, who has no formal acting training, entered the field winning a national writing contest (1979) and used the money to pay for her entry into the actors' "Spotlight" directory. She made her professional acting debut at the age of 16 in a television commercial. She also had a minor part in a TV film, "A Pattern of Roses".  Bonham Carter's first lead film role was as Lady Jane Grey in "Lady Jane" (1986), which was given mixed reviews by critics. Her breakthrough role was Lucy Honeychurch in "A Room with a View" (1985), which was filmed after "Lady Jane" but released two months earlier. She also appeared in episodes of "Miami Vice" as Don Johnson's love interest during the 1986–87 season and then, in 1987 with Dirk Bogarde in "The Vision", Stewart Granger in "A Hazard of Hearts" and John Gielgud in "Getting It Right". Bonham Carter was originally cast in the role of Bess McNeill in "Breaking the Waves", but backed out during production owing to "the character's painful psychic and physical exposure", according to Roger Ebert. The role went to Emily Watson, who was nominated for an Academy Award for her performance.  In 1994, Bonham Carter appeared in a dream sequence during the second series of the British sitcom "Absolutely Fabulous", as Edina Monsoon's daughter Saffron, who was normally played by Julia Sawalha. Throughout the series, references were made to Saffron's resemblance to Bonham Carter.  Her early films led to her being typecast as a "corset queen" and "English rose", playing pre- and early 20th century characters, particularly in Merchant-Ivory films. She played Olivia in Trevor Nunn's film version of "Twelfth Night" in 1996. One of the high points of her early career was her performance as the scheming Kate Croy in the 1997 film adaption of "The Wings of the Dove" which was highly acclaimed internationally and netted her first Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations. She has since expanded her range, with her more recent films being "Fight Club", "", and her then-partner Tim Burton's "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", "Corpse Bride", "Big Fish", "", and "Alice in Wonderland".

Later career.

Bonham Carter speaks French fluently, and starred in a 1996 French film "Portraits chinois". In August 2001, she was featured in "Maxim". She played her second Queen of England when she was cast as Anne Boleyn in the ITV1 mini-series "Henry VIII"; however, her role was restricted, as she was pregnant with her first child at the time of filming.  She was a member of the 2006 Cannes Film Festival jury that unanimously selected "The Wind That Shakes the Barley" as best film.  In May 2006, Bonham Carter launched her own fashion line, "The Pantaloonies", with swimwear designer Samantha Sage. Their first collection, called Bloomin' Bloomers, is a Victorian style selection of camisoles, mob caps, and bloomers. The duo worked on Pantaloonies customised jeans, which Bonham Carter describes as "a kind of scrapbook on the bum".  Bonham Carter played Bellatrix Lestrange in the final four "Harry Potter" films (2007–2011). While filming "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", she accidentally ruptured the eardrum of Matthew Lewis (playing Neville Longbottom) when she stuck her wand in his ear. Bonham Carter received positive reviews as Bellatrix, described as a "shining but underused talent". She played Mrs. Lovett, Sweeney Todd's (Johnny Depp) amorous accomplice in the film adaptation of Stephen Sondheim's Broadway musical, "", directed by Tim Burton. Bonham Carter received a nomination for the Golden Globe for Best Actress for her performance. She won the Best Actress award in the 2007 Evening Standard British Film Awards for her performances in "Sweeney Todd" and "Conversations With Other Women", along with another Best Actress award at the 2009 Empire Awards. Bonham Carter also appeared in the fourth "Terminator" film entitled "Terminator Salvation", playing a small but pivotal role.  Bonham Carter joined the cast of Tim Burton's 2010 film, "Alice in Wonderland" as The Red Queen. She appears alongside Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway, Mia Wasikowska, Crispin Glover and Harry Potter co-star Alan Rickman. Her role was an amalgamation of The Queen of Hearts and The Red Queen. In early 2009, Bonham Carter was named one of "The Times"s top 10 British Actresses of all time. She appeared on the list with fellow actresses Julie Andrews, Helen Mirren, Maggie Smith, Judi Dench, and Audrey Hepburn. In 2010, Bonham Carter played Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon/Queen Elizabeth in the film "The King's Speech.", she had received numerous plaudits and praise for her performance, including nominations for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She won her first BAFTA Award, but lost the Academy Award to Melissa Leo for "The Fighter".  Bonham Carter signed to play author Enid Blyton in the BBC Four television biopic, "Enid". It was the first depiction of Blyton's life on the screen; she starred with Matthew Macfadyen and Denis Lawson. She received her first Television BAFTA Nomination for Best Actress, for "Enid". In 2010, she starred with Freddie Highmore in the Nigel Slater biopic "Toast", which was filmed in the West Midlands and received a gala at the 2011 Berlin International Film Festival. She received the Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year from BAFTA LA in 2011.  In 2012, she appeared as Miss Havisham in Mike Newell's adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel, "Great Expectations". In April 2012, she appeared in Rufus Wainwright's music video for his single "Out of the Game", featured on the album of the same name. She co-starred in a film adaptation of the musical "Les Misérables", released in 2012. She played the role of Madame Thénardier.  On 17 May 2012, it was announced that Bonham Carter would be appearing in the 2013 adaptation of Reif Larsen's book "The Selected Works of T.S. Spivet", entitled "The Young and Prodigious T.S. Spivet". Her casting was announced alongside that of Kathy Bates, Kyle Catlett and Callum Keith Rennie, with Jean-Pierre Jeunet directing. She also appeared in a short film directed by Roman Polanski for the clothing brand Prada. The short was entitled "A Therapy" and she appeared as a patient of Ben Kingsley's therapist.  In 2013, she played Red Harrington, a peg-legged brothel madam, who assists Reid and Tonto in locating Cavendish, in the movie "The Lone Ranger". Also that year, Bonham Carter narrated poetry for "The Love Book App", an interactive anthology of love literature developed by Allie Byrne Esiri. Also in 2013, Bonham Carter appeared as Elizabeth Taylor, alongside Dominic West as Richard Burton, in BBC4's "Burton & Taylor" which premiered at the 2013 Hamptons International Film Festival. She played the Fairy Godmother in the 2015 live-action re-imagining of Walt Disney's "Cinderella".  In 2016, Bonham Carter reprised her role of the Red Queen in "Alice Through the Looking Glass". In June 2018, she starred in a spin-off of the "Ocean's Eleven Trilogy", titled "Ocean's 8", alongside Sandra Bullock, Cate Blanchett, Anne Hathaway, and Sarah Paulson. She plays an older Princess Margaret for the Netflix series "The Crown", replacing Vanessa Kirby who played a younger version for the first two seasons. During an interview on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert", she claims to have met Margaret and that her uncle dated Margaret.

Personal life.

In August 2008, four of her relatives were killed in a safari bus crash in South Africa, and she was given indefinite leave from filming "Terminator Salvation", returning later to complete filming.  In early October 2008, it was reported that Bonham Carter had become a patron of the charity Action Duchenne, the national charity established to support parents and sufferers of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.  In August 2014, Bonham Carter was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to "The Guardian" opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue. In 2016, Bonham Carter said she was keen on the UK remaining in the European Union in regard to the referendum on that issue.

Relationships.

In 1994, Bonham Carter and Kenneth Branagh met while filming "Mary Shelley's Frankenstein". They began an affair while Branagh was still married to Emma Thompson, whom he had met in 1987 while filming the BBC Series "Fortunes of War" and married in 1989. At the time, Thompson's career was soaring, while Branagh was struggling to make a success of his first big-budget film ("Mary Shelley's Frankenstein"). Following his affair with Bonham Carter, Branagh and Thompson divorced in 1995. However, in 1999, after five years together, Bonham Carter and Branagh also separated.  Thompson has gone on to have "no hard feelings" towards Bonham Carter, calling the past "blood under the bridge." She explained, "You can't hold on to anything like that. It's pointless. I haven't got the energy for it. Helena and I made our peace years and years ago. She's a wonderful woman." Thompson, Branagh, and Bonham Carter all later went on to star together in the "Harry Potter" series, albeit in different films. In 2001, Bonham Carter began a relationship with American director Tim Burton, whom she met while filming "Planet of the Apes". Burton subsequently took to casting her in his films, including "Big Fish", "Corpse Bride", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", "", "Alice in Wonderland" and "Dark Shadows". After their separation, Bonham Carter mentioned, "It might be easier to work together without being together any more. He always only cast me with great embarrassment."  Bonham Carter and Burton lived in adjoining houses in Belsize Park, London. Bonham Carter owned one of the houses; Burton later bought the other and they connected the two. In 2006, they bought the Mill House in Sutton Courtenay. It was previously leased by her grandmother, Violet Bonham Carter, and owned by her great-grandfather H. H. Asquith.  Bonham Carter and Burton have two children together: son Billy Raymond Burton and daughter Nell Burton. Bonham Carter has stated that her daughter Nell is named after all the "Helens" in her family. Bonham Carter told "The Daily Telegraph" of her struggles with infertility and the difficulties she had during her pregnancies. She noted that before the conception of her daughter, she and Burton had been trying for a baby for two years and although they conceived naturally, they were considering in vitro fertilisation.  On 23 December 2014, Bonham Carter and Burton announced that they had "separated amicably" earlier that year. Of the separation, Bonham Carter told "Harper's Bazaar": "Everyone always says you have to be strong and have a stiff upper lip, but it's okay to be fragile... You've got to take very small steps, and sometimes you won't know where to go next because you've lost yourself." She added: "With divorce, you go through massive grief—it is a death of a relationship, so it's utterly bewildering. Your identity, everything, changes."  It was reported that Bonham Carter and Norwegian author Rye Dag Holmboe first met at a wedding in the summer of 2018 and began a relationship that October. The couple have kept their relationship very private and made their first red carpet appearance together in October 2019.

In the media.

Bonham Carter is known for her unconventional and eccentric sense of fashion. "Vanity Fair" named her on its 2010 Best-Dressed List and she was selected by Marc Jacobs to be the face of his autumn/winter 2011 advertising campaign. She has cited Vivienne Westwood and Marie Antoinette as her main style influences.

Ancestry.

Paternal.

Bonham Carter's paternal grandparents were British Liberal politicians Sir Maurice Bonham-Carter and Lady Violet Bonham Carter. Helena is descended on her father's side from John Bonham Carter, Member of Parliament for Portsmouth. Helena's paternal great-grandfather was H. H. Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith and Prime Minister of Britain 1908–1916. She is the great-niece of Asquith's son, Anthony Asquith, English director of such films as "Carrington V.C." and "The Importance of Being Earnest", and a first cousin of the economist Adam Ridley and of politician Jane Bonham Carter.  Bonham Carter is a distant cousin of actor Crispin Bonham-Carter. Other prominent distant relatives include Lothian Bonham Carter, who played first-class cricket for Hampshire, his son, Vice Admiral Sir Stuart Bonham Carter, who served in the Royal Navy in both world wars, and pioneering English nurse Florence Nightingale.

Maternal.

Her maternal grandfather, Spanish diplomat Eduardo Propper de Callejón, saved thousands of Jews from the Holocaust during the Second World War, for which he was recognised as Righteous Among the Nations, and posthumously received the Courage to Care Award from the Anti-Defamation League. His own father was a Bohemian Jew, and his wife, Helena's grandmother, was Jewish. He later served as Minister-Counselor at the Spanish Embassy in Washington, D.C.  Her maternal grandmother, Baroness Hélène Fould-Springer, was from an upper class Jewish family; she was the daughter of Baron Eugène Fould-Springer (a French banker descended from the Ephrussi family and the Fould dynasty) and Marie-Cécile von Springer (whose father was Austrian-born industrialist Baron Gustav von Springer, and whose mother was from the de Koenigswarter family). Hélène Fould-Springer converted to Catholicism after the Second World War. Hélène's sister was the French philanthropist Liliane de Rothschild (1916–2003), the wife of Baron Élie de Rothschild, of the prominent Rothschild family (who had also married within the von Springer family in the 19th century); Liliane's other sister, Therese Fould-Springer, was the mother of British writer David Pryce-Jones.

Awards and nominations.

Bonham Carter has been the recipient of a BAFTA Award, a Critics' Choice Movie Award, an International Emmy Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards, as well as receiving further nominations for two Academy Awards, eight Golden Globe Awards and three Primetime Emmy Awards. She has received other prestigious awards such as a Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award and two National Board of Review awards.

Helena Bonham Carter (born 26 May 1966) is an English actress. She is known for her roles in both low-budget independent art films and large-scale blockbusters. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as Kate Croy in "The Wings of the Dove" (1997) and for Best Supporting Actress and won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her role as Queen Elizabeth in "The King's Speech" (2010). She also won the 2010 International Emmy Award for Best Actress for her role as author Enid Blyton in the television film "Enid" (2009).

Helena Bonham Carter CBE (* 26. Mai 1966 in Golders Green, London) ist eine britische Schauspielerin. Bonham Carter hatte ihr Filmdebüt in "Es geschah am See" von K. M. Peyto, bevor sie in ihrer ersten Hauptrolle in "Lady Jane" zu sehen war. Bekanntheit erlangte sie mit den E.-M.-Forster-Verfilmungen "Zimmer mit Aussicht" (1985) und "Wiedersehen in Howards End" (1992). Später spielte sie in "Fight Club" (1999) und in "Die Flügel der Taube" (1997), für den sie für den Oscar nominiert wurde. Für ihre Rolle als Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in "The King’s Speech" (2010) gewann sie den BAFTA-Award, und im gleichen Jahr bekam sie den International Emmy Award für ihre Rolle als Enid Blyton im Fernsehfilm "Enid" (2009). Sie arbeitete mehrmals mit Tim Burton zusammen, der von 2001 bis 2014 ihr Lebensgefährte war, und wirkte an den letzten vier Harry-Potter-Verfilmungen als Bellatrix Lestrange mit.