Biography.

Early life and education.

Bardaisan ( "bar Daiṣān" "son of the Daiṣān") was a Syriac author born on 11 July 154, in Edessa, Osroene, which, in those days, was alternately under the influence of both the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire. To indicate the city of his birth, his parents called him "Son of the Daisan", the river on which Edessa was situated. He is sometimes also referred to as "the Babylonian" (by Porphyrius); and, on account of his later important activity in Armenia, "the Armenian", (by Hippolytus of Rome), while Ephrem the Syrian calls him "philosopher of the Arameans" (, "Filosofā d-Arāmāyē"). Some sources refer to his high birth and wealth; according to Michael the Syrian, Bardaisan's parents had fled Persia and Sextus Julius Africanus reports that he was of the Parthian nobility. His parents, Nuhama and Nah'siram, must have been people of rank, for their son was educated with the crown-prince of Osroene at the court of Abgar VIII. Africanus says that he saw Bardaisan, with bow and arrow, mark the outline of a boy's face with his arrows on a shield which the boy held.  Owing to political disturbances in Edessa, Bardaisan and his parents moved for a while to Hierapolis (now Manbij), a strong centre of Babylonianism. Here, the boy was brought up in the house of a priest Anuduzbar. In this school he learnt all the intricacies of Babylonian astrology, a training that permanently influenced his mind and proved the bane of his later life. At the age of twenty-five he happened to hear the homilies of Hystaspes, the Bishop of Edessa, received instruction, was baptized, and even admitted to the diaconate or the priesthood. "Priesthood", however, may merely imply that he ranked as one of the college of presbyters, because Bardaisen remained in the world and had a son called Harmonius, who according to Sozomen's Ecclesiastical history, was "deeply versed in Grecian erudition, and was the first to subdue his native tongue to meters and musical laws; these verses he delivered to the choirs". When Abgar IX, the friend of his youth, ascended the throne (179), Bardaisan took his place at court. While a sincere Christian, he was clearly no ascetic, but dressed in finery "with berylls and caftan", according to Ephrem, one of his critics.

Preaching activity.

Bardaisan is said to have converted prince Abgar IX to Christianity (probably after 202, i.e. after his visit and honourable reception at Rome), and even he did not, he had an important share in Christianizing the city. Both king and philosopher laboured to create the first Christian state. However, while he showed great literary activity against Marcion and Valentinus, Bardaisan himself went to create his own heterodox Christian dogma by mixing its doctrines with Babylonian astrology. Other commentators say his philosophy ended up resembling those of Valentinus, if not adhering to them completely. Epiphanius of Salamis and Bar Hebraeus assert that he was first an orthodox Christian and afterwards an adept of Valentinus. As a gnostic, he certainly denied the resurrection of the body, and so far as we can judge by the obscure quotations from his hymns furnished by Ephrem he explained the origin of the world by a process of emanation from the supreme God whom he called the Father of the Living. His teachings formed the basis of the Manichaeism and later of the batini sects of Shia Islam.  Bardaisan and his movement were considered heretic by the Christians, and he was subjected to critical polemics. Those claimed, probably falsely, that he became a Valentinian Gnostic out of disappointed ambitions in the Christian church. In particular, he was vigorously combated by St. Ephrem. who mentioned him in his hymns:

Encounter with religious men from India.

Porphyry states that on one occasion at Edessa, Bardaisan interviewed an Indian deputation of holy men ( "śramaṇas") who had been sent to the Roman emperor Elagabalus or another Severan emperor, and questioned them as to the nature of Indian religion. The encounter is described in Porphyry "De abstin.", iv, 17 and Stobaeus ("Eccles.", iii, 56, 141):

Exile and death.

Eventually, after 353 years of existence, the Osrhoenic kingdom came to an end by the Romans under Caracalla. Taking advantage of the anti-Christian faction in Edessa, captured Abgar IX and sent him in chains to Rome. Though he was urged by a friend of Caracalla to apostatize, Bardaisan stood firm, saying that he feared not death, as he would in any event have to undergo it, even though he should now submit to the emperor. At the age of sixty-three he was forced to take refuge in the fortress of Ani in Armenia and tried to preach there, but with little success. He also composed a history of the Armenian kings. He died at the age of sixty-eight, either at Ani or at Edessa. According to Michael the Syrian, Bardaisan had besides Harmonius two other sons, called Abgarun and Hasdu.

Bardaisanite school.

The followers of Bardaisan (the Bardaisanites) continued his teachings in a sect of the 2nd century deemed heretical by later Christians. Bardaisan's son, Harmonius, is considered to have strayed farther from the path of orthodoxy. Educated at Athens, he added to the Babylonian astrology of his father Greek ideas concerning the soul, the birth and destruction of bodies and a sort of metempsychosis.  A certain Marinus, a follower of Bardaisan and a dualist, who is addressed in the "Dialogue of Adamantius", held the doctrine of a twofold primeval being; for the devil, according to him is not created by God. He was also a Docetist, as he denied Christ's birth of a woman. Bardaisan's form of gnosticism influenced Manichaeism.  St. Ephrem's zealous efforts to suppress this powerful heresy were not entirely successful. Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa in 431–432, found it flourishing everywhere. Its existence in the seventh century is attested by Jacob of Edessa; in the eighth by George, Bishop of the Arabs; in the tenth by the historian Masudi; and even in the twelfth by Shashrastani. Bardaisanism seems to have merged first into Valentinianism and then into common Manichaeism.

Doctrine.

Various opinions have been formed as to the real doctrine of Bardesanes. As early as Hippolytus (Philosoph., VI, 50) his doctrine was described as a variety of Valentinianism, the most popular form of Gnosticism. Adolf Hilgenfeld in 1864 defended this view, based mainly on extracts from St. Ephrem, who devoted his life to combating Bardaisanism in Edessa. However, it has been argued that the strong and fervent expressions of St. Ephrem against the Bardaisanites of his day are not a fair criterion of the doctrine of their master. The extraordinary veneration of his own countrymen, the very reserved and half-respectful allusion to him in the early Fathers, and above all the "Book of the Laws of the Countries" suggest a milder view of Bardaisan's aberrations.  Like the Early Christians, Bardaisan believed in an Almighty God, Creator of heaven and earth, whose will is absolute, and to whom all things are subject. God endowed man with freedom of will to work out his salvation and allowed the world to be a mixture of good and evil, light and darkness. All things, even those we now consider inanimate, have a measure of liberty. In all of them the light has to overcome the darkness.  Shashrastani states: "The followers of Daisan believe in two elements, light and darkness. The light causes the good, deliberately and with free will; the darkness causes the evil, but by force of nature and necessity. They believe that light is a living thing, possessing knowledge, might, perception and understanding; and from it movement and life take their source; but that darkness is dead, ignorant, feeble, rigid and soulless, without activity and discrimination; and they hold that the evil within them is the outcome of their nature and is done without their co-operation".  He apparently denied the resurrection of the body, though believed Christ's body was endowed with incorruptibility as with a special gift. Bardaisan postulated that after six thousand years this Earth shall have an end, and a world without evil would take its place.  Bardaisan also thought the sun, moon and planets were living beings, to whom, under God, the government of this world was largely entrusted; and though man was free, he was strongly influenced for good or for evil by the constellations. According to St. Ephrem, Sun and Moon were considered male and female principles, and the ideas of heaven amongst the Bardaisanites were not without an admixture of sensuality (or "obscenities"). Led by the fact that "spirit" is feminine in Syriac, Bardaisan might have held unorthodox views on the Trinity.

Writings.

Bardaisan apparently was a voluminous author. Though nearly all his works have perished, we find notices of the following:

Bardaisan (, "Bardaiṣān"), known in Arabic as Ibn Daisan (ابن ديصان) and in Latin as Bardesanes (A.D. 154–222), was a Syriac or Parthian gnostic and founder of the Bardaisanites. A scientist, scholar, astrologer, philosopher and poet, Bardaisan was also renowned for his knowledge of India, on which he wrote a book, now lost.

Bardesanes (auch "Bar-Daiṣān"; syrisch-aramäisch ܒܪܕܝܨܢ, „Sohn des (Flussgottes) Daiṣān“; * 11. Juli 154 in Edessa; † 222 vielleicht in Ani, Armenien) war ein syrisch-aramäischer Philosoph und Gnostiker.


History.

The district was created in 1827 and called "khwaeng" Kaeng Khoi. The district office was in Ban Tan Diao. In 1897, the "khwaeng" was converted to an "amphoe". The office of the district was moved from the Pa Sak River bank to the nearby Kaeng Khoi Railway Station in 1915.  Its name "Kaeng Khoi" distorted from "Raeng Khoi" (แร้งคอย), directly translated as 'vulture waiting'. Because the district in the past was the gateway to "Dong Phaya Fai" (ดงพญาไฟ) or presently Dong Phaya Yen. The large rain forest was full of wildlife and malaria. Many people died while traveling here, so often the vultures gathered to wait to eat the corpses.

Geography.

Neighbouring districts are (from the north clockwise) Phatthana Nikhom of Lopburi Province, Wang Muang and Muak Lek of Saraburi Province, Mueang Nakhon Nayok and Ban Na of Nakhon Nayok Province, Wihan Daeng, Mueang Saraburi, and Chaloem Phra Kiat of Saraburi.  The district marks the western end of Khao Yai National Park. In the southern part of the district is the Chet Khot-Pong Kon Sao Nature Study Centre, containing several waterfalls.

Administration.

The district is divided into 14 sub-districts ("tambons"), which are further subdivided into 116 villages ("mubans"). Kaeng Khoi is a town ("thesaban mueang") and Thap Kwang a sub-district municipality ("thesaban tambon"), both covering the same-named "tambons". There are 12 tambon administrative organizations (TAO) in the district.

Transportation.

Kaeng Khoi Junction Railway Station is the main railway station of the district, considered as junction station of four railway lines (two northeastern lines and one eastern line). It is located 125.106 km (77.7 mi) from Bangkok Railway Station (Hua Lamphong).  In addition, this station is also of historical significance. As it was used as a part of the transport of government troops from Bangkok to suppress the Boworadet rebellion during October 1933.

Kaeng Khoi (, ) is a district ("amphoe") in the northeastern part of Saraburi Province, central Thailand, regarded as the largest district of the province.

Amphoe Kaeng Khoi (Thai: ) ist ein Landkreis "(Amphoe – Verwaltungs-Distrikt)" im Nordosten der Provinz Saraburi. Saraburi liegt in der Zentralregion von Thailand.


List.

Act Number 84-09 of 4 February 1984 relative to the organisation of the Algerian territory and as updated and complemented by Act Number JO of 7 February 1984 fixed the number of Algerian Provinces at 48 and established the list of municipalities or "communes" attached to each Province.  The Province numbers are the first 31 provinces (see the second section) in Arabic alphabetical order, after the adding of 17 other provinces in 1983, the old numbering was kept and the 17 new provinces have been assigned codes from 32-48, in Arabic alphabetical order.  The following table presents the list of provinces, showing for each province, its numerical code, its name (which is in all times the same as the name of the capital city of the province), the number of districts "daira"s in each province, the number of municipalities as well as the province area and its population.

2019-2020.

On 26 November 2019, the Cabinet of Algeria passed a bill to add 10 more provinces, by splitting some of the larger provinces in the South of Algeria into smaller provinces. Thus, the following provinces have been added on December 18, 2019: <br>

1974-1983.

The 15 départments were reorganized to form 31 provinces:

1957-1974.

Immediately after independence, Algeria retained its 15 former French départements, which were renamed wilayas (provinces) in 1968, for the most part, with some name changes:

1954-1962.

During the Algerian War of Independence, the FLN adopted an organizational system divided by 6 numbered "wilayas":

Algeria is divided into 48 wilayas (provinces) and 1541 baladiyahs (municipalities, in French: commune). The capital city of a baladiyah, daïra, or province (which is also the largest city of those) always gives those entities their name, even Algiers, the capital of the country gave it its name ("El Djazayar", the Arabic name for both the city and the country).

Als Wilaya (; Pl. ) bezeichnet man besonders in Algerien, aber auch in manchen andere Staaten aus dem islamischen Kulturraum, die Verwaltungsbezirke der obersten Ebene (Provinz).


Chemical nature.

Organic chemistry.

In organic chemistry, a hydrate is a compound formed by the hydration, i.e. "Addition of water or of the elements of water (i.e. H and OH) to a molecular entity". For example: ethanol, CH−CH−OH, is the product of the hydration reaction of ethene, CH=CH, formed by the addition of H to one C and OH to the other C, and so can be considered as the hydrate of ethene. A molecule of water may be eliminated, for example, by the action of sulfuric acid. Another example is chloral hydrate, CCl−CH(OH), which can be formed by reaction of water with chloral, CCl−CH=O.  Many organic molecules, as well as inorganic molecules, form crystals that incorporate water into the crystalline structure without chemical alteration of the organic molecule (water of crystallization). The sugar trehalose, for example, exists in both an anhydrous form (melting point 203 °C) and as a dihydrate (melting point 97 °C). Protein crystals commonly have as much as 50% water content.  Molecules are also labeled as hydrates for historical reasons not covered above. Glucose, CHO, was originally thought of as C(HO) and described as a carbohydrate. Methanol is often sold as "methyl hydrate", implying the incorrect formula CHOH, while the correct formula is CH−OH.  Hydrate formation is common for active ingredient. Many manufacturing processes provide an opportunity for hydrates to form and the state of hydration can be changed with environmental humidity and time. The state of hydration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient can significantly affect the solubility and dissolution rate and therefore its bioavailability.

Inorganic chemistry.

Hydrates are inorganic salts "containing water molecules combined in a definite ratio as an integral part of the crystal" that are either bound to a metal center or that have crystallized with the metal complex. Such hydrates are also said to contain "water of crystallization" or "water of hydration". If the water is heavy water, where the hydrogen involved is the isotope deuterium, then the term "deuterate" may be used in place of "hydrate". A colorful example is cobalt(II) chloride, which turns from blue to red upon hydration, and can therefore be used as a water indicator.  The notation ""hydrated compound"⋅"n"HO", where "n" is the number of water molecules per formula unit of the salt, is commonly used to show that a salt is hydrated. The "n" is usually a low integer, though it is possible for fractional values to occur. For example, in a monohydrate "n" = 1, and in a hexahydrate "n" = 6. Numerical prefixes of Greek origin are: A hydrate that has lost water is referred to as an anhydride; the remaining water, if any exists, can only be removed with very strong heating. A substance that does not contain any water is referred to as anhydrous. Some anhydrous compounds are hydrated so easily that they are said to be hygroscopic and are used as drying agents or desiccants.

Clathrate hydrates.

Clathrate hydrates (also known as gas hydrates, gas clathrates, etc.) are water ice with gas molecules trapped within; they are a form of clathrate. An important example is methane hydrate (also known as gas hydrate, methane clathrate, etc.).  Nonpolar molecules such as methane can form clathrate hydrates with water, especially under high pressure. Although there is no hydrogen bonding between water and guest molecules when methane is the guest molecule of the clathrate, guest–host hydrogen bonding often forms when the guest is a larger organic molecule such as tetrahydrofuran. In such cases the guest–host hydrogen bonds result in the formation of L-type Bjerrum defects in the clathrate lattice.

Stability.

The stability of hydrates is generally determined by the nature of the compounds, their temperature, and the relative humidity (if they are exposed to air).

In chemistry, a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understood.

Hydrate ( ‚Wasser‘) sind in der Chemie allgemein Substanzen, die Wasser enthalten. Dabei wird der Begriff in verschiedenen Bereichen der Chemie etwas unterschiedlich behandelt. Im Gegensatz zu den Hydraten stehen die Anhydride, Verbindungen, denen Wasser entzogen wurde.


Career.

At age 15, Small was the number 1 under-19 player in Scotland. He turned professional the following year. In 1992, he won the Benson & Hedges Championship, defeating Alan McManus in the final, and in 1995 he reached the Semi-finals of the Welsh Open, and was again a semi-finalist at the 1998 Grand Prix event. His greatest achievement was winning the 2002 LG Cup, beating Ronnie O'Sullivan and John Higgins, before a 9–5 win over Alan McManus in the final. This followed a season in which he won only three matches, owing to the severity of his medical condition. He reached the quarter-finals of the LG Cup in the following season.  The 2003/2004 season ended with him having to pull out of a World Championship match against Alan McManus while trailing 1–7, as the regular steroid injections he required in his neck caused problems with his vision. The 2004–05 season was disastrous for him, as he lost all his ranking tournament matches, and in September 2005 he announced his retirement from the game. Small then started coaching other players, but by 2009 his condition had worsened, and he had to give up coaching.  Despite being the youngest player ever to win on his Crucible debut (10–7 against Doug Mountjoy aged 18 in 1992), he never progressed beyond the last-16 in the World Championship. He was a regular in the top 32 for several years, but his LG Cup win helped him reach #12 for the 2004–05 season, the only time he had entered the top 16. His career-high break was a 141.  In January 2007, he applied for a grant from a trust fund for players who have fallen on hard times from the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association, but was rejected. This decision, stemming from Small's refusal to provide a £250 medical certificate, has been criticised by figures including Jimmy White, Graeme Dott ("Everybody in the game that I’ve spoken to is behind him") and Clive Everton.  In 2012, improved medication allowed Small to return to coaching, one of his players being former snooker professional Michael Leslie.

Personal life.

Small is the son of a taxi driver. He worked as a bank clerk before his success in snooker. Small and his wife Clare have four children.

Christopher Small (born 26 September 1973) is a retired Scottish professional snooker player and now a qualified snooker coach. His playing career was ended by the spinal condition ankylosing spondylitis.

Chris Small (* 26. September 1973 in Leith, Edinburgh, Schottland) ist ein schottischer ehemaliger Snookerspieler und -trainer, der zwischen 1991 und 2005 14 Jahre lang Profispieler war, dabei mit dem LG Cup 2002 ein Ranglistenturnier gewann und schließlich durch seine "Spondylitis ankylosans" seine Karriere beendete.


Plot.

Louis Creed, a doctor from Chicago, is appointed director of the University of Maine's campus health service. He moves to a large house near the small town of Ludlow with his wife Rachel, their two young children, Ellie and Gage, and Ellie's cat, Church. From the moment they arrive, the family runs into trouble: Ellie hurts her knee, and Gage is stung by a bee. Their new neighbor, an elderly man named Jud Crandall, comes to help. He warns Louis and Rachel about the highway that runs past their house, which is frequented by speeding trucks.  Jud and Louis quickly become close friends. Since Louis's father died when he was three, he sees Jud as a surrogate father. A few weeks after the Creeds move in, Jud takes the family on a walk in the woods behind their home. A well-tended path leads to a pet cemetery (misspelled "sematary" on the sign) where the children of the town bury their deceased animals. The outing provokes a heated argument between Louis and Rachel the next day. Rachel disapproves of discussing death, and she worries about how Ellie may be affected by what she saw at the "sematary." It is explained later that Rachel was traumatized by the early death of her sister, Zelda, from spinal meningitis—an issue that is brought up several times in flashbacks. Louis empathizes with his wife and blames her parents for her trauma, who left Rachel at home alone with her sister when she died.  Louis himself has a traumatic experience during the first week of classes. Victor Pascow, a student who has been fatally injured in an automobile accident, addresses his dying words to Louis personally, even though the two men are strangers. On the night following Pascow's death, Louis experiences what he believes is a very vivid dream in which he meets Pascow, who leads him to the deadfall at the back of the "sematary" and warns him to not go beyond there. Louis wakes up in bed the next morning, convinced it was, in fact, a dream—until he finds his feet and bedsheets covered with dried mud and pine needles. Nevertheless, Louis dismisses the dream as the product of the stress he experienced during Pascow's death, coupled with his wife's lingering anxieties about the subject of death.  On Halloween, Jud's wife Norma suffers a near-fatal heart attack but makes a quick recovery thanks to Louis's help. Jud is grateful and decides to repay Louis after Church is run over outside his home around Thanksgiving. Rachel and the kids are visiting Rachel's parents in Chicago, but Louis frets over breaking the bad news to Ellie. Sympathizing with Louis, Jud takes him to the "sematary," supposedly to bury Church. But instead of stopping there, Jud leads Louis farther on to "the real cemetery:" an ancient burial ground that was once used by the Miꞌkmaq Tribe. There, Louis buries the cat on Jud's instruction. The next afternoon, Church returns home; the usually vibrant and lively cat now acts ornery and, in Louis's words, "a little dead." Church hunts for mice and birds, ripping them apart without eating them. He also smells so bad that Ellie no longer wants him in her room at night. Jud confirms that Church has been resurrected and that Jud himself once buried his dog there when he was younger. Louis, deeply disturbed, begins to wish that he hadn't buried Church there.  Several months later, two-year-old Gage is killed by a speeding truck. Overcome with despair, Louis considers bringing his son back to life with the help of the burial ground. Jud, guessing what Louis is planning, attempts to dissuade him by telling him the story of Timmy Baterman, the last person who was resurrected by the burial ground. Timmy Baterman was killed in action during World War II. Timmy's body was shipped back to the United States, and his father Bill buried Timmy in the burial ground. Timmy returned malevolent, terrorizing the people of the town with secrets that Jud asserts he had no earthly way of knowing. Timmy was stopped by his father, Bill, who killed Timmy and set their house on fire before shooting himself. Jud states that he believes that whatever came back was not Timmy, but a "demon" that had possessed his corpse. He concludes that "sometimes, dead is better" and states that "the place has a power... its own evil purpose," and that it may have caused Gage's death because Jud introduced Louis to it.  Despite Jud's warning and his own reservations about the idea, Louis's grief and guilt spur him to carry out his plan. Louis exhumes Gage's body from his grave and inters him in the burial ground. Gage returns from the dead, entirely different from when he was alive. Now malicious in both his words and actions, he finds one of Louis's scalpels and kills both Jud and Rachel. After tricking and killing Church, Louis confronts his son and also sends him back to the grave with a lethal injection of chemicals from his medical supply stock.  After burning the Crandall house down, Louis returns to the burial ground with his wife's corpse, thinking that if he buries the body faster than he did Gage's, there will be a different result. Following all of these tragic events, Louis has also aged in physical appearance, with white hair and wrinkles. One of his colleagues, Steve Masterton, notices him walking into the woods with Rachel's body. Steve, while fearful and concerned, is influenced by the power of the burial ground too, and even considers helping Louis bury Rachel, but he flees in terror and eventually moves away to St. Louis. Later, Louis sits indoors alone, playing solitaire, and Rachel's reanimated corpse walks up behind him and drops a cold hand on his shoulder, while her voice rasps, "Darling."

Background.

In 1979, King was a "writer-in-residence" at the University of Maine and the house he was renting was adjacent to a major road where dogs and cats were often killed by oncoming trucks. After his daughter's cat was killed by a truck along that road, he explained the death of the pet to his daughter and buried the cat. Three days later, King imagined what would happen if a family suffered the same tragedy but the cat came back to life "fundamentally wrong." He then imagined what would happen if that family's young son were also killed by a passing truck. He decided to write a book based on these ideas, and that the book would be a re-telling of "The Monkey's Paw" (1902), a short story by W. W. Jacobs about parents whose son resurrects after they wish for that to happen.  King has gone on record stating that of all the novels he has written, "Pet Sematary" is the one which genuinely scared him the most.

Adaptations.

Films.

A film adaptation was released in 1989. Directed by Mary Lambert, it starred Dale Midkiff as Louis, Fred Gwynne as Jud, Denise Crosby as Rachel, Brad Greenquist as Victor, Miko Hughes as Gage, and Blaze Berdahl as Ellie. King, who wrote the screenplay for the film, also had a cameo as a minister. Zelda was portrayed by male actor Andrew Hubatsek because the filmmakers could not find a woman bony enough to portray the terminally ill girl. The film received mixed reviews, but was a commercial success. A sequel, "Pet Sematary Two", was released in 1992.  A second film adaptation of the novel was released on April 5, 2019. Directed by Dennis Widmyer and Kevin Kölsch, the film stars Jason Clarke as Louis Creed, Amy Seimetz as Rachel Creed, John Lithgow as Jud Crandall, Jeté Laurence as Ellie Creed, and twins Hugo and Lucas Lavoie as Gage Creed.

Radio.

In 1997, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a dramatization of the story in six half-hour episodes, later re-edited into three hour-long episodes. It was adapted by Gregory Evans and starred John Sharian as Louis Creed, Briony Glassco as Rachel Creed and Lee Montague as Jud Crandall. The production was directed by Gordon House.

Music.

The Ramones recorded a song of the same name as the theme for the 1989 film adaptation. It appeared on their album "Brain Drain". It was later covered by the band Starcrawler for the 2019 film.  In 2002, New York horrorcore rapper Cage wrote the song "Ballad of Worms" which was featured on the album "Eastern Conference All Stars III" for the independent hip-hop label Eastern Conference Records. Once thought to be about his relationship and struggle with the hip-hop community, he later revealed it was a love song dedicated to the "Pet Sematary" character Zelda.

Pet Sematary is a 1983 horror novel by American writer Stephen King. The novel was nominated for a World Fantasy Award for Best Novel in 1986, and adapted into two films: one in 1989 and another in 2019. In November 2013, PS Publishing released "Pet Sematary" in a limited 30th-anniversary edition.

Friedhof der Kuscheltiere ist ein Roman des Schriftstellers Stephen King aus dem Jahr 1983 und gilt als das kommerziell erfolgreichste Werk des Autors. Der Roman wurde durch den Verlag Doubleday 1983 unter dem Originaltitel "Pet Sematary" veröffentlicht. Die deutsche Übersetzung von Christel Wiemken wurde erstmals 1985 durch den Verlag Hoffmann und Campe herausgegeben.


Etymology.

The word "capuchin" derives from a group of friars named the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an offshoot from the Franciscans, who wear brown robes with large hoods. When Portuguese explorers reached the Americas in the 15th century, they found small monkeys whose coloring resembled these friars, especially when in their robes with hoods down, and named them capuchins. When the scientists described a specimen (thought to be a golden-bellied capuchin) they noted that: "his muzzle of a tanned color... with the lighter color around his eyes that melts into the white at the front, his cheeks..., give him the looks that involuntarily reminds us of the appearance that historically in our country represents ignorance, laziness, and sensuality." The scientific name of the genus, "Cebus" comes from the Greek word" kêbos", meaning a long-tailed monkey.

Classification.

The species-level taxonomy of this genus remains highly controversial, and alternative treatments than the one listed below have been suggested.  In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro "et al." proposed that the robust capuchins (formerly the "C. apella" group) be placed in a separate genus, "Sapajus", from the gracile capuchins (formerly the "C. capucinus" group) which retain the genus "Cebus". Other primatologists, such as Paul Garber, have begun using this classification.  According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago. Lynch Alfaro suspects that the divergence was triggered by the creation of the Amazon River, which separated the monkeys in the Amazon north of the Amazon River, who then evolved into the gracile capuchins. Those in the Atlantic Forest south of the river evolved into the robust capuchins. Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their body size than robust capuchins, and have rounder skulls, whereas robust capuchins have jaws better adapted for opening hard nuts. Robust capuchins have crests and the males have beards.  <nowiki>*</nowiki> Rediscovered species.

Physical characteristics.

Capuchins are black, brown, buff or whitish, but their exact color and pattern depends on the species involved. Capuchin monkeys are usually dark brown with a cream/off white coloring around their necks. They reach a length of, with tails that are just as long as the body. On average, they weigh from 1.4 to 4 kg (3 to 9 pounds) and live up to 25 years old in their natural habitats.

Behavior.

Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal. With the exception of a midday nap, they spend their entire day searching for food. At night, they sleep in the trees, wedged between branches. They are undemanding regarding their habitat and can thus be found in many differing areas.

Diet.

The capuchin monkey feeds on a vast range of food types, and is more varied than other monkeys in the family Cebidae. They are omnivores, and consume a variety of plant parts such as leaves, flower and fruit, seeds, pith, woody tissue, sugarcane, bulb, and exudates, as well as arthropods, molluscs, a variety of vertebrates, and even primates. Recent findings of old stone tools in Capuchin habitats have suggested that recently the Capuchins have switched from small nuts, such as cashews, to larger and harder nuts. Capuchins have been observed to also be particularly good at catching frogs. They are characterized as innovative and extreme foragers because of their ability to acquire sustenance from a wide collection of unlikely food, which may assure them survival in habitats with extreme food limitation. Capuchins living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones.

Social and cultural structure.

Capuchin monkeys often live in large groups of 10 to 35 individuals within the forest, although they can easily adapt to places colonized by humans. The Capuchins have discreet hierarchies that are distinguished by age and sex. Usually, a single male will dominate the group, and they have primary rights to mate with the females of their group. However, the white-headed capuchin groups are led by both an alpha male and an alpha female. Each group will cover a large territory, since members must search for the best areas to feed. These primates are territorial animals, distinctly marking a central area of their territory with urine and defending it against intruders, though outer areas may overlap. The stabilization of group dynamics is served through mutual grooming, and communication occurs between the monkeys through various calls. Their vocal communications have various meanings such as creating contact with one another, warning about a predator, and forming new groups. The social experience of the Capuchins directly influences the development of attention in society. They create new social behaviors within multiple groups that signify different types of interactions. These include; tests of friendship, displays against enemies, infant and sexual intimacy. This creates social rituals that are designed to test the strength of social bonds and a reliance on social learning.

Habitat.

Capuchins prefer environments that give them access to shelter and easy food, such as low-lying forests, mountain forests and rain forests. They are particularly abundant in Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Honduras, Paraguay and Peru. They use these areas for the shelter at night and food access during the day. The canopy of the trees allow for protection from threats above, and the Capuchin Monkeys innate ability to climb trees with ease allows for them to escape and hide from predators on the jungle floor. This environment is mutually beneficial for the Capuchins and for the ecosystem in which they inhabit. This is because they spread their seed leftovers and fecal matter across the forest floor which helps new plants to grow, therefore adding to the already abundant foliage that shelters the Capuchin.

Mating.

Capuchin females often direct most of their proceptive and mating behavior towards the alpha male. However, when the female reaches the end of her proceptive period, she may sometimes mate with up to six different subordinate males in one day. Strictly targeting the alpha male does not happen every time, as some females have been observed to mate with three to four different males. When an alpha female and a lower-ranking female want to mate with an alpha male, the more dominant female will get rights to the male over the lower-ranking one.

Life history.

Ancestors of the Capuchin monkey, known as Panamacebus Transitus, is a newly discovered species of monkey found in Panama that seems to have lived 21 million years ago. It is the earliest known discovery of monkey to travel between South and North America, although it is still unknown as to how this species traveled from continent. Researcher Lynch Alfaro stated that the gracille Capuchin Monkey genera arose about 6.2 million years ago, and the modern Capuchin culture emerged within the last century. It is this early species that set the stage for the Capuchin to thrive in Central American forests today. The Capuchin has been known to roam these forests these forests for years and their population has boomed, the area in which they inhabit allows for the Capuchin offspring to thrive. the reproduction of these particular monkeys does not differ much from its fellow primates. Capuchins are polygamous, and the females mate throughout the year, but only go through a gestation period once every 2 years between December and April. Females bare young every two years following a 160- to 180-day gestation. The young cling to their mother's chest until they are larger, then they move to her back. Adult male Capuchin rarely take part in caring for the young. Juveniles become fully mature within four years for females and eight years for males. In captivity, individuals have reached an age of 50 years, although natural life expectancy is only 15 to 25 years. Capuchins live in groups of 6-40 members, consisting of related females, their offspring and several males.

Threats.

Capuchin monkeys are clever and easy to train. As a result, they are used to help people who are quadriplegics in many developed countries. They have also become popular pets and attractions for street entertainment, and are hunted for meat by local people. Since they have a high reproductive rate and can easily adapt to their living environment, loss of the forest does not negatively impact the Capuchin monkey populations as much as other species, although habitat fragmentation is still a threat. Natural predators include jaguars, cougars, jaguarundis, coyotes, tayras, snakes, crocodiles and birds of prey. The main predator of the tufted capuchin is the harpy eagle, which has been seen bringing several Capuchin back to its nest.

Intelligence.

The capuchin is considered to be the most intelligent New World monkey and is often used in laboratories. The tufted monkey is especially noted for its long-term tool usage, one of the few examples of primate tool use other than by apes. Upon seeing macaws eating palm nuts, cracking them open with their beaks, this monkey will select a few of the ripest fruits, nip off the tip of the fruit and drink down the juice, then seemingly discard the rest of the fruit with the nut inside. When these discarded fruits have hardened and become slightly brittle, the Capuchin will gather them up again and take them to a large flat boulder where they have previously gathered a few river stones from up to a mile away. They will then use these stones, some of them weighing as much as the monkeys, to crack open the fruit to get to the nut inside. Young Capuchins will watch this process to learn from the older, more experienced adults but it takes them 8 years to master this. The learning behavior of Capuchins has been demonstrated to be directly linked to a reward rather than curiosity.  In 2005, experiments were conducted on the ability of Capuchins to use money. After several months of training, the monkeys began exhibiting behaviors considered to reflect understanding of the concept of a medium of exchange that were previously believed to be restricted to humans (such as responding rationally to price shocks). They showed the same propensity to avoid perceived losses demonstrated by human subjects and investors. During the mosquito season, they crush millipedes and rub the result on their backs. This acts as a natural insect repellent.

Self-awareness.

When presented with a reflection, Capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self.  Most animals react to seeing their reflection as if encountering another individual they do not recognize. An experiment with Capuchins shows that they react to a reflection as a strange phenomenon, but not as if seeing a strange Capuchin.  In the experiment, Capuchins were presented with three different scenarios:  With scenario 1, females appeared anxious and avoided eye-contact, while males made threatening gestures. In scenario 2, there was little reaction by either males or females.  When presented with a reflection, females gazed into their own eyes and made friendly gestures, such as lip-smacking and swaying. Males made more eye contact than with strangers or familiar monkeys, but reacted with signs of confusion or distress, such as squealing, curling up on the floor, or trying to escape from the test room.

Theory of mind.

The question of whether capuchin monkeys have a theory of mind—whether they can understand what another creature may know or think—has been neither proven nor disproven conclusively. If confronted with a "knower-guesser" scenario, where one trainer can be observed to know the location of food and another trainer merely guesses the location of food, capuchin monkeys can learn to rely on the knower. This has, however, been repudiated as conclusive evidence for a theory of mind as the monkeys may have learned to discriminate knower and guess by other means. Until recently it was believed that non-human great apes did not possess a theory of mind either, although recent research indicates this may not be correct. Human children commonly develop a theory of mind around the ages 3 and 4.

Relationship with humans.

Easily recognized as the "organ grinder" or "greyhound jockey" monkeys, capuchins are sometimes kept as exotic pets. Sometimes they plunder fields and crops and are seen as troublesome by nearby human populations. In some regions, they have become rare due to the destruction of their habitat.  They are also used as service animals, sometimes being called "nature's butlers". One organization has been training capuchin monkeys to assist quadriplegics as monkey helpers in a manner similar to mobility assistance dogs. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with a quadriplegic. Around the house, the monkeys help out by doing tasks including fetching objects, turning lights on and off, and opening drink bottles.  In 2010, the U.S. federal government revised its definition of service animal under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Non-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA. The American Veterinary Medical Association does not support the use of nonhuman primates as assistance animals because of animal welfare concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates may transfer dangerous diseases to humans.  Capuchin monkeys are the most common featured monkeys in the movies "Outbreak", "" (and its sequels), "Zookeeper", "George of the Jungle", and "The Hangover Part II". Ross Geller (David Schwimmer) on the NBC sitcom "Friends" had a capuchin monkey named Marcel. Crystal the Monkey is the famous monkey actress.

The capuchin monkeys ( or ) are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.

Die Kapuzineraffen (Cebinae) sind eine Primatengruppe aus der Gruppe der Neuweltaffen. Es sind waldbewohnende, allesfressende Tiere, die in Gruppen leben. Die Unterfamilie wird in über 20 Arten unterteilt.


Properties.

Lithium niobate is a colorless solid, and it is insoluble in water. It has a trigonal crystal system, which lacks inversion symmetry and displays ferroelectricity, the Pockels effect, the piezoelectric effect, photoelasticity and nonlinear optical polarizability. Lithium niobate has negative uniaxial birefringence which depends slightly on the stoichiometry of the crystal and on temperature. It is transparent for wavelengths between 350 and 5200 nanometers.  Lithium niobate can be doped by magnesium oxide, which increases its resistance to optical damage (also known as photorefractive damage) when doped above the optical damage threshold. Other available dopants are,,,,,,, and.

Growth.

Single crystals of lithium niobate can be grown using the Czochralski process. After a crystal is grown, it is sliced into wafers of different orientation. Common orientations are Z-cut, X-cut, Y-cut, and cuts with rotated angles of the previous axes.

Nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles of lithium niobate and niobium pentoxide can be produced at low temperature. The complete protocol implies a LiH induced reduction of NbCl followed by "in situ" spontaneous oxidation into low-valence niobium nano-oxides. These niobium oxides are exposed to air atmosphere resulting in pure NbO. Finally, the stable NbO is converted into lithium niobate LiNbO nanoparticles during the controlled hydrolysis of the LiH excess. Spherical nanoparticles of lithium niobate with a diameter of approximately 10 nm can be prepared by impregnating a mesoporous silica matrix with a mixture of an aqueous solution of LiNO and NHNbO(CO) followed by 10 min heating in an infrared furnace.

Applications.

Lithium niobate is used extensively in the telecommunications market, e.g. in mobile telephones and optical modulators. It is the material of choice for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices. For some uses it can be replaced by lithium tantalate,. Other uses are in laser frequency doubling, nonlinear optics, Pockels cells, optical parametric oscillators, Q-switching devices for lasers, other acousto-optic devices, optical switches for gigahertz frequencies, etc. It is an excellent material for manufacture of optical waveguides. It's also used in the making of optical spatial low-pass (anti-aliasing) filters.  In the past few years lithium niobate is finding applications as a kind of electrostatic tweezers, an approach known as optoelectronic tweezers as the effect requires light excitation to take place. This effect allows for fine manipulation of micrometer-scale particles with high flexibility since the tweezing action is constrained to the illuminated area. The effect is based on the very high electric fields generated during light exposure (1–100 kV/cm) within the illuminated spot. These intense fields are also finding applications in biophysics and biotechnology, as they can influence living organisms in a variety of ways. For example, iron-doped lithium niobate excited with visible light has been shown to produce cell death in tumoral cell cultures.

Periodically-poled lithium niobate (PPLN).

Periodically-poled lithium niobate (PPLN) is a domain-engineered lithium niobate crystal, used mainly for achieving quasi-phase-matching in nonlinear optics. The ferroelectric domains point alternatively to the "+c" and the "−c" direction, with a period of typically between 5 and 35 μm. The shorter periods of this range are used for second harmonic generation, while the longer ones for optical parametric oscillation. Periodic poling can be achieved by electrical poling with periodically structured electrode. Controlled heating of the crystal can be used to fine-tune phase matching in the medium due to a slight variation of the dispersion with temperature.  Periodic poling uses the largest value of lithium niobate's nonlinear tensor, d = 27 pm/V. Quasi-phase matching gives maximum efficiencies that are 2/π (64%) of the full d, about 17 pm/V.  Other materials used for periodic poling are wide band gap inorganic crystals like KTP (resulting in periodically poled KTP, PPKTP), lithium tantalate, and some organic materials.  The periodic poling technique can also be used to form surface nanostructures.  However, due to its low photorefractive damage threshold, PPLN only finds limited applications: at very low power levels. MgO-doped lithium niobate is fabricated by periodically-poled method. Periodically-poled MgO-doped lithium niobate (PPMgOLN) therefore expands the application to medium power level.

Sellmeier equations.

The Sellmeier equations for the extraordinary index are used to find the poling period and approximate temperature for quasi-phase matching. Jundt gives  formula_1  valid from 20 to 250 °C for wavelengths from 0.4 to 5 micrometers, whereas for longer wavelength,  formula_2  which is valid for "T" = 25 to 180 °C, for wavelengths λ between 2.8 and 4.8 micrometers.  In these equations "f" = ("T" − 24.5)("T" + 570.82), λ is in micrometers, and "T" is in °C.  More generally for ordinary and extraordinary index for MgO-doped :  formula_3,  with:  for congruent (CLN) and stochiometric (SLN).

Lithium niobate () is a compound of niobium, lithium, and oxygen. Its single crystals are an important material for optical waveguides, mobile phones, piezoelectric sensors, optical modulators and various other linear and non-linear optical applications. It is a human-made dielectric material that does not exist in nature. Lithium niobate is sometimes referred to by the brand name linobate.

Lithiumniobat ist eine chemische Verbindung mit der Formel LiNbO. Es ist ein transparenter, kristalliner Feststoff, der nicht in der Natur vorkommt. Lithiumniobatkristalle werden üblicherweise nach dem Czochralski-Verfahren aus einer Schmelze (Gemisch aus Lithiumoxid und Niob(V)-oxid) gezogen. Aufgrund seiner Kristallstruktur hat es einige technisch nutzbare Eigenschaften, vor allem als Material in der nichtlinearen Optik.


Germany.

Organization.

The Verkehrskadetten are the organization for youth of the "Deutsche Verkehrswacht". They are joined by teenage traffic assistant, which assist the local police, the Code enforcement or the organizing committee at any kind of event.

Legal basis.

In laws, Verkehrskadetten are called "Verkehrshelfer" (traffic assistant). The legal basis since 1942 is article 42 of the German Highway Code and sign 356 (left). Until 1992, the sign was called "Schülerlotse" (crossing guard).

Education and examination.

The training's duration depends on the city. It varies from two weekends to up to five months. The candidates are educated in subjects as the German Highway Code, First aid, Roadside assistance, securing an accident site, and many other things.  The examination consists of a theoretical and a practical part.

Operation.

The Verkehrskadetten are a part of the "Verkehrswacht", but they are managed by themselves. The finance their equipment and vehicles from donations, sponsoring, and the earned money only.  Verkehrskadetten are mostly employed at large events, where they assist the traffic. They may secure pedestrian crossings or close roads for a bike race.  The Verkehrskadetten are also contact people for passersby and respond to their questions.

Leisure time.

For rewarding the teens for their work, the Verkehrskadetten often organize leisure activities.

Cooperation between Verkehrskadetten of different cities.

At really large events, Verkehrskadetten of different cities are assisting each other, for example at the North Rhine-Westphalia-Day, where more than 70 Verkehrskadetten are working together.

Ranks and structure.

The Verkehrskadetten have various ranks, though there are differences between cities.  The most common rank order is:

Destinations.

In the Deutsche Verkehrswacht, there are Verkehrskadetten of the following parts of Germany:  Aachen, Bielefeld, Coburg, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Hamm, Kreis Kleve, Krefeld, Lichtenfels, Kreis Mettmann, Plauen, Sulzbach/Saar, Landkreis Teltow-Fläming, Landkreis Zwickau, and Solingen.  The Verkehrskadetten of Lower Saxony are not members of the Deutsche Verkehrswacht.

Switzerland.

Organization.

In Switzerland, all Verkehrskadetten Departments are members of the Swiss and/or the Zurich Verkehrskadetten Association. The Zurich Verkehrskadetten Association consists of Verkehrskadetten Departments of the canton of Zurich

Legal basis.

In Switzerland, the legal basis for Traffic regulation by Verkehrskadetten is given by Article 67 paragraph 1 letter c. of the Signs Regulation Act "(Signalisationsverordnung)", which is based upon the Road Traffic Act "(Strassenverkehrsgesetz)". Article 67 of the Signs Regulation Act says, that signs and orders of Verkehrskadetten are binding to everyone.

Education and examination.

In Switzerland, the education consists for example of transport services, parking, creating detours, usage of two-way radios, and First aid. The candidates are examined by officers of the local or cantonal Police Department.

Operation.

In Switzerland, the Verkehrskadetten Departments are clubs referred to Article 60 etc. of the Swiss Civil Code. According to that, the Departments are independent. For little money, they can be hired by anyone.

Uniforms.

The Verkehrskadetten must be equipped according to norm EN471 (SN471). Members of the Swiss Verkehrskadetten Association are obtaining this rule.

A young person called traffic cadet (German "Verkehrskadett", plural "Verkehrskadetten") is someone who manages traffic circulations as a crossing guard at events. They may work alone, but sometimes, they are assisted by police officers or vice versa.

Als Verkehrskadett, respektive Verkehrskadetten, werden Jugendliche und junge Erwachsene bezeichnet, die ehrenamtlich bei Veranstaltungen oder bei hohem Verkehrsaufkommen selbständig oder gemeinsam mit der Polizei, Feuerwehr oder anderen Behörden und Organisationen mit Sicherheitsaufgaben für einen geordneten und reibungslosen Verkehrsablauf sorgen.


Geography.

Lisdoonvarna is located in the area of County Clare known as the Burren, on the N67 road between Ballyvaughan and Ennistymon. The Aille river flows through the town, where it is joined by the Gowlaun and Kilmoon streams.  The town is in the civil parish of Kilmoon. Nearby townlands in this parish include Ballyinsheen Beg, Ballyinsheen More, Rathbaun and Rooska.

Name.

The town takes its name from the Irish "Lios Dúin Bhearna" meaning the "lios dúin", or enclosured fort, of the gap ("bearna"). It is believed that the fort referred to in this name is the green earthen fort of Lissateeaun ("fort of the fairy hill"), which lies 3 km to the northeast of the town, near the remains of a Norman-era castle.

History.

The present town is a comparatively new one by Irish standards, dating mainly from the start of the 19th century.  The spa official opened in 1845, but the town was visited before by people partaking of the waters. Even by the 1880s, however, the facilities were quite primitive. The wells were privately owned by the Guthrie family and were later developed and baths built by the new owner, a Dr. Westropp, who lived in a house overlooking the spa.  On 11 September 1887, the house of landowner Mike Walsh was attacked by "moonlighters" (members of one of the organized bands of desperados that carried on a system of agrarian outrages in Ireland). A detachment of the Royal Irish Constabulary defended the house and its owner, and there was heavy fighting in and around the house. Head Constable Whelehan was killed. All the moonlighters were captured. Seven constables, four acting constables and two head constables received the Constabulary Medal for valour.  The spa prospered into the 20th century. In 1920, it was called the "Homberg of the Irish priests".  The area was officially classified as part of the West Clare Gaeltacht, an Irish-speaking community, until 1956.  Historical maps of Lisdoonvarna show how the Main Street looked in the nineteenth century. It also gives the location of the RIC barracks and the many hotels associated with the town, such as Queen's Hotel and Eagle Hotel, amongst others.

Arts and culture.

Events.

In September each year one of Europe's largest matchmaking events is held in the town attracting upwards of 40,000 romantic hopefuls, bachelor farmers and accompanying revellers. The month-long event is an important tourist attraction. The current matchmaker is Willie Daly, a fourth-generation matchmaker.  A now-defunct music festival which took place near the town is celebrated in a song of the same name written by the Irish folk singer, Christy Moore. This festival took place until 1983, when the last event was marred by a riot and the accidental drowning of eight people.

Infrastructure.

Spa.

The spa originally consisted of four wells. Copperas Well, on Kilmoon stream, is now closed. It was used externally for skin conditions, ulcers and sores. The Magnesia and Iron Well remains open in season. The Twin Wells offer water rich in iron and sulphur. The main Sulphur Well lies at the bottom of the hill. All the waters contain iodine.  The spa park is located at the confluence of the Aille and Gowlaun rivers. The spa complex features a Victorian pump house among other amenities.

Transport.

Bus Éireann route 350 links Lisdoonvarna to several locations: Ennis, Ennistymon, Cliffs of Moher, Doolin, Fanore, Kinvara and Galway. There are a number of journeys each way daily. Onward rail and bus connections are available at Ennis and Galway.  Spectacle Bridge, spanning the Aille river, dates from 1850.

Lisdoonvarna () is a spa town of 739 people (2011 census) in County Clare in Ireland. The town is famous for its music and festivals. Although the music festival was discontinued in the 1980s, Lisdoonvarna still hosts its annual matchmaking festival each September.

Lisdoonvarna (irisch: "Lios Dúin Bhearna", ) liegt im Nordwesten des County Clare, ist der Hauptort des Burren und hat 829 Einwohner (Census 2016). Hier befindet sich das einzige Heilbad von Irland, das radioaktives Thermalwasser mit Schwefel, Magnesium, Eisen und Iod enthält. Der Ortsname wird vom 1,5 km entfernten Dun Lissateeaun (irisch Lios an tSidheain – Hügel der Feen) abgeleitet.


Plot.

Nina, an interpreter, is beside herself with grief at the recent death of her boyfriend, Jamie, a cellist. When she is on the verge of despair, Jamie reappears as a "ghost" and the couple are reunited. Nina is ecstatic. But Jamie tells her about his days while she is at work, and one dialogue suggests she should embrace the life around her; one of these is about a memorial plaque in a park about a dead child and how parents who read it feel an immediate, compelling need to hug their children. The returned Jamie also reminds her that he also irritated her, and as a ghost he manifests behaviours she'd have little patience for – turning up the central heating to stifling levels, moving furniture around and inviting back "ghost friends" to watch videos. This infuriates her, and their relationship deteriorates.  She meets Mark, a psychologist, to whom she is attracted, but she is unwilling to become involved with him because of Jamie's continued presence. Nina continues to love Jamie but is conflicted by his self-centred behaviour and ultimately wonders out loud, "Was it always like this?" Over Nina's objections, Jamie decides to leave to allow her to move on. Towards the end of the film, Jamie watches Nina leave and one of his fellow ghosts asks, "Well?" and Jamie responds, "I think so... Yes." At this point the central conceit of the movie has become clear: Jamie came back specifically to help Nina get over him by tarnishing her idealised memory of him.

Production.

Minghella said he wrote the script specifically as "a vehicle for [Stevenson] to express all her talents. She plays piano, likes dancing and has a quirky side to her which she usually can't express in the classical parts she is asked for." The title comes from a word game played by the main characters, in which they challenge each other to by turns repeat and add to a series of adverbs describing the depths of their mutual affection. The working title for the film was 'Cello', a reference not only to the cello within the film, but also to the Italian word 'cielo' for heaven. The film was made-for-TV, and produced in a 28-day shooting schedule for just $650,000.  It was shot on location in London and Bristol, with external shots in Highgate and on the South Bank. Stevenson said in 2012 that it was the favourite role of her career, commenting that the shoot was like a party.

Reception.

The film was critically successful, winning several awards including a BAFTA for best original screenplay. (Alan Rickman and Juliet Stevenson received Best Actor and Best Actress, and Anthony Minghella Most Promising Newcomer, from the 1991 Evening Standard British Film Awards.) It became a hit in the American arthouse circuit and Minghella subsequently was offered work by every major studio in Hollywood. The film's combination of serious themes with comic scenes, music and strong performances from the actors was noted by critics. Roger Ebert called it "a "Ghost" for grownups" (a common comparison because of the shared theme of lovers returning as ghosts and the concurrent releases of the films) and considered the film to reveal "some truths that are, the more you think about them, really pretty profound". Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 72% of the professional critics have given the film a positive review. At Metacritic the film has weighted mean score of 72 out of 100 based on 16 reviews.

Truly, Madly, Deeply is a 1990 British fantasy drama film made for the BBC's "Screen Two" series, by BBC Films, Lionheart and Winston Pictures. The film, written and directed by Anthony Minghella, stars Juliet Stevenson and Alan Rickman.

Wie verrückt und aus tiefstem Herzen ("Truly Madly Deeply") ist eine englische Tragikomödie von 1991. Regie führte der sechs Jahre später für "Der englische Patient" oscarprämierte Anthony Minghella. Sie spielt im Großbritannien der Gegenwart.


Background.

For most of its history, the Scottish Football League had a two divisional structure (Divisions One and Two) between which clubs were promoted and relegated at the end of each season. However, by the mid-1970s, this organisation was perceived to be stagnant, and it was decided to split into a three divisional structure: Premier Division (formerly Division One), First Division (formerly Division Two) and a newly added Second Division. This system came into force for the 1975–76 season. This setup continued until the 1994–95 season, when a four divisional structure was introduced. This involved the creation of a Third Division, with all four divisions consisting of ten clubs.  On 8 September 1997, the clubs in the Premier Division decided to split from the Scottish Football League and form a Scottish Premier League. This followed an earlier example in England, which came into force during the 1992–93 season. This decision was fuelled by a desire by the top clubs in Scotland to retain more of the revenue generated by the game. Originally, league sponsorship money was divided proportionally between clubs in all four divisions. After the SPL was formed, its clubs retained all of its commercial revenues except for an annual payment to the SFL and a parachute payment to recently relegated clubs.

Competition format.

Teams received three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points were awarded for a loss. Teams were ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. At the end of each season, the club with the most points was crowned league champion. If points were equal, the goal difference and then goals scored determine the winner.

Split.

Originally the SPL contained 10 clubs, but it subsequently enlarged to 12 for the 2000–01 season and retained this structure until 2013. The increase from 10 clubs to 12 was part of the deal offered to obtain approval from SFL member clubs. After the expansion to 12 clubs, the SPL operated a "split" format. This was done to prevent the need for a 44-match schedule, based on playing each other four times. That format had been used in the Scottish Premier Division but was considered to be too high a number of matches in a league season.  A season, which runs from August (except in 2011–12, when that season began in July) until May, was divided into two phases. During the first phase, each club played three matches against every other team, either once at home and twice away, or "vice versa". After this first phase of matches, by which time all clubs had played 33 matches, the league split into a "top six" and a "bottom six". Each club then played a further five matches against the other five teams in their own section. Points achieved during the first phase of 33 matches were carried forward to the second phase, but the teams competed only within their own sections during the second phase. After the first phase was completed, clubs could not move out of their own section in the league, even if they achieved more or fewer points than a higher or lower ranked team, respectively.  At the beginning of each season, the SPL "predicted" the likely positions of each club in order to produce a fixture schedule that ensured the best possible chance of all clubs playing each other twice at home and twice away. This was known as the league seeding and was based on clubs' performance in previous years. If a club did not finish in the half where it was predicted to finish, it faced the possibility of playing an unequal number of home and away matches. For example, one club would sometimes play another three times at home and once away.  There was criticism of the split season format. In April 2007, Craig Levein labelled it as "rubbish" and a "nonsense", claiming it resulted in lost revenue for clubs and put more pressure on managers, while Rangers manager Walter Smith branded the format as "unfair" and called for an 18-team league to be considered. However, the SPL defended the split format, dismissing the possibility of expanding the league due to a lack of strong enough clubs within the Scottish Football League. In March 2008, Kilmarnock manager Jim Jefferies was the latest to call for a league revamp, claiming the potential for four matches per season against the same opponent was too many.

Promotion and relegation.

The bottom placed SPL club at the end of the season was relegated, and swapped places with the winner of the Scottish First Division, provided that the winner satisfied the SPL entry criteria. These promotion criteria sometimes caused controversy. In 2003, the chairmen of the member clubs voted against Falkirk's proposed ground share with Airdrie United and stopped the club from having the 10,000 capacity stadium it required, therefore saving Motherwell from relegation.  The same situation nearly materialised in 2004. After several votes and discussion, including threats of court cases from Partick Thistle, the team threatened with relegation, Inverness Caledonian Thistle were promoted on the basis that they would ground share with Aberdeen at Pittodrie. In 2005, the stadium size criterion for entry to the SPL was reduced to 6,000, thereby allowing Inverness Caledonian Thistle to return to their home stadium during the 2005–06 season.

Old Firm dominance.

One of the main criticisms of the SPL was the dominance of the two Old Firm clubs, Celtic and Rangers. No team outside the Old Firm has won the Scottish league championship since 1985. Until Rangers were ejected from the SPL due to their liquidation, there was only one SPL season (2005–06) where both clubs failed to occupy first and second positions, with Hearts finishing second behind Celtic. While other European leagues were dominated by a few clubs in the 2000s, the Old Firm dominance in Scotland dated back to the beginning of Scottish league football, with a few exceptional periods. The average home attendances of both clubs is significantly higher than the other Scottish clubs, which resulted in the Old Firm having far greater revenues and therefore more money to spend on players. Both clubs also received significant revenues from participation in the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League.  Despite having more resources than other Scottish clubs, the Old Firm experienced difficulty in competing with big clubs from other leagues in terms of transfer fees and player wages due to the SPL's relatively low television revenue. A recurring theme during the existence of the SPL was the prospect of the two clubs leaving the Scottish football set-up to join the English football league system, an Atlantic League with clubs from countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal, or forming a new European Super League. While some observers believed the departure of the Old Firm from the Scottish football setup would be detrimental to Scottish football as a whole, others, such as Craig Levein, believed it would benefit Scottish football due to increased competition among the remaining clubs for the SPL title. World football's governing body FIFA ruled out the prospect of any Old Firm move to the English set-up. The duopoly was effectively broken when Rangers entered administration in 2012 and was liquidated after it failed to reach an agreement with creditors. Rangers was relaunched by a new company and were voted into the Scottish Football League Third Division.  In March 2013, Rangers chief executive Charles Green suggested that Rangers could join the Football Conference and that EU competition law banning restraints of trade could be used to overcome any legal barriers to such a plan. Green also suggested that Rangers and Celtic would not be playing in the Scottish league system in ten years time. Scotland manager Gordon Strachan said he believed the Old Firm clubs would join a future new 38-club two-division European Super League.

Winter break.

The SPL instituted a "winter break" during the January of each season, beginning with the 1998–99 season. However, this practice was removed beginning in the 2000–01 season, forcing clubs to play throughout January and sometimes resulting in postponement of matches and significant damage to clubs' pitches. Managers Martin O'Neill, Jim Duffy and Walter Smith were among those who called for the winter break to be reinstated. Alex McLeish accused the SPL of taking Scottish football "back to the Dark Ages" after its decision to scrap the mid-season hiatus.

European qualification.

In the seasons after the SPL's inception, Scotland's UEFA coefficient improved significantly, having been ranked 26th in 1998–99, they reached a high of 10th at the end of the 2007–08 season. The SPL ranking thereafter declined, the league falling back to the 24th position at the end of 2012–13.  In 2003, Celtic became the first Scottish club since Dundee United in 1987 to reach a European final, eventually losing 3–2 to Porto after extra time in the UEFA Cup final. In 2003–04, two Scottish clubs, Celtic and Rangers, qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time. In 2005–06, Rangers became the first Scottish club to reach the knockout stage of the Champions League, a feat repeated by Celtic the following two seasons. In the 2007–08 season, three Scottish clubs were competing in Europe after Christmas for the first time since 1970, while in the same season, Rangers reached the 2008 UEFA Cup final, but lost 2–0 to Russian club Zenit Saint Petersburg. During the season, Scotland's European representatives collected the most coefficient points since the 1982–83 season.

Players.

Scottish Premier League clubs had almost complete freedom to sign whatever number and category of players they wish. There was no team or individual salary cap, no squad size limit, no age restrictions other than those applied by general employment law, no restrictions on the overall number of foreign players and few restrictions on individual foreign players. All players with EU nationality, including those able to claim an EU passport through a parent or grandparent, were eligible to play, and top players from outside the EU were able to obtain UK work permits.  The only restriction on selection was the "Under-21 rule". This rule stated that each club must include at least three players under the age of 21 in its matchday squad. Opinions on this rule were divided among SPL managers. Walter Smith, Gus MacPherson and Jim Jefferies expressed their disapproval of the policy. John Collins approved of the ruling, claiming it is healthy for Scottish football and encouraged the development of young players.  A decline in television revenue resulted in relatively little spending among SPL clubs, with major transfer spending mostly limited to the Old Firm clubs. As a result, most clubs became reliant on developing their own young players and selling them on for profit. This also resulted in a large proportion of SPL clubs' squads being made up of Scottish players (73% in the 2004–05 season).

Finances.

Attendance.

Due to its relatively low income from television and commercial partners, Scottish clubs were highly dependent on revenues from fans attending matches. More people in Scotland per head of population watched their domestic top-level league than any other European nation. All ten of the clubs that played in the 1998–99 Scottish Premier League also participated in the 2011–12 Scottish Premier League. Nine of those ten clubs recorded lower average attendance. Celtic had a 14% decline in attendance since a peak season of 2000–01, when the club won the domestic treble. Dunfermline, who were newly promoted to the SPL in 2011–12, only saw an increase of 939 in average attendance from the 2010–11 Scottish First Division season. They also attracted a bigger crowd for a Fife derby game in the First Division against Raith Rovers than any game in the SPL.

Sponsorship.

The Bank of Scotland, which had sponsored the league since March 1999 (the League was unsponsored for most of the inaugural season), did not renew its sponsorship at the end of the 2006–07 season. Talks began with Clydesdale Bank, and a four-year contract worth £8 million came into effect from July 2007; in 2010, the contract was extended until 2013.

Insolvency events.

During the SPL era, six of its member clubs entered administration. Serious financial difficulties first arose in 2002 when broadcaster Sky Sports withdrew its interest in the League's television rights when the SPL rejected its offer of £45 million, hoping a better deal would arise from another broadcaster. However, a superior deal failed to arise, adding to the clubs' already delicate financial position. Total debt among SPL clubs was estimated during 2001–02 to be around £132m, having been barely into double figures two years previously. Motherwell became the first SPL club to enter administration in April 2002, with debts of £11 million and a wage bill totalling 97% of the club's annual turnover. Dundee were next to follow, when in November 2003 it sacked 25 staff after debts of £20 million.  The severity of the SPL's financial problems were revealed in September 2003 when combined losses for SPL clubs during 2001–02 was estimated to have been £60 million. A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) in 2003 described five SPL clubs – Dundee, Dunfermline Athletic, Hearts, Hibernian and Livingston – as "technically insolvent". Livingston became the third SPL club to enter administration in February 2004 with debts of £3.5 million. Dunfermline Athletic's financial position also looked bleak, with several players asked to take wage-cuts, while Rangers chairman David Murray announced in September 2004 a plan to raise £57 million via a rights issue in an attempt to eliminate a large proportion of the club's debts.  After widespread cost-cutting measures, the finances of SPL clubs began to show signs of improvement. Both Motherwell and Dundee came out of administration in April and August 2004 respectively, while Livingston ended its 15-month spell in administration in May 2005. The 2006 report on SPL finances by PWC revealed operating profits of £2.8 million among SPL clubs, the first collective operating profit made by Scotland's top-flight clubs in over a decade. Seven of the SPL's 12 clubs had a wage turnover ratio of less than 60%.  The 2007 report by PWC revealed a collective loss of £9 million for 2005–06, although six clubs – Falkirk, Hibernian, Inverness CT, Kilmarnock, Motherwell and Rangers – made a profit. The report highlighted the increasingly precarious financial position of Hearts, describing its current finances as "unsustainable" with debt rising by £7 million to £28 million and a wage bill which represents 97% of its turnover. The figures for 2006–07 showed a collective profit of £3 million, with eight clubs making a profit.  In March 2008, Gretna became the fourth SPL club to enter administration. The club's main benefactor, Brooks Mileson, was forced to withdraw his financial support due to failing health. The club was liquidated after it had been relegated to the Scottish Football League at the end of the 2007–08 Scottish Premier League. Gretna fans formed a new club, Gretna 2008, which entered the East of Scotland Football League.  SPL clubs were badly affected by the late 2000s financial crisis and UK economic recession. The 21st PWC annual review found that SPL clubs made a collective loss of £22 million during the 2008–09 season, although this loss was almost entirely due to problems at two clubs. Rangers incurred a £14 million loss after losing most of their European revenues due to an early defeat by FBK Kaunas, while Hearts lost £8 million. In 2010, Hearts was described by "The Scotsman" as the only true financial "basket case" in the SPL, with the club having a wages-to-turnover ratio of 126% and debt of over three times turnover. Rangers stabilised financially in the next two seasons, thanks to income generated from Champions League participation. Rangers entered administration on 14 February 2012, owing an approximate £9 million in unpaid taxes and with an ongoing tribunal with HMRC. HMRC blocked a proposed Company Voluntary Arrangement in June 2012, forcing preferred bidder Charles Green to use a new company to buy out the business and assets of Rangers. Weeks before the SPL merged into the Scottish Professional Football League, Hearts became the sixth SPL club to enter administration.

Media coverage.

Television.

Between 1998–99 and 2001–02, exclusive television rights for live Scottish Premier League matches were held by Sky Sports. In January 2002, the SPL rejected a £45 million offer from Sky Sports and began considering setting up its own pay-per-view channel, dubbed "SPL TV". However, these plans broke down in April 2002 when the Old Firm clubs – Rangers and Celtic – utilised the 11–1 voting system to veto the proposals. This caused discontent among the remaining ten SPL clubs, which subsequently announced their intention to resign from the league.  Despite a two-year television deal being agreed with BBC Scotland in July 2002 for a significant amount less than previously offered by Sky Sports, the ten non-Old Firm clubs confirmed their resignation from the SPL in August 2002, citing discontent with the voting system. The ten clubs withdrew their resignations in January 2003 after an agreement was reached to change some of the voting procedures and to change the distribution of TV revenue.  The SPL agreed a television rights deal with Irish broadcaster Setanta Sports in February 2004 in a four-year deal worth £35 million. This deal was revised in 2006, with a two-year extension to the original deal agreed, the new four-year deal now being worth £54.5 million and running to 2010. In June 2008, it was announced that a further four-year deal would commence for the 2010–11 season, worth £125 million. Setanta lost the rights to show live SPL matches in the United Kingdom as it was unable to pay the £3 million it owed to the SPL. The SPL then agreed a deal with ESPN and Sky Sports worth £13 million per season to the clubs. This was comparable to the deal which was in place with Setanta, but it was around half the amount Setanta was due to pay from 2010. The Old Firm criticised the decision of nine of the other SPL clubs to accept that offer from Setanta, instead of taking an alternative package from Sky that would have been worth significantly more than the deal signed after Setanta went into administration.  In 2009, Sky and ESPN agreed a five-year deal with the SPL where they would pay a total of £65 million for the rights to show 30 matches each per season. In November 2011, it was announced that a five-year extension to the contract would commence from the 2012–13 season. This deal was amended after Rangers entered insolvency and was not allowed to transfer its SPL membership to a new company. The rights held by ESPN were acquired by BT Sport in February 2013.  BBC Scotland's Sportscene held the rights to broadcast highlights of each match first on terrestrial TV. The BBC also held the rights to show online Internet highlights to UK users for one week after each match. BBC Alba, launched in September 2008, showed one full SPL match per week in delayed coverage. BBC Alba will also showed some live matches in the 2012–13 season. The SPL was broadcast in Australia by Setanta Sports Australia, in Canada by Sportsnet World and in the United States by Fox Soccer Channel and Fox Soccer Plus.

Radio.

Radio broadcasting rights were held by BBC Radio Scotland. BBC Radio Scotland also provided internet webcasts to all Scottish Premier League matches, having become the first broadcaster to introduce such a service in June 2000. Old Firm matches were also broadcast on BBC Radio 5 Live and 102.5 Clyde 1.

Member clubs.

The clubs listed below competed in the Scottish Premier League. Teams in "italics" are founder members.

Stadia.

The following stadia were used by clubs in the Scottish Premier League.

Statistics.

All-time SPL table.

This table is a cumulative record of all SPL matches played. The table is accurate from the 1998–99 season to the end of the 2012–13 season, inclusive.

Top goalscorers.

Kilmarnock and Rangers player Kris Boyd scored the most goals in the SPL, with 167 goals. He broke the previous record of 158, set by Henrik Larsson, by scoring five goals for Rangers in a 7–1 win against Dundee United on 30 December 2009. Boyd and Larsson were the only players who scored more than 100 goals in the SPL era. There are players who scored far more goals in the predecessor Scottish Football League competition, with Jimmy McGrory holding the overall record with 408 goals in the top flight of Scottish football.

The Scottish Premier League (SPL) was the top level league competition for professional football clubs in Scotland. The league was founded in 1998, when it broke away from the Scottish Football League (SFL). It was abolished in 2013, when the SPL and SFL merged to form the new Scottish Professional Football League, with its top division being known as the Scottish Premiership. A total of 19 clubs competed in the SPL, but only the Old Firm clubs, Celtic and Rangers won the league championship.

Die Scottish Premier League (kurz: SPL) war von 1999 bis 2013 die höchste Fußballliga in Schottland. Sie wurde, nach dem Hauptsponsor Clydesdale Bank, auch " Clydesdale Bank Premier League" genannt. Der schottische Meister wird ab der Spielzeit 2013/14 in der neugegründeten Scottish Premiership ausgespielt. Vor 1998 war die heute unterklassige Scottish Football League die höchste Spielklasse des Landes.


Description.

The silver-washed fritillary butterfly is deep orange with black spots on the upperside of its wings, and has a wingspan of 54–70 mm, with the male being smaller and paler than the female. The underside is green, and, unlike other fritillaries, has silver streaks instead of silver spots, hence the name silver-washed. The caterpillar is black brown with two yellow lines along its back and long reddish-brown spines.  The male possesses scent scales on the upperside of the forewing that run along veins one to four. The scent produced from these scales attracts females and helps to distinguish it from other species.

Food resources.

Adults feed on the nectar of bramble, thistles, and knapweeds, and also on aphid honeydew. The silver-washed is a strong flier, and more mobile than other fritillaries, and, as such, can be seen gliding above the tree canopy at high speed. Its preferred habitat is thin, sunny, deciduous woodland, especially oaks, but it has been known to live in coniferous woodland.  The main larval food plant of the species is the common dog violet ("Viola riviniana").

Life cycle.

Unusually for a butterfly, the female does not lay her eggs on the leaves or stem of the caterpillar's food source (in this case violets), but instead one or two meters above the woodland floor in the crevices of tree bark close to clumps of violets.  When the egg hatches in August, the caterpillar immediately goes into hibernation until spring. Upon awakening, it will drop to the ground, and feeds on violets close to the base of the tree. The caterpillar usually feeds at night, and usually conceals itself during the day away from its food source, but during cool weather will bask in the sunny spots on the forest floor on dry, dead leaves. It will pupate amongst the ground vegetation, and the adults will emerge in June.

Conservation.

The silver-washed fritillary was in decline in the UK for much of the 1970s and 1980s, but seems to be coming back to many of its old territories.

The silver-washed fritillary ("Argynnis paphia") is a common and variable butterfly found over much of the Palaearctic ecozone – Algeria, Europe, temperate Asia and Japan.

Der Kaisermantel oder Silberstrich ("Argynnis paphia") ist ein Schmetterling (Tagfalter) der Gattung "Argynnis" aus der Familie der Edelfalter (Nymphalidae). Er ist der größte mitteleuropäische Perlmutterfalter. Das Artepitheton leitet sich von Paphia, einem Beinamen der Aphrodite aus der griechischen Mythologie ab.


Motivating examples.

The usual rules of elementary arithmetic form an abstract rewriting system. For example, the expression (11 + 9) × (2 + 4) can be evaluated starting either at the left or at the right parentheses; however, in both cases the same result is obtained eventually. This suggests that the arithmetic rewriting system is a confluent one.  A second, more abstract example is obtained from the following proof of each group element equalling the inverse of its inverse:  This proof starts from the given group axioms A1-A3, and establishes five propositions R4, R6, R10, R11, and R12, each of them using some earlier ones, and R12 being the main theorem. Some of the proofs require non-obvious, if not creative, steps, like applying axiom A2 in reverse, thereby rewriting "1" to ""a" ⋅ a" in the first step of R6's proof. One of the historical motivations to develop the "theory of term rewriting" was to avoid the need for such steps, which are difficult to find by an inexperienced human, let alone by a computer program.  If a term rewriting system is confluent and "terminating", a straightforward method exists to prove equality between two expressions (a.k.a. "terms") "s" and "t": Starting with "s", apply equalities from left to right as long as possible, eventually obtaining a term "s’". Obtain from "t" a term "t’" in a similar way. If both terms "s’" and "t’" literally agree, then "s" and "t" are (not surprisingly) proven equal. More important, if they disagree, "s" and "t" cannot be equal. That is, any two terms "s" and "t" that can be proven equal at all, can be so by that method.  The success of that method does not depend on a certain sophisticated order in which to apply rewrite rules, as confluence ensures that any sequence of rule applications will eventually lead to the same result (while the "termination" property ensures that any sequence will eventually reach an end at all). Therefore, if a confluent and terminating term rewriting system can be provided for some equational theory, not a tinge of creativity is required to perform proofs of term equality; that task hence becomes amenable to computer programs. Modern approaches handle more general "abstract rewriting systems" rather than "term" rewriting systems; the latter are a special case of the former.

General case and theory.

A rewriting system can be expressed as a directed graph in which nodes represent expressions and edges represent rewrites. So, for example, if the expression "a" can be rewritten into "b", then we say that "b" is a "reduct" of "a" (alternatively, "a" "reduces to" "b", or "a" is an "expansion" of "b"). This is represented using arrow notation; "a" → "b" indicates that "a" reduces to "b". Intuitively, this means that the corresponding graph has a directed edge from "a" to "b".  If there is a path between two graph nodes "c" and "d", then it forms a "reduction sequence". So, for instance, if "c" → "c"’ → "c"’’ →... → "d"’ → "d", then we can write "c" "d", indicating the existence of a reduction sequence from "c" to "d". Formally, is the reflexive-transitive closure of →. Using the example from the previous paragraph, we have (11+9)×(2+4) → 20×(2+4) and 20×(2+4) → 20×6, so (11+9)×(2+4) 20×6.  With this established, confluence can be defined as follows. "a" ∈ "S" is deemed confluent if for all pairs "b", "c" ∈ "S" such that "a" "b" and "a" "c", there exists a "d" ∈ "S" with "b" "d" and "c" "d". If every "a" ∈ "S" is confluent, we say that → is confluent, or has the "Church-Rosser property". This property is also sometimes called the "diamond property", after the shape of the diagram shown on the right. Some authors reserve the term "diamond property" for a variant of the diagram with single reductions everywhere; that is, whenever "a" → "b" and "a" → "c", there must exist a "d" such that "b" → "d" and "c" → "d". The single-reduction variant is strictly stronger than the multi-reduction one.

Local confluence.

An element "a" ∈ "S" is said to be locally (or weakly) confluent if for all "b", "c" ∈ "S" with "a" → "b" and "a" → "c" there exists "d" ∈ "S" with "b" "d" and "c" "d". If every "a" ∈ "S" is locally confluent, then → is called locally (or weakly) confluent, or having the "weak Church-Rosser property". This is different from confluence in that "b" and "c" must be reduced from "a" in one step. In analogy with this, confluence is sometimes referred to as "global confluence".  The relation, introduced as a notation for reduction sequences, may be viewed as a rewriting system in its own right, whose relation is the reflexive-transitive closure of "→". Since a sequence of reduction sequences is again a reduction sequence (or, equivalently, since forming the reflexive-transitive closure is idempotent), =. It follows that → is confluent if and only if is locally confluent.  A rewriting system may be locally confluent without being (globally) confluent. Examples are shown in picture 3 and 4. However, Newman's lemma states that if a locally confluent rewriting system has no infinite reduction sequences (in which case it is said to be "terminating" or "strongly normalizing"), then it is globally confluent.

Semi-confluence.

The definition of local confluence differs from that of global confluence in that only elements reached from a given element in a single rewriting step are considered. By considering one element reached in a single step and another element reached by an arbitrary sequence, we arrive at the intermediate concept of semi-confluence: "a" ∈ "S" is said to be semi-confluent if for all "b", "c" ∈ "S" with "a" → "b" and "a" "c" there exists "d" ∈ "S" with "b" "d" and "c" "d"; if every "a" ∈ "S" is semi-confluent, we say that → is semi-confluent.  A semi-confluent element need not be confluent, but a semi-confluent rewriting system is necessarily confluent, and a confluent system is trivially semi-confluent.

Strong confluence.

Strong confluence is another variation on local confluence that allows us to conclude that a rewriting system is globally confluent. An element "a" ∈ "S" is said to be strongly confluent if for all "b", "c" ∈ "S" with "a" → "b" and "a" → "c" there exists "d" ∈ "S" with "b" "d" and either "c" → "d" or "c" = "d"; if every "a" ∈ "S" is strongly confluent, we say that → is strongly confluent.  A confluent element need not be strongly confluent, but a strongly confluent rewriting system is necessarily confluent.

In computer science, confluence is a property of rewriting systems, describing which terms in such a system can be rewritten in more than one way, to yield the same result. This article describes the properties in the most abstract setting of an abstract rewriting system.

Konfluenz ist ein Begriff aus der Theoretischen Informatik und bezeichnet die Eigenschaft eines Transitionssystems, jedem Element "höchstens" eine Normalform zuzuordnen. Das heißt, wenn ein Element oder ein Term auf verschiedene Art und Weise ersetzt werden kann, wird es nach weiteren Ersetzungen immer zum gleichen Term überführt. Konfluenz ist also analog zu mehreren Strömen, die zu einem Strom zusammenfließen. Im Lambda-Kalkül wird dieses durch das Church-Rosser-Theorem gezeigt.