Early life.

Rust was born in Hannover, and obtained a doctorate in German philology and philosophy. After passing the state teaching examination with the grade ""gut"" (i.e. "good") in 1908, he became a high school teacher at Hannover's Ratsgymnasium, then served in the army during World War I. He reached the rank of lieutenant and was awarded the Iron Cross for bravery.

Political career.

Rust joined the NSDAP in 1922. On 22 March 1925 he was named Gauleiter for the Gau of North Hanover. When the Gaus were reorganized on 1 October 1928, he became the Gauleiter for Southern Hanover–Brunswick. He retained this position until November 1940 when he was succeeded by Hartmann Lauterbacher. In September 1930, he was elected to the Reichstag from the Hanover-Brunswick constituency. Shortly after Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, Rust was appointed as the Prussian Minister for Cultural Affairs. On 1 May 1934, he was selected as Reich Minister of Science, Education and National Culture (Reichsminister für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung) and set about to reshape the German educational system to conform to his ideals of National Socialism. Considered by many to be mentally unstable, Rust would capriciously create new regulations and then repeal them just as quickly. One noted example was in 1935, when he changed the traditional six-day school week to five days, with Saturday to be "Reich's Youth Day" when children in the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls would be out of school for study and testing. He then ordered the creation of a "rolling week", with six days for study, followed by the "youth day" and a rest day, in 8-day periods. Thus, a rolling week starting on Monday would end with rest on the following Monday; the next rolling week would start on Tuesday and end 8 days later on the next Tuesday. When the 8-day week proved unworkable, Rust went back to the former system.  It was Rust who, in 1933, issued a rule that students and teachers should greet each other with the Nazi salute "as a symbol of the new Germany". He added his opinion that it was "expected of every German" regardless of membership in the party. Rust was instrumental in purging German universities of Jews and others regarded as enemies of the State, most notably at the University of Göttingen. Nazi Germany's future leaders received their instruction elsewhere, in an NPEA or "Napola" (NAtionalPOLitische erziehungsAnstalten), of which there were 30 in the nation, where they would receive training to become administrators of conquered provinces.  He bluntly informed teachers that their aim was to educate ethnically aware Germans. Rust also believed that non-Aryan science (such as Albert Einstein's "Jewish physics") was flawed, and had what he felt to be a rational explanation for this view. In an address to scientists, he said, "The problems of science do not present themselves in the same way to all men. The Negro or the Jew will view the same world in a different light from the German investigator." Erika Mann, the daughter of Thomas Mann, wrote an exposé of the Rust system in 1938 entitled "School for Barbarians", followed in 1941 by Gregor Ziemer's "Education for Death".

Death.

Rust reportedly committed suicide on 8 May 1945 when Germany surrendered to Allied forces.

Spelling reform.

Rust prepared a reform of German orthography, and his fairly extensive version corresponded to the ideas of the spelling reformers of the 1970s (lowercase common nouns, elimination of lengthening symbols). This attempt met internal resistance of the Reich's ministry. The German orthography reform of 1944 also failed.  Before these failures, the rules of the reform were printed in millions of copies intended for classroom use and published in numerous newspapers. The 1944 reform was postponed on the orders of Hitler because it was "not important for the war effort." Some of Rust's innovations had, however, found their way into the 1942 Duden, such as the spelling of the word "Kautsch" for "Couch," which persisted into the 1980s.  Many of the proposed changes were finally implemented with the German orthography reform of 1996.

Bernhard Rust (30 September 1883 – 8 May 1945) was Minister of Science, Education and National Culture (Reichserziehungsminister) in Nazi Germany. A combination of school administrator and zealous Nazi, he issued decrees, often bizarre, at every level of the German educational system to immerse German youth in the National Socialist philosophy. He also served as the Nazi party Gauleiter in Hanover and Brunswick from 1925-1940.

Bernhard Rust (* 30. September 1883 in Hannover; † 8. Mai 1945 in der Gemeinde Berend/Nübel, Kreis Schleswig) war ein deutscher Politiker (NSDAP), MdL und MdR. 1933/34 leitete er das preußische Kultusministerium und von 1934 bis 1945 das Reichsministerium für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung. Rust war ein Hauptvertreter der nationalsozialistischen Erziehung.


Route description.

State Road 9B begins at an interchange with Saint Johns Parkway (County Road 2209) in St. Johns, heading north as a four-lane divided highway. The road heads through Peyton Parkway (Race Track Road Connector) and Interstate 95 before expanding as a six lane expressway. The road continues north for where it passes over Phillips Highway (US 1). The road then continues north for another where it terminates at an interchange with Interstate 295.

History.

In May 2008 the project was suspended by the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) but it was reinstated in 2010 when funding was acquired via stimulus funds.

Phase 1.

Phase 1 of the SR 9B/I-795 project, consisting of a spur from the Eastern Beltway of I-295 to US 1, began in the middle of 2010 and was scheduled to be completed in early of 2013, at an estimated cost of $68.5 million. The winning contract went to Archer Western Contractors / GAI Consultants, who also reconstructed the I-10/I-95 interchange in downtown Jacksonville. The roadway was originally planned to open in the end of 2012, but was pushed back to 2013 to allow for the construction of a wider paved area to facilitate future expansion. In late July 2013, southbound I-295 was closed a few nights to install new overhead signs for the SR 9B interchange, one of the final construction projects of Phase 1. Phase 1 opened September 19, 2013.

Phase 2.

Superior Construction and Arcadis US was awarded a $95 million design-build contract for the second phase of SR 9B, from US 1 to I-95. Construction began in April 2013 and was fully completed on June 13, 2016. Phase 2 includes a new four-lane road between US 1 and I-95. The Phase 1 interchange at US 1 is upgraded with additional exit ramps and an overpass over US 1 and Veveras Drive in addition to utility work along US 1. A cloverstack interchange at I-95 was constructed, along with noise walls in the northwest and southeast corners.

Phase 3.

Phase 3 consisted of extending State Road 9B south of the Interstate 95 interchange. The third and final phase connected I-95 to County Road 2209 and Race Track Road via a connector road (named Peyton Parkway) in St. Johns County. Construction began on September 9, 2015 and opened to traffic on August 9, 2018.

State Road 9B (SR 9B) is a state highway on the south side of Jacksonville, Florida. It is a freeway for its entire length. Its southern terminus is at County Road 2209 (CR 2209) in St. Johns County. Its northern terminus is at the southeast-most point on Interstate 295 (I-295).

Die Familie Wallenberg ist die wohlhabendste und einflussreichste Familiendynastie in Schweden. Seit der Gründung der «Stockholms Enskilda Bank» im Jahr 1856 durch André Oscar Wallenberg, aus der die noch heute existierende Großbank Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken (SEB) hervorging, ist die Familie im Bankgewerbe tätig.


Life.

His father was a music teacher and Svendsen learned both the violin and clarinet from him. By the time he finished school, he was working as an orchestral musician, and occasionally made short concert tours as a violinist. In Lübeck, on one of his tours, he came to the attention of a wealthy merchant who made it possible for him to study from 1863-67 at the Leipzig Conservatory. He began his studies with Ferdinand David, but problems with his hand forced him to switch to composition, which he studied with Carl Reinecke. He completed his studies in Leipzig in 1867, receiving first prize in composition. During this period, Svendsen had a son out of wedlock, Johann Richard Rudolph (1867–1933).  Gradually his attention turned to conducting. After spending time in Paris (1868–70) and Leipzig (1870–72), he returned to Christiania. In the summer of 1871, he went to New York City to marry Sarah (Sally, later changed to Bergljot) Levett Schmidt, whom he had met in Paris. He was conductor of the Musical Society Concerts in Christiania (1872–77), then spent three years in Germany, Italy, England and France. He returned to teach and conduct in Kristiania (1880–1883). In 1883, he was appointed principal conductor of the Royal Theater Orchestra in Copenhagen, where he lived until his death.  In 1884, he and his wife separated, and she moved to Paris. Their relationship had been chaotic for several years. A famous anecdote would have it that in 1883, in a fit of anger, she had thrown the only copy of his Symphony No. 3 in the fire. This incident was used by Henrik Ibsen in "Hedda Gabler". If anything was caught up in the fire at all, it is rather unlikely it was anything near a complete symphony. However, some sketches, most likely for a symphony, were found by conductor Bjarte Engeset in 2007. They were elaborated and orchestrated by Bjørn Morten Christophersen and premiered by the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra and Engeset in 2011. Following a divorce from Sarah (10 December 1901), he married (23 December 1901) Juliette Haase, with whom he had been living and had three children. His younger son from this marriage was the famous Danish actor Eyvind Johan-Svendsen (1896–1946).  In stark contrast to his more famous contemporary and close friend, Edvard Grieg, Svendsen was famous for his skill of orchestration rather than that of harmonic value. While Grieg composed mostly for small instrumentation, Svendsen composed primarily for orchestras and large ensembles. His most famous work is his "Romance" for violin and orchestra, Op. 26. He was very popular in Denmark and Norway during his lifetime, both as a composer and a conductor, winning many national awards and honors. However this popularity did not translate into acceptance into the international repertory of classical music. He died in Copenhagen, aged 70.  Svendsen's first published work, the String Quartet in A minor, Op. 1, achieved great popular success. He quickly followed with the String Octet, Op. 3 and String Quintet, Op. 5, both of which added to his early fame. All of Svendsen's chamber music was written while he was at the Leipzig Conservatory, yet these works are not considered student works. By general consensus, Svendsen was regarded as one of the most talented students then at the Conservatory. His works won prizes and received public performances to much acclaim.

Works.

In parentheses, composition years and premiere place and date  About 50 other minor works, not included in his numbered catalog.

Documents.

Letters by Johan Svendsen held by the State Archives in Leipzig, company archives of the Music Publishing House C.F.Peters (Leipzig).

Johan Severin Svendsen (30 September 184014 June 1911) was a Norwegian composer, conductor and violinist. Born in Christiania (now Oslo), Norway, he lived most his life in Copenhagen, Denmark. Svendsen's output includes two symphonies, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, and the Romance for violin, as well as a number of Norwegian Rhapsodies for orchestra. At one time Svendsen was an intimate friend of the German composer Richard Wagner.

Johan Severin Svendsen (* 30. September 1840 in Christiania, später Oslo; † 14. Juni 1911 in Kopenhagen) war ein norwegischer Komponist und Dirigent.


Season report.

Summary.

The 1985 Formula One season saw continued success for the McLaren-TAG team. After losing the Drivers' Championship by two points to Nelson Piquet in, and by just half a point the previous year to teammate Niki Lauda, Alain Prost would ultimately secure his first of four titles by a 23-point margin. The Formula One writer Koen Vergeer remarked that "It was about time, everyone knew he was the best", reflecting a general feeling that Prost had been unlucky to finish runner-up in the previous two years, even though he had won more races than Piquet in 1983 and Lauda in 1984.  The reigning Drivers' Champion Lauda competed in his final season of Formula One, but he was unable to match Prost for results; despite maintaining a close pace with his teammate, Lauda only won once at Zandvoort. Seated next to an unhappy McLaren team boss, Ron Dennis, who had unsuccessfully tried to persuade him to continue driving, Lauda announced his decision to retire for good at the season's end in a press conference before practice for his home Grand Prix in Austria.  For most of the season, the points table was headed by Ferrari's Michele Alboreto, who enjoyed his best season in F1. He won the Canadian and German Grands Prix, and was on the podium eight times. However, Ferrari's results faded badly in the second half of the season as other emerging drivers took the fight to Prost.  Among these were Ayrton Senna and Nigel Mansell, both of whom scored their first victories in 1985. Lotus team manager Peter Warr had replaced Mansell with Senna going into the season, a decision which seemed justified when Senna took a superb win in the wet in Portugal in Round 2. Despite only scoring a mere 7 championship points up until Round 13 in Belgium, Mansell fought back the Williams-Honda, and chalked up two victories near the season's end, including his famous breakthrough win in the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch. In winning at Brands Hatch, Mansell made Peter Warr eat his words as the Lotus boss had declared that Mansell would "never win a Grand Prix as long as I have a hole in my arse" after he crashed his Lotus 95T out of the lead in the wet 1984 Monaco Grand Prix. Mansell, now knowing that he had not only the ability but also the car he needed in order to win races, would go on to mount a serious title challenge in 1986.  Perhaps the fastest combination of the year was Mansell's teammate Keke Rosberg in the other Williams, who used the powerful Honda engine to set a new lap record around Silverstone in qualifying for the British Grand Prix and becoming the first man to lap at an average speed of more than. He finished third in the standings after wins on the street circuits of Detroit and Adelaide, but he lacked the reliability to overcome Prost.  1.5-litre turbocharged engines had become universal during 1985, heralding the extinction of the 3.0-litre naturally aspirated Ford Cosworth DFY engine. Between 1985 and 1986, Formula One engines would achieve the highest levels of power ever seen in the sport. The specially-built Renault qualifying engine reportedly put out more than by the end of 1985, before serious restrictions and their 'phasing out' began in 1987.  The power output of the engines was controlled in racing conditions by means of a strict fuel limit; however, in qualifying trim teams were commonly able to increase the boost of their engines for optimum power while the use of special qualifying tyres also saw speeds increase. This fuel economy was key to successful race strategy in 1985; Nigel Mansell recalled the added interest of planning his fuel use in his autobiography. It also proved costly for Ayrton Senna, who lost victory just four laps from home at Imola when he ran out of fuel. After Prost was disqualified for an underweight McLaren (2 kg), victory fell to Senna's Lotus teammate Elio de Angelis in what would prove to be his second and last Grand Prix win.  Michelin retired from Formula One for the 1985 season, leaving Goodyear and Pirelli as tyre suppliers. The top four teams in the Constructors' Championship used Goodyear tyres.  1985 also saw a return to the calendar of the Spa-Francorchamps circuit in Belgium after the Belgian Grand Prix had been held there in 1983 and at the unpopular Zolder in 1984. Although shortened from its dangerous 1947–1970 14 km form, it remained a challenge for the drivers who universally liked it despite the circuit now being only 7 km long, it remained a fast, flowing circuit in the true Spa tradition. It also caused one of the few cancellations of Grands Prix in the sport's history, when the new all-weather track surface laid down in the months before the race melted during the summer conditions in practice. The race was originally scheduled between Monaco and Canada, and extensive repairs were needed and the race was rescheduled for later in the year; on a semi-wet track, Senna was the winner, with Prost finishing on the podium again to take a big step towards his first championship.  The Dutch Grand Prix was the last Grand Prix for German driver Stefan Bellof, who later died in the World Endurance Championship race at Spa at the high speed Eau Rouge corner. Bellof had won the 1984 World Endurance Championship driving for the factory Rothmans Porsche team, but decided against driving for the factory in 1985 to concentrate on Formula One. He did however still drive in various WEC races for the private Brun team in a Porsche 956. Until his death, Bellof was considered one of the rising stars in racing and was rumored to have an offer to drive for Ferrari in 1986. The summer of 1985 was remembered as the saddest weeks for German motor sport, as both German Formula One drivers, Bellof and Manfred Winkelhock died within three weeks in WEC races. Winkelhock, who drove for the Skoal Bandit Formula 1 Team, died at Mosport Park in Canada when his Kremer Racing Porsche 962C crashed head on into the turn 2 wall at high speed. His co-driver for that race had been Brabham's Marc Surer.  The Australian Grand Prix, which was one of the world's oldest Grands Prix having first run in 1928, was added to the Formula One World Championship for the first time in 1985. The race was held in Adelaide, South Australia on a street circuit on 3 November as the last race of the season. The Adelaide Street Circuit was praised by the Formula One fraternity, most of whom arrived down under fully expecting another bad street circuit like Las Vegas, Detroit and Dallas, but instead found a fast, open circuit with a 900-metre long straight where the faster cars reached over. The 50th running of the Australian Grand Prix won the Formula One Promotional Trophy for Race Promoter as the best race meeting of the year. FOCA boss and Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone shocked a press conference when he declared that he believed that the standard of the organisation and the circuit itself was bad news for Formula One. He then explained to the shocked media that Adelaide had raised the standards of what would be expected in the future and that several tracks in Europe already on the calendar, or hoping to be, would have to lift their own games in order to match it.  In a season full of excitement, the 1985 season was the first and last of many things. The 1985 season was affirmation that Senna was one of the best drivers in the world in only his second season of Formula One. It was the first championship win out of four for Prost, the first two race wins (out of 31) for Mansell, and the first two race wins (out of 41) for Senna. The season also enhanced Keke Rosberg's reputation as a "street fighter". Of the World Champion's five career wins, the last four had been on the streets of Monaco (1983), Dallas and Detroit (1984) and Adelaide (his only other win, his first ever, came at the Dijon-Prenois in 1982). Rosberg's win in Adelaide was his final race for Williams as he was moving to McLaren in 1986 for what would be his final season in F1, and would prove to be the final win of his career.  This season was also the last full season for Alfa Romeo as a factory effort (although the team was actually run by EuroRacing on behalf of Alfa Romeo, and had been since the beginning of ). It was also the last for Renault as a factory effort until, and the last to include a Dutch Grand Prix, which was the last Formula One race at Zandvoort until. It also saw the last race at the original Kyalami and Zandvoort circuits, and the last South African Grand Prix until due to political pressure over South Africa's controversial Apartheid laws. 1985 Also saw the last race at the full Paul Ricard Circuit with its 1.8 km long Mistral Straight, the longest straight on the calendar, with the much shorter "Club" version of the circuit used from 1986 following the tragic death of Elio de Angelis in a testing accident ( would be the return of the full Paul Ricard). It was the last European Grand Prix to be held at Brands Hatch, the last race with Monaco's infamous dog leg corner and the last British Grand Prix at Silverstone with the Woodcote chicane, and the permanent addition of the Spa-Francorchamps as the venue for the Belgian Grand Prix, and the last win of 25 for Niki Lauda in his final season in Formula One.  Even though Formula One had tragically lost rising stars Stefan Bellof and Manfred Winkelhock in separate World Endurance Championship races, it was still a season to remember.

Race by race.

Race 1: Brazil.

The first race of the season was the Brazilian Grand Prix in April, at the Autodromo De Jacarepagua in Rio de Janeiro; the very tough circuit being overlooked by the spectacular Sugarloaf Mountains. Italian Michele Alboreto took pole in his Ferrari ahead of Keke Rosberg in a Williams-Honda and the two Lotuses of Brazilian Ayrton Senna and Italian Elio de Angelis. The oppressively hot and humid tropical weather, combined with the Rio-located track's abrasive surface and banked corners took its toll on the drivers and cars. Rosberg fell out with turbo failure, and McLaren-TAG/Porsche driver Alain Prost took 2nd after taking advantage of an accident involving Briton Nigel Mansell at the start. Prost chased Alboreto during the first half, unable to pass because of the Ferrari's superior straight-line speed. But on the pit straight, Alboreto missed a gear, Prost pounced on this mistake and took the lead from Alboreto, which he kept until the end, followed by Alboreto and Elio de Angelis.

Race 2: Portugal.

The 41⁄2-month-long European tour started with the news that Ferrari driver René Arnoux had been sacked by the team, and was replaced by Swede Stefan Johansson (no official explanation has ever been given by either Ferrari or Arnoux). The next race took place in another Portuguese-speaking country, the language's country of origin – Portugal. This race was held at the Estoril Circuit near the capital of Lisbon. Although the practice sessions were held in pleasant weather, it rained heavily for the race. Conditions were extremely difficult, and it saw Ayrton Senna display his mastery of wet-weather conditions. The Brazilian led the race from start to finish, and by the time he had finished, he had lapped everyone except 2nd-placed Alboreto. It was Senna's first victory – which was already very impressive considering the appalling conditions that caused drivers including Prost to aquaplane off the circuit.

Race 3: San Marino (Imola, Italy).

The first of 2 Italian races held at the fast Autodromo Dino Ferrari near Bologna was an incredibly exciting race. Ayrton Senna took pole again, and led until the final laps when his car ran out of fuel, and the lead was taken by Stefan Johansson – who had started 15th and had dropped to 17th. On a circuit that was definitely the toughest test of fuel consumption of the year, Johansson too ran out of fuel after an electronics failure. Prost then took the lead, and he too just barely made it over the start finish line after having run out of fuel. Although Prost crossed the line first, he was disqualified for his car being underweight, and victory was handed to Elio de Angelis driving a Lotus-Renault.

Race 4: Monaco.

The Monaco Grand Prix was originally supposed to be cancelled due to political wrangling, but it took place as scheduled. After pole-sitter Senna went out with engine problems, Alboreto took the lead, followed by Prost. Alboreto then slid on some oil at the first corner which had been dropped from the gearbox of Italian Riccardo Patrese's Alfa Romeo after it crashed there along with Brazilian Nelson Piquet's Brabham-BMW. Prost took the lead after Alboreto's slip-up, but the Italian took the lead again from the Frenchman at the same place where he had gone off. However, another accident involving Patrese and Piquet caused more problems: Alboreto then punctured a tire, came into the pits to get his tires changed, dropping to 4th place behind Prost, and Italians de Angelis and Andrea de Cesaris. He passed his fellow countrymen, but was not able to catch Prost, who won ahead of him and de Angelis.

Race 5: Canada.

There was a 4-week gap between the Monaco and Canadian GP's as the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps was postponed after the newly-laid track surface, to help deal with wet weather melted under weather that was actually hot there. The drivers found it impossible to race with such a dreadful surface, so the Belgian GP would be held in September. The drivers hopped over to the other side of the Atlantic to do a 2-round North American tour. The Canadian Grand Prix at the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in Montreal produced a Ferrari 1–2, with Alboreto and Johansson taking top honors in that order, ahead of Prost. It was Ferrari's first 1–2 since the 1983 Dutch Grand Prix and their last until the 1987 Australian Grand Prix.

Race 6: Detroit (USA).

The slowest and toughest race of the year was in the United States, at the angular Renaissance Center street circuit in the center of downtown Detroit, Michigan. This race was known to be more of an endurance race rather than a sprint, making it unique amongst the other Grands Prix. Ayrton Senna took pole, 1.2 seconds ahead of the next fastest qualifier, Nigel Mansell. The nimble Lotus proved to be well-suited to slow tracks; and Senna decided to take a chance by using harder tires than the rest of the field and try to go a greater distance. Keke Rosberg passed Prost, Mansell and Senna to take the lead – a lead he kept from start to finish on a circuit that, under the intense heat and humidity, broke up and made half the field retire – which was actually far less than usual at Detroit, which was a real car-breaking circuit. What was even more amazing was that Prost, Mansell and Senna (in that order) all crashed at the same corner at Atwater and St. Antoine Streets. Behind Rosberg were the two Ferraris of Johansson and Alboreto, the former pushing Rosberg hard for the lead.

Race 7: France.

F1 returned to Europe to start the 2nd European tour – made up almost entirely of fast circuits. The French Grand Prix at the very fast Circuit Paul Ricard with its long 1.1 mile Mistral Straight came after the North American tour – where pole-sitter Keke Rosberg averaged more than 140 mph in qualifying, ahead of Senna, Alboreto, Prost and Nelson Piquet. The weather was hot, and after making an excellent start, double world champion Piquet made the most of his BMW engine's superior power (this engine was the most powerful in F1 at the time) and Pirelli tires that for once, seemed to work properly. After making an excellent start that propelled him to 3rd, Piquet passed Senna on the Mistral Straight, and then he passed the leader Rosberg on Lap 11. Senna went into the pits and fell down the order; while driving hard to make up places he crashed massively at the very fast Signes corner after the Mistral Straight after the Renault engine in his Lotus failed and dropped oil on the rear tires, causing him to spin off while turning into the right hand corner. Rosberg had wrecked his tires early on, and was harried by Prost and his teammate, defending champion Niki Lauda. After a long battle where Rosberg held up the two McLarens and allowed Piquet to get away, Lauda went out with gearbox failure (the Austrian so far had only finished once this season), Prost eventually took Rosberg, who went into the pits to have his tires changed. Rosberg stormed after Prost, who was putting considerable pressure on Piquet. The Finn eventually passed the French Prost for 2nd, behind Piquet.  During qualifying, the turbocharged Brabham-BMW of Marc Surer reached a season fastest on the Mistral Straight. This compared to the fastest (and only) non-turbo car, the Tyrrell-Ford V8 of Stefan Bellof who was recorded at.

Race 8: Great Britain.

F1 went to England for the British Grand Prix, this year being held at Silverstone, which was the fastest Grand Prix circuit in the world at the time. Rosberg outlined this by averaging 160.9 mph in qualifying – more than 7 mph faster than the pole time set for the 1983 British GP. The race was, as expected, very fast – Senna, after starting 4th, took the lead at the start after an excellent start. He led for most of the race distance – after Rosberg and others fell out with mechanical trouble. Not Prost, however – the Frenchman had dropped back to save fuel, and he then climbed through the field to catch Senna. Prost's McLaren was well suited to fast circuits, and he pressured Senna and the two battled for a while. In an effort to stay in front of Prost, Senna turned the Renault's engine's turbo boost up, and this caused him to run out of fuel and retire from the race; and after that, Prost was never bothered – he had lapped the rest of the field, including Alboreto, who had finished 2nd. In an unfortunate error, the race was flagged at the end of the 65th lap, with the race actually scheduled to run for 66 laps. Jacques Laffite, who finished in 3rd place, actually ran out of fuel on what was supposed to be the last lap, the error ultimately robbing 4th placed Nelson Piquet of a podium finish.

Race 9: Germany.

The German Grand Prix 1985 was held at the Nürburgring instead of the Hockenheimring like in previous years. Although instead of the historic Nordschleife being used, the new GP track was utilized for the second time in Formula 1 history after being the European Grand Prix in 1984 and after Senna and Rosberg fell out while being harried by Alboreto, Prost and Frenchman Jacques Laffite in a Ligier-Renault, Alboreto in his Ferrari took advantage of a rare spin by Prost to take his last ever F1 victory.

Race 10: Austria.

The extremely fast and scenic Österreichring was the scene for the Austrian Grand Prix, which was dominated by McLaren drivers Prost and Lauda. Prost took pole at an average speed of more than 155 mph (250 km/h). The McLaren car was superior to all the others on this track, and after Lauda fell out with turbo failure, Prost took victory ahead of Senna and Alboreto. Ligier-Renault driver Andrea de Cesaris crashed massively after making a driving error and losing his car at the Texaco bends, and emerged unscathed, thanks to the grassy surface made soft thanks to rain from the night before – but he was fired from the Ligier team after team boss Guy Ligier decided not to keep paying for car rebuilds after the Italian de Cesaris kept crashing Ligier's cars all the time – something the Rome-born had been notorious for during his whole F1 career.

Race 11: Netherlands.

The beach-side Circuit Park Zandvoort near Amsterdam was the scene for a very exciting race. After pole-sitter Piquet stalled at the start, Rosberg took the lead, but the McLarens were to show their high-speed circuit superiority once again: after Rosberg retired with engine failure, Prost took the lead, ahead of Senna and Lauda. Lauda eventually passed the Brazilian, and took the lead from Prost while the Frenchman was in the pits. With a car that was not entirely set-up to his liking, Lauda won by a car's length from Prost, who drove very hard to catch the Austrian. This was the triple-world champion's 25th and last ever Grand Prix victory, and it was also the last Dutch Grand Prix for 35 years – the track owners went bankrupt, and the back side of the Zandvoort circuit past the Marlborobocht was sold to redevelopers.

Race 12: Italy.

The historic Italian Grand Prix at the very fast Autodromo Nazionale Monza saw Williams-Honda driver Rosberg dominate the race, but he went out with engine failure, and Prost took victory, ahead of Brazilians Piquet and pole-sitter Senna.

Race 13: Belgium.

The rescheduled Belgian Grand Prix returned to the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, a track relished by drivers, even in the wet. Niki Lauda crashed his McLaren in practice, and injured his wrist; he would not take part in this weekend or the upcoming European GP. This race was a rarity in that it was a wet-dry race: Prost took pole ahead of Senna, but Senna took an immediate lead into La Source, ahead of Piquet and Prost. Piquet then spun, and Senna started to break away. After most of the drivers changed onto slick tires after the conditions were found to be too dry for wet tires, Senna led most of the race, but was challenged by Nigel Mansell most of the way. Senna won his 2nd GP from Mansell and Prost. Prost, the championship leader, now had a firm lead over his closest challenger Alboreto – if Prost gained more points in the next race, he would be Drivers' Champion.

Race 14: Europe.

The European Grand Prix was a filler race – Grands Prix in New York City and Rome did not materialize and were cancelled; this race came 3 weeks after the Belgian event. This race was held at the fast southern English Brands Hatch circuit, normally used for the British Grand Prix on even numbered years. This race was a very exciting one: Senna took his 6th pole position at an average speed of more than 140 mph (228 km/h). There had been some concerns about racing these very powerful cars at the small, very fast Brands Hatch circuit: Niki Lauda and a few other drivers felt the cars were too fast for a short circuit like Brands, and if the power of the engines increased over time, the circuit would have to be modified in order to accommodate the cars. Senna led from pole position and was harried by Rosberg. Going into Surtees Rosberg tried to get past Senna, but Senna took his line forcefully and Rosberg spun to avoid contact. Piquet hit Rosberg and retired, but Rosberg was able to get to the pits and returned to the track right in front of Senna who was then being harried by Mansell. Rosberg then held Senna up whilst going into Surtees, which enabled Mansell to overtake into the lead. Mansell led the rest of the race distance, while Marc Surer in a Brabham-BMW got up to 2nd, but retired at Stirling's corner after a fire broke out on the back of his car. Meanwhile, Alboreto's car failed and caught fire; he drove it back to the Ferrari pit while up in flames, in an effort to get the message across to his team about his car's most recent unreliability that cost him the championship. Prost, however, made a very bad start, dropped to 15th and finished in 4th, which was enough for him to become world Drivers' Champion for the first time. He finished behind Mansell, Senna, and Rosberg, who drove a storming race to finish 3rd.

Race 15: South Africa.

The South African Grand Prix, held at the very fast Kyalami circuit had been a point of contention all throughout the year: South Africa, ruled by a racial segregation regime, had declared a state of emergency and controversy ensued throughout the year whether this race would take place or not. Governing body president Jean-Marie Balestre announced that the race would take place despite opposition from Renault and Ligier teams, who pulled out due to pressure from the French government. With only 20 cars starting, the race was an exciting one – Nigel Mansell took pole at an average speed of 147 mph (235 km/h). Rosberg took the lead, but then went off on some oil at Crowthorne which had been dropped by Italian Piercarlo Ghinzani's Toleman, whose Hart engine had failed. Mansell took the lead from the Finn – a lead which he was to keep to the end. Rosberg drove hard and caught 2nd-placed Prost before the finish, who ran out of fuel – but was still classified 3rd to make it a Williams 1–2; Williams was the third team this year to finish a race 1–2, the others being Ferrari and McLaren. A few days after the race, it was announced that the South African GP was struck off the calendar for 1986, and this would be the last South African GP until 1992, which was won again by Mansell in a Williams-Renault.

Race 16: Australia.

The first ever world championship Australian Grand Prix was held on a street circuit in the city of Adelaide. The race proved to be popular – and Senna took his 7th pole position of the season by some margin on his superior-handling Lotus-Renault. He, however, ran into difficulties – after missing the pit entrance twice, he eventually got his tires changed, and drove very hard to catch leader Niki Lauda, who had taken the lead from Rosberg. Lauda and Senna battled hard, and Senna eventually pulled away from Lauda – who crashed on the main straight in what was his last ever Grand Prix. Senna, however, retired with a very badly misfiring engine, and Rosberg took the lead and won, ahead of the two Ligier drivers Jacques Laffite and Phillippe Streiff, whom both crashed into each other on the main straight on the last lap.

Results and standings.

Scoring system.

Points were awarded at each round to the top six finishers at each Grand Prix as follows: For the drivers championship only the eleven best results contributed to the World Championship.

World Drivers' Championship – final standings.

Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.  Only drivers who scored points were classified by the FIA in the final championship results.

World Constructors' Championship – final standings.

Only manufacturers that scored points were classified by the FIA in the final championship results.

The 1985 FIA Formula One World Championship was the 39th season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It began on 7 April and ended on 3 November after sixteen races. The World Championship for Drivers was won by Alain Prost, and the World Championship for Manufacturers was won by McLaren for the second consecutive year.

Die Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft 1985 war die 36. Saison der Formel-1-Weltmeisterschaft. Sie wurde über 16 Rennen in der Zeit vom 7. April 1985 bis zum 3. November 1985 ausgetragen. Alain Prost gewann zum ersten Mal die Fahrer-Weltmeisterschaft. McLaren wurde zum dritten Mal Konstrukteursweltmeister.


Career.

Moll was born in Buir, near Cologne, Germany. As a child, he played the cello and hoped to become a great cellist. (He also had ambitions to be an industrialist/businessman.) He sang in the school choir whose conductor encouraged him to concentrate on singing. He studied voice at the Musikhochschule Köln. He joined the Cologne Opera at age 20 and remained a member of the ensemble until 1961. He then sang for three years at the Mainz Opera and five years at the Wuppertal Opera. In 1969, he accepted an engagement with the Hamburg State Opera, and then performed in major opera houses of Europe.  He made his Bayreuth Festival debut in 1968 as the nightwatchman in "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg", and sang there for several years as Fafner in "Der Ring des Nibelungen", Marke in "Tristan und Isolde" and Pogner in "Die Meistersinger".  He made his American debut with the San Francisco Opera as Gurnemanz in Wagner's "Parsifal" in 1974, a role he reprised with the company in 2000. He made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera on the opening night of the 1977-78 season, appearing as the Landgrave in Wagner's "Tannhäuser". He also sang there as Rocco in Beethoven's "Fidelio" and Sparafucile in Verdi's "Rigoletto".  He made many recordings of opera, sacred music, and lieder. Moll can be heard as Ochs in seven complete recordings of "Der Rosenkavalier", as Sarastro in six recordings of Mozart's "Die Zauberflöte", as Marke in six sets of Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde", and as the Archangel Raphael in three recordings of Haydn's "Die Schöpfung". His recording for the Orfeo label of Schubert's philosophical ""Lieder für Bass"" set a new standard for these songs; he also recorded Schubert's song-cycle "Winterreise", and an album of dramatic/heroic ballads by Carl Loewe. Besides German, Italian, and Latin, he recorded a few roles in Russian, including Pimen in "Boris Godunov" and the Old Convict in "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District" by Shostakovich. He can be seen in many roles on commercial video, including Sarastro (twice), Osmin, the Commendatore, Bartolo, Hunding in Wagner's "Die Walküre" (three times), Fafner in "Das Rheingold" and "Siegfried", in Gurnemanz in "Parsifal", and Ochs (three times).

Awards and honors.

He won three Grammy Awards (1981, 1985, and 1989) for various opera CDs, and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Classical Music/Dance for his performance as Hunding on the PBS television series "Live from the Metropolitan Opera" (also known as "The Metropolitan Opera Presents"), in 1991. In Germany he held the prestigious title "Kammersänger".

Retirement.

Moll retired from the stage in 2006, after singing the Nightwatchman at the Bavarian State Opera in Munich. He gave a master class in January 2011 at Carnegie Hall.  Moll lived in Cologne with his family until his death.

Kurt Moll (11 April 19385 March 2017) was a German operatic bass singer who enjoyed an international career and was widely recorded.

Kurt Moll (* 11. April 1938 in Buir bei Kerpen; † 5. März 2017 in Köln) war ein deutscher Opernsänger (Bass).


Density in metric spaces.

An alternative definition of dense set in the case of metric spaces is the following. When the topology of "X" is given by a metric, the closure formula_1 of "A" in "X" is the union of "A" and the set of all limits of sequences of elements in "A" (its "limit points"),  Then "A" is dense in "X" if  If formula_4 is a sequence of dense open sets in a complete metric space, "X", then formula_5 is also dense in "X". This fact is one of the equivalent forms of the Baire category theorem.

Examples.

The real numbers with the usual topology have the rational numbers as a countable dense subset which shows that the cardinality of a dense subset of a topological space may be strictly smaller than the cardinality of the space itself. The irrational numbers are another dense subset which shows that a topological space may have several disjoint dense subsets (in particular, two dense subsets may be each other's complements), and they need not even be of the same cardinality. Perhaps even more surprisingly, both the rationals and the irrationals have empty interiors, showing that dense sets need not contain any nonempty open set.  By the Weierstrass approximation theorem, any given complex-valued continuous function defined on a closed interval ["a", "b"] can be uniformly approximated as closely as desired by a polynomial function. In other words, the polynomial functions are dense in the space C["a", "b"] of continuous complex-valued functions on the interval ["a", "b"], equipped with the supremum norm.  Every metric space is dense in its completion.

Properties.

Every topological space is a dense subset of itself. For a set "X" equipped with the discrete topology the whole space is the only dense set. Every non-empty subset of a set "X" equipped with the trivial topology is dense, and every topology for which every non-empty subset is dense must be trivial.  Denseness is transitive: Given three subsets "A", "B" and "C" of a topological space "X" with such that "A" is dense in "B" and "B" is dense in "C" (in the respective subspace topology) then "A" is also dense in "C".  The image of a dense subset under a surjective continuous function is again dense. The density of a topological space (the least of the cardinalities of its dense subsets) is a topological invariant.  A topological space with a connected dense subset is necessarily connected itself.  Continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets: if two continuous functions into a Hausdorff space "Y" agree on a dense subset of "X" then they agree on all of "X".  For metric spaces there are universal spaces, into which all spaces of given density can be embedded: a metric space of density is isometric to a subspace of, the space of real continuous functions on the product of copies of the unit interval.

Related notions.

A point "x" of a subset "A" of a topological space "X" is called a limit point of "A" (in "X") if every neighbourhood of "x" also contains a point of "A" other than "x" itself, and an isolated point of "A" otherwise. A subset without isolated points is said to be dense-in-itself.  A subset "A" of a topological space "X" is called nowhere dense (in "X") if there is no neighborhood in "X" on which "A" is dense. Equivalently, a subset of a topological space is nowhere dense if and only if the interior of its closure is empty. The interior of the complement of a nowhere dense set is always dense. The complement of a closed nowhere dense set is a dense open set. Given a topological space "X", a subset "A" of "X" that can be expressed as the union of countably many nowhere dense subsets of "X" is called meagre. The rational numbers, while dense in the real numbers, are meagre as a subset of the reals.  A topological space with a countable dense subset is called separable. A topological space is a Baire space if and only if the intersection of countably many dense open sets is always dense. A topological space is called resolvable if it is the union of two disjoint dense subsets. More generally, a topological space is called κ-resolvable if it contains κ pairwise disjoint dense sets.  An embedding of a topological space "X" as a dense subset of a compact space is called a compactification of "X".  A linear operator between topological vector spaces "X" and "Y" is said to be densely defined if its domain is a dense subset of "X" and if its range is contained within "Y". See also continuous linear extension.  A topological space "X" is hyperconnected if and only if every nonempty open set is dense in "X". A topological space is submaximal if and only if every dense subset is open.  If formula_6 is a metric space, then a non-empty subset Y is said to be "ε-dense", if and only if, for every  One can then show that D is dense in formula_6 if and only if it is ε-dense for every formula_9

In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subset "A" of a topological space "X" is called dense (in "X") if every point "x" in "X" either belongs to "A" or is a limit point of "A"; that is, the closure of A is constituting the whole set X. Informally, for every point in "X", the point is either in "A" or arbitrarily "close" to a member of "A" — for instance, the rational numbers are a dense subset of the real numbers because every real number either is a rational number or has a rational number arbitrarily close to it (see Diophantine approximation).

Im mathematischen Fachgebiet Topologie ist eine dichte Teilmenge eines metrischen oder topologischen Raumes eine Teilmenge dieses Raumes mit besonderen Eigenschaften. Der Begriff "dichte Teilmenge" wird in seiner allgemeinen Form in der Topologie definiert. Er wird auch in vielen anderen Teildisziplinen der Mathematik, etwa der Analysis, der Funktionalanalysis und der Numerik angewandt, zum Beispiel bei der Approximation von stetigen Funktionen durch Polynome.


Name.

Shirkuh is a Persian and Kurdish name which literally means "the lion (of the) mountain". Shirkuh is also the name of several villages in modern day Iran. His Arabic honorific "Asad ad-Din" similarly means "the lion of faith". In Latin, his name was rendered as "Siraconus"; William of Tyre, referring to the expedition of 1163, describes him as:  an able and energetic warrior, eager for glory and of wide experience in military affairs. Generous far beyond the resources of his patrimony, Shirkuh was beloved by his followers because of this munificence. He was small of stature, very stout and fat and already advanced in years. Though of lowly origin, he had become rich and risen by merit from his humble estate to the rank of prince. He was afflicted with cataract in one eye. He was a man of great endurance under hardships, one who bore hunger and thirst with an equanimity quite unusual for that time of life.

Origins and earlier career.

He was originally from a Kurdish village in Armenia near the town of Dvin. He was the son of Shadhi ibn Marwan, a Kurdish ruler, and the brother of Najm ad-Din Ayyub, the ancestor of the Ayyubid dynasty. The family was closely connected to the Shaddadid dynasty, and when the last Shaddadid was deposed in Dvin in 1130, Shahdi moved the family first to Baghdad and then to Tikrit, where he was appointed governor by the regional administrator Bihruz. Ayyub succeeded his father as governor of Tikrit when Shahdi died soon after. When Shirkuh killed a Christian with whom he was quarrelling in Tikrit in 1138, the brothers were exiled (Shirkuh's nephew Yusuf, later known as Saladin, was supposedly born the night they left). They joined Nur ad-Din Zengi's army, and Shirkuh served under Nur ad-Din Zengi who succeeded Zengi in Mosul. Shirkuh was later given Homs, ar-Rahba and other appanages by Nur ad Din Zengi as his vassal. Ayyub served as governor of Baalbek and later Damascus, and the two brothers negotiated the surrender of Damascus to Nur ad-Din in 1154.  In 1163 Nur ad-Din was asked by Shawar to intervene in Egypt in a dispute between him and Dirgham over the Fatimid vizierate. Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh, and this was to be the first of three ventures Shirkuh made into Egypt, nominally on Nur ad-Din's behalf. On this first occasion, his nephew Saladin accompanied him as an advisor. Shawar was restored and Dirgham was killed, but after quarrelling with Shirkuh, Shawar allied with Amalric I of Jerusalem, who marched into Egypt in 1164 and besieged Shirkuh at Bilbeis (see Crusader invasion of Egypt). In response Nur ad-Din attacked the Crusader states and almost captured the Principality of Antioch.

Later career.

Shirkuh was invited back into Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph Al-'Āḍid in 1167, to help defeat the Crusaders who were attacking Cairo. Shawar once again allied with Amalric, who besieged Shirkuh in Alexandria until he agreed to leave; however, a Crusader garrison remained in Egypt and Amalric allied with the Byzantine Empire, planning to conquer it entirely. To destroy the garrison, Shawar switched alliances, from Amalric to Shirkuh. The Muslims fought a pitched battle with the Crusaders, who did not have the resources to conquer Egypt and were forced to retreat.  Shirkuh and his associates enjoyed widespread support among the civil elite In Egypt for religious reasons. Although the Fatimid rulers were Shiite, the majority of people remained Sunni Muslims. In January 1169 Shirkuh entered Cairo and had the untrustworthy Shawar executed. When he reached Cairo with his armies he was welcomed by the Fatimid Caliph Al-'Āḍid and treated with great honour. He accepted the office of vizier, but died two months later on March 22; as Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad describes, "it was the case that Asad ad-Din was a great eater, excessively given to partaking of rich meats. He suffered many bouts of indigestion and from quinsy, from which he would recover after putting up with great discomfort. He was taken severely ill, afflicted with a serious quinsy, which killed him on 22 Jumada II 564 [22 February 1169]."

Legacy.

He was succeeded as vizier by his nephew Saladin, who had served with him on his campaigns in Egypt. Saladin eventually succeeded Nur ad-Din as well, uniting Egypt and Syria, which enabled him to almost completely drive out the crusaders from Syria and Palestine. A number of historians have offered the view that Shirkuh's death was an important factor in allowing Saladin to consolidate his position as Sultan and as undisputed head of the Ayyubid family.  Although Nur ad-Din Zengi took back the domain of Homs on Shirkuh's death, in 1193 Saladin gave Homs to Shirkuh's son Muhammad ibn Shirkuh and his descendants continued to rule in Homs thereafter until the death in 1263 of his last descendant the emir, Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs. After this Homs was ruled directly as part of the Mamluk empire.

Asad ad-Dīn Shīrkūh bin Shādhī (in ), also known as Shirkuh, Shêrkoh, or Shêrko (meaning "lion of the mountains" in Kurdish) (died 22 February 1169) was a Kurdish military commander, and uncle of Saladin. His military and diplomatic efforts in Egypt were a key factor in establishing the Ayyubid family in that country.

Asad ad-Din Schirkuh bin Schadhi (; † 23. März 1169 in Kairo) war ein islamischer Militärkommandeur aus der Dynastie der Ayyubiden. Er stammte aus einem kurdischen Ort in der Nähe von Dvin in Armenien. Schirkuh ist Kurdisch und bedeutet "Berglöwe" (Kurdisch "Şêrko"). In christlichen Quellen wurde er "Siraconus" genannt.


Background.

Encirclement and invasion of Yugoslavia.

Following the 1938 "Anschluss" between Nazi Germany and Austria, Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with Germany and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers. In April 1939, Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania. At the outbreak of World War II, the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality. Between September and November 1940, Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact, aligning themselves with the Axis, and Italy invaded Greece. Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites, and its neutral stance toward the war became strained. In late February 1941, Bulgaria joined the Pact. The following day, German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania, closing the ring around Yugoslavia. Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union, German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis. On 25 March 1941, after some delay, the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact. Two days later, a group of pro-Western, Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers deposed the country's regent, Prince Paul, in a bloodless coup d'état. They placed his teenage nephew Peter on the throne and brought to power a "government of national unity" led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force, General Dušan Simović. The coup enraged Hitler, who immediately ordered the country's invasion, which commenced on 6 April 1941.  Yugoslavia was quickly overwhelmed by the combined strength of the Axis powers and surrendered in less than two weeks. The government and royal family went into exile, and the country was occupied and dismembered by its neighbours. The German-occupied territory of Serbia was limited to the pre-Balkan War borders of the Kingdom of Serbia and was directly occupied by the Germans for the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it, as well as its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. The occupied territory covered about and had a population of 3.8 million. Hitler had briefly considered erasing all existence of a Serbian state, but this was quickly abandoned and the Germans began searching for a Serb suitable to lead a puppet government in Belgrade. They initially settled on Milan Aćimović, a staunch anti-communist who served as Yugoslavia's Minister of Internal Affairs in late 1939 and early 1940.

Occupation and resistance.

Two resistance movements emerged following the invasion: the communist-led, multi-ethnic Partisans, and the royalist, Serbian nationalist Chetniks, although during 1941, within the occupied territory, even the Partisans consisted almost entirely of Serbs. The Partisans were led by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito; the Chetniks were led by Colonel Draža Mihailović, an officer in the interwar Royal Yugoslav Army. The two movements had widely divergent goals. Whereas the Partisans sought to turn Yugoslavia into a communist state under Tito's leadership, the Chetniks sought a return to the pre-war "status quo", whereby the Yugoslav monarchy—and, by extension, Serb political hegemony—would be restored. Communist resistance commenced in early July, shortly after the invasion of the Soviet Union, targeting both the Germans and the puppet authorities. By late August 1941, the Partisans and Chetniks were carrying out joint attacks against the Germans. The Partisans were well organised and many of their commanders had ample military experience, having fought in the Spanish Civil War. Within several months of the invasion, they had 8,000 fighters spread across 21 detachments in Serbia alone. Many Chetniks were either veterans of the Balkan Wars and World War I or former members of the Royal Yugoslav Army. They boasted around 20,000 fighters in the German-occupied territory of Serbia at the time of the massacre.  On 29 August, the Germans replaced Aćimović with another fervent anti-communist, the former Minister of the Army and Navy and Chief of the General Staff, General Milan Nedić, who formed a new puppet government. In September, the Nedić government was permitted to form the Serbian Volunteer Command (; SDK), an auxiliary paramilitary formation to help quell anti-German resistance. In effect, the SDK was the military arm of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement (, "Zbor"), led by Dimitrije Ljotić. It was originally intended to have a strength of 3,000–4,000 troops, but this number eventually rose to 12,000. It was headed by Kosta Mušicki, a former colonel in the Royal Yugoslav Army, whom Nedić appointed on 6 October 1941. In the early stages of the occupation, the SDK formed the bulk of Nedić's forces, which numbered around 20,000 men by late 1941.

Prelude.

Anti-German uprising.

Nedić's inability to crush the Partisans and Chetniks prompted the Military Commander in Serbia to request German reinforcements from other parts of the continent. In mid-September, they transferred the 125th Infantry Regiment from Greece and the 342nd Infantry Division from France to help put down the uprising in Serbia. On 16 September, Hitler issued Directive No. 312 to "Generalfeldmarschall" (Field Marshal) Wilhelm List, the Wehrmacht commander in Southeast Europe, ordering him to suppress all resistance in that part of the continent. That same day, the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces ("Oberkommando der Wehrmacht"; OKW) issued Hitler's order on the suppression of "Communist Armed Resistance Movements in the Occupied Areas", signed by "Generalfeldmarschall" Wilhelm Keitel. This decree specified that all attacks against the Germans on the Eastern Front were to be "regarded as being of communist origin", and that 100 hostages were to be shot for every German soldier killed and 50 were to be shot for every German soldier wounded. It was intended to apply to all of Eastern Europe, though an identical policy had already been implemented in Serbia as early as 28 April 1941, aimed at deterring guerrilla attacks. Attacks against the Germans increased in the first half of the year and Serbia once again became a war zone. German troops fanned through the countryside burning villages, taking hostages and establishing concentration camps. The first mass executions of hostages commenced in July.  The strengthening of Germany's military presence in Serbia resulted in a new wave of mass executions and war crimes. The commanders who bore the most responsibility for these atrocities were primarily of Austrian origin and had served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. Most were ardently anti-Serb, a prejudice that the historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch links to the Nazis' wider anti-Slavic racism. On 19 September, "General der Gebirgstruppe" (Lieutenant General) Franz Böhme was appointed as Plenipotentiary Commanding General in Serbia, with direct responsibility for quelling the revolt, bringing with him the staff of XVIII Mountain Corps. He was allocated additional forces to assist him in doing so, reinforcing the three German occupation divisions already in the territory. These divisions were the 704th Infantry Division, 714th Infantry Division and 717th Infantry Division. Böhme boasted a profound hatred of Serbs and encouraged his predominantly Austrian-born troops to exact "vengeance" against them. His primary grievances were the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and subsequent Austro-Hungarian military defeats at the hands of the Royal Serbian Army, which he thought could only be rectified by the reprisal shooting of Serbian civilians. "Your objective," Böhme declared, "is to be achieved in a land where, in 1914, streams of German blood flowed because of the treachery of the Serbs, men and women. You are the avengers of those dead."

Clashes at Gornji Milanovac.

By late September 1941, the town of Gornji Milanovac had effectively been cut off from the rest of German-occupied Serbia by the frequent disruption of road and rail transport leading to and from it. On 29 September, elements of the Takovo Chetnik and Čačak Partisan detachments attacked Gornji Milanovac, which was defended by the 6th Company of the 920th "Landesschützen" (Local Defence) Battalion. The 6th Company's garrison was based out of a local school. The guerrillas did not expect to capture the garrison, but undertook the attack in order to generate new recruits from the surrounding area. The local Chetnik commander, Zvonimir Vučković, became aware of the Partisan plans and decided to join in the attack to avoid the significant loss of prestige that would result from allowing the Partisans to attack alone. The insurgents launched a morning attack against the school. Although they were successful in overrunning the sentry posts, the Germans' heavy machine guns soon stopped the assault. In 90 minutes of fighting, 10 Germans were killed and 26 wounded. The two insurgent groups judged that continuing the assault would be too costly and Vučković suggested negotiating with the Germans. Knowing the Germans would be far more likely to carry out negotiations with royalists than with communists, the Partisans allowed the Chetniks to conduct the negotiating in order to lure the garrison out of the town. A Chetnik envoy delivered an ultimatum to the garrison, demanding that it surrender to the guerrillas. The ultimatum was rejected. Thirty minutes later, a second Chetnik envoy appeared, guaranteeing the 6th Company unmolested passage to Čačak on the condition that it left Gornji Milanovac the same day. He further requested that the town and its inhabitants be spared from any possible reprisals. The commander of the 6th Company agreed and evacuated the garrison. Around outside Gornji Milanovac, the 6th Company was surrounded by the guerrillas and forced to surrender.  The 6th Company's disappearance caused unease in the German ranks. A reconnaissance flight was dispatched to locate it, to no avail. The occupational authorities were unaware of the 6th Company's fate until a German officer escaped and informed them of what had transpired. He reported that the German prisoners were being humanely treated, but when Böhme became aware of the situation, he decided that retaliation was needed. He ordered the 3rd Battalion of the 749th Infantry Regiment to burn down Gornji Milanovac and take hostages in order to expedite the recovery of the captured German troops. The 3rd Battalion started its advance on 5 October, fighting its way along the road to Gornji Milanovac and sustaining casualties in the process. Upon entering Gornji Milanovac, it gathered between 120 and 170 male hostages, among them a Chetnik commander who had been scheduled to meet his superiors the following day. "Hauptmann" (Captain) Fiedler, the 3rd Battalion's commanding officer, hoped to use this man to contact the Chetnik command and organize a prisoner exchange. Fearing that such an action would jeopardize the recovery of the German prisoners, Fiedler decided not to raze Gornji Milanovac. Around this time, Fiedler received an SOS signal from nearby Rudnik, where another German unit was involved in heavy fighting with the guerrillas. Fiedler decided to redirect the 3rd Battalion to Rudnik to relieve the unit. Assuming he would have to pass through Gornji Milanovac on his way back, he decided to postpone the taking of hostages in Gornji Milanovac and the razing of the town until his return from Rudnik. Contrary to Fiedler's expectations, the battalion was ordered back to Kragujevac immediately after relieving the unit at Rudnik, and was thus unable to raze Gornji Milanovac. Böhme was furious, and on 15 October, he sent the 3rd Battalion back to Gornji Milanovac to carry out his original orders. After a brief pause in Kragujevac between 10 and 14 October, the battalion returned to Gornji Milanovac on 15 October, but now only forty people could be found to be taken as hostages. The town was then razed. This time, attempts to exchange the hostages were not made.

Kraljevo massacre.

On 15–16 October, 10 German soldiers were killed and 14 wounded during a joint Partisan-Chetnik attack on Kraljevo, a city about south of Belgrade and southeast of Gornji Milanovac. On 15 October, troops of the 717th Infantry Division shot 300 civilians from Kraljevo in reprisal. These reprisal killings continued over the following days, and by 17 or 20 October, German troops had rounded up and shot 1,736 men and 19 "communist" women from the city and its outskirts, despite attempts by local collaborationists to mitigate the punishment. These executions were personally supervised by the commander of the 717th Infantry Division, "Generalmajor" (Brigadier General) Paul Hoffman.

Timeline.

Round-up.

Kragujevac is an industrial city in Central Serbia, about south of Belgrade, and east of Gornji Milanovac. It had a population of more than 40,000 in 1941, and was the headquarters of a German military district. The city was also home to Yugoslavia's largest armaments factory, which had between 7,000 and 8,000 workers before the invasion.  A report was written by the military district commander in Kragujevac, "Hauptmann" Otto von Bischofhausen, immediately after the massacre. This report was addressed to Böhme, and was later tendered in evidence at the Subsequent Nuremberg trials. According to von Bischofhausen, in the late evening of 18 October, all male Jews in Kragujevac, along with some communists, were arrested according to lists, totalling 70 persons. As this constituted far too few hostages to meet the quota of 2,300, it was proposed to collect the balance by arrests on the streets, squares and houses of Kragujevac, in an operation to be conducted by III./749th Infantry Regiment, and I. Battalion of the 724th Infantry Regiment, part of the 704th Infantry Division. In response to this proposal, von Bischofhausen claimed that he suggested to the garrison commander, Major Paul König, that, instead of using the population of Kragujevac, the required hostages be gathered from surrounding villages which were known to be "completely strewn with communists". According to von Bischofhausen's account, this suggestion was initially accepted by König, and, on 19 October, III./749th Infantry Regiment "mopped up" the villages of Mečkovac and Maršić, and I./724th Infantry Regiment conducted a similar operation in the villages of Grošnica and Milatovac. A total of 422 men were shot in these four villages, without any German losses.  On the evening of 19 October, von Bischofhausen again met with König and was told that the original proposal was to be implemented the following day in order to collect the 2,300 hostages. The following evening, the male Jews and communists, who had been held without food since their arrest, were shot by German troops at the barracks and courtyard where they were being held. Simultaneously, males between the ages of 16 and 60 were arrested within Kragujevac itself. They were detained in the barracks of a former motorised battalion at Stanovija Field. Over 7,000 hostages were assembled. German troops and ethnic German units from the Banat were involved in the round-up, as was the Fifth Regiment of the SDK, under the command of Marisav Petrović. According to von Bischofhausen, König permitted several classes of males to be excluded from the round-up, including those with a special pass issued by von Bischofhausen's district headquarters, members of a vital profession or trade, and those who were members of Ljotić's movement. When too few adult males could be located, high school students were also rounded up. Also seized were priests and monks from the city's churches. Each hostage was registered and his belongings noted meticulously.

Executions.

The hostages were held overnight on a public plaza in the town. In his version of events, von Bischofhausen claimed that he made objections to König, but the latter insisted that his orders, which had been issued by the commander of the 749th Infantry Regiment, would be carried out. Shortly before the executions commenced, Ljotić obtained approval for two "Zbor" officials to scrutinise the hostages. Over 3,000 individuals, those identified as being "genuine nationalists" and "real patriots", were excluded from the execution lists as a result of Ljotić's intervention. Those who were not extracted from the hostage pool were accused of being communists or spreading "communist propaganda". The "Zbor" officials told them they were not "worth saving" because they had "infected the younger generation with their leftist ideas." The Germans considered "Zbor"'s involvement to be a "nuisance". According to the social scientist Jovan Byford, it was never intended or likely to reduce the overall number of hostages killed in reprisal, and served only to ensure the exclusion of those that were deemed by "Zbor" to be worth saving.  On the morning of 21 October, the assembled men and boys were marched to a field outside the town. Over a period of seven hours, they were lined up in groups of 50 to 120 and shot with heavy machine guns. "Go ahead and shoot", said an elderly teacher, "I am conducting my class". He was shot together with his students. As they faced the firing squad, many hostages sang the patriotic song "Hey, Slavs", which became Yugoslavia's national anthem after the war. One German soldier was shot for refusing to participate in the killings. A German report stated: "The executions in Kragujevac occurred although there had been no attacks on members of the Wehrmacht in this city, for the reason that not enough hostages could be found elsewhere." Even some German informants were inadvertently killed. "Clearly", the Holocaust historian Mark Levene writes, "Germans in uniform were not "that" particular about who they shot in reprisal, especially in the Balkans, where the populace were deemed subhuman."  Following the massacre, the Germans held a military parade through the city centre. On 31 October, Böhme sent a report to the acting Wehrmacht commander in Southeast Europe, "General der Pioniere" (Lieutenant General) Walter Kuntze, reporting that 2,300 hostages had been shot in Kragujevac.

Aftermath.

Response.

The Partisan commander and later historian Milovan Djilas recalled in his memoirs how the Kragujevac massacre gripped all of Serbia in "deathly horror". Throughout the war, local collaborators pressured the Germans to implement stringent vetting procedures to ensure that "innocent civilians" were not executed, though only when the hostages were ethnic Serbs. The scale of the massacres in Kragujevac and Kraljevo resulted in no quarter being given to German POWs by the guerrillas. "The enemy changed his attitude toward German prisoners," one senior Wehrmacht officer reported. "They are now usually being maltreated and shot." By the time Böhme was relieved as Plenipotentiary Commanding General in December 1941, between 20,000 and 30,000 civilians had been killed in German reprisal shootings. The ratio of 100 executions for each soldier killed and 50 executions for each soldier wounded was reduced by half in February 1943, and removed altogether later in the year. Henceforth, each individual execution had to be approved by Special Envoy Hermann Neubacher. The massacres in Kragujevac and Kraljevo caused German military commanders in Serbia to question the efficacy of such killings, as they pushed thousands of Serbs into the hands of anti-German guerrillas. In Kraljevo, the entire Serbian workforce of an airplane factory producing armaments for the Germans was shot. This helped convince the OKW that arbitrary shootings of Serbs not only incurred a significant political cost but were also counterproductive.  The killings at Kragujevac and Kraljevo exacerbated tensions between the Partisans and Chetniks. They also convinced Mihailović that active resistance was futile for as long as the Germans held an unassailable military advantage in the Balkans, and that killing German troops would only result in the unnecessary deaths of tens of thousands of Serbs. He therefore decided to scale back Chetnik guerrilla attacks and wait for an Allied landing in the Balkans. The killings occurred only a few days before Captain Bill Hudson, a Special Operations Executive officer, met with Mihailović at his Ravna Gora headquarters. Hudson witnessed the aftermath of the massacre and noted the psychological toll it exacted. "Morning and night was the most desolating atmosphere," he recounted, "because the women were out in the fields, and every sunrise and sunset you would hear the wails. This had a very strong effect on Mihailović." "The tragedy gave to Nedić convincing proof that the Serbs would be biologically exterminated if they were not submissive," Djilas wrote, "and to the Chetniks proof that the Partisans were prematurely provoking the Germans". Mihailović's decision to refrain from attacking the Germans led to a rift with Tito and the Partisans. The Chetniks' non-resistance made it easier for the Germans to confront the Partisans, who for much of the remainder of the war could not defeat them in open combat.

Legal proceedings and casualty estimates.

On 11 November 1941, the Partisans captured Major Renner, the area commander in Leskovac, who was taking part in an anti-Partisan sweep around Lebane. Mistaking him for König, who by some accounts had given Renner a cigarette case engraved with his name, the Partisans executed Renner as a war criminal. For almost fifty years, it was widely believed that König, and not Renner, had been killed by the Partisans. In 1952, a plaque was erected at the place where König was purported to have been killed, and a song was written about the incident. In the 1980s, it was conclusively proven that the German officer executed by the Partisans in November 1941 was not König. A new plaque was thus dedicated in 1990.  List and Böhme were both captured at the end of the war. On 10 May 1947, they were charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity as part of the Hostages Trial of the subsequent Nuremberg trials. One of the crimes specifically listed in Count 1 of the indictment was the massacre of 2,300 hostages in Kragujevac. Böhme committed suicide before his arraignment. List was found guilty on Count 1, as well as on another count. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1948, but was released due to ill health in 1953. Despite this, he lived until June 1971. Keitel was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials, and subsequently hanged. Hoffmann, whom the local population dubbed the "butcher of Kraljevo and Kragujevac", was promoted to command the more capable 352nd Infantry Division in November 1941. He ended the war as the commander of a prisoner-of-war camp, having been demoted for refusing to shoot deserters in the Ukraine. The 717th Infantry Division was reorganised as the 117th Jäger Division later in the war and its troops took part in the massacre of hundreds of Greek civilians at Kalavryta in December 1943.  At least 31 mass graves were discovered in Kragujevac and its surroundings after the war. In 1969, the historian Jozo Tomasevich wrote that, despite German official sources stating 2,300 hostages had been shot, both the Partisans and Chetniks had agreed that the number of victims was about 7,000. He further stated that careful investigation by a Yugoslav university professor in 1967 had put the figure at about 5,000. In 1975, Tomasevich noted that some estimates of the number of those killed were as high as 7,000, but that the foremost authority on German terror in Serbia, Venceslav Glišić, placed the figure at about 3,000. In 2007, Pavlowitch wrote that inflated figures of 6,000–7,000 victims were advanced and widely believed for many years, but that German and Serbian scholars had recently agreed on the figure of 2,778. In the same year, the curator of the 21st October Museum at Kragujevac, Staniša Brkić, published a book listing the names and personal data of 2,794 victims. Of the total killed, 144 were high school students, and five of the victims were 12 years old. The last living survivor of the massacre, Dragoljub Jovanović, died in October 2018 at the age of 94. He survived despite sustaining 11 bullet wounds and had to have one of his legs amputated. After the war, he was appointed the inaugural director of the 21st October Museum.

Legacy.

The massacre at Kragujevac came to symbolise the brutality of the German occupation in Yugoslav popular memory. It has drawn comparisons to the Germans' destruction of the Czechoslovak village of Lidice in June 1942 and the massacre of the inhabitants of Oradour-sur-Glane, in France, in June 1944. To commemorate the victims of the Kragujevac massacre, the whole of Šumarice, where the killings took place, was designated a memorial park in 1953. It is now known as the October in Kragujevac Memorial Park, and covers encompassing the area that contains the mass graves. The 21st October Museum was founded within the park on 15 February 1976. There are also several monuments within the park, including the "Interrupted Flight" monument to the murdered high school students and their teachers, and the monuments "Pain and Defiance", "One Hundred for One", and "Resistance and Freedom". The Memorial Park website notes that the victims of the massacre included Serbs, Jews, Romani people, Muslims, Macedonians, Slovenes and members of other nationalities. The memorial was damaged during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.  The Serbian poet and writer Desanka Maksimović wrote a poem about the massacre titled "Krvava bajka" ("A Bloody Fairy Tale"). The poem was later included in the Yugoslav secondary school curriculum and schoolchildren were required to memorise it. It ranks among the most famous Serbian-language poems. In 1965, the Belgian poet Karel Jonckheere wrote the poem "Kinderen met krekelstem" ("Children with Cricket Voices"), also about the massacre. "The Blue Butterfly", a book of poetry by Richard Berengarten, is based on the poet's experiences while visiting Kragujevac in 1985, when a blue butterfly landed on his hand at the entrance to the memorial museum.  The massacre has been the subject of two feature films: "Prozvan je i " (" is Called Out"; 1962) and "Krvava bajka" ("A Bloody Fairy Tale"; 1969), named after the eponymous poem. In 2012, the National Assembly of Serbia passed a law declaring 21 October a public holiday, the Day of Remembrance of the Serbian Victims of World War II.

The Kragujevac massacre was the mass murder of between 2,778 and 2,794 mostly Serb men and boys in Kragujevac by German soldiers on 21 October 1941. It occurred in the German-occupied territory of Serbia during World War II, and came in reprisal for insurgent attacks in the Gornji Milanovac district that resulted in the deaths of 10 German soldiers and the wounding of 26 others. The number of hostages to be shot was calculated as a ratio of 100 hostages executed for every German soldier killed and 50 hostages executed for every German soldier wounded, a formula devised by Adolf Hitler with the intent of suppressing anti-Nazi resistance in Eastern Europe.

Die Massaker von Kraljevo und Kragujevac () waren Kriegsverbrechen der deutschen Wehrmacht im besetzten Serbien. Bei den beiden größten Erschießungen in Serbien wurden im Oktober 1941 mehr als 4000 Zivilisten getötet. Angehörige der 717. Infanterie-Division erschossen als Vergeltung für einen Hinterhalt, in den eine deutsche Kompanie geraten war, 2.300 Bürger der Stadt Kragujevac, gleichzeitig fielen 1.700 Einwohner des benachbarten Kraljevo einer ähnlichen „Sühneaktion“ zum Opfer. An den Massakern waren Einheiten des kollaborierenden Serbischen Freiwilligen-Kommandos und der Serbischen Staatswache beteiligt.


History.

Bologna Football Club's formation was orchestrated by Emilio Arnstein, an Austrian who became interested in football at university in Vienna and Prague. He and his brother had previously founded another football club, Black Star, in Austria. The club was founded on 3 October 1909, in the Northern Italian city of Bologna. Upon its formation, Carlo Sandoni was the club's sponsor and general manager, Swiss Louis Rauch became president, nobleman Guido Della Valle was the vice-president, Enrico Penaglia secretary, Sergio Lampronti cashier, while Emilio Arnstein and Leone Vincenzi were appointed councilmen.  On 20 March 1910, Bologna played their first ever game, against Virtus, who wore white shirts. Bologna outclassed their opponents, winning 9–1. The first football squad featured; Koch, Chiara, Pessarelli, Bragaglia, Guido Della Valle, Nanni, Donati, Rauch, Bernabeu, Mezzano, and Gradi. Their formative season was spent in the regional league under Arrigo Gradi as captain, Bologna won their league gaining promotion to a league named "Group Veneto-Emiliano". They spent four seasons in this league, never finishing lower than fifth. Bologna were entered into the Northern League before all football leagues were postponed for World War I.

Champions: 1920s and 1930s.

After the first war, Bologna began to become more successful. First reaching the semi-finals of the Northern Italian competition in 1919–20, they went one better the following season by reaching the Northern League finals, going out 2–1 to Pro Vercelli. They would equal this again in 1923–24, coming runner up to eventual national champions Genoa.  Bologna became Northern and National League champions for the first time during 1924–25, beating Genoa CFC after five hard-fought final matches to take the championship. The finals against the Ligurian giants were marred by heavy crowd troubles. A few seasons later Bologna became champions of Italy for the second time in 1928–29 giving them a foothold in Italian football, building up a legacy, this was the last time the league was competed in the old system, Serie A was instated the following year. The "Scudetto" was won by Bologna four more times before World War II, these were achieved in; 1935–36, 1936–37, 1938–39 and 1940–41.

Post-World War II.

After World War II, the club was less successful. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the club generally floated between fourth, fifth and sixth position in the league, until they took the league title back in 1963–64. To date this remains their last Serie A championship, bringing the club's total to seven. This qualified Bologna to the 1964–65 European Cup (today UEFA Champions League), but they were eliminated in the preliminary round against Anderlecht. It was not all doom and gloom for the club, however; in the 1970s, they won the Italian Cup twice, the second of which was disputed against Palermo. The game was tense and finished 1–1 before going to a penalty shootout, where Bologna won 4–3.

Climbing down and back up the Leagues.

Beginning in the 1981–82 season, the club began to slide. First, they were relegated from Serie A after battling it out for survival with Cagliari and Genoa. They were relegated twice in succession and slid into Serie C1. They won their way out of C1 the next year, and returned to Serie A for the 1988–89 season after four years of fighting it out in Serie B.  They did not remain long, however, being relegated in 1991 and returning to Serie C1 in 1993. The club returned to Serie A for 1996. Two years later, Bologna tasted a slice of success on the European stage, winning the UEFA Intertoto Cup and playing in the UEFA Cup. The club remained in Serie A until the 2004–05 campaign, losing to Parma in the playoffs.

Serie B.

Despite losing some key players, Bologna expected to be challenging strongly for promotion from Serie B in the 2005–06 campaign. Despite its ambition, however, Bologna had a poor start to the season, causing the sacking of experienced coach Renzo Ulivieri, replaced by former Internazionale defender Andrea Mandorlini.  During this time, the team was sold by Giuseppe Gazzoni Frascara to Alfredo Cazzola, a local entrepreneur. Mandorlini, however, was not either able to bring Bologna up the Serie B table, and was fired on 5 March 2006; Ulivieri was then appointed back as team coach, after having been sacked a few months before. Bologna ended the 2005–06 Serie B campaign in eighth place. In the 2006–07 season, Bologna ended with the seventh place: there were several clashes between chairman Cazzola and head coach Ulivieri, who was ultimately fired on 14 April 2007 and replaced by caretaker and former assistant coach Luca Cecconi. For the 2007–08 season, Bologna was led by Daniele Arrigoni, who helped the "rossoblù" achieve automatic promotion back to the top flight after finishing second in Serie B.

Serie A.

During the summer of 2008, a club takeover was agreed between Cazzola and an American-based consortium; this was, however, cancelled in the end, following disagreements between the parties, and the club was successively sold to a local group led by new chairman Francesca Menarini, who thus became the second female chairman in the whole Serie A. Arrigoni was confirmed as head coach by the new group, and the start appeared to be particularly impressive, with a surprising 2–1 win at San Siro against Milan thanks to a winning goal scored by Francesco Valiani. The next weeks saw Bologna struggling in the league, however, with eight losses in nine matches. A disappointing 5–1 loss to Cagliari ultimately led the club management to sack Daniele Arrigoni on 3 November 2008 and appoint Siniša Mihajlović as new "rossoblù" boss.  On 14 April 2009, Giuseppe Papadopulo was appointed as the new manager, and successfully managed to raise the team spirit avoiding relegation to Serie B only in the last match of the season. In the 2009–10 season, Bologna played in Serie A for the 65th time, and escaped relegation again despite financial issues under new head coach Franco Colomba.  In June 2010, a club takeover was completed, with the club being sold by the Menarini family to Sardinian entrepreneur Sergio Porcedda. Franco Colomba was sacked right before the 2010–11 season opener on 29 August 2010, despite surviving relegation with the team in the 2009–10 season. The president of the club, Sergio Porcedda, said that the decision was made mostly "because he [Colomba] was skeptical of the team."

The consortium "Bologna 2010".

On 23 December 2010, the consortium "Bologna 2010" led by banker Giovanni Consorte and coffee businessman Massimo Zanetti acquired the club from Sergio Porcedda, after the latter failed to pay wages for the club during his short-tenured ownership and put Bologna in threat of bankruptcy. The company also owed agent fee to Leonardo Corsi in the Andrea Raggi's transfer. Zanetti also became the new club chairman, with popular Italian musician and long-time Bologna supporter Gianni Morandi appointed as honorary president.  On 21 January 2011, chairman Massimo Zanetti and CEO Luca Baraldi, after only 28 days, resigned because of irreconcilable differences with the other personal and financial partners. Stefano Pedrelli became the new director general. For 76 days, the chairman was Marco Pavignani.  From 7 April 2011, after the resignation of Pavignani and having paid €2.5m of capital increase, the new chairman was Albano Guaraldi, the second largest shareholder of the consortium "Bologna 2010" with the 17% of the quotas, behind the outgoing Zanetti.  The 2013–14 season saw Bologna once again relegated to the Serie B, and also gave light to a number of financial problems involving the club and its ownership of Albino Guaraldi, who was considerably criticized by the team supporters also for a number of controversial decisions, including the sale of star player Alessandro Diamanti to Chinese club Guangzhou Evergrande. A new head coach was then found in former Cagliari boss Diego López for the new season, whereas Guaraldi clearly stated his intention to hand over his Bologna stakes to a new owner. A North American group headed by Joe Tacopina and Joey Saputo (owner of Montreal Impact, also the team of former Bologna hero Marco Di Vaio) then stated its interest in acquiring the club; this was followed by another offer coming from former chairman Massimo Zanetti. On 15 October 2014, the board of directors ratified the sale of the club to BFC 1909 Lux SPV, and Tacopina became the new club chairman.

The consortium "BFC 1909 Lux Spv".

Under the new ownership which BFC 1909 Lux Spv S.A. of Luxemburg as an intermediate holding company, Bologna promoted back to Serie A in 2015. Saputo also succeeded Tacopina as the new chairman of the board of directors of Bologna on 17 November 2014.  In their first season back in Serie A, Bologna finished 14th avoiding relegation. In the following 2 seasons, Bologna finished in 15th place on the table. In the 2018-19 Serie A season, Bologna finished in a credible 10th position on the table.

Stadium.

The official stadium of Bologna is the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara. Dall'Ara is the biggest sports building of Bologna and its name is taken from an ex-chairman of the club, Renato Dall'Ara, who died three days before the final for Serie A's "Scudetto". Its capacity is 38,500. The "curva Bulgarelli" (in English, Bulgarelli curve), the curve of Bologna's ultras, is dedicated to player Giacomo Bulgarelli, who died on 21 February 2009. The other curve, part of which is reserved for the away fans, is dedicated to Árpád Weisz, coach of Bologna's winning pre-war team, and killed by the Nazis in a concentration camp during WWII.

Chairmen history.

Bologna have had numerous Chairmen over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary chairmen. Here is a complete list of Bologna chairmen from 1909 until the present day.

Managerial history.

Bologna have had many managers and trainers, some seasons they have had co-managers running the team. Here is a chronological list of them from 1920 onwards.

Honours.

Domestic.

Serie A  Coppa Italia

International.

Mitropa Cup  Coupe des Nations:  UEFA Intertoto Cup  Anglo-Italian League Cup  Anglo-Italian Cup  Cup of the Alps

Bologna Football Club 1909, commonly referred to as Bologna (), is an Italian football club based in Bologna, Emilia-Romagna. The club are nicknamed the "Rossoblù" due to the red-and-blue striped shirts which they wear, which are also the official colours of the city.

Der FC Bologna (offiziell: "Bologna Football Club 1909 S.p.A.") ist ein 1909 gegründeter italienischer Fußballklub aus der emilianischen Hauptstadt Bologna. Weitere Bezeichnungen sind "I Rossoblu" („Die Rot-Blauen“) und "I Veltri" („Die Windhunde“).