Scope.

Definition and ontology of economics.

The question usually addressed in any subfield of philosophy (the philosophy of "X") is "what is "X"?" A philosophical approach to the question "what is economics?" is less likely to produce an answer than it is to produce a survey of the definitional and territorial difficulties and controversies. Similar considerations apply as a prologue to further discussion of methodology in a subject. Definitions of economics have varied over time from the modern origins of the subject, reflecting programmatic concerns and distinctions of expositors.  Ontological questions continue with further "what is..." questions addressed at fundamental economic phenomena, such as "what is (economic) value?" or "what is a market?". While it is possible to respond to such questions with real verbal definitions, the philosophical value of posing such questions actually aims at shifting entire perspectives as to the nature of the foundations of economics. In the rare cases that attempts at ontological shifts gain wide acceptance, their ripple effects can spread throughout the entire field of economics.

Methodology and epistemology of economics.

An epistemology deals with how we "know" things. In the philosophy of economics this means asking questions such as: what kind of a "truth claim" is made by economic theories – for example, are we claiming that the theories relate to reality or perceptions? How can or should we prove economic theories – for example, must every economic theory be empirically verifiable? How exact are economic theories and can they lay claim to the status of an exact science – for example, are economic predictions as reliable as predictions in the natural sciences, and why or why not? Another way of expressing this issue is to ask whether economic theories can state "laws". Philosophers of science and economists have explored these issues intensively since the work of Alexander Rosenberg and Daniel M. Hausman dating to 3 decades ago.

Rational choice, decision theory and game theory.

Philosophical approaches in decision theory focus on foundational concepts in decision theory – for example, on the natures of choice or preference, rationality, risk and uncertainty, and economic agents. Game theory is shared between a number of disciplines, but especially mathematics, economics and philosophy. Game theory is still extensively discussed within the field of the philosophy of economics. Game theory is closely related to and builds on decision theory and is likewise very strongly interdisciplinary.

Ethics and justice.

The ethics of economic systems deals with the issues such as how it is right (just, fair) to keep or distribute economic goods. Economic systems as a product of collective activity allow examination of their ethical consequences for all of their participants. "Ethics and economics" relates ethical studies to welfare economics. It has been argued that a closer relation between welfare economics and modern ethical studies may enrich both areas, even including predictive and descriptive economics as to rationality of behavior, given social interdependence.  Ethics and justice overlap disciplines in different ways. Approaches are regarded as more philosophical when they study the fundamentals – for example, John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" (1971) and Robert Nozick's "Anarchy, State and Utopia" (1974). 'Justice' in economics is a subcategory of welfare economics with models frequently representing the ethical-social requirements of a given theory. "Practical" matters include such subjects as law and cost–benefit analysis  Utilitarianism, one of the ethical methodologies, has its origins inextricably interwoven with the emergence of modern economic thought. Today utilitarianism has spread throughout applied ethics as one of a number of approaches. Non-utilitarian approaches in applied ethics are also now used when questioning the ethics of economic systems – e.g. rights-based (deontological) approaches.  Many political ideologies have been an immediate outgrowth of reflection on the ethics of economic systems. Marx, for example, is generally regarded primarily as a philosopher, his most notable work being on the philosophy of economics. However, Marx's economic critique of capitalism did not depend on ethics, justice, or any form of morality, instead focusing on the inherent contradictions of capitalism through the lens of a process which is today called dialectical materialism.

Non-mainstream economic thinking.

The philosophy of economics defines itself as including the questioning of foundations or assumptions of economics. The foundations and assumption of economics have been questioned from the perspective of noteworthy but typically under-represented groups. These areas are therefore to be included within the philosophy of economics.

Related disciplines.

The "ethics of economic systems" is an area of overlap between business ethics and the philosophy of economics. People who write on the ethics of economic systems are more likely to call themselves "political philosophers" than "business ethicists" or "economic philosophers". There is significant overlap between theoretical issues in economics and the philosophy of economics. As economics is generally accepted to have its origins in philosophy, the history of economics overlaps with the philosophy of economics.

Degrees.

Some universities offer joint degrees that combine philosophy, politics and economics. These degrees cover many of the problems that are discussed in Philosophy and Economics, but are more broadly construed. A small number of universities, notably the LSE, the Erasmus University Rotterdam, Copenhagen Business School and the University of Bayreuth offer master's degree programs specialized in philosophy and economics.

Philosophy and economics, also philosophy of economics, studies topics such as rational choice, the appraisal of economic outcomes, institutions and processes, and the ontology of economic phenomena and the possibilities of acquiring knowledge of them.

Die Wirtschaftsphilosophie befasst sich mit den theoretischen, anthropologischen, ethischen, praxisbezogenen und politischen Grundlagen und -fragen der Wirtschaft und ihrer Wissenschaften. Unter Wirtschaft wird die Gesamtheit aller Handlungen und Systeme verstanden, durch die Sachgüter, Dienstleistungen sowie Zahlungsmittel geschaffen, angesammelt oder getauscht werden, die der Deckung des Bedarfs zur Sicherung der menschlichen Existenz dienen.


History.

Temporary home in Melbourne (1901–1927).

The Commonwealth of Australia came into being on 1 January 1901 with the federation of the six Australian colonies. The inaugural election took place on 29 and 30 March and the first Australian Parliament was opened on 9 May 1901 in Melbourne by Prince

Old Parliament House (1927–1988).

It had always been intended that the national Parliament would sit in a new national capital. This was a compromise at Federation due to the rivalry between the two largest Australian cities, Sydney and Melbourne, which both wished to become the new capital. The site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nation's capital city in 1908. A competition was announced on 30 June 1914 to design Parliament House, with prize money of £7,000. However, due to the start of World War I the next month, the competition was cancelled. It was re-announced in August 1916, but again postponed indefinitely on 24 November 1916. In the meantime, John Smith Murdoch, the Commonwealth's Chief Architect, worked on the design as part of his official duties. He had little personal enthusiasm for the project, as he felt it was a waste of money and expenditure on it could not be justified at the time. Nevertheless, he designed the building by default.  The construction

New Parliament House (1988–present).

In 1978 the Fraser Government decided to proceed with a new building on Capital Hill, and the Parliament House Construction Authority was created. A two-stage competition was announced, for which the Authority consulted the Royal Australian Institute of Architects and, together with the National Capital Development Commission, made available to competitors a brief and competition documents. The design competition drew 329 entries from 29 countries.  The competition winner was the Philadelphia-based architectural firm of Mitchell/Giurgola, with the on-site work directed by the Italian-born architect Romaldo Giurgola, with a design which involved burying most of the building under Capital Hill, and capping the edifice with an enormous spire topped by a large Australian flag. The façades, however, included deliberate imitation of some of the patterns of the Old Parliament House, so that there is a slight resemblance despite the massive difference of scale. The building was also designed to "sit above" Old Parliament House when seen from

Composition and electoral systems.

The Constitution establishes the Commonwealth Parliament, consisting of three components: the Queen of Australia, the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Monarch.

Most of the constitutional functions of the Crown are given to the Governor-General, whom the Queen appoints on the

Senate.

The upper house of the Australian Parliament is the Senate, which consists of 76 members. Like the United States Senate, on which it was partly modelled, the Australian Senate includes an equal number of Senators from each state, regardless of population. Unlike it, however, the Australian Senate has always been directly elected. (The US Senate has been directly elected only from 1913.)  The Constitution allows Parliament to determine the number of Senators by legislation, provided that the six original states are equally represented. Furthermore, the Constitution provides that each original state is entitled

House of Representatives.

The lower house of the Australian Parliament, the House of Representatives, is made up of single member electorates with roughly the same population. As is convention in the Westminster system, the party or coalition of parties that has the majority in this House forms the Government with the leader of that party or coalition becoming the Prime Minister. If the government loses the confidence of the House, they are expected to call a new election or resign.  Parliament may determine the number of members of the House of Representatives but the Constitution provides that this number must be "as nearly as practicable, twice the number of Senators"; this requirement is commonly called the "nexus clause". Hence, the House presently consists of 150 members. Each state is allocated seats based on its population; however, each original state, regardless of size, is guaranteed at least five seats. The Constitution does not guarantee representation for the territories. Parliament granted a seat to the Northern Territory in 1922, and to the Australian Capital Territory in 1948;

Both Houses.

It is not possible to be simultaneously a member of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, but a number of people have been members of both Houses at different times in their parliamentary career (see List of people who have served in both Houses of the Australian Parliament).  Only Australian citizens are eligible for election to either house. They must not also hold citizenship of a "foreign power". When the Constitution was drafted, all Australians were British subjects, so the word "foreign" meant non-British. But, in the landmark case "Sue v Hill" (1999), the High Court of Australia ruled that, at least since the Australia Act 1986, Britain has been a "foreign power", so that British citizens are also excluded.  Compulsory voting was introduced for federal elections in 1924. The immediate

Procedure.

Each of the two Houses elects a presiding officer. The presiding officer of the Senate is called the President; that of the House of Representatives is the Speaker. Elections for these positions are by secret ballot. Both offices are conventionally filled by members of the governing party, but the presiding officers are expected to oversee debate and enforce the rules in an impartial manner.  The Constitution authorises Parliament to set the quorum for each chamber. The quorum of the Senate is one-quarter of the total membership (nineteen); that of the House of Representatives is one-fifth of the total membership (thirty). In theory, if a quorum is not present, then a House may not continue to meet. In practice, members usually agree not to notice that a quorum is not present, so that debates on routine bills can continue without other members having to be present. Sometimes the Opposition will "call a quorum" as a tactic to annoy the Government or delay proceedings, particularly when the Opposition feels it has been unfairly treated in the House. The session of the relevant House is suspended until a quorum is present. It is the responsibility of the Government whips to ensure that, when a quorum is called, enough Government members are present to make up a quorum.  Both Houses may determine motions by voice vote: the presiding officer puts the question, and, after listening to shouts of "Aye" and "No" from the members, announces the

Functions.

The principal function of the Parliament is to pass laws, or legislation. Any Senator or Member may introduce a proposed law (a bill), except for a money bill (a bill proposing an expenditure or levying a tax), which must be introduced in the House of Representatives. In practice, the great majority of bills are introduced by ministers. Bills introduced by other Members are called private members' bills. All bills must be passed by both Houses to become law. The Senate has the same legislative powers as the House, except that it may not amend money bills, only pass or reject them. The enacting formula for Acts of Parliament is simply "The Parliament of Australia enacts:".  The Commonwealth legislative power is limited to that granted in the Constitution. Powers not specified are considered "residual powers", and remain the domain of the states. Section 51 grants the Commonwealth

Conflict between the Houses.

In the event of conflict between the two Houses over the final form of legislation, the Constitution provides for a simultaneous dissolution of both Houses – known as a double dissolution. Section 57 of the Constitution states that, ""If the House of Representatives passes any proposed law, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, and if after an interval of three months the House of Representatives, in the same or the next session, again passes the proposed law with or without any amendments which have been made, suggested, or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate rejects or fails to pass it, or passes it with amendments to which the House of Representatives will not agree, the Governor-General may dissolve the Senate and the House of Representatives simultaneously.""  In an election following a double dissolution, each state elects their entire 12-seat Senate delegation, while the two territories represented

Committees.

In addition to the work of the main chambers, both the Senate and the House of Representatives also have a large number of committees which deal with matters referred to them by their respective Houses. They provide the opportunity for all Members and Senators to ask questions of ministers and public officials as well as conduct inquiries, examine policy and legislation. Once a particular inquiry is completed the members of the committee can then produce a report, to be tabled in Parliament, outlining what they have discovered as well as any recommendations that they have produced for the Government to consider.  The ability of the Houses of Parliament to establish committees is referenced in Section 49 of the Constitution, which states that, ""The powers, privileges, and immunities of the Senate and of the House of Representatives, and of the members and the committees of each House, shall be such as are declared by the Parliament, and until declared shall be those of the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom, and of its members and committees, at the establishment of the Commonwealth.""  Parliamentary committees can be given a wide range of powers. One of the most significant powers is the ability to summon people to attend hearings in order to give evidence and submit

Relationship with the Government.

Under the Constitution, the Governor-General has the power to appoint and dismiss "Ministers of State" who administer government departments. In practice, the Governor-General chooses ministers in accordance with the traditions of the Westminster system. The Governor-General appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the party that has a majority of seats in or control of the House of Representatives and the Ministers are then appointed by the Governor-General as had been designated by the Prime Minister from his or her party or coalition of parties.  These ministers then meet in a council known as Cabinet. Cabinet meetings are strictly private and occur once a week where vital issues are discussed and policy formulated. The Constitution does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the Federal Executive Council, which is Australia's highest formal governmental body. In practice, the Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet. All members of the Cabinet are members of the Executive Council. While the Governor-General is nominal presiding officer, she or he almost never attends Executive Council meetings. The Governor-General is bound by convention to follow the advice of the Executive Council on almost all occasions, giving

Role of the Senate.

The Constitution of Australia established the Senate as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia. From a comparative governmental perspective, the Australian Senate exhibits distinctive characteristics. Unlike upper Houses in other Westminster system governments, the Senate is not a vestigial body with limited legislative power. Rather it was intended to play – and does play – an active role in legislation. Rather than being modelled solely after the House of Lords, as the Canadian Senate was, the Australian Senate was in part modelled after the United States Senate, by giving equal representation to each state. The Constitution intended to give less populous states added voice in a Federal legislature, while also providing for the revising role of an upper house in the Westminster system.  One of the functions of the Senate, both directly and through its committees, is to scrutinise government activity. The vigour of this scrutiny has been fuelled for many years by the fact that the party in government has seldom had a majority in the Senate. Whereas in the House of Representatives the government's majority has sometimes limited that chamber's capacity to implement executive scrutiny, the opposition and minor parties have been able to use their Senate numbers as a basis for conducting inquiries into government

Parliamentary departments.

There are four parliamentary

Privileges.

Members of the Australian Parliament do not have legal immunity: they can be arrested and tried for any offence. They do, however, have Parliamentary privilege: they cannot be sued for anything they say in Parliament about each other or about persons outside the Parliament. This privilege extends to reporting in the media of anything a Senator or Member says in Parliament. The proceedings of parliamentary committees, wherever they meet, are also covered by privilege, and this extends to witnesses before such committees.  From the beginning of Federation until 1987, Parliamentary privilege operated under Section 49 of the Constitution, which established the privileges of both Houses and their members to

Broadcasting.

Radio broadcasts of Parliamentary proceedings began on 10 July 1946. They were originally broadcast on Radio National. Since August 1994 they have been broadcast on ABC News, a government-owned channel set up specifically for this function. It operates 24 hours a day and broadcasts other news items when parliament is not sitting.  The first televised parliamentary event was the historic 1974 Joint Sitting. Regular free-to-air television broadcasts of Question Time began in August 1990 from the Senate and February 1991 from the

Current parliament.

The current Parliament is the 46th Australian Parliament. The most recent federal election was held on 18 May 2019 and the 46th Parliament first sat in July.  The outcome of the 2019 election saw the incumbent Liberal/National Coalition government re-elected for a third term with 77 seats in the 151-seat House of Representatives (an increase of 1 seat compared to the 2016 election), a two-seat majority government. The Shorten Labor opposition

Historical compositions.

Senate.

The Senate has included representatives from a range of political parties, including several parties that have seldom or never had representation in the House of Representatives, but which have consistently secured

House of Representatives.

A two-party system has existed in the Australian House of Representatives since the two non-Labor parties merged in 1909. The 1910 election was the first to elect a majority government, with the Australian Labor Party concurrently winning

The Parliament of Australia (officially the Federal Parliament, also called the Commonwealth Parliament) is the legislative branch of the government of Australia. It consists of three elements: the Crown (represented by the Governor-General), the Senate and the House of Representatives. The combination of two elected chambers, in which the members of the Senate represent the states and territories while the members of the House represent electoral divisions according to population, is modelled on the United States Congress. Through both chambers, however, there is a fused executive, drawn from the Westminster system.

Das Australische Parlament oder auch Commonwealth Parlament (engl. "Parliament") ist das legislative Organ des Commonwealth of Australia. Es ist ein Zweikammerparlament nach dem Westminster-System, aber mit einigen zusätzlichen Einflussmöglichkeiten nach dem Vorbild des Kongresses der Vereinigten Staaten. Nach Abschnitt 1 der Verfassung von Australien besteht das Parlament aus drei Komponenten: der Königin Australiens (die in Personalunion mit der Königin des Vereinigten Königreichs sowie der anderen "Commonwealth Realms" verbunden ist), dem Australischen Senat und dem australischen Repräsentantenhaus. Die Königin wird hierbei vom Generalgouverneur vertreten.


History.

Under the name "Club Atlético Argentino de Rafaela", the club was founded in the city of Rafaela, Santa Fe Province in 1907. In 1915 the name was changed to "Club Atlético de Rafaela". The Monumental de Barrio Alberdi concrete stadium was erected in 1951.  The club was turned into a non-profit organization in 1988, and renamed "Asociación Mutual Social y Deportiva Atlético de Rafaela" ("Social and Sport Association Rafaela Athletic"). Only a year later Rafaela reached the second division after defeating Atlético Ledesma by 3–0 with goals scored by López (20', 30') and Poelman (35').  Atlético de Rafaela played in the second division for 14 years until the team won the Apertura 2002 and the Clausura 2003 to finally reach the first division. After losing the "promoción" against Huracán de Tres Arroyos, Atlético de Rafaela was relegated to the second division again.  The following season Atlético lost its chance to return to the first division, after losing the "promoción", against Argentinos Juniors.  In 2009 Rafaela earned another chance to return to the Primera División via a playoff against Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata. After winning the first final 3–0, Rafaela lost the second match by the same score (0–3) and had to stay in the second division once again.  Atlético de Rafaela fans are referred to as "Cremosos" or "Celestes", and the people that follows the team everywhere are known as "La Barra de los Trapos".  The club also has an important car racing circuit since 1919, which hosts many competitions including the Turismo Carretera (since 1941) and the TC 2000 (since 1983).  On the 21st of May 2011, after defeating Atlético Tucumán 2–0 with goals scored by Carniello and Aldana, they earned a place back in the first division for the 2011–12 season.

Players.

Notable players.

To appear in this section a player must have either played at least 50 games for the club, set a club record or played for their national team.

Institutional.

Current Board.

Executive Board 2017

Asociación Mutual Social y Deportiva Atlético de Rafaela (; usually known simply as Atlético de Rafaela) is an Argentine sports club from the city of Rafaela, in Santa Fe Province. The club is mostly known for its professional football team, which currently plays in Primera B Nacional, the second division of the Argentine football league system.

Die Asociación Mutual Social y Deportiva Atlético de Rafaela oder kurz Atlético de Rafaela ist ein argentinischer Fußballverein aus Rafaela, Santa Fe. Der 1907 gegründete Klub spielt in der Saison 2011/12 in der Primera División, der höchsten Spielklasse im argentinischen Fußball und ist Stadtrivale von Sportivo Ben Hur.


Legend.

The earliest-known telling of the tree's story comes from a front-page article entitled "Deeded to Itself" in the "Athens Weekly Banner" of August 12, 1890. The article explains that the tree had been located on the property of Colonel William Henry Jackson. William Jackson was the son of James Jackson (a soldier in the American Revolution as well as a congressman, U.S. senator, and governor of Georgia), and the father of another James Jackson (a congressman and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Georgia). He was the brother of Jabez Young Jackson, also a congressman. (William Jackson was reportedly a professor at the University of Georgia, and is sometimes given the title of "Doctor". The nature of his military service and the source of the title "Colonel" are unknown.) Jackson supposedly cherished childhood memories of the tree, and, desiring to protect it, deeded to it the ownership of itself and its surrounding land. By various accounts, this transaction took place between 1820 and 1832. According to the newspaper article, the deed read:  It is unclear whether the story of the Tree That Owns Itself began with the "Weekly Banner" article, or if it had been an element of local folklore prior to that time. The article's author writes that, in 1890, there were few people still living who knew the story. The story of the Tree That Owns Itself is very widely known, and is almost always presented as fact. However, only one person—the anonymous author of "Deeded to Itself"—has ever claimed to have seen Jackson's deed to the tree. Most writers acknowledge that the deed is lost or no longer exists, if in fact it ever did. Such a deed, even if it did exist, would have no legal standing. Under common law, the person receiving the property in question must have the legal capacity to receive it, and the property must be delivered to—and accepted by—the recipient.  William H. Jackson did, in fact, own the property on the opposite side of Dearing Street from the tree. That plot included the present-day 226 Dearing Street, but in the early 19th century it was simply designated Lot #14. The tree, however, is located on a portion of what had been Lot #15. Jackson and his wife Mildred, along with a J. A. Cobb, sold their property to a Dr. Malthus Ward in 1832, the same year cited on a plaque as being the date of the tree's deed. The Clarke County real estate indices contain no indication of when or from whom Jackson originally purchased the property, although much of the land in that area is reported to have belonged to a Major James Meriwether. Even though Jackson may have lived near the tree as an adult, his childhood was actually spent in Jefferson County, not in Athens, making it less likely that he had experienced idyllic childhood summers playing beneath the tree's branches.  Recent deeds suggest that the tree's square footage remains part of the property at 125 Dearing Street. These documents describe a parcel bounded on the east by Finley Street and on the north by Dearing Street, an area that would seem to encompass the tree. However, the actual plat map for that property clearly does not include the tree's oddly shaped corner: its eastern line lies roughly to the west of the tree's location—as far as the tax assessor is concerned, the tree's area is not a part of that property.  This does not confirm that the tree owns itself, but suggests, rather, that it is considered to be within the right-of-way along Finley Street. Athens-Clarke County confirms that the tree is in the right-of-way, and is thus "accepted for care" by municipal authorities; according to city-county officials, local government and the owners of the adjacent property jointly serve as "stewards" for the care of the tree, while Athens' Junior Ladies' Garden Club serves as its "primary advocate." Regarding Jackson's deed, one writer noted at the beginning of the 20th century, "However defective this title may be in law, the public recognized it." In that spirit, it is the stated position of the Athens-Clarke County unified government that the tree, in spite of the law, does indeed own itself. It is the policy of the city of Athens to maintain it as a public street tree.

Biography.

The original Tree That Owns Itself is estimated to have started life at some time between the mid-16th and late 18th centuries. The tree was considered by some to be both the biggest tree in Athens and the most famous tree in the United States. The tree predated the transformation of the area into a residential neighborhood beginning in the mid-19th century. The residence adjacent to the tree, known as Dominie House, was built at the corner of Milledge Avenue and Waddell Street in 1883, and was moved to its present location about twenty years later.  By 1906, erosion had become apparent at the base of the tree. George Foster Peabody paid to have new soil, a commemorative tablet, and a chain barricade supported by eight granite posts installed around the tree. Despite these efforts, the tree reportedly suffered heavy damage during an ice storm in 1907. Although attempts were made at preservation, rot had already set in, and the tree was permanently weakened.  The original oak fell on the evening of October 9, 1942, following a long period of decline. Its poor condition had been known for years, and within days of its collapse, a move was under way to replace the fallen tree with a "son" grown from one of its acorns. One account suggests that the tree had actually died several years before its collapse, the victim of root rot. The tree was over tall, and was estimated to be between 150 and 400 years old when it fell. It has been reported elsewhere that the tree fell on "December 1", 1942, succumbing not to old age and disease but rather to a violent windstorm that ravaged much of north Georgia that evening, causing widespread damage and killing several people. While it is possible that some portion of the tree had remained standing for several weeks, meeting a dramatic end at the hands of a killer storm, only the earlier date is supported by newspaper accounts. It is not known why the tree was not dated by counting its rings.

Son of The Tree That Owns Itself.

After the original tree's demise, its small plot sat vacant for four years. Dan Magill, the young son of Athens' Junior Ladies Garden Club member Elizabeth Magill, suggested that his mother's club find a replacement for the tree. Several Athenians had cultivated seedlings from acorns of the original tree. One growing in the yard of Capt. Jack Watson, at in height, was deemed the best candidate for transplantation. The operation was directed by Roy Bowden of the College of Agriculture at the University of Georgia, assisted by students in the Department of Horticulture.  The new tree was officially dedicated in a formal ceremony on December 4, 1946. Athens Mayor Robert L. McWhorter presided and Dr. E.L. Hill, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, offered a short prayer. Also in attendance were Capt. and Mrs. Watson and representatives of the Garden Club. Club President Patsy Dudley announced that her group would henceforth take responsibility for maintenance of the tree's plot, which had fallen into disrepair during the vacancy. The new tree, trimmed back to a mere for transplantation, thrived in its new location. This tree is considered, popularly if not legally, to be the full heir of the original tree. As such, it is sometimes referred to as the "Son of The Tree That Owns Itself", although it is generally known by the same title as its progenitor. The tree was over tall.  On December 4, 1996, the Garden Club staged a celebration to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the planting of the new tree. Dan Magill, who, as a boy, had inspired the replanting effort, served as master of ceremonies.  The tree sits near the crest of a hill, at the southwest corner of the intersection of Dearing and Finley Streets, in a quiet residential neighborhood near downtown Athens and UGA's North Campus. The portion of Finley Street leading up the hill to the tree is Athens' only remaining cobblestone street. The tree's lot is separated from the larger portion of the adjacent property by a private driveway; its enclosure also juts several feet into Finley Street. Thus the tree may in fact appear to occupy a small but separate tract of land. The appearance of separation is accentuated by the retaining wall and ornamental chain barrier that surround the tree. Although alongside private homes in a residential neighborhood, the Tree That Owns Itself is "open" to the public, and regularly attracts visitors.  Although the story of the Tree That Owns Itself is more legend than history, the tree has become (along with the University Arch and the Double-Barreled Cannon) one of the most recognized and well-loved symbols of Athens. It is routinely featured in travel guides and other visitor information, and has even garnered international recognition through such publications as "Ripley's Believe It or Not!", where it has been featured on several occasions.

Tablets.

The site of the tree contains two stone tablets. The first is heavily weathered and has suffered the loss of one corner, while the second appears to be considerably newer. Both tablets paraphrase the same portion of William H. Jackson's supposed deed to the tree, with slight alterations made to transform the legalistic language into a first-person declaration of affection:  A small brass plaque, about the size of a playing card, is attached to the lower left corner of the face of the more weathered of the two tablets. It reads:  In addition to the stone tablets, a larger brass plaque is affixed to the concrete retaining wall that surrounds the tree. The plaque reads:  The entire Dearing Street Historic District (of which the tree is a "resident") was added to the National Register in 1975. The District incorporates an area very roughly bounded by Broad, Finley, Waddell, and Church Streets, and was recognized for its architectural significance. The tree was locally designated a historic landmark on February 2, 1988.

The Tree That Owns Itself is a white oak tree that, according to legend, has legal ownership of itself and of all land within of its base. The tree, also called the Jackson Oak, is at the corner of South Finley and Dearing Streets in Athens, Georgia, United States. The original tree, thought to have started life between the mid-16th and late 18th century, fell in 1942, but a new tree was grown from one of its acorns, and planted in the same location. The current tree is sometimes referred to as the Son of the Tree That Owns Itself. Both trees have appeared in numerous national publications, and the site is a local landmark.

Der Tree That Owns Itself (dt. "Baum, der sich selbst besitzt") war ein ausgezeichnetes Exemplar der Amerikanischen Weiß-Eiche ("Quercus alba") in der Stadt Athens im US-Bundesstaat Georgia. Dieser Baum war berühmt dafür, dass ihm „das gesamte Eigentum seiner selbst“ überlassen wurde. Er existierte bis 1942; am selben Ort wurde jedoch ein aus einer seiner Eicheln nachgezogenes weiteres Exemplar gepflanzt, das häufig ebenfalls „Tree That Owns Itself“ oder präziser Son of The Tree That Owns Itself genannt wird und mittlerweile über 15 Meter hoch ist.


Early life.

Gerhart Holzinger was born on 12 June 1947 in Gmunden.  Holzinger comes from a working-class family and grew up in modest circumstances. His father worked for a local utility company; his mother was a homemaker. Young Holzinger was originally not expected to obtain higher education. He dreamt of becoming a forester. After completing elementary school, he was enrolled in the local hauptschule, the type of middle school attended by children destined not for high school but for trade school or manual labor. It came as a surprise to the family when Holzinger's mathematics teacher suggested that the boy be sent to gymnasium to receive a more extensive secondary education. Holzinger graduated from gymnasium in 1966, the first person in his wider family to obtain matura and thus to earn the right to attend university.  Volunteering to do twelve instead of the mandatory eight months, Holzinger then left for his stint in the army.

Career.

After his year of national service, Holzinger enrolled in the University of Salzburg, originally reading German studies. Holzinger had fallen in love with literature and language as an adolescent, spending long hours reading the classics and memorizing Goethe's Faust, but was made to question his choice of career by endless and exhausting lectures on the analysis of Biedermeier poetry. At the same time, he found himself impressed by René Marcic, a legal philosopher lecturing on the importance of law for society. Holzinger abandoned German studies, switched to jurisprudence, and received a doctorate of law in 1972. Having graduated, he spent three years as an assistant professor at the University of Salzburg's Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law. His supervisor was Kurt Ringhofer, an eminent scholar and justice on the Constitutional Court.  In 1975, Holzinger left Salzburg for Vienna, joining the Constitutional Service in the Chancellery, an office that assists ministries in drafting legislation and in evaluating the constitutionality of draft statutes drafted elsewhere. By 1984, he had risen to head of the Service. In 1992, he was granted the title of Head of Section (), the highest rank an Austrian civil servant can hold. Holzinger credits his success to the mentorship he received from Ludwig Adamovich as well as to the support of Bruno Kreisky, Fred Sinowatz, Franz Vranitzky, Karl Lausecker, and Franz Löschnak.  In 1995, Constitutional Court justice Peter Jann accepted an appointment to the European Court of Justice, resigning from his position in Austria. The Vranitzky government recommended Holzinger as his replacement. Assenting to the recommendation, President Thomas Klestil had Holzinger take the bench on 31 May 1995.  Throughout his career in government service, Holzinger held numerous extramural engagements and offices. He served on the executive committee of the International Institute of Administrative Sciences in Brussels from 1989 to 1998 and as the president of the Austrian Society of Administrative Sciences () from 1997 to 2009. Holzinger chaired the Ministry of the Interior Human Rights Council () from 1999 to 2003. He was a member of the Austrian section of the International Commission of Jurists, becoming its secretary general in 1995 and serving as its president from 2000 to 2008. He was active in the Austrian Convention on Constitutional Reform (), a reform initiative launched by the second Schüssel government that aimed at decluttering Austria's famously extensive and convoluted body of constitutional law. He has been president of the Vienna Law Society () since 2013.  Most notably, Holzinger kept pursuing an academic career on the side. In 1998, he submitted his habilitation thesis to thee University of Graz and became an associate professor () of Austrian constitutional and administrative law. He was made an honorary full professor in 2002. Holzinger was also made a member of the Board of Governors () of the University of Graz in 2013; he would eventually be made the chairman of the Board in 2016.  When Karl Korinek resigned the presidency of the Constitutional Court for health reasons in 2008, the Gusenbauer government nominated Holzinger as Korinek's successor. President Heinz Fischer affirmed the appointment without hesitation, effective from 1 May. Holzinger's appointment was uncontroversial.  Having reached the mandatory retirement age of 70, Holzinger left the court on 31 December 2017.

Politics.

Holzinger is considered conservative. He has never joined any political party but has been a member of the Cartellverband since his student days.  Holzinger has consistently maintained an amiable working relationship with both sides of the political spectrum. In 1990, Josef Riegler of the Austrian People's Party considered Holzinger as a potential successor for Egmont Foregger, the outgoing minister of justice at the time. In 1992, on the other hand, the Social Democrats considered Holzinger as a possible president of the Court of Auditors (). His 1999 appointment to the Human Rights Council was due to Karl Schlögl, minister of the interior for the Social Democrats, but was confirmed for a second term in 2002 by Ernst Strasser, minister of the interior for the People's Party. His nomination to the Constitutional Court was referred to as "obvious" and "a clear decision" by Social Democrats and the People's Party alike and also enjoyed the support of two out of the three oppositional parties at the time. Both Social Democrats and People Party have, in fact, tried to claim Holzinger as one of their own.  An expert on fundamental rights questions, Holzinger has tended to support expansive interpretations of constitutional civil liberties and due process guarantees. In human rights matters, commentators have noted, he regularly found himself more aligned with Social Democrats and Greens than with his fellow conservatives.

Personal life.

Holzinger is married. His wife, Karin Holzinger, is a bank clerk.  He has two daughters, born in 1982 and 1983, respectively.  Holzinger enjoys mountain climbing, cycling, and running marathons. He has finished an Ironman Triathlon in 2006, at the age of nearly sixty, and other triathlons besides. He still feels close to his native Gmunden and its environs, especially to the Traunstein. He also still loves theater, including contemporary theater, and attends regularly.

Gerhart Holzinger (born 12 June 1947 in Gmunden) is an Austrian jurist, educator, and career civil servant. He was appointed to the Austrian Constitutional Court in 1995, serving as its president from 2008 until his retirement in 2017.

Gerhart Holzinger (* 12. Juni 1947 in Gmunden) ist ein österreichischer Verfassungsjurist mit dem Spezialgebiet Grund- und Menschenrechte und war von 2008 bis 2017 Präsident des Verfassungsgerichtshofs.


Early life.

He was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge. From 1945 to 1948, he served in the Grenadier Guards. He was honorary attache at the British Embassy in Paris from 1950 to 1951, and then worked for the Conservative Research Department.

Career.

Balniel was elected for the Conservative Party in Hertford at the 1955 United Kingdom general election, and served as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Henry Brooke until 1959. From 1959 to 1965, he was president of the Rural District Councils Association, and from 1963 to 1970, he was chair of the National Association for Mental Health.  While the Conservative Party was in opposition, he served as spokesman on Foreign Affairs from 1965 until 1967, and then joined the Shadow Cabinet as spokesman on Social Services. Following the party's victory in the 1970 United Kingdom general election, he served as Minister of State for Defence, and then from 1972 was Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs.  Balniel switched to represent Welwyn and Hatfield at the February 1974 United Kingdom general election, narrowly winning the seat, but he was defeated in the general election in October. He was given a life peerage as Baron Balniel, of Pitcorthie in the County of Fife, in January 1975 before succeeding as Earl of Crawford in December the same year. After the passage of House of Lords Act 1999, he sat in the Lords by virtue of his life peerage. He retired from the House of Lords on 28 November 2019. Following the death of The Lord Eden of Winton on 23 May 2020, Crawford became the living former MP with the earliest date of first election.

Appointments.

Crawford was appointed First Crown Estate Commissioner from 1980 to 1985. He was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in the Special Honours List published after The Queen Mother's death.

Robert Alexander Lindsay, 29th Earl of Crawford and 12th Earl of Balcarres, (born 5 March 1927), styled Lord Balniel between 1940 and 1975, is a Scottish hereditary peer and Conservative politician. The elder son of the 28th Earl of Crawford and 11th Earl of Balcarres, he succeeded to the family titles in 1975. Lord Crawford and Balcarres is Premier Earl of Scotland and Chief of Clan Lindsay.

Robert Alexander Lindsay, 29. Earl of Crawford, KT, GCVO, PC (* 5. März 1927) ist ein britischer Peer, Politiker und Mitglied der Conservative Party. Er ist erblicher Chief des Clan Lindsay.


History.

The zoo was set up in the garden of the Ten Rhijn estate by the owner, Van den Brink, and it was opened on 17 May 1950, the first bird park in the world. Toucans were featured on the posters for the park's opening, and a toucan has been depicted on the zoo's logo since, and also on the logos of the Van der Valk restaurant chain and Hotel Avifauna, which is situated on the edge of the park.  On the night of 23 December 2005 a fire broke out. About twenty birds were killed. The stables and an adjoining house were completely destroyed by the fire, and replacement buildings were completed in 2008.  In 2013 Avifauna separated from Van der Valk and became a foundation. From this moment onward, all revenue goes to the park and the animal care.  After that Avifauna kept improving the park. The first ever mammals in Avifauna arrived in 2014. Three species of prosimians made their entrance in the zoo.  Visitors of the park loved the prosimians. So Avifauna decided to open her doors to a different mammal in 2015. A few endangered red pandas found a new home in the zoo. They live in together with different Chinese birds. Avifauna is the first zoo to ever put red pandas together with birds!  The year after that, in 2016, Avifauna decided to open a new area in the zoo. An island named Nubose is now a popular part of the zoo. The prosimians live here, together with different kinds of birds and even wild guinea pigs!  Avifauna will keep improving and growing during the coming years, improving the pleasure of the visitor and more importantly, the animal care.

Vogelpark Avifauna () is a large bird park in Alphen aan den Rijn, in the western Netherlands. It was the first dedicated bird park in the world. The park has a lot of greenery and ponds, and also a restaurant and a children's playground.

Der Vogelpark Avifauna ist ein großer Vogelpark in Alphen aan den Rijn in den Niederlanden. Der Name Avifauna leitet sich von dem Bestand des Parks ab, der hauptsächlich aus Vögeln besteht. Der Vogelpark Avifauna ist im Jahr 1949 gegründet worden und einer der meistbesuchten Vogelparks der Welt.


History.

Beaver Bay is the oldest settlement on the North Shore of Lake Superior. It was established in 1856.  The community is also the home of the annual John Beargrease Dog Sled Race.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.  The Beaver River flows through the community. The river flows into Lake Superior.  Beaver Bay is located 25 miles northeast of the city of Two Harbors.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 181 people, 84 households, and 48 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 187 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 91.7% White, 1.1% African American, 1.7% Native American, and 5.5% from two or more races.  There were 84 households, of which 22.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.9% were married couples living together, 13.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.9% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.73.  The median age in the city was 45.8 years. 23.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16.6% were from 25 to 44; 32% were from 45 to 64; and 18.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 65.7% male and 34.3% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 175 people, 93 households, and 50 families living in the city. The population density was 360.5 people per square mile (137.9/km). There were 139 housing units at an average density of 286.3 per square mile (109.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 92.57% White, 2.86% African American, 2.29% Native American, 0.57% Asian, and 1.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.57% of the population. 38.3% were of Norwegian, 11.7% German, 9.2% American, 9.2% Swedish, 5.8% Finnish, 5.0% English, and 5.0% Irish ancestry.  There were 93 households, out of which 14.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.9% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.2% were non-families. Individuals comprised 40.9% of all households, and 10.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.88 and the average family size was 2.48.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 15.4% under the age of 18, 10.9% from 18 to 24, 23.4% from 25 to 44, 28.6% from 45 to 64, and 21.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 121.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $30,000, and the median income for a family was $47,500. Males had a median income of $30,893 versus $17,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,415. About 15.9% of families and 21.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 44.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 7.4% of those sixty-five or over.

Beaver Bay is a city in Lake County, Minnesota, U.S. The population was 181 at the 2010 census. Minnesota Highway 61 serves as a main route in Beaver Bay.

Beaver Bay ist eine Kleinstadt (mit dem Status „City“) im Lake County im Nordosten des US-amerikanischen Bundesstaates Minnesota. Im Jahr 2010 hatte Beaver Bay 181 Einwohner.


Biography.

Born on 29 November 1915 in Stockholm, Sweden, he reportedly suffered from dyslexia and had difficulty estimating the distance and size of objects. But his family was artistic, and encouraged his painting and sculpture efforts at home.

Work.

Reutersvärd's originality appeared early in his career - at the age of 18. In 1934, the school student created a figure, the "Impossible triangle", composed of a series of cubes in perspective. "the triangle at first seems like the simple geometrical shape with which all schoolchildren are familiar. However, as the eye tries to follow its outlines, the triangle abruptly becomes a dizzying experience as its bottom link plays havoc with the brain's intuitive knowledge of physical laws." according to "World of Mathematics", 2006, published by Thomson Gale. This very triangle was chosen in 1982 by the government of Sweden as the subject of a 25 öre postage stamp. In 1937, he created his first Impossible stairs, and the concept that would lead to the impossible fork. Subsequently, he focused on academics. In 1958, he read the now classic article by Lionel and Roger Penrose on impossible objects, which included the triangle and staircase that the British father and son team had developed independently. One artist inspired by the Penrose article was M.C. Escher - who produced two prints of impossible buildings in 1961 and 1962. The application of the concepts he originated over 20 years prior, by serious mathematicians and artists, rekindled Reutersvärd's interest. By 1963, he had created several new and original impossible figures, and was featured by a gallery in Stockholm.  He would create his figures with India ink on Japanese rice paper, drawing freehand, without a ruler or any mechanical device. He generally used "Japanese perspective, where all parallel lines remain parallel and do not meet at points of visual convergence." The shaky lines, often exacerbated by working on the ten hour train ride between Stockholm and Lund, is obvious in some of his pictures. Figures were frequently colored with Japanese colored chalk. In comparing his work to that of the much more famous artist of the impossible, M. C. Escher, it can be observed that Escher builds inhabited worlds around impossible objects, whereas Reutersvärd's designs generally consist of pure geometric forms.  Reutersvärd produced more than 2500 figures. In the late 1960s, several books were published featuring his work, and he attracted a following, with many international gallery exhibitions. Through the 1980s and 1990s, he continued to develop impossible figures, filling many notebooks. Finally, in the mid 1990s, his work was prominently commissioned for several public buildings in Sweden, and the National Museum of Sweden and Museum of Modern Art of Stockholm both displayed his work.  Today both mathematicians and psychologists use his drawings as templates for studying visual perception.  In addition to his development of impossible figures, he was a designer of many public works in Sweden, including large sculptures, mazes and architectural features.  Oscar Reutersvärd gave at the Conference "Incontri con la matematica" (Mathematical Conference held annually, since 1986, in Castel San Pietro Terme - Bologna - Italy) the ability to use his figures for the publications annually made for the Conference.

Swedish postage stamps.

Reutersvärd's achievements were honoured in 1982 by a series of three Swedish postage stamps. The stamps were engraved by Czesław Słania, based on watercolours by Reutersvärd. They remained in circulation for only about two years, after which they were withdrawn when the postage rate was changed. The Swedish government had the unused stamps destroyed; these scarce items are now eagerly sought collectibles.

Oscar Reutersvärd (29 November 1915 – 2 February 2002) was a Swedish graphic artist, who in 1934 pioneered the art of 3D drawings that may initially appear feasible, yet cannot be physically constructed. He is sometimes described as "the father of the impossible figure", although there are much older examples, e.g. Hogarth's "Satire on False Perspective", in addition to more recent well known examples by Roger Penrose and others.

Oscar Reutersvärd (* 1915 in Stockholm; † 2. Februar 2002) war ein schwedischer Künstler. Oscar Reutersvärd hat die Kunst der unmöglichen Objekte eingeführt, er wurde auch "Vater der Unmöglichkeit" genannt. Er ist ein Vorläufer von Roger Penrose und Maurits Cornelis Escher. Reutersvärd wird insbesondere die Gestaltung des heute fälschlicherweise seinem geistigen Nachfolger Penrose zugeschriebenen Penrose-Dreiecks nachgesagt. Er veröffentlichte zahlreiche Bücher auf Schwedisch, Englisch, Polnisch und Russisch.


Early life.

Regis was born on 9 February 1958 in Maripasoula, French Guiana, the son of Robert Regis, a labourer from Saint Lucia and Mathilde Regis, a seamstress. His father moved to England in 1962, with the rest of the family, including Cyrille, following a year later. Cyrille grew up in Harlesden, located in the Borough of Brent, and attended Cardinal Hinsley Maths & Computing College.At primary school, Regis said that he was a much better cricketer than footballer. “I was an outdoor child. So I just wanted to play cricket outside, and I played much more cricket back then because football was just another sport I did without any real passion”.  After leaving school, Regis trained as an electrician, earning a City and Guilds diploma; he continued to practise the trade until his move into professional football. He was a cousin of the athlete John Regis.

Club career.

Non-League.

The 1975–76 season saw Regis move to Athenian League club Molesey, for whom he scored around 25 goals during his one campaign for the club. He was then approached by Boreham Wood, but did not join them. Instead he went on to join semi-professional Hayes of the Isthmian League, signing on 7 July 1976.  Regis was spotted by West Bromwich Albion's chief scout Ronnie Allen, who recommended that the First Division club should sign him. With the Albion directors unsure of paying a four-figure fee for such a young, unproven player, Allen offered to fund any initial payment from his own pocket, so sure was he that Regis would make it in the top tier of English football. The transfer took place in May 1977, for an up-front fee of £5,000, plus another £5,000 after 20 appearances.

West Bromwich Albion.

Shortly after bringing Regis to Albion, Allen took over as team manager, following the resignation of his predecessor Johnny Giles. Regis made his first team debut in a League Cup match against Rotherham United on 31 August 1977, scoring twice in a 4–0 win. Three days later Regis made his league debut in a 2–1 victory over Middlesbrough. Again he found the net, taking the ball from the halfway line to the penalty area before scoring with a right-foot drive. Middlesbrough's David Mills, who later became a teammate of Regis at Albion, described it as "a goal of sheer brilliance".  Regis also scored in his first FA Cup match in January 1978, helping Albion to beat Blackpool 4–1. A few days later, Albion appointed a new manager, Ron Atkinson. Ronnie Allen had departed in late December to manage the Saudi Arabia national team and John Wile, the club's captain, had acted as caretaker manager in the interim.  Whilst a West Bromwich Albion player he played in a benefit match for Len Cantello, that saw a team of white players play against a team of black players.

Coventry City.

In 1984 Regis joined Coventry City for a fee of £250,000. With Coventry, Regis won the only major trophy in his career, the 1987 FA Cup. Johan Cruyff wanted to sign Regis for AFC Ajax as a replacement for AC Milan-bound Marco van Basten, but he accused his own club's directors of delaying the deal until Regis's FA Cup exploits took him out of the Dutch club's price range. Regis later became the first Coventry City player to score a winning goal at Anfield, in their first ever league win there (1–0) in November 1989. This came a season after he had also scored in City's first ever top flight win over Aston Villa at Highfield Road (2–1).

Aston Villa.

Before the 1991–92 season, Regis joined Aston Villa on a free transfer, reuniting him with his former manager at West Brom, Ron Atkinson. He was one of six Villa players who made their debut for the club on the opening day of the season, scoring in a 3–2 win away to Sheffield Wednesday. Regis made over 40 appearances in his first season for Villa, and finished as the club's leading league goalscorer, joint with Dwight Yorke.

Wolverhampton Wanderers.

Following the end of 1992–93, Regis moved to West Midlands rivals, Wolverhampton Wanderers. His stay with Wolves only lasted for one season, during which time he made 22 appearances, scoring twice.

Wycombe Wanderers.

Regis joined Wycombe Wanderers in August 1994. Forming a striking partnership with Simon Garner, he scored ten goals in his only season at the Buckinghamshire club.

International career.

Regis's dual French and British nationality made him eligible to play for either the English or French national sides, but it was England that he chose to represent. He made his England under-21 debut on 19 September 1978, in a 2–1 victory over the Denmark under-21s in Hvidovre. His first England B game was a 1–0 win against Czechoslovakia B in Prague on 28 November 1978. He played in two further matches for the B team in 1980. He scored his first goal for the England under-21s on 5 June 1979, in a 3–1 away win against Bulgaria. The result helped England reach the latter stages of the 1980 European Championship, although it was the only one out of six qualifying matches in which Regis participated. He played in the away legs of both the quarter-final and semi-final, where England lost to East Germany. In all he played six times for the under-21s, scoring three goals.  Despite winning five caps for the full England side, Regis never played the full 90 minutes for his country at senior level; he played as a substitute three times and was himself substituted twice. He made his international debut on 23 February 1982 in a 4–0 win over Northern Ireland in the Home International Championship at Wembley. Regis came on as a substitute for Trevor Francis in the 65th minute. His final international appearance for England was in 1987 against Turkey at Wembley, which ended in an 8–0 win for the home side, where he came on for the last 20 minutes.  He was the third black player to be capped by England at the highest level after Viv Anderson and Laurie Cunningham.

Personal life.

His younger brother is former player Dave Regis, and his nephew is Jason Roberts.  Regis became an evangelical Christian after a car crash claimed the life of his friend and former teammate Laurie Cunningham in 1989. He and Cunningham had been involved in a similar crash two years earlier. After retiring from playing, Regis worked in a variety of coaching roles before becoming an accredited football agent with the Stellar Group Ltd. He was the uncle of footballer Jason Roberts, for whom he acted as an agent, and cousin of sprinter John Regis.  He was awarded an honorary fellowship by the University of Wolverhampton in 2001. In 2004, Regis was voted as West Bromwich Albion's all time Cult Hero in a BBC Sport poll, gaining 65% of the vote. In the same year he was named as one of West Bromwich Albion's 16 greatest players, in a poll organised as part of the club's 125th anniversary celebrations. Regis and his wife Julia visited water-related projects in Ethiopia in 2007, as part of their continued support for WaterAid.  Regis won the Coventry City London Supporters' Club Player of the Year in 1986/87 and regularly comes in high in any legend polls for the club. In 2007/08 a Coventry City Hall of Fame picture gallery was erected at the Ricoh Arena, containing thirty Coventry greats from the club's entire history, whom he was among.  He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours.

Death and legacy.

Regis's death was announced on 15 January 2018; he was 59 and is survived by his second wife, Julia. Regis died from a heart attack.  On 28 July 2018, two of his former clubs (West Bromwich Albion and Coventry City) played in a friendly match dubbed the 'Regis Shield'; West Bromwich won 5–2.

Honours.

Coventry City  Individual

Cyrille Regis, MBE (9 February 1958 – 14 January 2018) was an English international footballer who played as a forward. His professional playing career spanned 19 years, where he made 614 league appearances and scored 158 league goals, most prolifically at West Bromwich Albion and Coventry City. Regis also won five caps with the England national team.

Cyrille Regis (* 9. Februar 1958 in Maripasoula, Französisch-Guayana; † 14. Januar 2018) war ein englischer Fußballspieler, der vor allem Ende der 1970er Jahre gemeinsam mit Laurie Cunningham und Brendon Batson – in Anlehnung an das gleichnamige Musiktrio – als die „Three Degrees“ in die englische Fußballgeschichte einging. Die Besonderheit lag darin, dass zu diesem Zeitpunkt schwarze Spieler im englischen Profifußball immer noch eine Ausnahme waren und mit Regis, Cunningham und Batson gleich drei schwarze Spieler in der Mannschaft von West Bromwich Albion standen.


Etymology.

"Samar" is said to be derived from "Samad", the Visayan word for "wound" or "cut", describing the rough physical features of the land which is rugged and deeply dissected by streams.

Geography.

Samar province covers a total area of occupying the central-western sections of the Samar island in the Eastern Visayas region. The province is bordered on the north by Northern Samar, east by Eastern Samar, south by Leyte and the Leyte Gulf, and west by the Samar Sea.

Topography.

Samar province is hilly, with mountain peaks ranging from high and narrow strips of lowlands, which tend to lie in coastal peripheries or in the alluvial plains and deltas accompanying large rivers. The largest lowlands are located along the northern coast extending up to the valleys of Catubig and Catarman rivers. Smaller lowlands in Samar are to be found in the Calbayog area and on the deltas and small valleys of Gandara and Ulot rivers. Slopes are generally steep and barren of trees due to deforestation. Run-off waters after heavy rains can provoke flooding in low-lying areas and the erosion of the mountains enlarges the coastal plains of the province.

Climate and rainfall.

Areas near the eastern coast of the province have no dry season (with a pronounced maximum rain period usually occurring from December to January), and are thus open to the northeast monsoon. Municipalities in the southeastern section of the province experience this type of climate.  Areas located in the northwestern portion of the province have a more or less evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year.

Administrative divisions.

The province of Samar comprises two congressional districts, 24 municipalities and two component cities. It has a total of 952 barangays.

Demographics.

The population of Samar (province) in the was people, with a density of.

Religion.

Samar (Western Samar) is predominantly Roman Catholic. The "Catholic Hierarchy" (2014) states that 95 percent of its population adhere to Roman Catholicism. Some other Christian believers constitute most of the remainder such as Rizalista, Iglesia Filipina Independiente, Born-again Christians, Iglesia Ni Cristo, Baptists, Methodists, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Seventh-day Adventist and Members Church of God International (MCGI). Muslims are also present and a few mosques are located within the province.

Languages and dialects.

Residents of Samar are mostly Waray, the sixth largest cultural-linguistic group in the country. 90.2 percent of the household population speaks the Waray-Waray language, while 9.8 percent also speak Cebuano; 8.1 percent Boholano; 0.07 percent Tagalog; and 0.5 percent other languages.  There are two types of Waray spoken in the province, "Waray Lineyte-Samarnon" which is spoken from the southernmost tip of the province up to the municipality of Gandara and "Waray Calbayog", an intermediary between the Waray of Northern Samar and the Waray of Samar, spoken in Calbayog City, Santa Margarita, and in some parts of Tagapul-an, Santo Niño, Almagro and Matuguinao.  Cebuano is spoken in some parts of the first district of Samar, mainly in Calbayog City, Almagro, Santo Niño and Tagapul-an. English and Chinese languages are also spoken.

Notable people.

19th & 20th Centuries  21st Century

Proposed creation of Samar Administrative Region (SamAR).

There is a proposed creation of Samar Administrative Region or SamAR, in which Eastern Visayas will be partitioned into two separate regions. Since the creation of Negros Island Region out of the regions of Western Visayas and Central Visayas, non-government organizations, local government units and people from the three Samar Island provinces are now expressing their support and willingness to put the provinces of Samar, Northern Samar and Eastern Samar into one separate administrative region in order to boost its economy, improve and directly provide to its people the government's basic and other public services and lower its poverty rate incidence, since Samar island's three provinces are listed as one of the poorest provinces of the Philippines.

Samar, formerly but still colloquially named as Western Samar, is a province in the Philippines located on Samar Island in Eastern Visayas. Its capital is Catbalogan City. It is bordered by Northern Samar, Eastern Samar, Leyte and the Leyte Gulf, and includes several islands in the Samar Sea. Samar is connected to the island of Leyte via the San Juanico Bridge (Marcos Bridge).

Samar, lange Zeit unter der Bezeichnung Western Samar bekannt, ist eine Provinz der Philippinen in der Region Eastern Visayas (Region VIII). Provinzhauptstadt ist Catbalogan City.


History.

The hospital dates from 1721, when it was founded by philanthropist Thomas Guy, who had made a fortune as a publisher of unlicensed Bibles. It was originally established as a hospital to treat "incurables" discharged from St Thomas' Hospital. Guy had been a Governor and benefactor of St Thomas' and his fellow Governors supported his intention by granting the south-side of St Thomas' Street for a peppercorn rent for 999 years. Following his death in 1724, Thomas Guy was entombed at the hospital's chapel (also dating from the 18th century), in a tomb featuring a marble sculpture by John Bacon.  The original buildings formed a courtyard facing St Thomas Street, comprising the hall on the east side and the Chapel, Matron's House and Surgeon's House on the west-side. A bequest of £180,000 by William Hunt in 1829, one of the largest charitable bequests in England in historic terms, allowed for a further hundred beds to be accommodated. Hunt's name was given to the southern expansion of the hospital buildings which took place in 1850. Two inner quadrangles were divided by a cloister which was later restyled and dedicated to the hospital's members who fell in the First World War. The east side comprised the care wards and the 'counting house' with the governors 'Burfoot Court Room'. The north-side quadrangle is dominated by a statue of Lord Nuffield (1877–1963) who was the chairman of governors for many years and also a major benefactor.  In 1974, the hospital added the 34-storey Guy's Tower and 29-storey Guy's House: this complex was designed by Watkins Gray. The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, which is dedicated to improving outcomes of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, stroke, Parkinson's disease and spinal cord injury, was opened by the Princess Royal in December 2004.  In October 2005 children's departments moved to the Evelina London Children's Hospital in the grounds next to St Thomas's close to the Palace of Westminster. A new cancer centre, built by Laing O'Rourke at a cost of £160 million, was completed in April 2016.

Facilities.

Medical services at the Guy's site are now concentrated in the buildings to the east of Great Maze Pond: these buildings, which are connected, are known as Tower Wing, Bermondsey Wing, Southwark Wing and Borough Wing. The Cancer Centre is in a separate building just to the south. To the west of the Great Maze Pond is Guy's Campus which forms part of King's College London.  At high, Guy's Tower (now called the Tower Wing) regained its tallest hospital building in the world status in 2014. It has since been surpassed by the Outpatient Center at the Houston Methodist Hospital, in Houston, USA at.

Guy's Hospital is an NHS hospital in the borough of Southwark in central London. It is part of Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and one of the institutions that comprise the King's Health Partners, an academic health science centre.

Guy’s Hospital ist ein Krankenhaus des NHS im Londoner Stadtbezirk Southwark. Der Betreiber ist "Guy’s & St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust". In dem Krankenhaus sind die Fakultäten für Medizin und Zahnmedizin des King’s College London untergebracht. Das Krankenhaus besteht aus 19 miteinander verbundenen Gebäuden. Die wichtigsten Gebäude sind der Guy’s Tower, das New Guy’s House und das Thomas Guy House.


History.

Earlier structures.

A first Christian place of worship at "Frideslar" was built by Boniface around 723, reportedly from the wood of an oak tree devoted to Donar. A church and monastery followed in ca. 732 under Wigbert. None of these buildings have left any archaeological traces yet discovered, so the first concrete evidence is for a larger church that was built around the year 800 featuring a transept width of around 24 m and a total length of 24 m.  The church at Fritzlar was destroyed by the forces of Rudolf of Rheinfelden in 1079 during his confrontation with Emperor Heinrich IV. An early attempt at rebuilding was soon abandoned.

Current church.

The current church was started around 1085/90 as a High Romanesque basilica. It was likely finished in 1118.  Between 1171 and 1232 a late Romanesque renovation followed. The roof truss above the choir was finished in 1194. The next stage of work already took place in the transitional period from the Romanesque to the Gothic: Between 1253 and 1276, the narthex also known as "Paradies", was added. The two fully Gothic southern side aisles date to 1290 to 1323. The Gothic "Marienkapelle" was constructed in 1354-65/6.  The (half-timbered) chapter hall was built on top of the northeastern crypt around 1560. The rood screen was replaced by a wrought-iron lattice in 1692. A simplified, low-ceilinged upper floor was added to the narthex in 1731, a porch was constructed at the northern portal in 1735. From 1799 to 1828 the high central tower was demolished and replaced by a lower pyramidical tower.  In 1868, a storm caused the southern tower spire to collapse during a mass, killing 21 and injuring 31 people. The spires and pediments of both western towers were then rebuilt around 1873 in Romanesque Revival style.  Comprehensive renovation/repairs occurred in 1913-20 and 1963-70. In 1974, the church museum was opened.  In 2004, Pope John Paul II made the church a Minor Basilica. Another renovation of the church interior took place 2010-12. In December 2012 it was reopened to the public.

Description.

Church building.

The current building is a combination of Romanesque and Gothic as well as later features, but in its current form retains the general external appearance of a Romanesque basilica. Original structures from this period include the main and north crypt, the walls of the transept, the core of the outer wall of the northern aisle, the polygonal choir apsis, the long choir, nave and the arched ceiling.  The furnishing is a more eclectic mix of styles. Interior features include a large crucifix from ca. 1300, a Baroque baptismal font (1693) and pulpit (1696), altars from 1703 ("Reliquienaltar"), 1680s/1690s (high altar) and the 1970s ("Pfarraltar").

Saint Peter's Church (German: "St. Peterskirche") is a Roman Catholic church and Minor basilica located in the small German town of Fritzlar. It is often colloquially referred to as a cathedral (German: "Fritzlarer Dom"), due to its great size.

Der Fritzlarer Dom St. Peter ist eine romanische ehemalige Kloster- und Stiftskirche in Fritzlar im nordhessischen Schwalm-Eder-Kreis, die heute als katholische Stadtpfarrkirche dient. Die Kirchen- und Klostergründung um 723/724 geht auf den Heiligen Bonifatius zurück und wurde zum Ausgangspunkt der Stadtentwicklung von Fritzlar. Der Fritzlarer Dom zählt zu den historisch und architekturgeschichtlich bedeutendsten Baudenkmälern in Nordhessen. Seine vorwiegend romanische Bausubstanz geht auf einen 1085/90 begonnenen hochromanischen Bau zurück, der in der Spätromanik größerenteils erneuert wurde. Bis in das 19. Jahrhundert hinein schloss sich eine Vielzahl weiterer Baumaßnahmen an, deren harmonisch wirkende Mischung das Erscheinungsbild des Domes heute bestimmt. Seit 2004 trägt die Kirche den Titel einer Basilica minor.


History.

In 1791, Caleb Hopkins moved from his hometown, Pittsford, Rutland county, Vermont, to what is now Monroe County, New York, and built the first log dwelling in the present town of Penfield. In 1800, he moved to the town of Northfield and built a house about a half a mile south of the present village of Pittsford. The Hopkins Homestead is identified by a historic marker at 3151 Clover Street.  He became a prominent businessman in Pittsford as a farmer and in mercantile pursuits. In 1808, he was appointed supervisor of the town of Boyle (which later became Pittsford). In 1809, President James Madison appointed him United States collector of customs for the port of Genesee (now Rochester, New York), a post he held until May 1817.  In 1814, the town of Smallwood was divided into Brighton and Pittsford, and Colonel Hopkins named the latter in honor of his birthplace in Vermont. In 1816 and 1817, he was a member of the general assembly of New York and served on the committee in military affairs.  Colonel Hopkins is buried alongside his wife, Dorothea Mabee, and their three children (Clarissa, James and Marvin) in the Pioneer Burying Ground cemetery a mile south of the village of Pittsford.

Military service.

In 1804, Hopkins was commissioned as a lieutenant of the militia, and was promoted to major in 1807. He was active in the War of 1812, attaining lieutenant colonel in 1812 and colonel in 1813. He was involved in several battles and skirmishes and once was wounded in the shoulder. In March, 1816, Colonel Hopkins was commissioned as brigadier general for gallant service during the war, including defending the Port of Charlotte, Rochester, New York against the British.

Colonel Caleb Hopkins (1770 – January 14, 1818) was a War of 1812 hero and the first town supervisor of Pittsford, New York, USA.

Caleb Hopkins (* 1770 in Pittsford, Vermont; † 14. Januar 1818 in Pittsford, New York) war ein Offizier im Britisch-Amerikanischen Krieg von 1812. Er war der erste Bürgermeister von Pittsford.


Name origin.

The Chinese name of Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, 東華三院, literally means three hospitals of Tung Wah. The three hospitals are Tung Wah Hospital (1890), Kwong Wah Hospital (1911) and Tung Wah Eastern Hospital (1929), all were founded by local Chinese. They formed a group in 1931, the Tung Wah Group of Hospitals.

Board of directors.

The Board of Directors of Tung Wah Group of Hospitals is responsible for ensuring the charitable organization is properly maintained. All board appointments require consent of Government of Hong Kong.  The incumbent chairman of Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, Lee Yuk-lun, took office on 6 April 2017, succeeding his predecessor, Katherine Ma.

Hospital services.

Five hospitals are under the umbrella of Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, including Tung Wah Hospital, Kwong Wah Hospital, Tung Wah Eastern Hospital, Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Wong Tai Sin Hospital and Tung Wah Group of Hospitals Fung Yiu King Hospital, providing a total of 2,652 hospital beds. It is Tung Wah's policy to provide at least 600 beds free of charge, of which 200 may be funded by the government.  TWGH also operates nursing home services for the elderly:

School of Nursing.

Providing competent nurse education has been a mission of Tung Wah Group of Hospitals since 1964, when nursing schools of Tung Wah Hospital, Kwong Wah Hospital and Tung Wah Eastern Hospital were merged. With the expansion of Kwong Wah Hospital, where the merged nursing school was settled, more students were admitted to its nursing school. Three classes, with a total of over 210 students, were commenced every year. Rebecca Chan Chung (鍾陳可慰), a United States Army nurse in China during World War II and author of "Piloted to Serve", had supervised the nursing school from 1964 to 1975.

Education Division.

The group operates 52 schools in Hong Kong, including one degree granting tertiary institution, 18 secondary schools, 17 primary schools, 15 kindergartens and two schools for the mentally handicapped. Except for the degree granting tertiary institution and kindergartens, the other schools are all directly funded by the government.  Self-financing degree granting tertiary institution:  Secondary schools:  Primary schools include:

Community Services Division.

As at March 2006, Tung Wah operated 134 community service centres:

The Tung Wah Group of Hospitals (), with a history dating back to 1870, is the oldest and largest charitable organisation in Hong Kong. It provides extensive education and community services through 194 service centres spread across Hong Kong.

Offiziell Tung Wah Group of Hospitals, umgangssprachlich Tung Wah, ist eine in Hongkong ansässige karitative Institution im Dienst der Öffentlichkeit.


Conception.

Background.

"Be" was touted as Common's comeback album after the commercially disastrous "Electric Circus". His previous album lacked promotion following MCA Records's absorption under Geffen. His new alliance with Kanye West helped to spark public interest in the project, as the album was produced by West and released by his own label GOOD Music. "I met Kanye in '96..." he said. "He was still in high school. He used to come around No I.D.'s house, a guy that used to produce for me. The thing I noticed about Kanye was that he could really rap! He had some kind of hunger that I hadn't really seen before."  "He's today's Marvin Gaye of rap," West enthused on a DVD accompanying a deluxe edition of "Be". "Buy the album. If you in a situation where you can barely buy groceries, "burn" the album."  The results show that Common was clearly aware, and perhaps agreeing, with the negative criticisms about "Electric Circus". In comparison to that album, "Be" is lean, immediate, and commanding, yet also restrained in its musical ambitions. Many believe it to be his safest album. Of the reaction to the album, the rapper said: "I don't think Electric Circus was as focused. Though I'd done some progressive hip-hop, people know me as the b-boy. When I showed them something different, a different style of b-boy, there were like, "Hold up. You can be Afrocentric, but what's this rock shit that you're doing?" Many of the beats created by West, and which Common rejected for the project, later appeared on West's studio album "Late Registration"."

Title.

In an interview with AllHipHop, Common denied that the album title stood for "Before Erykah." Common explained the concept and the album title in a 2005 interview for SixShot.com:

Singles.

"The Corner".

Common gave his reasons for featuring controversial spoken word recording artists, The Last Poets, on the album's first official single, "The Corner": "They gifted at writing. They voices is incredible. They took my song to a higher level. And that's what hip-hop was about to me. It would have a message. It would take you to the next place. It was fresh as people say -- something new. They brought newness to what "The Corner" was and they also brought some nostalgia, too. Just them being from the '70s and being used in hip-hop and their spirit brought something pure to it. They gave me a better understanding of the corner after that. I knew those who had been listening to hip-hop would know who the Last Poets were and if they didn't they would feel it in their souls sooner or later. And I also felt good about introducing some of the youth to the Last Poets."

"Go!".

"Go" was the album's second, and highest charting single. The song featured Kanye West and John Mayer, however all the verses are performed by Common with West and Mayer ad-libbing in the chorus. The video for the song included shots of Common surrounded by numerous models.

"Testify".

The album's third single, "Testify" received a type of promotional video known as a "mini-movie"; a term coined by Michael Jackson to describe a music video with a complex plot and a suitably long running time, often with intermissions between the song's parts. The video featured acting parts from Taraji P. Henson, Bill Duke, Steve Harris and Wood Harris, and received notable spins on specialist channels such as MTV2. The song samples "Innocent Til Proven Guilty" by Honey Cone.

Critical reception.

"Be" received widespread acclaim from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 83, based on 26 reviews. Andy Kellman of AllMusic said, ""Be" isn't likely to be referred to by anyone as groundbreaking, but it's one of Common's best, and it's also one of the most tightly constructed albums of any form within recent memory." Andy Greenwald of "Blender" said, ""Be" picks up where West's "The College Dropout" left off." Raymond Fiore of "Entertainment Weekly" said, ""Be"s leanness signals awesome growth even without pushing sonic boundaries." Dorian Lynskey of "The Guardian" said, "Though not quite 2005's best hip-hop album - Kanye West retains that honour for himself - "Be" is a lean and vibrant masterclass in hip-hop fundamentals." "NME" said, "Gives hope to a hip-hop stuck in a mire of mediocrity."  Ryan Dombal of "Pitchfork" said, "The lack of instant-gratification couplets may disappoint at first, but each verse's rewarding intricacies become more evident with multiple listens." "Q" said, "Common's best album so far, one that proves hip hop can be both smart and mainstream." Nathan Brackett of "Rolling Stone" said, "West is the producer Common has been waiting for all of his career: He makes Common both catchier and edgier at the same time." Will Hermes of "Spin" said, "Even when the music flags, Common's remarkably hungry raps push it along." "XXL" gave the album its highest rating of XXL, writing, "While label support and the times heavily influence whether great music can be crowned a classic, if nothing else Common has created a flawless album. By giving us himself completely and speaking to and for us as complete people, he's birthed the total package. Common has raised the bar. Hopefully, a year from now we'll look back and see that MCs have been rhyming like Common since.  Andrew Simon of "Vibe" wrote that the album "gets to the root of human experience—all the while staying beautifully soulful and funky." "The New York Times"' Kelefa Sanneh felt that "Be" was "certainly a triumph, but if it isn't quite the all-time classic Common was hoping for, that's because it sounds a bit too straightforward." Assigning the album a three-star honorable mention rating, Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" wrote that "few of the best moments belong to the main attraction, who's not as wise as they tell him he is."  Common's lyrics on "Be" earned him the Lyricist of the Year award at the 2006 BET Hip Hop Awards. In 2012 "Complex" called the album one of the classics of the last decade. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".

Accolades.

The information regarding accolades attributed to "Be" is adapted from Acclaimed Music.

Grammy nominations.

"Be" was nominated in four categories at the 48th Grammy Awards: Best Rap Album, Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for "The Corner" featuring The Last Poets, Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "They Say" featuring Kanye West and John Legend, and Best Rap Solo Performance for "Testify".

Track listing.

All tracks produced by Kanye West, except where noted.  Notes  Sample credits

Personnel.

Credits for "Be" adapted from AllMusic.

Be is the sixth studio album by American rapper Common. It was released on May 24, 2005, by Geffen Records and GOOD Music. The album was primarily produced by rapper Kanye West. It debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 185,000 copies in the United States. The album is Common's second album to sell over 500,000 copies (over 800,000 copies sold), becoming a certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).

Be ist das sechste Album des US-amerikanischen Rappers Common. Es erschien am 24. Mai 2005 in den Vereinigten Staaten und am 30. Mai 2005 in Deutschland. "Be" wurde über "G.O.O.D. Music/Geffen Records" veröffentlicht und konnte Platz 2 der Billboard 200-Charts erreichen. Der Tonträger wurde von Kanye West und J Dilla produziert.


History.

According to an inscription on a beam, the Great Buddha Hall of Nanchan Temple was first built in 782 CE during the Tang Dynasty. It escaped destruction during the Buddhist purges of 845, perhaps due to its isolated location in the mountains. Another inscription on a beam indicates that the hall was renovated in 1086 of the Song Dynasty, and during that time all but four of the original square columns were replaced with round columns. In the 1950s the building was rediscovered by architectural historians, and in 1961 it was recognized as China's oldest standing timber-frame building. Just five years later in 1966, the building was damaged in an earthquake, and during the renovation period in the 1970s, historians got a chance to study the building piece by piece.

Great Buddha Hall.

As the oldest extant timber-frame building in China, The Great Buddha Hall is an important building in the understanding of Chinese architectural history. The humble building is a three bay square hall that is 10 meters deep and 11.75 meters across the front. The roof is supported by twelve pillars that are implanted directly into a brick foundation. The hip-gable roof is supported by five-puzuo brackets. The hall does not contain any interior columns or a ceiling, nor are there any struts supporting the roof in between the columns. All of these features indicate that this is a low-status structure. The hall contains several features of Tang Dynasty halls, including its longer central front bay, the use of camel-hump braces, and the presence of a yuetai.

Sculptures.

Along with nearby Foguang Temple, Nanchan Temple contains original sculptures dating from the Tang Dynasty. The hall contains seventeen statues and are lined up on an inverted U-shaped dais. The largest statue is of Sakyamuni, placed in the center of the hall sitting cross-legged on a sumeru throne adorned with sculpted images of a lion and demigod. Above the large halo behind the statue are sculpted representations of lotus flowers, celestial beings and mythical birds. Flanking him on each side are attendant Bodhisattvas with a knee placed on a lotus. A large statue of Samantabhadra riding an elephant is at the far left of the hall and a large statue of Manjusri riding a lion is on the far left. There are also statues of two of Sakyamuni's disciples (Ananda and Mahakashyapa), two statues of heavenly kings and four statues of attendants.  The Great Buddha Hall also contains one small carved stone pagoda that is five levels high. The first level is carved with a story about the Buddha, and each corner contains an additional small pagoda. Each side of the second level is carved with one large Buddha in the center, flanked with four smaller Buddhas on each side. The upper three levels have three carved Buddhas on each side.

Nanchan Temple () is a Buddhist temple located near the town of Doucun on Wutaishan, Shanxi Province, China. Nanchan Temple was built in 782 during China's Tang dynasty, and its Great Buddha Hall is currently China's oldest preserved timber building extant, as wooden buildings are often prone to fire and various destructions. Not only is Nanchan Temple an important architectural site, but it also contains an original set of artistically-important Tang sculptures dating from the period of its construction. Seventeen sculptures share the hall's interior space with a small stone pagoda.

Der Nanchan-Tempel () ist ein buddhistischer Tempel im Dorf Lijiazhuang des Kreises Wutai in der chinesischen Provinz Shanxi. Seine Haupthalle aus dem Jahr 782 gilt als eine der ältesten Holzkonstruktionen im chinesischen Tempelbau.


History.

In 1686, Edmond Halley published his treatise on the Indian summer monsoon, which he attributed to a seasonal reversal of winds due to the differential heating of the Asian land mass and the Indian Ocean. The first meteorological observatories were established in India by the British East India Company. These included the Calcutta Observatory in 1785, the Madras Observatory in 1796 and the Colaba Observatory in 1826. Several other observatories were established in India during the first half of the 19th century by various provincial governments.  The Asiatic Society, founding in Calcutta in 1784 and in Bombay in 1804, promoted the study of meteorology in India. Henry Piddington published almost 40 papers dealing with tropical storms from Calcutta between 1835 and 1855 in "The Journal of the Asiatic Society". He also coined the term "cyclone", meaning the coil of a snake. In 1842, he published his landmark thesis, "Laws of the Storms".  After a tropical cyclone hit Calcutta in 1864, and the subsequent famines in 1866 and 1871 due to the failure of the monsoons, it was decided to organise the collection and analysis of meteorological observations under one roof. As a result, the India Meteorology Department was established in 1875. Henry Francis Blanford was appointed the first Meteorological Reporter of the IMD. In May 1889, Sir John Eliot was appointed the first "Director General of Observatories" in the erstwhile capital, Calcutta. The IMD headquarters were later shifted to Shimla in 1905, then to Pune in 1928 and finally to New Delhi in 1944.  IMD became a member of the World Meteorological Organization after independence on 27 April 1949. The agency has gained in prominence due to the significance of the monsoon rains on Indian agriculture. It plays a vital role in preparing the annual monsoon forecast, as well as in tracking the progress of the monsoon across India every season.

Organisation.

IMD is headed by the "Director General of Meteorology", currently Dr. Mrutyunjay Mohapatra. IMD has six "Regional Meteorological Centre"s, each under a Deputy Director General. These are located in Chennai, Guwahati, Kolkata, Mumbai, Nagpur and New Delhi. There are also "Meteorological Centres" in every state capital. Other IMD units such as Forecasting Offices, Agrometeorological Advisory Service Centers, Hydro-meteorological Office, Flood Meteorological Offices, Area Cyclone Warning Centers and Cyclone Warning Centers are usually co-located with various observatories or meteorological center.  IMD operates a network of hundreds of surface and glacial observatories, Upper Air (high altitude) stations, ozone and radiation observatories and meteorological radar stations. Additional data is received from India's constellation of satellites, such as Kalpana-1, Megha-Tropiques and instruments on board the IRS series and the INSAT series of satellites. Data and observations are also reported into the IMD network from meteorological instruments on board Indian merchant marine and Indian Navy ships. IMD was the first organisation in India to deploy a message switching computer for supporting its global data exchange.  IMD collaborates with other agencies such as the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting and the National Institute of Ocean Technology.  IMD also operates seismic monitoring centres at key locations for earthquake monitoring and measurements. The new public website of IMD is https://mausam.imd.gov.in/

Tasks.

IMD undertakes observations, communications, forecasting and weather services. In collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation, the IMD also uses the IRS series and the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for weather monitoring of the Indian subcontinent. IMD was first weather bureau of a developing country to develop and maintain its own satellite system.  IMD is one of the six worldwide Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the Tropical Cyclone Programme of the World Weather Watch of the World Meteorological Organization. It is regional nodal agency for forecasting, naming and disseminating warnings about tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean north of the Equator.

New initiatives.

The IMD launched System of Aerosol Monitoring and Research (SAMAR) in January 2016 to study the concentration of Black carbon, radiative properties of aerosols, environmental visibility and their climatological impacts. It would contain a network of 16 aethalometers, 12 sky radiometers and 12 nephelometers.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) is an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India. It is the principal agency responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and seismology. IMD is headquartered in Delhi and operates hundreds of observation stations across India and Antarctica. Regional offices are at Mumbai, Kolkata, Nagpur and Pune.

Das India Meteorological Department (IMD) ist eine zur Regierung Indiens gehörende meteorologische Organisation, in deren Aufgabenbereich Wetterbeobachtungen, Wettervorhersagen und die Überwachung seismologischer Aktivität gehört. Das IMD ist auch das Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre für die Vorhersage tropischer Wirbelstürme im Arabischen Meer und im Golf von Bengalen. Es hat seinen Sitz in der Hauptstadt Neu-Delhi.