Background and development.

"Rude Boy" was produced by Rob Swire and Stargate who co-wrote the song with Rihanna, Ester Dean, and Makeba Riddick. During an interview on the television show, "" in February 2010, Carr asked Rihanna about the song's lyrics, with particular emphasis on the line "Come here rude boy, boy, can you get it up?/Come here rude boy, boy, is you big enough?" Rihanna explained: "When we wrote the song, it was kind of a freestyle... I liked the West Indian influence that the music had, and, I just went in the booth, they were already jotting down some ideas and, that came to me, I just ran in there with the, one of the writers and started coming up with this in the studio and now when people read it back to me like that, 'Come here rude boy, is you big enough'?, it does sound so disgusting!" She also explained the development of the song, and said that those lyrics were originally going to be the introduction, but because of the song's infectious beat, Rihanna decided to make it the hook instead.  In an interview with "Us Weekly", Makeba Riddick, who assisted with the song's vocal production, spoke about the inspiration for the song. Riddick explained that Ester Dean had come up with a concept for the song, and had been working with Stargate to develop it. Upon hearing it, Riddick and Rihanna expressed interest in the song but thought that some changes were needed, and sent it to Riddick for completion. Riddick also explained where the idea for some of the sexually provocative lyrics came from: "I was listening to the words and me and [Rihanna] and we were just laughing and talking about so many situations that have happened in the past and that happen to women everywhere. By the time we were done of course, we were laughing and giggling about the lyrics – surprisingly everybody went nuts over the song." Dean explained the development of "Rude Boy" in an interview with The Boom Box, and said that she wanted to channel Rihanna's alter ego and use it as inspiration for the song's lyrics. Dean praised Rihanna's ability to take risks with her music, saying "I think Rihanna is sexy and will say things that other chicks won't say. Even if she says let's go kiss some girls, who really cares... that's Rihanna. Music is about fantasy. This is what people want to do, but are afraid to do." In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Stargate revealed that Rihanna had come up with the title and concept for the song herself, and communicated her ideas to Dean before any work began on the music.

Composition.

"Rude Boy" is an uptempo dancehall and R&B song. which incorporates elements of raggamuffin. The song is written in the key of E minor (recorded in E minor) with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 87 beats per minute. Rihanna's vocal range spans from the low note of E to the high note of D, and the song follows a sequence of Em−Bm−C−Am−Bm as its chord progression. Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" commented that "Rude Boy", and the album's previous single "Hard", were the highlights of "Rated R", praised the singer's vocal performance in the song, "both of which exploit Rihanna's most appealing vocal style, a sulky, icy, monotone." Michael Menachem of "Billboard" commented on the lyrical content of the song, and wrote, "with 'Rude Boy', Rihanna delivers her most provocative lyrics and perhaps most authentic-sounding single to date." Menachem also wrote about the song's composition, "Steel drums are a welcome presence on the production, which gives a nod to ska and dancehall. Rihanna's swagger has never been as convincing as on this song."

Release.

"Rude Boy" was released as the fourth overall single (third international) from "Rated R" (2009). It was sent to urban radio stations in the US on February 9, 2010, and was released via digital download on February 19, 2010.

Critical reception.

"Los Angeles Times" reviewer Ann Powers stated that the song has a "ragamuffin-style", and commented on the lyrics, "Even as she offers herself in no uncertain terms—'I'm gon' let you be the captain tonight' she sneers—she questions his prowess. 'Can you get it up? Are you big enough?' she repeats in the singsong chorus, making it tough to imagine that any suitor could rise to this occasion." Bill Lamb of About.com praised the song, and called it "the most instantly engaging song from the album Rated R", and that "[Rihanna] projects a dominant female image that is exactly what was needed to move past the unfortunate Chris Brown chapter in her career". However, Lamb added that the "icy feel is wearing thin. Rihanna sounds like she has taken a few steps back to distance herself from the whole song. There is a pleasing swagger, but we're never quite engaged".  Nick Levine of Digital Spy, commenting on the genre of the song and Rihanna's musical direction and transition from her previous album "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007), wrote that the song "can be construed as a winning synthesis of her Island-pop beginnings, the effortless hitmaking of the "Good Girl Gone Bad" era and the more menacing persona she's unveiled post-Grammygate. On the other, it's just a damn good tune." Levine also wrote that "Rude Boy" is "the most instantly catchy moment" on "Rated R". Alibhe Malone of "NME" commented on the song's demeanor in relation to "Rated R" as a whole, and wrote, "With only one other female songwriter here apart from Rihanna (Ester Dean on 'Rude Boy') it's a startlingly masculine record – in sound and in attitude." Malone also wrote that Rihanna persists in ensuring that listener realizes "how she wants men in her bed." Ryan Dombell of Pitchfork Media wrote a mixed review of the song; he called it the flightiest song on "Rated R", but praised it as superior to the riskier material on the album.

Chart performance.

"Rude Boy" debuted on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number sixty-four. It peaked at number one a month later, replacing "Break Your Heart" by Taio Cruz, and became Rihanna's sixth US number one single. Rihanna equaled Paula Abdul and Diana Ross as the female artists with the fifth-most number one singles on the Hot 100's in its fifty-one year history. "Rude Boy" remained at number one for five consecutive weeks, and was replaced by "Nothin' On You" by B.o.B featuring Bruno Mars. "Rude Boy" also topped the US Rhythmic Airplay, Pop Songs, and Dance Club Songs charts. "Rude Boy" was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold over 3 million copies in the United States as of June 2015. "Rude Boy" debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number forty-five, and peaked at number one for two weeks in March 2010. It remained on the chart for nineteen weeks, and was certified two-times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, denoting shipments of over 140,000 copies. In New Zealand, the song debuted at number twenty-five on February 22, 2010, and peaked at number three in its fifth week on the chart.  On the UK Singles Chart, "Rude Boy" peaked at number two. It was prevented from reaching the top spot by Tinie Tempah's "Pass Out", which debuted at number one and remained there for two weeks. "Rude Boy" was more successful on the UK R&B Chart, where it peaked at number one for one week on February 27, 2010. On April 30, 2010, the single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry, denoting shipments of over 400,000 copies. Elsewhere in Europe, the song achieved moderate chart success, peaking at number three in Denmark and Norway for two weeks on both charts, and in both the Flanders and Wallonia regions of Belgium. "Rude Boy" also reached the top ten in Austria, Finland and France, charting at numbers six, seven and eight, respectively. "Rude Boy" was less successful in Sweden, where the song peaked at number eleven.

Music video.

Background and synopsis.

The accompanying music video for "Rude Boy" was directed by Melina Matsoukas, who also directed the video for Rihanna's previous single, "Hard" and was shot in January 2010 in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California. The video relies upon the use of greenscreen, and contains strong references to critically acclaimed famous artists, including Andy Warhol, Keith Haring, Salt-n-Pepa, M.I.A. and Jean-Michel Basquiat. In an interview with Carson Daly on his radio show, "Amp Radio", Rihanna described the video as "completely different from any other video" she had done before and "pretty freakin' cool". She explained its artistic qualities, and said, "A lot of my videos are really dark and edgy and tough. 'Rude Boy' is more playing along the lines from my roots. We used a lot of color, but also the costumes were very Jamaican dance-hall-queen type." The video premiered on February 10, 2010, via the high definition music video provider Vevo.  The video features Rihanna in a multitude of vibrant, brightly colored, Caribbean inspired scenes. In the opening scene, Rihanna approaches a drum kit, which she plays as the song progresses. During the rest of the video, Rihanna engages with and plays with a variety of props, including a male extra, a zebra, a motorcycle and a stuffed lion; these scenes are intercut with scenes of Rihanna playing the drum kit. Rihanna wears a variety of outfits in the video, including a gold net bodysuit and a black and white zebra print catsuit, which she wears while sitting atop a stuffed zebra. Rihanna performs various 1990s dancehall dance moves, such as the Bogle.

Reception and accolades.

Upon the video's release, several media outlets noticed a resemblance between the colorful aesthetics of "Rude Boy" and those of British singer-songwriter and rapper M.I.A.'s video "Boyz". Melina Matsoukas responded to the allegations that she had copied the idea, and said, "Afterward I was like, 'Oh, this sucks. They tore down my video... [M.I.A.'s] video's great too. It definitely wasn't trying to rip anybody off at all, it was just our approach and the animation stuff, it had a similar vibe." Matsoukas explained that the inspiration for the video did not come from one particular source, but from a variety of pop culture icons. She concluded, "We're all inspired by similar elements and it came together in that way." Several critics noticed the differences between Rihanna's previous singles, "Russian Roulette" and "Hard", and that "Rude Boy" had adopted a care-free and brighter image. Becky Bain of Idolator also noticed the similarities between M.I.A.'s video "Boyz" and "Rude Boy", and wrote, "We're digging the reggae-inflected jam, although the Bob Marley-meets-M.I.A. color explosion becomes a little hard on the eyes after awhile." Bain said the video "is colorful, loud, vibrant, and a complete departure from the mostly depressing captivity scenarios and over-the-top war imagery of the previous videos from her Rated R singles." Simon Vozick-Levinson of "Entertainment Weekly" also commented on the vibrancy of the video and its resemblance to M.I.A.'s video, "It's a wild explosion of clashing colors, bold block lettering, and shaky camerawork. As many observers instantly pointed out, it all owes more than a little to the aesthetic of M.I.A.—which, if you ask me, is not a bad thing at all." Jocelyn Vena of MTV commented on the change of visual direction in the video, calling it "a colorful departure from the dark fare previously released from her Rated R album." Vena also wrote about the stylization of the video's content with regard to Rihanna's heritage. She wrote that the video is infused with "a kaleidoscope of prints and colors, embracing her roots in Caribbean dance-hall-inspired costumes."  "Rude Boy" won the award for Most Performed Song at the 2011 ASCAP Pop Music Awards and the Award Winning Songs award at the 2011 BMI Urban Awards. The song was also won three awards at the 2011 Barbados Music Awards in the Best Pop/R&B Single, Music Video of the Year and Song of the Year categories. "Rude Boy" was nominated in the 'Best Editing' category at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, but lost to Lady Gaga's "Bad Romance".  Sean Kingston and Detail released a cover version of the song, titled "Rude Girl". DJ Earworm used "Rude Boy" in his mash-up of the top 25 songs of 2010 titled "United State of Pop 2010 (Don't Stop the Pop)". He also used "Rude Boy" in his mash-up "Like OMG Baby", designed for the 2010 Capital FM Summertime Ball Concert where Rihanna performed.

Live performances.

To promote the song as the third US single from "Rated R", Rihanna performed "Rude Boy" live for the first time at the Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam on VH1 in South Beach, Miami, on February 4, 2010. The set also included "Russian Roulette" and "Hard", both from "Rated R" On February 2, 2010, Rihanna performed five songs for "AOL Music Sessions", which were made available to view on the AOL website on February 23, 2010. The set included "Rude Boy", "Russian Roulette", "Hard", "Take a Bow" and a stripped-down version of "Disturbia". The singer also performed the song on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", which aired on February 15, 2010. Robbie Daw of Idolator commented that although Rihanna wore only a leather jacket and visor, she failed to bring the same level of sexuality to the performance which American singer Prince would have evoked.  To promote the song's release as a single in the UK, Rihanna made a recorded appearance on "" on February 24, 2010, which was broadcast the following day. The singer wore a crop-top, "bizarre oversized" shorts, an "unusual" hairnet, and large, golden, hooped earrings. Rihanna also demonstrated the dance moves which are featured in the video, including the bogle, the butterfly, and the Dutty Wine, which she taught to the show's host. "Rude Boy" was also performed on GMTV the following day, where Rihanna also gave a short interview. Rihanna performed "Rude Boy" at the ECHO Awards in Berlin, Germany, on March 4, 2010. Rihanna shared the stage with two larger-than-life mechanical robots, which interacted with her throughout the performance.  On March 27, 2010, Rihanna performed "Rude Boy" as part of a medley with "Hard" and "Don't Stop the Music" at the 2010 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, held at UCLA's Pauley Pavilion in Westwood, California. The performance featured a large camouflage tank and two robots similar to those used for her performance at the ECHO Awards. On May 23, 2010, Rihanna performed a 40-minute set at BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend Music Festival in Bangor, Wales. She performed several of her biggest hits, which included "Mad House", "Hard", "Disturbia", "Rude Boy", "Te Amo", "Russian Roulette", "Don't Stop the Music", "SOS", and "Umbrella". The song was featured on Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth Tour. "Rude Boy" was also on the set-list of her Loud Tour, where Rihanna wore a denim bra and high waisted shorts. This performance was received far more positively than that of her previous tour, and critics praised the production of the concert. Jane Stevenson of the "Toronto Sun" wrote, "the two-hour, larger-than-life show lived up to the billing." Rihanna performed "Rude Boy" at Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012, as the seventh song on the set list. She also performed the song at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards in a medley with Pon De Replay, What's My Name? and Work.

Credits and personnel.

Credits adapted from the liner notes of "Rated R".

"Rude Boy" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna, taken from her fourth studio album, "Rated R" (2009). It was released as the album's fourth overall and third international single on February 19, 2010, through Def Jam. Rihanna co-wrote the song with Ester Dean, Makeba Riddick, and producers Rob Swire and Stargate. "Rude Boy" is an up-tempo dancehall and R&B song which incorporates elements of raggamuffin. The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics; some have call it is the highlight of the album, but others criticized Rihanna's "monotone" and "icy" vocal performance.

Rude Boy ist ein Lied der barbadischen R&B-Sängerin Rihanna. Es gehört den Genres Contemporary R&B, Pop und Dancehall an. Es wurde als dritte Single aus ihrem vierten Album "Rated R" veröffentlicht.


Overview.

The Unity for Democracy and Justice Party (UDJP), commonly known as Andenet (Amharic for Unity), is an Ethiopian national opposition political party established by former leaders and members of Coalition for Unity and Democracy Party (CUD). Andenet is a short form of UDJP's Amharic name, Andenet ledemocracy ena lefitih. It was formed by former CUD leaders and members advocating for free and fair Ethiopian elections in the then-upcoming 2010 elections. The UDJP was chaired and vice-chaired by Birtukan Midekssa and Yakob Haile-Mariam, respectively. Both were detained and sentenced to life in prison before they were controversially pardoned on October 6, 2008 and September 2007, respectively. Their arrests were considered by Ethiopian political opposition parties as a Majority Government attempt to block fair and free election and democratic process.

Current performances.

UDJP was formed with 42 parliament members and the representatives of former CUD leaders and members on June 17, 2008. Support organizations abroad. Members representing woredas in Ethiopia were also in attendance. This meeting was supposed to be held at Imperial Hotel on June 13, 2008, but due to government problems, it was postponed. The meeting was later held in a tent in the compound of the party. After 6 hours of discussion, 60 permanent and 15 temporary central committee members were elected out of 105 nominated representatives. The same meeting elected the party's 18 executives (of which 6 are top executives): The chair was Midekssa.  UDJP was formed on June 17, 2008. On December 15, 2009, the National Executive Committee of UDJ made the following assignments and reassignments of duties: On the same day, the bylaws and manifesto that the party adopted from its predecessor, CUD, was reviewed and adopted. After three reviews by NEBE and the corresponding amendments and explanation by UDJP, the chairwoman obtained the registration certificate of the party.  UDJP has support organizations on all continents. It has 34 offices in Ethiopian regions of Amhara, Oromia, Southern state, Afar, Harari and Addis Ababa.

The Unity for Democracy and Justice was an Ethiopian political party. It was founded by Birtukan Midekssa on June 20, 2008, based on the parties that constituted the Coalition for Unity and Democracy. It was a major component in the eight-party Medrek coalition, the largest opposition coalition in the 2010 election. In May 2019, the party merged with the Ethiopian Citizens for Social Justice, bringing an end to the party.

Die Einheit für Demokratie und Gerechtigkeit (, transkribiert "Andenet ledemocracy ena lefitih"; ), bekannt unter dem Namen Andenet (; Abkürzung "UDJ") ist die zurzeit einflussreichste außerparlamentarische politische Oppositionspartei in Äthiopien.


Early life.

Sykes was born on 20 November 1986, in Ashford, Kent, England. As an infant, he moved to Australia with his parents, Ian and Carol Sykes, moving between Adelaide and Perth during a period of about six years. The family returned to the United Kingdom when Sykes was about eight, settling in Stocksbridge in Sheffield, South Yorkshire. As a teenager, he attended Stocksbridge High School then Barnsley College.

Career.

Music career: Womb 2 Da Tomb, Purple Curto and Olisaurus pseudonym (2000–2004).

In late 2000, while still in school, he began crafting compilation CDs and short tracks under the name Quakebeat. He also played in the mock hip-hop band "Womb 2 Da Tomb" with his brother Tom Sykes and fellow Bring Me the Horizon member Matt Nicholls, and in metal band "Purple Curto" with Neil Whiteley, as the drummer/vocalist under the pseudonym "Olisaurus", which he would later use when releasing solo material.

Bring Me the Horizon (2004–present).

In 2004, Sykes formed Bring Me the Horizon. The band released their debut album "Count Your Blessings" in 2006, their second album "Suicide Season" was released on 29 September 2008, their third studio album "There Is a Hell Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven Let's Keep It a Secret." on 4 October 2010, they released their fourth studio album "Sempiternal" on 1 April 2013 which features the new member Jordan Fish and Sykes playing rhythm guitar for the album and they released their fifth studio album "That's the Spirit" on 11 September 2015, their sixth album "Amo" was released on 25 January 2019.

Collaborations and other musical projects.

Sykes has been featured in songs for the bands You Me at Six's "Bite My Tongue", Architects' "Even If You Win, You're Still a Rat", Admiral's Arms' "Dawn of the New Age" and Deez Nuts' "If You Don't Know, You Know Now". He is also featured on a music video of American rock band A Day to Remember's "All I Want".  In 2017, Sykes featured as guest vocalist in the song "Silence Speaks" with English metalcore band While She Sleeps.  Sykes was briefly featured in the music video for Charli XCX's song "Boys" along with other artists such as Brendon Urie, Denzel Curry, Charlie Puth and Stormzy.  Sykes has also collaborated with DJ Skrillex as the backing vocals of a Bring Me the Horizon song "Visions" off the Bring Me the Horizon album "There Is a Hell Believe Me I've Seen It. There Is a Heaven Let's Keep It a Secret.". Skrillex has also remixed a Bring Me the Horizon song "The Sadness Will Never End" off "Suicide Season" which the remix was featured on the "Cut Up!" version of the album.  On 27 October 2017, Sykes performed with Linkin Park – who he claims were his first ever concert as a teenager – at. He performed the song "Crawling" with DJ and record producer Zedd on percussion.

Clothing line.

In addition to his vocal and songwriting contributions in Bring Me the Horizon, Sykes is also the founder and owner of the alternative clothing line Drop Dead Clothing (stylized as DROP DEAD).

Writing.

On 1 February 2013, Sykes launched a Kickstarter project to fund a graphic novel created by him and Drop Dead Clothing artist Ben Ashton-Bell, entitled "Raised by Raptors". With a £15,000 goal, the project exceeded its target within weeks of launching, attaining a final total of £39,223.

Influences and legacy.

Influences.

Sykes has cited Pantera, Black Flag, Misfits, Linkin Park, Simple Plan, Every Time I Die, Skycamefalling, Poison the Well, Norma Jean and The Dillinger Escape Plan. While at the Download Festival 2014, Sykes revealed to Linkin Park that he attended some of their early shows, after watching them perform, he was inspired to write music and formed a band. Sam Carter, the lead singer of Architects, has also cited Sykes as his biggest influence.

Musical style.

Bring Me the Horizon's debut album has been described as deathcore, while their other albums have been described as metalcore. Their latest album, "Amo" has been described as various types of rock including pop rock, electronic rock, electropop, synth-pop, EDM, alternative rock, electronica, and hard rock. Bring Me the Horizon has been described as metalcore, alternative metal, alternative rock, pop rock, electronic rock, hard rock, heavy metal, post-hardcore, pop, nu metal, electropop, arena rock, melodic metalcore, electronicore, screamo, and emo.

Vocals and lyrics.

Sykes' lyrics have a strong feeling of catharsis for him. He mainly draws from personal experience and has likened the band's live performances to being therapeutic. In 2006, when asked about the lyrics of "Count Your Blessings", as they had been criticised for their content fixated on heartbreak or other themes that were called "shallow and meaningless", he responded "My life's never been that bad so I've not got that much to talk about".

Legacy.

The main character of the French feature film "A Taste of Ink" is an admirer of Oliver Sykes and Bring Me the Horizon. He is a post-hardcore singer and wears as a tribute to Oliver Sykes a Michael Jordan black jersey. The French title "" is inspired by the first album of the band "Count Your Blessings". The movie was released in France in 2017 with Kévin Azaïs, Monia Chokri and Nathan Willcocks as main actors.

Personal life.

Since the age of 12, Sykes has suffered from a form of night terrors known as sleep paralysis, which is the inability to move or speak while falling asleep, or upon waking.  Sykes became a vegetarian in 2003 at age 16 after watching a documentary about animal cruelty online, "When I saw how animals are tortured on factory farms, I couldn't justify being a part of that cruelty." He went on to become one of the faces for PETA, eventually designing charity T-shirts with the slogan "Meat Sucks" via his Drop Dead Clothing line. He later became a vegan in 2013. His passion for veganism can be seen in his 2018 venture 'Church', an arcade bar with a fully vegan menu based in Sheffield's Kelham Island.  Sykes is an outspoken atheist, stating "I don't believe in God. I was asked to believe in him when I was in a shitty place. I couldn't understand why I needed a god or, in my opinion, something that doesn't exist." In an interview with Radio.com in 2013, he also stated "In my opinion, I don't think believing in God is a victimless crime. It's not that I'm right and everyone else is wrong. If it was just people believing in God had no effect on the world, then it wouldn't matter. Then you can believe in what you want, if you want an imaginary friend that lives in the clouds that's fine. But it's the fact that it does have an effect on other people and other things and the whole world is in turmoil mainly because of religion, at least a massive part of it."  After receiving the Album of the Year award at the first Alternative Press Music Awards in 2014, Sykes revealed a history of addiction and abuse of the drug Ketamine. Addressing the crowd, he said "My band wanted to kill me, my parents wanted to kill me, my fucking brother wanted to kill me," and also admitted, "I went to rehab for a month, and you guys were sending me texts and e-mails. When I got out of that rehab, I didn't want to scream anymore, I wanted to sing from the fucking rooftops."  On 12 July 2015 in Tuscany, Italy, Sykes married model and tattoo artist Hannah Pixie Snowdon. In 2016, Sykes announced that he and Snowdon had separated. In May 2019, Sykes alleged that their relationship ended due to Snowdon's infidelity, and referred to her as his "ex-wife". The band's 2019 single, "Medicine" was written about the pair's relationship.  On 22 July 2017, Sykes married Brazilian model Alissa Salls.

Controversies.

Urination and assault allegation.

In 2007, a female fan accused Sykes of urinating on her and accused him and his bandmates of assaulting her. Oliver Sykes was put on trial and did not plead guilty to the alleged crime. The fan took a photo of her face, which was a photo of possible blood was all over her face. An employee of venue Rock City in Nottingham, England said "After the gig, two girls tried to get on the tour bus. Later on, the singer, Oliver Sykes, tried it on with one of the girls. When she said no, he called her a dyke and first pissed on her before him and the rest of the band threw her and her friend off the bus. Once off the bus someone within the band threw an empty bottle of Jagermeister at the girl's head". Sykes strongly denied the allegations. According to record label Visible Noise Records, "numerous versions of the alleged incident have been posted online". Charges against Sykes were dropped due to a lack of evidence.

Videos with Architects.

During a tour in 2008, Bring Me the Horizon and the British metalcore band Architects filmed two videos. The first showed a fight between Sykes and Architects' lead singer Sam Carter, while the second showed an ambulance with Sykes supposedly inside. The videos were uploaded to YouTube, leading to outrage from many Bring Me the Horizon fans which resulted in hate mail and death threats being sent to Carter. However, it was later revealed that the videos were a stunt staged by both bands, and that they are in fact good friends. Sykes said, "All-day events can get boring very fast so we conjured up the first idiotic thing we could think of and made it as unbelievable as possible."

Moshing incident.

In June 2013, Sykes and Bring Me the Horizon were sued by the parents of a 12-year-old girl due to injuries received in the mosh pit while watching the band's performance during the Warped Tour 2013. This led to Sykes announcing via Twitter that legally he was no longer able to start any form of moshing activities during his concerts. However, Sykes later stated that the suit had been dropped and that moshing was not going to be banned.

Oliver Scott "Oli" Sykes (born 20 November 1986) is an English musician, singer, songwriter, entrepreneur, clothing designer, and record producer, best known as the lead vocalist of the rock band Bring Me the Horizon. He also founded the apparel company Drop Dead Clothing. Sykes has also created the graphic novel "Raised by Raptors" with Drop Dead Clothing artist Ben Ashton-Bell.

Oliver Scott Sykes (* 20. November 1986 in Stocksbridge bei Sheffield/Yorkshire) ist ein englischer Sänger und Frontmann der Band Bring Me the Horizon. Ebenso tritt Sykes als Gründer des Modelabels "Drop Dead Clothing" in Erscheinung, dessen Kleidungsstücke hauptsächlich von Künstlern aus den extremeren Metal- und Hardcore-Subgenres gestaltet werden.


Early life.

A native of Kill, County Cavan, he was ordained a priest in 1969. Before being appointed Bishop he served as the parish priest of Castletara (Ballyhaise), a post in which he succeeded Seán Brady, his second cousin, who later became Cardinal Archbishop of Armagh.  The family later moved to Kilconny, Belturbet. He received his early education in Drumnatrade and Tullyvin National Schools and later in St. Patrick's College, Cavan. He studied for the priesthood in Maynooth College and was ordained in 1969.  He was a member of the staff in St Patrick's College until 1976 when he went to Rome to do further studies. He served on the staff of the Pontifical Irish College from 1978 until 1980. In 1981 he gained his a doctorate in theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University and that summer was appointed chaplain to Bailieboro Community School.

Child Protection Success.

In a report published by the National Board for Safeguarding Children in the Catholic Church on 30 November 2011 Kilmore was said to be a “model of best practice” in child protection, mainly due to the “personal commitment and diligence” of Bishop Leo O’Reilly, a review into safeguarding children has found. Allegations against seven priests received since 1975 were identified by the board for the Review of Safeguarding Children in the Catholic Church in the Kilmore diocese. There were no cases of a failure to report or address matters when they came to light and all the allegations were reported to the Garda and the Health Service Executive (or health boards), the review found. There were no examples of “poor practice” since Bishop O’Reilly was appointed in 1998. The board praised the bishop’s approach as an “excellent example” for others to follow.  However, a priest at the centre of abuse allegations and complaints continued to live in a parochial house in the Kilmore Diocese despite repeated requests from Bishop O'Reilly that he move to alternative accommodation.

Abortion.

Responding to the Irish Government's decision to introduce legislation and regulations on the abortion issue, Bishop O'Reilly declared it the "first step on the road to a culture of death", echoing a phrase popularised by Pope John Paul II on a World Youth Day tour of the United States in 1993

View on same-sex marriage.

In relation to the Irish government's Constitutional Convention to consider same-sex marriage, Bishop O'Reilly questioned the length of time available and also stated that any legislation of same-sex marriage would see that the "roles of mother and father are to be consigned to history"

Leo O'Reilly (born April 10, 1944), D.D., is the emeritus Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kilmore. He was installed as Bishop of Kilmore on 15 November 1998 and retired on health grounds in December 2018.

Philip Leo O’Reilly (* 10. April 1944 in Corgreagh, County Cavan, Irland) ist ein irischer Geistlicher und emeritierter römisch-katholischer Bischof von Kilmore.


Operational history.

"Korietz" was laid down in Stockholm, Sweden at the Bergsund Mekaniksa shipyards in December 1885, launched on August 7, 1886, and commissioned in 1888. Assigned to service with the Russian Pacific Fleet in 1895, she was a frequent visitor to ports in Korea, Japan and northern China. During the Boxer Rebellion, she participated in the Eight-Nation Alliance attack on Taku Forts in June 1900. During this battle, she was hit six times by shells fired by the Chinese defenders, and suffered nine crewmen killed and 20 wounded.  Together with the cruiser, "Korietz" was dispatched from Port Arthur to the main Korean port of Chemulpo (modern-day Incheon) in early 1904 to protect Russian interests, as diplomatic tensions continued to increase between Russia and the Empire of Japan. After the Russian transport "Sungari" arrived at Chemulpo on 7 February 1904, reporting the sighting of a large Japanese force approaching, "Korietz" (under the command of G. P. Belyaev) was ordered to return to Port Arthur to report and request instructions. In the early morning of 8 February 1904, "Korietz" spotted outside the Chemulpo roadstead, and mistaking it for a fellow Russian ship, loaded its guns for a salute. On closing in, the crew of the "Korietz" realized their mistake and in the ensuing confusion the guns were discharged. "Chiyoda" responded by launching a torpedo. Both sides missed, but this was the first actual exchange of fire in the Russo-Japanese War, and it is highly unclear which side actually opened fire first. "Korietz" retreated back to Chemulpo harbor.  In the subsequent Battle of Chemulpo Bay, Captain Vsevolod Rudnev of the "Varyag" refused an ultimatum by Imperial Japanese Navy admiral Uryū Sotokichi to surrender, and on February 9, 1904 attempted to break through the Japanese squadron from Chemulpo to the open sea. Vastly outnumbered and outgunned, "Korietz" fired 52 rounds at the Japanese ships, but was at a distance that most of its shots did not even reach the Japanese fleet. "Varyag" took heavy damage; "Korietz" suffered from only light damage from shrapnel with no casualties. Unable to break past the Japanese squadron by mid-afternoon, "Korietz" and "Varyag" returned to Chemulpo harbor, where both took refuge near the neutral warships. At 1600 the same day, "Korietz" was scuttled by its crew by blowing up two ammunition magazines. The crew was taken aboard a French cruiser "Pascal", taken to Saigon, French Indochina, and returned to Russia. In St. Petersburg all the officers were awarded the Order of St. George (4th class), the highest military decoration of the Russian Empire.  After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the wreckage of "Korietz" was raised by Japanese engineers, and scrapped.

Second gunboat.

There was a second gunboat named "Korietz", laid down in 1906 at the Putilov Plant in Saint Petersburg, Russia. She was of the "Gilyak" class. At the end of the First World War she participated in the Battle of Moon Sound, but was blown up by her crew on August 8, 1915 in to avoid having to be surrendered to German forces.

Other.

The Grisha III class corvette "Koreyets" (Russian Кореец) of the modern Russian Navy was named after the Russo-Japanese War gunboat "Korietz" at the request of the Association of Koreans in Russia.

Korietz (, Koreyets; literally meaning "Korean person") was a gunboat in Russian Imperial Navy. She was the lead vessel in a class of eight ships in her class (including the "Mandzhur" served on the Baltic, "Donets", "Zaporozhets", "Kubanets", "Terets", "Uralets" and "Chernomorets" on the Black Sea.) The etymology of the names of this class of ships was: Korietz is a Russian word for "Korean man", Mandzhur - "Manchuria man", Donets - "Don Cossack" (literally "Cossack from Don"), Kubanets - "Kuban Cossack" ("Kuban man"), Terets - "Terek Cossack" ("Terek man"), Uralets - "Ural Cossack" ("Ural man"), Chernomorets - "Black Sea Cossack" ("Black Sea man") and Zaporozhets - "Zaporozhian Cossack".

Korejez () war der Name eines seegehenden Kanonenbootes der Kaiserlichen Russischen Marine. 1887 in Dienst gestellt, wurde es 1904 nach dem Gefecht vor Tschemulpo von der Besatzung gesprengt. Die "Korejez" war Typschiff einer Klasse von acht Booten. Der Name des Bootes entspricht der russischen Bezeichnung für einen Einwohner Koreas.


Background.

It was announced that recording was underway for Star's first studio album in late 2007. He stated that the new songs "are more sexy, some are more "guy"ish and some are me screaming my heart out. I'm still finding what "Jeffree Star" really is. And I think I'm almost there..." Star also said that with this album he "embraced a lot of rock elements, mixed it with dance and kind of made something really unique that no one's ever heard before," and "I've just never really made music that I guess I've been 100 percent proud of, you know? It was time for me to take myself more seriously. It's like my big, 'How are you?' to the world." The album is produced by Lester Mendez, 3OH!3's Nathaniel Motte, Luke Walker (commonly known as his alias God's Paparazzi), Simon Wilcox, and Oh, Hush!. Other producers for the album include Tommy Coops, Heather Peggs, and Smile Future. Star wanted the album to "show that [he] had real musical talent" as his previous works were "just thrown together really quickly and there wasn't much effort put into it."  Recording for the album was done in the span of nearly a year. The tracks "Get Away with Murder", "Prisoner" and "Louis Vuitton Body Bag" were recorded at Mad Dog Studios in Burbank, California. Star also recorded the album's title song, "Beauty Killer", at UVS Labs in Los Angeles, California. While in Silverlake, California, Star recorded the songs "Love Rhymes with Fuck You", "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches" and "Queen of the Club Scene" at Pulse Recording. While there, Star also recorded part of the track "Electric Sugar Pop". The recording for that song was finished in Chicago, Illinois. Star also stopped in Santa Monica, California. While there, he recorded multiple songs for the album, including "Bitch, Please!", "Get Physical" and "Fresh Meat", which were recorded at EMI Publishing Studios. "Lollipop Luxury" was recorded at The Tree Fort and Sound City in Los Angeles, California and Hot Beats in Atlanta, Georgia. "Lollipop Luxury" was originally released in 2008, as the lead promotional single from Star's second extended play, Cupcakes Taste Like Violence, and went on to become one of his signature songs amongst fans. For "Beauty Killer", Young Money rapper Nicki Minaj appears on a new version of the song. Although the composition remains mostly unchanged, the beginning of the song states "Jeffree Star and Nicki Minaj", where as the original version did not state Star's name. After the second chorus, Minaj has a rap verse, which includes references to songs such as "Milkshake" by Kelis. Matt Skiba, who had gained notability as the lead singer and guitarist for punk rock band Alkaline Trio, provides guest vocals for the song "Louis Vuitton Body Bag", which is named after the French fashion house Louis Vuitton, which gained popularity mainly for its purses and bags. Electronic rock duo Breathe Carolina are provide vocals on the track "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches", which is featured as the tenth song on the album.

Composition.

The music found on "Beauty Killer" is mainly dance-pop music. Elements of rock and punk music can be found on the album as well. During an interview, Star said of the album's music, "I think in the beginning I was just kinda like joking around and just making shit up – y'know, for fun. I wasn't taking anything really seriously. So for Beauty Killer, I'd toured for two years and worked with a lot of different people. I knew what I wanted to sound like and I had way more production and spent more time on the lyrics too." When speaking of the album's composition, Star commented "Every song has a different feel to it. There are tracks with heavy guitars and some of them are more fun Britney Spears dance-club type stuff. There's definitely some club anthems mixed in there." He has also stated "It's my first proper album and I had the chance to explore myself as an artist more than my previous works and got to work with some amazing producers. Musically and lyrically it's different then what I've released in the past... it's the perfect CD for anyone who's lost and needs to find their diamond tiara."  "Get Away with Murder" is a song which deals with Star breaking up with someone. The lyrics contain lines such as "I'm gonna break your heart, and get away with murder." The song features elements of rock music, as well as pop and electronic music. Jess Grenier of shrednews called the song "clever", and praised its lyrical content. A music video was filmed for the song, and released in 2010. "Prisoner", the album's lead single, features Star singing about stalking someone and being in love with them. In "Prisoner", Star sings "...lock me up, throw away the key/don't care if I'm in trouble deep/I'm addicted to your love." "Louis Vuitton Body Bag" was described by Wildy Haskel of the Wildy's World website as being "the best dance track" on "Beauty Killer", though called the lyrics "dark.", with several lines making references to suicide. "Beauty Killer" is the album's title track, and features elements of electronic music, as well as rock music and pop music. The song has received positive feedback, mainly for its meaning and lyrical content, in which Star claims he wishes to change people's opinions as to what beauty really is. "Electric Sugar Pop" has been described as a "bubblegum pop" song, while receiving praise for its lighthearted and fun nature. "Love Rhymes With Fuck You" was released as the album's first promotional single, and second total after "Prisoner". The electronic song features explicit lyrics from Star, and sexual moans in the background in various places. Star also incorporates screamo elements in the song.  "Bitch, Please!" features elements of electronic music, and makes several cultural references throughout the song, including "Bottle Pop" by female group The Pussycat Dolls, as well as pop singer Britney Spears and the hit single "Don't Trust Me" by 3OH!3. It has been listed as a highlight of the album by various reviewers and fans. "Lollipop Luxury", which features female rapper Nicki Minaj on guest vocals, is a remixed version of a previously released song by Star. This new version features a rap verse from Minaj, and removes the original third verse of the song. "Get Physical" is a dance song which features Star singing about having sex with someone. The song received mixed to positive reception. "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches" features electronic duo Breathe Carolina on guest vocals, and features elements of punk music, as well as screamo and hard rock music. "Fresh Meat" and "Queen of the Club Scene" received mixed reviews from critics, with the majority feeling the two didn't belong on the album. The two were described as "filler tracks", though did receive somewhat positive reviews.  The album features several references to Chuck Palahniuk's "Invisible Monsters", one of Star's favorite novels. For example, in the song "Louis Vuitton Body Bag", he sings: "To be ourselves, we have to destroy ourselves" referring to Shannon McFarland's decision to shoot herself to escape her old life. In the song "Beauty Killer", the line "Doll eyes stare into Valium colored skies" refers to Brandy Alexander's addiction to Valium and beauty. In the song, "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches" he refers to Brandy Alexander's nickname "Queen Supreme"; Star also named one of his liquid lipsticks "Queen Supreme".

Release and promotion.

The first announcement of "Beauty Killer" mentioned a scheduled release in spring 2008. However, the album's release date was later pushed back to summer 2009, which in the meantime Star released his second extended play "Cupcakes Taste Like Violence". In an interview with OrangeCounty.com regarding the release date of the album, Star explained that the repetitive postponing was due to him doing "a bit of community service because of a felony weapons charge". To promote the new album and "tide fans over" until the first single from the album was released, on April 21, 2009, Star released a remix cover of The Black Eyed Peas' "Boom Boom Pow" which was made available for free download. "Bitch, Please!" was also made available for stream on Star's Myspace page in late August. This was shortly followed by "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches" making its stream debut on Star's PureVolume account in September. The next day, Star posted "Louis Vuitton Body Bag" onto his YouTube account. The entire album was available for streaming on his Myspace homepage on September 19, 2009. The album was released as both a physical disk and for digital download on September 22, 2009 in the United States. It was released for digital download on October 2 in areas such as the United Kingdom, Australia, and Asia.  Star performed at Warped Tour 2009 followed by the America leg of his "I'm Pregnant, Let's Party" tour for the rest of the summer. Shortly after the album was released, Star announced a two-week winter "I'm Cold, Keep Me Warm... Bitch!" tour in North America. However, due to "personal things [that] have gotten out of hand in [his] family" the tour was cancelled. Star embarked on his "2 Drunk 2 Fuck" 2010 world tour, in which he stated he would "be going everywhere...and yes that means Europe and Australia". It was his first headlining tour to promote "Beauty Killer". It featured Brokencyde and Blood On the Dancefloor as the opening acts for various North American dates, while BrokeNCYDE was a co-headlining act for the European legs. He also headlined the "Lookin' Hot and Dangerous tour throughout 2010, which featured mainly North American shows, though four were outside of the US. Throughout late 2010 and early 2011, Star toured with pop-singer Dev on his Fresh Meat tour, named after the song from the album. The tour only featured North American dates, going through the United States, Canada, and Mexico. A music video for "Prisoner" was originally planned in September 2009, though it was later replaced with "Get Away with Murder", which was filmed on November 7, 2009. The video premiered on the front page of Myspace on January 23, 2010. A music video for the title track, "Beauty Killer", was filmed in May 2010. The video premiered on Star's YouTube channel on June 19, 2010.

Singles.

"Beauty Killer" spawned two official singles and several promotional singles. The first promotional single for the album was a remix of the hit single "Boom Boom Pow" by the Black Eyed Peas, which he released on April 21, 2009. The remix of the number one single did not appear on "Beauty Killer". "Prisoner" was the album's first official single, and was released on April 29, 2009. The single features pop rock elements, and lyrically sees Star singing about how he is obsessed with being with someone. A music video was planned for the single, but was later scrapped in favor of recording the music video for "Get Away with Murder". The second promotional single, "Love Rhymes with Fuck You", was released on June 30, 2009. After the release of the album, Star announced plans to film a music video for the song "Get Away with Murder". The video was released on YouTube and for digital download, though the song never received an official release. The album's title track, "Beauty Killer", received similar treatment in 2010. Following the album's commercial success, Star released the song "Blush", an outtake from the original track listing. The song was released for digital download on February 16, 2010. A sixth promotional single, "Size of Your Boat", featured Muffy and was released for digital download on June 29, 2010. "Lollipop Luxury" was later released as the album's second official single on June 16, 2011.

Title and artwork.

"Beauty Killer" is, in Star's own words, "my way of saying 'fuck you' to what everyone's idea of what beauty stands for." The album cover photo was taken by tattoo artist and now ex-friend, Kat Von D. It features Star with his hair in a ponytail pulled to the side. His arms are held up, as if surrendering, and his hands are covered in blood. Star is topless in the image, and has a white glove on his right hand. Kat Von D also took the photos in the album booklet, excluding two taken by Austin Young. The layout and design was created by Sons of Nero. The photos found in the booklet are similar to the album cover itself. One photo shows Star curled into a ball, in the same attire as the cover, while another picture shows an apparently shocked Star with his hands on his head and his mouth wide open. There are also photos of Star in nothing but a pair of pink underwear, slashing a chainsaw around. Multiple colors are strewn on several photos in the booklet, giving it the appearance of paint being thrown onto the picture.

Critical reception.

The album received generally mixed to positive reviews from critics. Pemberton Roach of AllMusic praised the album, commenting "Beauty Killer is a fun, no-frills dance-pop record filled with throbbing house beats, Auto-Tuned vocals, and super-catchy, sexually charged novelty lyrics." Roach went on to say "Throughout, his lyrics employ all manner of slang of the day to both celebrate and lampoon the basest sectors of pop culture. In the end, though, Star is clearly all-inclusive, making Beauty Killer a harmlessly naughty guilty pleasure." Michael Heath of "PopMatters" stated "His vocals convey the required melodrama, smut, and wit, especially wit. Star's awareness of the absurdity of Hollywood culture vulturism grounds the lyrics of "Lollipop Luxury" and "Fame & Riches, Rehab Bitches", a collaboration with shouty electro-thrashers Breathe Carolina (Matt Skiba of Alkaline Trio also guests). One does wish most of Star's musical backdrops didn't sound like the worst aspects of pounding goth-industrial warhorses or the sort of Red Bull and bad Ecstasy club soundtrack Star's lyrics willingly satirize. Fortunately, there's enough moments here, like the G. Glitter microchip stomp of "Electric Sugar Pop", to provide welcome relief." Luis Gonzales of Album Confessions also praised the album, saying ""Beauty Killer" is a dark, twisted pop album that comes together to represent an artist that many may not relate to right away. The artist and the music are something completely different and I think that is where it works. The album is filled with great tracks that will not hit every audience, but for those who are looking for something new, this is truly a hidden gem." He later listed "Louis Vuitton Body Bag", "Bitch, Please!", and "Queen of the Club Scene" as must-hear tracks.  Corinne of PlugIn Music gave the album a mixed review, saying "Star shows on "Beauty Killer" that he has the musical chops to make a half-decent album. And he does just that. But when he plays too much to the audience, the celebrity, the fame, the character it turns sour. Having a point of view is one thing but it doesn't hold water if it's too embellished. Sure, his electronics aren't terribly original but if there's one thing that Jeffree Star doesn't sound like it is recycled." "Wonka Vision" said "...if Beauty Killer is the best Star can muster for a debut album then perhaps he should consider sticking with the clothing lines and makeup for the time being."

Chart performance.

"Beauty Killer" was released on September 22, 2009, and became Star's first album to chart on the "Billboard" 200, where it peaked at number 122. It also peaked at number 22 on the Independent Albums chart in the US, and fell off in its second week. On the Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart, the album debuted at number 7. It fell to 12 in its second week, and stayed on the chart for two more weeks after that, before falling off the chart. The album debuted and peaked at number 2 on the Top Heatseekers chart, where it charted for two consecutive weeks. "Beauty Killer" became Star's second album to chart on both the Independent Albums and the Heatseeker Albums charts, after his 2008 extended play "Cupcakes Taste Like Violence".

Personnel.

Additional musicians

Beauty Killer is the debut and only studio album by American singer Jeffree Star, released on September 22, 2009 under Popsicle Records through Warner Music Group's Independent Label Group. The album was mostly produced by God's Paparazzi, but also features work from other producers and artists, including producer Lester Mendez and Young Money singer and rapper Nicki Minaj. "Beauty Killer" features rock, electronic, dance, and pop elements in its music and lyrics, similar to previous works from Star. The album debut at number 122 on the Billboard 200 chart. The album spawned two official singles, "Prisoner" and "Lollipop Luxury", and several promotional singles, including "Love Rhymes with Fuck You", "Blush", and "Beauty Killer". Music videos were made for both "Get Away with Murder" and "Beauty Killer", and were made available for streaming and digital download in 2009 and 2010, respectively. "Beauty Killer" was recorded mainly in California, though some songs were recorded in Illinois and Georgia.

Beauty Killer ist das Debüt-Studioalbum des US-amerikanischen Songwriters Jeffree Star, veröffentlicht am 22. September 2009 bei Popsicle Records durch die Independent Label Group, eine Abteilung der Warner Music Group. Das Album wurde überwiegend von God’s Paparazzi produziert und stieg auf Platz zwei in den "Billboard" Top Heatseekers Charts ein.


Origin.

John C. Broger developed the Militant Liberty concept in the early 1950s and presented at a University of California conference attended by Brigadier General Millard C. Young at the request of Admiral Arthur W. Radford in 1954. Championed by Admiral Radford, Militant Liberty gained the attention of Defense Secretary Charles E. Wilson who invited Broger and eighteen others to discuss and analyze the concept with him. This conference consisted of members of the military, as well as representatives of the advertising, business and entertainment industries. People such as Kenneth Wells of the Freedoms Foundation were recruited for the Militant Liberty program for the sole purpose of applying marketing strategies and promoting the project it through the federal processes as well as the public relations firm the Jam Handy Agency. With Wilson's endorsement the project was then sent to the Operations Coordinating Board to determine how it was to be utilized in the strategy against Communism.  Although disseminated discreetly among the members of the American Armed Forces, The Militant Liberty Program remained unclassified and available upon request to the public. A classified version of Militant Liberty called "Project Action" was employed in regions such as Latin America and French Indochina because it was believed that these regions were "particularly receptive to ideological propaganda." The pamphlet was also distributed to other nations in the hopes that they might use Militant Liberty as a Free World guide of their own. The Militant Liberty concept gained further importance when it was exposed that interrogated American POW's in Korea could not describe the intricacies of Communism, nor could counter the ideology with one of their own. The resulting report drafted by the United States Senate Committee on Government Operations recommended an ideological indoctrination program in order to make American soldiers more resilient to communist tactics.  Following the Militant Liberty program, Assistant Defense Secretary Carter Burgess and Assistant Secretary of the Army Hough Milton developed a spin-off program called "Battle for Liberty. " Secretary Wilson had envisioned that "Militant Liberty", "Battle for Liberty" and the "Code of Conduct" would serve as the guiding documents creating a unified ideological doctrine for the Armed Forces.

Overview.

The ideological necessity.

Militant Liberty was designed as a philosophy of liberty of a free society, in terms that are meaningful and can be understood by all peoples. Militant Liberty was a tactic of political and psychological warfare in response to Communist messaging. As Communist propaganda was designed to have a clear, consistent message to its followers, capitalism, liberty, and democracy required a more "dynamic" response.  The premise of militant liberty relies upon the perception that humans around the world have a fundamental understanding of liberty and freedom, and if given the choice will seek to pursue them. Militant Liberty was designed to give people in a free society the knowledge to engage in a discussion of the philosophy of liberty to anyone in the world. Communist gains have been due, in part, to the fact that they understand what and why they believe a certain way and they are able to explain these beliefs to all peoples of the world. Without the knowledge of why they believe it and the ability to explain those beliefs, free people are unable to make the gains that communists have been able to make.  The authors of Militant Liberty recognized that although liberty and freedom are desired by all, these concepts had to be defended and explained in a coherent manner. Whereas communists understood and were well versed in Free World ideologies and could engage in a dialogue as to why theirs was better - individuals in the Free World had greater difficulty.

The concept.

Militant Liberty asserts that freedom and the worth of the individual man are concepts that have been realized in the Western World but have not yet permeated peoples and cultures that reside in the non-Western world. The Communist ideology is more dynamic than that of the West and thus may gain a foothold in regions not yet aware of Free World liberties. The only way to defeat the threat of communism around the world is to combat it with a stronger, more dynamic ideology which "consists of explaining the ideals of liberty in a manner that will motivate peoples everywhere to exercise and collectively demonstrate the practices of a positive philosophy of Freedom."  The Militant Liberty report cites the following three objectives of this concept:

Strengths and weaknesses.

The strength of the Communist ideology is that it is well-organized and contains the necessary infrastructure dedicated to their stated goals. Within this system, they are able to employ any means of attainment regardless of its effect in the individual. The inherent weakness of this ideology is that their people are not completely indoctrinated, deplore their means of attainment and are thus more inclined to accept the ideology of the Free World.  According to the authors of Militant Liberty, Communists do not believe in the individual self, but rather, in the conscience of an individual being erased. Communists are taught to use any means possible to serve their party's interests, regardless of whether or not they are morally wrong. The communists have every aspect of the environment or conscience eliminated.

Strength and weakness of Free World ideology.

The strength of the Free World ideology is that an individual has the right to choose his own prerogatives. This also proves to be the Free World Ideology's weakness as freedom of choice often results in a lack of coordinated direction. According to free people, democracy will not work without the element of the sensitive, conscience of an individual. Without causes with support liberty, such as freedom of speech and freedom of press, free enterprises will not work. Without this individual conscience, power struggles begin among man and it becomes a materialistic competition for survival. "Without the sensitive individual conscience, even the dignity of man is a myth, for without a conscience man is not dignified." The collective will shared by all peoples to remain free is the greatest strength of the free people. However, this common desire lacks coordinated direction and therefore becomes the Free World ideology's greatest weakness.

Scope and direction of liberty within organized society.

Militant Liberty compares and contrasts the ideologies of Communism and the Free World through the scope of individual consciousness, reminiscent of natural law. Where Communism relies on the annihilation of conscience, the Free World relies on the sensitive conscious of the individual. According to the concept of Militant Liberty, a nation is always in a state of change and throughout its course will promote "responsible behavior through a sensitive conscience" (individual liberty) or "control through the annihilated conscience (authoritarian state). The course of a country is measured on the criteria of discipline, religion, civics, education, and social and economic order.

Liberty = freedom + responsibility.

This chapter highlights one of the primary aspects of the Militant Liberty concept: liberty can only be pursued through freedom and responsibility. Freedom offers rights and privileges, but requires the individual to accept the responsibilities that correspond with the freedoms one enjoys. Each individual regardless of geographic location recognizes that they Many of the freedoms illustrated in this chapter have existed in many societies throughout history, and although many freedoms are legislated Militant Liberty goes to demonstrate that responsibility is not as it extends often beyond the individual.  The following chart from Militant Liberty outlines the basic freedoms and the basic responsibilities of this concept:

Evaluation and assessment.

The final segment of Militant Liberty contained four separate charts depicting the differences between The United States and the Soviet Bloc and the difference between the sensitive individual Conscience and the Annihilated Individual Conscience.  The first series of charts labeled "A Theoretical Study of International Strength and Weakness" analyzed the United States and the Soviet Bloc on six criteria: Discipline, Religion, Civics, Social Order, and Economic Order on a scale of +100 to -100 to with space allowing the reader to assign values and compare the differences between the two.  The second series of charts offers an "Evaluation" and "Development of Objective" demonstrating the Free World nation's positions of strength based on Sensitive National Conscience v. the Annihilated National Conscience of the Soviet Bloc. From these demonstrations, the reader was meant to conclude that liberty and freedom would always prevail over Communist ideologies.

The end of Militant Liberty.

There were attempts on multiple fronts to inculcate the Militant Liberty concept, but the idea never gained traction.  The militant Liberty Program suffered embarrassment and public criticism just a year after its inception with the publishing of an article titled: "Militant Liberty and the Pentagon" in the February 1956 edition of "The Reporter", written by William H. Hale. The article detailed the Militant Liberty program and along with candid interviews with anonymous members within the JCS who were cool to the idea of ideological indoctrination from the Pentagon. State Department, the CIA, and the U.S. Information Agency (USIA), among the different branches of the Armed Services, were all opposed the Militant Liberty concept either on the basis of its "motivational" qualities or "fear-based" approach. There were other accounts by troop-run newspapers that American soldiers overseas were being "brainwashed" by similar programs.  Due to significant opposition the Militant Liberty program was never operationalized and by the 1960s the Militant Liberty Program was reduced to "a short film for new recruits and a wallet-sized card that most services required their personnel to memorize and carry on their person at all times."

Controversy.

However short-lived the Militant Liberty Program was, there are critics that say that Militant Liberty and programs like it were an attempt to indoctrinate Evangelical beliefs into American civil society and military doctrine. As the program was implemented by the NSC without the consult of the United States Congress, many critics saw the Militant Liberty program as a breach of the line between the military and civil society.  Its chief architect, John C. Broger was founder and President of the Far East Broadcasting Company (a Christian international radio network) and was contracted to develop the Militant Liberty concept by Admiral Arthur Radford, another Christian and fervent anti-communist, who "had become concerned with the need to provide spiritual stiffening to American youth at home as well as to our Allies abroad." With Communism spreading throughout the Asian continent, Mr. Borger and Admiral Radford were well suited to form a partnership that would eventually result in the development and dissemination of the Militant Liberty program.  Defense Secretary Charles Wilson thought so highly of Broger's concept that he advocated disseminating the Militant Liberty concept to the American public via mass media. As a result, there was substantial coordination throughout the 1950s and 1960s between the JCS and media producers to incorporate Militant Liberty themes into Hollywood films. Among these actors, writers and producers were Merian Cooper, Ward Bond, and John Ford - a former chief of the Field Photographic Branch in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Ford said to have incorporated the Militant Liberty Concept into his 1957 film, "The Wings of Eagles" starring John Wayne.

Militant Liberty: A Program of Evaluation and Assessment of Freedom was a top secret United States Department of Defense project that aimed to utilize information operations and resources at the Pentagon's disposal to counteract the ideological threat of Communism during the Cold War.

Militant Liberty war ein durch den Evangelikalen John C. Broger für das Verteidigungsministerium der Vereinigten Staaten entwickeltes streng geheimes Programm, das zur religiösen Bekehrung im politischen Bereich gedacht war und eine "evangelical democracy" sowohl international als auch innerhalb der USA fördern sollte. Das Programm wurde in den 1950ern besonders durch den US-Admiral Arthur W. Radford, damals Vorsitzender der Joint Chiefs of Staff, verfochten. In dem Film "The Wings of Eagles" (1957), mit John Wayne in der Hauptrolle und John Ford als Regisseur, fanden inhaltliche Elemente von Militant Liberty Eingang.


Early life and education.

John Collier was born in 1884 and grew up in Atlanta, Georgia, where his father Charles Collier was a prominent banker, businessman, civic leader, and mayor of Atlanta (1897–1899). He had a tragic family life: his mother died of pneumonia and his father died, possibly a suicide, before Collier was sixteen.  He was educated at Columbia University and at the Collège de France in Paris. At Columbia, Collier began to develop a social philosophy that would shape his later work on behalf of American Indians. He was concerned with the adverse effects of the industrial age on mankind. He thought society was becoming too individualistic and argued that American culture needed to reestablish a sense of community and responsibility. From 1907 to 1919, he worked as secretary of the People's Institute, where he developed programs for immigrant neighborhoods, emphasizing pride in their traditions, sponsoring lectures and pageants, and political awareness.  Collier centered his career on trying to realize the power of social institutions to make and modify personalities. In 1908, Collier made his first significant contribution to a national magazine; his article describing the socialist municipal government in Milwaukee, Wisconsin was published in "Harper's Weekly". Collier moved to California in October 1919.

Indian advocate (1920–1933).

In 1920, Collier was introduced to the Pueblo tribes by the artist Mabel Dodge, at the Taos Pueblo in Taos, New Mexico; for much of that year he studied their history and current life. By the time Collier left Taos in 1921 he believed that Native Americans and their culture were threatened by the encroachment of the dominant white culture and policies directed at their assimilation. Collier's encounter with the Taos Pueblo made a lasting impression on him.  Collier was brought into the forefront of the debate by the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), when it appointed him the research agent for its Indian Welfare Committee in 1922. The GFWC took a leadership role in opposing assimilation policies, supporting the return of Indian lands, and promoting more religious and economic independence.  Collier rejected the contemporary policies of forced assimilation and Americanization. He worked for the acceptance of cultural pluralism to enable Native American tribes to preserve their own cultures. Collier believed Indigenous survival was based on their retention of their land bases. He lobbied for repeal of the Dawes Act, Indian General Allotment Act of 1887. It had been directed at Indigenous assimilation by allotting Indian reservation land into individual household parcels of private property. Some communal lands were retained, but the US government declared other lands "surplus" to Indian needs and sold them privately, much reducing reservation holdings.  Collier was outraged at the Americanization programs imposed by the federal Office of Indian Affairs, which was the name of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) before 1947, because they suppressed key elements in Indian culture, many of which had deep religious roots. The BIA was supported by numerous Protestant organizations, such as the YWCA Indian Department, as well as the Indian Rights Association. Descended from the pioneers who had suffered from Indian raids, they denounced the dances as immoral and pagan. He formed the American Indian Defense Association in 1923 to fight back through legal aid and to lobby for Indian rights. He failed to secure positive legislation to guarantee Indian religious freedom, but his efforts did force the Bureau to curb its program of cultural assimilation and to end its religious persecutions.  Collier believed that the general allotments of Indian reservation land was a complete failure that led to the increasing loss of Native American land. He emerged as a federal Indian policy reformer in 1922, and strongly criticized the BIA policies and implementation of the Dawes Act. Prior to Collier, criticism of the BIA had been directed at corrupt and incompetent officials rather than the policies. For the next decade, Collier fought against legislation and policies that he thought were detrimental to the well-being of Native Americans and was associated with the American Indian Defense Association, serving as executive secretary until 1933.  His work led Congress to commission a study in 1926–1927 of the overall condition of Native Americans in the United States. The results were called the Meriam Report. Published in 1928 as "The Problem of Indian Administration", the Meriam Report revealed the failures of federal Indian policies and how they had contributed to severe problems with Native American education, health, and poverty. Collier's efforts, including the publication of the report, raised the visibility of Native American issues within the federal government. The Great Depression brought a harsher economic environment for most Native Americans. The administration of President Herbert Hoover reorganized the BIA and provided it with major funding increases.  In 1932 a Department of the Interior press release described Collier as a "fanatical Indian enthusiast with good intentions, but so charged with personal bias and the desire to get a victim every so often, that he does much more harm than good... his statements cannot be depended upon to be either fair, factual or complete." Thus, Collier was criticised from both sides in the challenge he faced to reconcile the two Progressive ideals of "social justice and managerial efficiency".

Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1933–1945).

President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the advice of his new Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes to appoint Collier as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1933. Ickes and Collier had previously been quite hostile to each other, but now came to terms and Ickes supported Collier's policies. Collier ran the agency until 1945.  Collier also set up the Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The CCC provided jobs to Native American men (of all ages) in soil erosion control, reforestation, range development, and other public works projects and built infrastructure such as roads and schools on reservations.  Education was a high priority for Collier, who focused on ending boarding schools and transitioning to community day schools and public schools. He wanted BIA schools to stress the importance of preserving Indian culture. He emphasized the need to develop vocational training that would lead to good jobs.  Collier's thought he could not only preserve Indian culture but hold it up as a model for the larger society. Historian T. H. Watkins comments that this was "rather a lot to ask of a people struggling merely to live on the fringe of civilization that had overwhelmed them; it was even more to ask acceptance of such notions from a Congress that had demonstrated little faith in the belief that white civilization had anything much to learn from the Indians."  Collier introduced what became known as the Indian New Deal with Congress' passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. It was one of the most influential and lasting pieces of legislation relating to federal Indian policy. Also known as the Wheeler–Howard Act, this legislation reversed fifty years of assimilation policies by emphasizing Indian self-determination and a return of communal Indian land, which was in direct contrast with the objectives of the Indian General Allotment Act of 1887.  Collier was also responsible for getting the Johnson–O'Malley Act passed in 1934, which allowed the Secretary of the Interior to sign contracts with state governments to subsidize public schooling, medical care, and other services for Indians who did not live on reservations. The act was effective only in Minnesota.  Collier's decision to impose the Navajo Livestock Reduction program resulted in the Navajo losing half their livestock. The Indian Rights Association denounced Collier as a 'dictator' and accused him of a "near reign of terror" on the Navajo reservation. The American Indian Federation fought to remove Collier from office from 1934–1940.  In a 1938 speech to the Black Hills Indian Treaty Council Seneca journalist Alice Lee Jemison said: "The Wheeler-Howard Act provides only one form of government for the Indian and that is communal or cooperative form of living. John Collier said he was going to give the Indian self-government. If he was going to give us self-government he would let us set up a form of government we wanted to live under. He would give us the right to continue to live under our old tribal customs if we wanted to." According to historian Brian Dippie, "(Collier) became an object of 'burning hatred' among the very people whose problems so preoccupied him."  World War II speeded up the integration of Indians into the military and the urban labor force. The War Department in 1940 rejected Collier's suggestion for segregated all-Indian units. Indians were drafted into regular units, where they were treated on an equal basis with whites.

Post-government career.

Collier remained active as the director of the National Indian Institute and as a sociology professor at the College of the City of New York. He wrote several books, including a memoir published in 1963. Collier lived in Taos, New Mexico with his second wife Grace, until his death in 1968 at age 84.

Legacy.

Having described the American society as "physically, religiously, socially, and aesthetically shattered, dismembered, directionless", Collier was later criticized for his romantic views about the moral superiority of traditional society as opposed to modernity. Philp says that after his experience at the Taos Pueblo, Collier "made a lifelong commitment to preserve tribal community life because it offered a cultural alternative to modernity...His romantic stereotyping of Indians often did not fit the reality of contemporary tribal life."  The Indian New Deal, Collier's chief realization, was landmark legislation authorizing tribal self-rule under federal supervision, putting an end to land allotment and generally promoting measures to enhance tribes and encouraging education. Collier was highly regarded by most Indian tribes, although he was vilified by others. He antagonized Navajo people, and some Iroquois, including the Seneca people. For the Oklahoma Indian population, largely exempted from the Indian New Deal, the influence of Collier's efforts was felt in their process of acquiring autonomy in the last decades of the 20th century.  Anthropologists criticized Collier for not recognizing the diversity of Native American lifestyles. Hauptman argues that his emphasis on Northern Pueblo arts and crafts and the uniformity of his approach to all tribes are partly explained by his belief that his tenure as Commissioner would be short, meaning that packaging large, lengthy legislative reforms seemed politically necessary.  Historians have mixed reactions to Collier's achievements. Many praise his energy and his initiative. Philp, although favorable on some points, concludes that the Indian New Deal was unable to stimulate economic progress nor did it provide a usable structure for Indian politics. Philp argues these failures gave momentum to the return to the previous policy of termination that took place after Collier resigned in 1945. In surveying the scholarly literature, Schwartz concludes that there is:  A near consensus among historians of the Indian New Deal that Collier temporarily rescued Indian communities from federal abuses and helped Indian people survive the Depression but also damaged Indian communities by imposing his own social and political ideas on them.  Some of Collier's interests lived on in his sons (by his first wife Lucy): Charles (b. 1909) got engaged in the preservation of Los Luceros in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, Donald became a prominent anthropologist, and John Jr. (1913–1992), a documentary photographer, significantly contributed to fields like applied and visual anthropology.  Collier's efforts to lift the U.S. government's repressive tactics towards Native Americans represented a "seismic shift" in policy and paved the way, years later, for recognition of "the religious freedom rights of the Native Americans" as reflected in the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978.

Writings.

Collier wrote articles and books, mostly on Indian-related themes:

John Collier (May 4, 1884 – May 8, 1968), a sociologist and writer, was an American social reformer and Native American advocate. He served as Commissioner for the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, from 1933 to 1945. He was chiefly responsible for the "Indian New Deal", especially the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, through which he intended to reverse a long-standing policy of cultural assimilation of Native Americans.

John Collier (* 4. Mai 1884; † 8. Mai 1968 in Taos) war ein US-amerikanischer Sozialreformer, der sich für die Rechte der Indianer Nordamerikas einsetzte.


Early life.

Glaspie was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, and graduated from Mills College in Oakland, California, in 1963, and from Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies in 1965.  In 1966 Glaspie entered the United States foreign service, where she became an expert on the Middle East. After postings in Kuwait, Syria, and Egypt, Glaspie was appointed ambassador to Iraq in 1988. She was the first woman to be appointed an American ambassador to an Arab country. She had a reputation as a respected Arabist, and her instructions were to broaden cultural and commercial contacts with the Iraqi regime.  Subsequently, Glaspie was posted to the U.S. Mission to the United Nations in New York City. She was later posted to South Africa as Consul general in Cape Town. She held this post until her retirement in 2002.

Career.

United States Ambassador to Iraq.

Meetings with Saddam Hussein.

Glaspie's appointment as U.S. ambassador to Iraq followed a period from 1980 to 1989 during which the United States had given covert support to Iraq during its war with Iran.  Glaspie had her first meeting with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein and his Deputy Prime Minister, Tariq Aziz, on July 25, 1990. In her telegram from July 25, 1990, to the Department of State, Glaspie summarized the meeting as follows: Saddam told the ambassador on July 25 that Mubarak has arranged for Kuwaiti and Iraqi delegations to meet in Riyadh, and then on July 28, 29 or 30, the Kuwaiti crown prince will come to Baghdad for serious negotiations. "Nothing serious will happen" before then, Saddam had promised Mubarak.  At least two transcripts of the meeting have been published. The State Department has not confirmed the accuracy of these transcripts, but Glaspie's cable has been released at the Bush Library and placed online by the Margaret Thatcher Foundation.  One version of the transcript has Glaspie saying: Later the transcript has Glaspie saying:  Another version of the transcript (the one published in "The New York Times" on 23 September 1990) has Glaspie saying: When these purported transcripts were made public, Glaspie was accused of having given tacit approval for the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, which took place on August 2, 1990. It was argued that Glaspie's statements that "We have no opinion on your Arab-Arab conflicts" and that "the Kuwait issue is not associated with America" were interpreted by Saddam as giving free rein to handle his disputes with Kuwait as he saw fit. It was also argued that Saddam would not have invaded Kuwait had he been given an explicit warning that such an invasion would be met with force by the United States. Journalist Edward Mortimer wrote in the "New York Review of Books" in November 1990: In September 1990, a pair of British journalists confronted Glaspie with the transcript of her meeting with Saddam Hussein, to which she replied that "Obviously, I didn't think, and nobody else did, that the Iraqis were going to take all of Kuwait."  In April 1991 Glaspie testified before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. She said that at the July 25 meeting she had "repeatedly warned Iraqi President Saddam Hussein against using force to settle his dispute with Kuwait." She also said that Saddam had lied to her by denying he would invade Kuwait. Asked to explain how Saddam could have interpreted her comments as implying U.S. approval for the invasion of Kuwait, she replied: "We foolishly did not realize he [Saddam] was stupid." In July 1991 State Department spokesperson Richard Boucher said at a press briefing: The cables that Glaspie sent from Iraq about her meeting with Saddam are no longer classified. Glaspie's cable on her meeting with Saddam reports that President George H.W. Bush "had instructed her to broaden and deepen our relations with Iraq." Saddam, in turn, offered "warm greetings" to Bush and was "surely sincere" about not wanting war, the cable said.  Glaspie herself for years remained silent on the subject of her actions in Iraq. But in March 2008 she gave an interview to the Lebanese newspaper "Dar Al-Hayat". In the interview, she said she has no regrets. "It is over," Glaspie said. Nobody wants to take the blame. I am quite happy to take the blame. Perhaps I was not able to make Saddam Hussein believe that we would do what we said we would do, but in all honesty, I don't think anybody in the world could have persuaded him.  In the interview, Glaspie recalled that her meeting with Saddam was interrupted when the Iraqi president received a phone call from Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Saddam told her he had assured Mubarak that he would try to settle the dispute, she said. Her cable backs up this version of events; the Iraqi transcript, prepared by Saddam's official English language translator, Sadoun al-Zubaydi, records Saddam saying that Mubarak called before he met with Glaspie.

Retrospective views.

In 2002, the "Washington Report on Middle East Affairs" published a new account of the Glaspie-Saddam meeting by Andrew Killgore, a former U.S. ambassador to Qatar. Kilgore summarized the meeting as follows: The points referenced in the second and third paragraphs do not appear in the purported transcripts of the Glaspie-Saddam meeting that were released by Iraq, and on which most of the subsequent criticism of Glaspie is based. If there is a full transcript of the meeting in existence, or if the State Department declassifies Glaspie's cables about the meeting, a different assessment might be reached on her performance.  James Akins, the U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia at the time, offered a somewhat different perspective in a 2000 interview on PBS:  Joseph C. Wilson, Glaspie's Deputy Chief of Mission in Baghdad, referred to her meeting with Saddam Hussein in a May 14, 2004 interview on "Democracy Now!:" an "Iraqi participant in the meeting [...] said to me very clearly that Saddam did not misunderstand, did not think he was getting a green or yellow light."  Wilson's and Akins' views on this question are in line with those of former Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz, who stated in a 1996 interview with "Frontline" that, prior to the invasion of Kuwait, Iraq "had no illusions" about the likelihood of U.S. military intervention. Similarly, in a 2000 "Frontline" interview, Aziz declared, "There were no mixed signals", and further elaborated: Kenneth Pollack of the Brookings Institution, writing in "The New York Times" on February 21, 2003, disagreed with the views (previously cited) of observers like Edward Mortimer: Professors John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt write in the January/February 2003 edition of "Foreign Policy" that Saddam approached the U.S. to find out how it would react to an invasion into Kuwait. Along with Glaspie's comment that "'[W]e have no opinion on the Arab–Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait', the U.S. State Department had earlier told Saddam that Washington had 'no special defense or security commitments to Kuwait.' The United States may not have intended to give Iraq a green light, but that is effectively what it did."  Following WikiLeaks's January 2011 publication of Glaspie's July 1990 cable describing her discussion with Saddam, Juan Cole noted that Glaspie "pressed the dictator on the meaning of his troop build-up on the Kuwaiti border, letting him clearly know of American anxieties," and argued that "her infamous reference to the U.S. not getting involved in inter-Arab disputes referred to a limited issue, the exact border between Iraq and Kuwait, and could not possibly have been interpreted as permission to invade Kuwait!" Cole concluded: "Ms. Glaspie's detractors owe her an apology."

In Popular Culture.

Glaspie appeared in the limited series House of Saddam. She was portrayed by Jacqueline King.

April Catherine Glaspie (born April 26, 1942) is an American former diplomat and senior member of the Foreign Service, best known for her role in the events leading up to the Gulf War.

April Catherine Glaspie (* 26. April 1942 in Vancouver, British Columbia) ist eine US-amerikanische Diplomatin. Von 1988 bis 1990 war sie Botschafterin der Vereinigten Staaten im Irak. In dieser Funktion signalisierte sie Saddam Hussein kurz vor dem Einmarsch der irakischen Truppen in Kuwait 1990, dass die Vereinigten Staaten in dieser Frage keine Haltung hätten. Ihr damaliger Stellvertreter an der US-Botschaft in Bagdad Joseph C. Wilson nimmt sie in seiner Autobiographie gegen diesen Vorwurf explizit in Schutz. Er schreibt: „Ihre Erläuterung der amerikanischen Politik gegenüber innerarabischen Konflikten wich in keinem Punkt von unserer gewohnten Haltung und den Instruktionen ab. Die Vereinigten Staaten bezogen in solchen Zwistigkeiten zwischen arabischen Ländern zwar keine Position, drangen aber schärfstens darauf, dass die jeweiligen Parteien ihren Streit diplomatisch oder über internationale Vermittler beilegten und nicht durch militärische Drohungen oder Aktionen.“ Weiter führt Wilson aus, dass „die Iraker“ und insbesondere der damalige irakische Außenminister Tariq Aziz später öffentlich versichert hätten, die amerikanische Position bestens verstanden zu haben.


Early career.

Darling seems to have been unique in the British Army of this period, as he progressed from an enlisted man to become a general officer with a knighthood. Born in Ireland, he was the son of a sergeant in the 45th Regiment of Foot who subsequently gained the unusual reward of promotion to officer rank as a lieutenant. Like most of the small number of former non-commissioned officers in this position, Lieutenant Darling performed only regimental administrative duties. He struggled to support his large family on a subaltern's pay.  Ralph Darling enlisted at the age of fourteen as a private in his father's regiment, and served in the ranks for at least two years on garrison duty in the West Indies. Eventually, as an "act of charity" to the family, young Ralph was granted an officer's commission as an ensign on 15 May 1793, without having to make the usual payment. The new officer soon found opportunities to show his ability, alternating front-line activity and high-level administrative duties, and in August 1796 he was appointed as military secretary to Sir Ralph Abercromby, the British commander-in-chief in the West Indies. By the time he returned to Great Britain in 1802, still aged only twenty-nine, the sergeant's son and one-time private soldier was a highly respected lieutenant-colonel.  During the Napoleonic Wars, Colonel Darling alternated between periods of regimental command and important administrative appointments, leading the 51st Regiment of Foot at the Battle of Corunna and serving as assistant adjutant general during the Walcheren Expedition, before returning to the headquarters at Royal Horse Guards in London, where he served for almost a decade as head of British Army recruiting. In this role, Darling was subsequently promoted to brevet colonel on 25 July 1810, major general on 4 June 1813, and deputy adjutant general in 1814. General Darling was also able to further the careers of his younger brothers Henry and William, and subsequently his nephew Charles; the three brothers all became generals, and Charles also earned a knighthood.  Darling married in 1817. Between February 1819 and February 1824, General Darling commanded the British troops on Mauritius, before serving as acting governor of the colony for the last three years of his stay. In this role, Darling again exhibited his administrative ability, but he also became very unpopular in Mauritius: he was accused of allowing a British frigate to breach quarantine and start an epidemic of cholera, and he then suspended the island's "Conseil de Commune" when it protested his actions; in reality, however, there was no evidence that the frigate had been carrying cholera, and the opposition to General Darling appears to have been motivated in large part by his vigorous actions against the slave trade, and the fact that British rule in Mauritius was still little more than military occupation of a proud French colony. Notwithstanding the criticism from some quarters, it was largely on account of his service in Mauritius that Darling was appointed the seventh Governor of New South Wales in 1824.

Governor of New South Wales.

Darling initiated the construction, from 1826, of the convict-built Great North Road, linking the Hawkesbury settlements around Sydney with those in the Hunter Valley. In 1826 he also defined the Nineteen Counties in accordance with a government order from Lord Bathurst, the Secretary of State in the British parliament; these were the limits of location in the colony of New South Wales. Settlers were only permitted to take up land within these counties. From 1831 the granting of free land ceased and the only land that was to be made available for sale was within the Nineteen Counties.  When Darling was commissioned as governor, the Colony's western boundary – set in 1788 at 135 degrees east longitude – was extended by 6 degrees west to the 129 degrees east longitude. This line of longitude subsequently became the border dividing Western Australia and South Australia. To the south, everything beyond Wilsons Promontory, the southeastern ‘corner’ of the Australian continent, ceased to be under the control of New South Wales and was placed under the authority of the Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemen's Land. He proclaimed Van Diemen's Land as a separate colony on 3 December in 1825.

Controversies.

Darling was a professional soldier, military governor of what was still effectively a penal colony under martial law, and having lived entirely within the authoritarian structure of the army since childhood, he lacked experience in dealing with civilian society. As a result, he came into conflict with the liberal "emancipists" who wished to introduce greater political and social freedom in New South Wales. Their accusations of tyrannical misrule were publicised by opposition newspapers in England and Australia (including the "Australian", run by William Wentworth and Robert Wardell).  In keeping with official policy and the governor's own disciplinarian instincts, Darling's administration certainly strengthened the punitive aspects of transportation. Perhaps the most controversial act of his tenure was the harsh treatment of soldiers Joseph Sudds and Patrick Thompson, who had committed theft in the belief that seven years in an outlying penal colony would be an easier life than two decades of army discipline. As an example to others, the Governor had them placed in irons and assigned to a chain gang, leading to the death of Sudds. This was due to a pre-existing illness which the governor had not been properly informed about, but the incident still caused controversy.  Governor Darling is also said to have "ruthlessly and implacably countered all attempts to establish a theatre in Sydney". He even introduced a law effectively banning the performance of drama. The law stated that no form of public entertainment could take place without approval from the colonial secretary, and Darling ensured that all such applications were rejected. He did permit concerts of music to take place.  His departure for England, upon the ship "Hooghly", was greeted by public rejoicing, but his modern biographer has described this display as being "orchestrated by his opponents".  Darlinge sought to ensure the education of child prisoners, improve the treatment of female convicts, and promote the use of Christian teaching as a means of rehabilitation, and he made efforts to give the indigenous population the protection of British justice. The annual distribution of blankets to Aboriginal people was initiated by him in 1826, originally as rewards to those who assisted in the capture of bushrangers at the request of the Bathurst magistrates.

Later life.

Ralph Darling left Australia in 1831, returning to England in 1832. Continuing pressure from political opponents led to the formation of a select committee to examine his actions in Australia, but the inquiry exonerated him, and the day after it concluded, he was knighted by the king in a dramatic display of official favour. The controversy in Australia may have contributed to the fact that he was not given any significant new military or political assignments, but further promotion and various honorific appointments did follow, and he was happy to devote much of his time to raising his young children.  He was given the colonelcy of the 90th Regiment of Foot in 1823, transferring as Colonel to the 41st (Welch) Regiment of Foot in 1837 and to the 69th (South Lincolnshire) Regiment of Foot in 1848, a post he held until his death.  Darling died in Brighton on 2 April 1858 at the age of eighty-six, survived by his widow, three sons and four daughters.

Family.

On 13 October 1817, Darling married the 19-year-old Elizabeth Dumaresq, known as Eliza (1798–1868). She was the daughter of Colonel John Dumaresq, a landowner in Shropshire. The marriage was a happy one. Of ten children, four daughters and three sons survived to adulthood.  Eliza's widowed mother Ann Dumaresq was a devout philanthropist, and lived in Cheltenham. Eliza was influenced by Hannah More and Sarah Trimmer. In Australia, she consulted the penal reformer Elizabeth Fry, with reference in particular to female convicts. She was also involved in the establishment of the Female School of Industry at Parramatta.  After Darling's position in New South Wales ended, the family returned to England. They lived at Cheltenham, then Brighton where Darling died in 1858.

Named after Ralph Darling.

The following features are named after Ralph Darling or members of his immediate family:

General Sir Ralph Darling, GCH (1772 – 2 April 1858) was a British Army officer who served as Governor of New South Wales from 1825 to 1831. He is popularly described as a tyrant, accused of torturing prisoners and banning theatrical entertainment, but he also built new roads and extended the boundaries of the colony. Local geographical features named after him include the Darling River and Darling Harbour in Sydney.

Sir Ralph Darling (* 1772; † 2. April 1858 in Brighton, England) war der siebte britische Kolonial-Gouverneur in der Zeit 1825 bis 1831 in New South Wales und davor auch zeitweise Gouverneur von Mauritius. Er war ein Soldat, der bis zum Rang eines Generals aufstieg.