Politics of sanctions.

Economic sanctions are used as a tool of foreign policy by many governments. Economic sanctions are usually imposed by a larger country upon a smaller country for one of two reasons: either the latter is a perceived threat to the security of the former nation or that country treats its citizens unfairly. They can be used as a coercive measure for achieving particular policy goals related to trade or for humanitarian violations. Economic sanctions are used as an alternative weapon instead of going to war to achieve desired outcomes.

Effectiveness of economic sanctions.

Hufbauer, Schott, and Elliot (2008) argue that regime change is the most frequent foreign-policy objective of economic sanctions, accounting for just over 39 percent of cases of their imposition. Hufbauer "et al." claimed that in their studies that 34 percent of the cases were successful. When Robert A. Pape examined their study, he claimed that only five of their forty so-called "successes" stood up, reducing the success rate to 4%. Success of sanctions as a form of measuring effectiveness has also been widely debated by scholars of economic sanctions. Success of a single sanctions-resolution does not automatically lead to effectiveness, unless the stated objective of the sanctions regime is clearly identified and reached.  According to a study by Neuenkirc and Neumeier (2015) the US and UN economic sanctions had a statistically significant impact on the target country's economy by reducing GDP growth by more than 2 percent a year. The study also concluded that the negative effects typically last for a period of ten years amounting to an aggregate decline in the target country's GDP per-capita of 25.5 percent.  Imposing sanctions on an opponent also affects the economy of the imposing country to some degree. If import restrictions are promulgated, consumers in the imposing country may have restricted choices of goods. If export restrictions are imposed or if sanctions prohibit companies in the imposing country from trading with the target country, the imposing country may lose markets and investment opportunities to competing countries. Critics of sanctions like Belgian jurist Marc Bossuyt, however, argue that in nondemocratic regimes, the extent to which this affects political outcomes is contested, because by definition such regimes do not respond as strongly to the popular will.  British diplomat Jeremy Greenstock suggests sanctions are popular not because they are known to be effective, but because "there is nothing else [to do] between words and military action if you want to bring pressure upon a government".

Criticism.

Sanctions have been criticized on humanitarian grounds, as they negatively impact a nation's economy and can also cause collateral damage on ordinary citizens. Peksen implies that sanctions can degenerate human rights in the target country. Some policy analysts believe imposing trade restrictions only serves to hurt ordinary people as opposed to government elites, and others have likened the practice to siege warfare.

History of sanctions.

The use of economic sanctions became much more common in the 20th century, particularly with the formation of The League of Nations in 1919. The sanctions against Mussolini's Italy in 1935 was one of the first sets of sanctions it imposed, although the failed to halt the invasion. After World War Two, the League was replaced by the more expansive United Nations in 1945. Sanctions have become a commonly used foreign policy tool in the 21st century in countless situations ranging from disputes to hostile confrontations.

Implications for businesses.

Companies must be aware of embargoes that apply to the intended export destination. Embargo check is difficult for both importers and exporters to follow. Before exporting or importing to other countries, firstly, they must be aware of embargoes or risk facing unintended punitive measures for violating sanctions. Subsequently, firms need to make sure that they are not dealing with embargoed countries by checking those related regulations. Finally, they probably need a license in order to ensure a smooth export or import business. Sometimes the situation becomes even more complicated with the changing of politics of a country.  Embargoes keep changing. In the past, many companies relied on spreadsheets and manual process to keep track of compliance issues related to incoming and outgoing shipments, which takes risks of these days help companies to be fully compliant on such regulations even if they are changing on a regular basis. If an embargo situation exists, the software blocks the transaction for further processing.

Examples.

United States Sanctions.

US Embargo of 1807.

The United States Embargo of 1807 involved a series of laws passed by the U.S. Congress (1806–1808) during the second term of President Thomas Jefferson. Britain and France were engaged in the War of the Fourth Coalition; the U.S. wanted to remain neutral and to trade with both sides, but both countries objected to American trade with the other. American policy aimed to use the new laws to avoid war and to force both France and Britain to respect American rights. The embargo failed to achieve its aims, and Jefferson repealed the legislation in March 1809.

US Embargo of Cuba.

The United States embargo against Cuba began on March 14, 1958 during the rule of dictator Fulgencio Batista. At first, the embargo applied only to arms sales, however it later expanded to include other imports, eventually extending to almost all trade on February 7, 1962. Referred to by Cuba as ""el bloqueo"" (the blockade), the U.S. embargo on Cuba remains one of the longest-standing embargoes in modern history. Few of the United States' allies embraced the embargo, and many have argued it has been ineffective in changing Cuban government behavior. While taking some steps to allow limited economic exchanges with Cuba, American President Barack Obama nevertheless reaffirmed the policy in 2011, stating that without the granting of improved human rights and freedoms by Cuba's current government, the embargo remains "in the national interest of the United States".

Russian sanctions.

Russia has been known to utilize economic sanctions to achieve its political goals. Russia's focus has been primarily on implementing sanctions against the pro-Western regimes of former Soviet Union states. The Kremlin's aim is particularly on states that aspire to join the European Union and NATO, such as Serbia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Georgia.

Russia sanctions on Ukraine.

Viktor Yushcenko, the third president of Ukraine who was elected in 2004, lobbied during his term to gain admission to NATO and the EU. Soon after Yushchenko entered office, Russia demanded Kiev pay the same rate that it charged Western European states. This quadrupled Ukraine's energy bill overnight. Russia subsequently cut off the supply of natural gas in 2006, causing significant harm to the Ukrainian and Russian economies. As the Ukrainian economy began to struggle, Yushcenko's approval ratings dropped significantly; reaching the single digits by the 2010 election; Viktor Yanukovych, who was more supportive of Moscow won the election in 2010 to become the fourth president of Ukraine. After his election, gas prices were reduced substantially.

Russian sanctions on Georgia.

The Rose Revolution in Georgia brought Mikheil Saakashvili to power as the third president of Georgia. Saakashvili wanted to bring Georgia into NATO and the EU and was a strong supporter of the U.S.0led war in Iraq and Afghanistan. Russia would soon implement a number of different sanctions on Georgia, including natural gas price raises through Gazprom and wider trade sanctions that impacted the Georgian economy, particularly Georgian exports of wine, citrus fruits, and mineral water. In 2006, Russia banned all imports from Georgia which was able to deal a significant blow to the Georgian economy. Russia also expelled nearly 2,300 Georgian who worked within its borders.

United Nations sanctions.

The United Nations issues sanctions by consent of the Security Council and/or General Assembly in response to major international events, receiving authority to do so under Article 41 of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter. The nature of these sanctions may vary, and include financial, trade, or weaponry restrictions. Motivations can also vary, ranging from humanitarian and environmental concerns to efforts to halt nuclear proliferation. Over two dozen sanctions measures have been implemented by the United Nations since its founding in 1945.

Sanctions on Somalia, 1992.

The UN implemented sanctions against Somalia beginning in April 1992, after the overthrow of the Siad Barre led coup in 1991 during the Somali Civil War. United Nations Security Council Resolution 751 forbade members to sell, finance, or transfer any military equipment to Somalia.

Sanctions on North Korea, 2006-present.

The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1718 in 2006 in response to a nuclear test that the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) conducted in violation of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The resolution banned the sale of military and luxury goods and froze government assets. Since then, the United Nations has passed multiple resolutions subsequently expanding sanctions on North Korea. Resolution 2270 from 2016 placed restrictions on transport personnel and vehicles employed by North Korea while also restricting the sale of natural resources and fuel for aircraft.  The efficacy of such sanctions has been questioned in light of continued nuclear tests by North Korea in the decade following the 2006 resolution. Professor William Brown of Georgetown University argued that "sanctions don't have much of an impact on an economy that has been essentially bankrupt for a generation".

Sanctions on Libya.

On February 26, 2011, the Security Council of the United nations issued an arms embargo against the Libya through Security Council Resolution 1970 in response to humanitarian abuses occurring in the First Libyan Civil War. The embargo was later extended to mid-2018. Under the embargo, Libya has suffered serve inflation because of increased dependence on the private sector to import goods. The sanctions caused large cuts to health and education, which caused social conditions to decrease. Even though the sanctions were in response to human rights, their effects were limited.

Sanctions on apartheid South Africa.

In effort to punish South Africa for its policies of apartheid, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a voluntary international oil-embargo against South Africa on November 20, 1987; that embargo had the support of 130 countries.

Other multilateral sanctions.

One of the most comprehensive attempts at an embargo occurred during the Napoleonic Wars of 1803–1815. Aiming to cripple the United Kingdom economically, Emperor Napoleon I of France in 1806 promulgated the Continental System – which forbade European nations from trading with the UK. In practice the French Empire could not completely enforce the embargo, which proved as harmful (if not more so) to the continental nations involved as to the British.  The United States, Britain, China and the Netherlands imposed sanctions against Japan in 1940–1941 in response to its expansionism. Deprived of access to vital oil, iron-ore and steel supplies, Japan started planning for military action to seize the resource-rich Dutch East Indies, which required a preemptive attack on Pearl Harbor, triggering the American entry into the Pacific War.  In 1973–1974, OAPEC instigated the 1973 oil crisis through its oil embargo against the United States and other industrialized nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. The results included a sharp rise in oil prices and in OPEC revenues, an emergency period of energy rationing, a global economic recession, large-scale conservation efforts, and long-lasting shifts toward natural gas, ethanol, nuclear and other alternative energy sources. Israel continued to receive Western support, however.

Current sanctions.

By targeted country.

List of sanctioned countries:

Economic sanctions are commercial and financial penalties applied by one or more countries against a targeted self-governing state, group, or individual. Economic sanctions are not necessarily imposed because of economic circumstances—they may also be imposed for a variety of political, military, and social issues. Economic sanctions can be used for achieving domestic and international purposes.

Wirtschaftssanktionen sind alle Versuche der Einflussnahme auf das Verhalten anderer Staaten mittels wirtschaftlicher Instrumente. Diese versuchte Einflussnahme erfolgt über eine – wirkliche oder perzipierte – Veränderung der Kosten/Nutzen-Relationen alternativer Verhaltensweisen.


Freedom of Expression.

People often communicate to affirm one's identity and sense of belonging. People may express their opinions or withhold their opinions due to the fear of exclusion or unpopularity. Shared social norms and beliefs create a sense of belonging, but they can also create a suppression of expression in order to comply or belong. People may adjust their beliefs or opinions to go along with the majority attitude. There are different factors that contribute to self-censorship such as gender, age, education, political interests and media exposure. For some, the reason for their change in beliefs and opinions are rooted in fear of isolation and exclusion. The risk of negative reactions is greater than expressing one's true beliefs.  According to the survey on self-censorship in Germany, conducted from May 3–16, 2019 by Institut für Demoskopie Allensbach for the newspaper "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung" (FAZ), 59% of respondents said they can express their views among friends, but only 18% believe the same is possible in public. Only 17% of respondents express themselves freely on the Internet.

Journalism.

Journalists often censor themselves due to threats against them or their interests from another party, editorial instructions from their supervisor[s], perceived conflicts of interest with a media organization's economic sponsors, advertisers or shareholders, etc.). Self-censorship occurs when journalists deliberately manipulate their expression out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship of journalists is most pervasive in societies where governments have official media censorship policies and where journalists will be jailed, fined, or simply lose their job if they do not follow the censorship rules. Organizations such as (Media Matters for America, Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, "Democracy Now!", and the American Civil Liberties Union) have raised concerns about news broadcasting stations, particularly Fox News, censoring their own content to be less controversial when reporting on certain types of issues such as the War on Terror.  In their book "Manufacturing Consent" (1988), Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman argue that corporate ownership of news media very strongly encourages systematic self-censorship owing to market forces. In this argument, even with supposedly liberal media, bias and (often unconscious) self-censorship is evident in the selection and omission of news stories, and the framing of acceptable discussion, in line with the interests of the corporations owning those media.  The journalists have actively sought censorship advice from military authorities in order to prevent the inadvertent revelation of military secrets. In 2009, "The New York Times" succeeded in suppressing news of a reporter's abduction by militants in Afghanistan for seven months until his escape from captivity in order to'reduce danger to the reporter and other hostages'.  Journalists have sometimes self-censored publications of news stories out of concern for the safety of people involved. Jean Pelletier, the Washington D.C. correspondent for the Montreal "La Presse" newspaper, uncovered a covert attempt by the Canadian government to smuggle US diplomats out of Iran during the Iranian Hostage Crisis before the "Canadian Caper" had reached its conclusion. In order to preserve the safety of those involved, he refused to allow the paper to publish the story until the hostages had left Iran, despite the considerable news value to the paper and writer.  Self-censorship became a quite frequent practice in Russia after 2000's government take-overs and consolidation of media, further deepened after 2014-2015 laws on 'undesirable organisations'.

Europe.

As for Europe, threats to media freedom have shown a significant increase in recent years. Journalists and whistleblowers have experienced physical and psychological intimidation and threats. Self-censorship is one of the major consequences of such circumstances.  A study published in 2017 by the Council of Europe found that in the period 2014-2016 that 40% of journalists involved in the survey experienced some kind of unwarranted interference, in particular psychological violence, including slandering and smear campaigning, cyberbulling. Other forms of unwarranted interference include intimidation by interest groups, threats with force, intimidation by political groups, targeted surveillance, intimidation by the police, etc. In terms of geography, cases of physical assault were more common in the South Caucasus, followed by Turkey, but were present in other regions as well.

China.

In China, the media has to go to even greater extents to censor much of the material that it would post online. Many companies have been shut down by government because of the content that they have published. Nearly 10,000 social media accounts in October of 2018 were shut down that published entertainment and celebrity news. As well as 370 different streaming apps that were pulled off of the app stores for non-compliance. Due to these high numbers of government interference, the companies and networks that publish on the internet are now employing people and utilizing sophisticated programs to find videos and pictures that are offensive to remove before the government can get them in trouble.

Politics.

James Gomez writes about this phenomenon in his book "Self-Censorship: Singapore's Shame". He argues that citizens and foreigners in Singapore practice self-censorship that results in the censorship of others when it comes to political matters.

Religion.

Religious affiliation is a topic in which many occupational fields and areas may be a source of self-censorship. One particular area is psychology. From the origins of psychology, the field has frequently viewed religion with distrust. Psychologists and therapists often refrain from claiming to be part of any religion believing in the possibility that any expressions of any devout faith may be viewed as markers for mental illness or distress. A 2013 survey from the American Psychological Association (APA) found that “relative to the general population, psychologists were more than twice likely to claim no religion, three times more likely to describe religion as unimportant in their lives, and five times more likely to deny belief in God.”  Regarding a religious movement it is more common among fundamentalist believers like Wahhabism, Islamism, Calvinism, and Hasidic Judaism.

Science.

Self-censorship in scientific publications that have been criticized as politically motivated include scientists under the Third Reich withholding findings that disagreed with the commonly held beliefs in differences between races, or the refusal of these scientists under Hitler to support General Relativity (which got the reputation as "Jewish science"). More recently, certain scientists have withheld their findings related to climate changes caused by pollution and to endangered species.  Professor Heinz Klatt argues that hate laws, speech codes, cowardice, and political correctness have resulted in an intellectually repressive atmosphere in modern-day academic circles, with widespread self-censorship on topics like homosexuality, (learning) disabilities, Islam, and genetic differences between human races and sexes.

Risks from scientific publications.

In the early days of atomic physics, it was realized that discoveries regarding nuclear fission and the chain reaction might be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes - on the one hand, such discoveries could have important applications for medicine and energy production, however on the other hand, they might also lead to the production of unprecedented weapons of mass destruction. Leo Szilard argues that if dangerous discoveries were kept secret, the development and use of such weapons might be avoided. Similar to nuclear fission findings in the field of medicine and biotechnology could facilitate production of biological weapons of mass destruction. In 2003 members of the Journal Editors and Authors Group, 32 leading journal editors, perceived the threat from biological warfare as sufficiently high to warrant a system of self-censorship on the public dissemination of certain aspects of their community's research. The statement agreed on declared: We recognize that the prospect of bioterrorism has raised legitimate concerns about the potential abuse of published information... We are committed to dealing responsibly and effectively with safety and security issues that may be raised by papers submitted for publication, and to increasing our capacity to identify such issues as they arise...[O]n occasions an editor may conclude that the potential harm of publication outweighs the potential societal benefits... the paper should be modified, or not be published...

Taste and decency.

Taste and decency are other areas in which questions are often raised regarding self-censorship. Art or journalism involving images or footage of murder, terrorism, war and may cause complaints as to the purpose to which they are put. Curators and editors will frequently censor these images to avoid charges of prurience, shock tactics or invasion of privacy. When the director of the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, for example, was interviewed regarding his decision to whitewash an antiwar mural showing dollar-draped military coffins, he speculated that the mural would have offended the community in which it was placed. He then added that "there were zero complaints, because I took care of it right away," a comment that practically defines the present topic.  In management and engineering, groupthink exists regarding matters of taste as they affect what products are acceptable for use by the public, but is not usually recognized as such.

Online resources.

"The Guardian"'s withdrawal of its extended interview of Noam Chomsky in 2005 which was seen as a smear by his admirers such as the group while the apology he received and the article's removal were viewed as "spineless" acts by historian Marko Attila Hoare, one of Chomsky's critics. Another such incident would be the deletion of a December 21, 2006 Op-Ed piece in the "New York Sun" which had been written by British journalist Daniel Johnson.

Information society and hygiene.

Self-censorship can be considered as a method of preventive medicine and health maintenance: it stands in connection with the development of the information society, information overload and information pollution, the evolving information ecology and is associated with informational hygiene.

Self-censorship is the act of censoring or classifying one's own discourse. This is done out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship is often practiced by film producers, film directors, publishers, news anchors, journalists, musicians, and other kinds of authors including individuals who use social media.

Selbstzensur (seltener auch "Autozensur") ist Zensur, die sich Menschen oder Institutionen selbst auferlegen, z. B. hinsichtlich Meinungs- und Pressefreiheit. Sie tritt unter anderem bei Verlegern, Journalisten, Filmproduzenten, Wissenschaftlern, Künstlern sowie Medien aus vielfältigen Motiven auf.


Background.

Idris was originally written for the PDP-11 by P. J. Plauger, who started working on Idris in August 1978. It was binary compatible with Unix V6 on PDP-11, but it could run on non-memory managed systems (like LSI-11 or PDP-11/23) as well. The kernel required 31 KB of RAM, and the C compiler (provided along with the standard V6 toolset) had more or less the same size.

Ports.

Although Idris was initially available for the PDP-11, it was later ported to run on a number of platforms, such as the VAX, Motorola 68000, System/370 and Intel 8086. There was also a version that used bank-switching for memory management, that ran on the Intel 8080.  In 1986, David M. Stanhope at Computer Tools International ported Idris to the Atari ST and developed its ROM boot cartridge. This work also included a port of X to Idris. Computer Tools and Whitesmiths offered it to Atari as a replacement for Atari TOS, but eventually marketed it directly to ST enthusiasts.  A specific version of Idris (CoIdris) was packaged as a.COM file under DOS and used it for low level I/O services.  Idris was ported to the Apple Macintosh (as MacIdris) by John O'Brien (of Whitesmiths Australia) and remained available until the early 1990s. MacIdris ran as an application under the Finder or Multifinder.  After Whitesmiths had been merged with Intermetrics, Idris along with its development toolchain was ported by Real Time Systems Ltd to the INMOS T800 transputer architecture for the Parsytec SN1000 multiprocessor.

Idris is a discontinued multi-tasking, Unix-like, multi-user, real-time operating system released by Whitesmiths, of Westford, Massachusetts. The product was commercially available from 1979 through 1988.

Idris ist ein Betriebssystem, das von Whitesmiths Ltd. aus Westford (Massachusetts) veröffentlicht wurde. Das Produkt war kommerziell erhältlich von 1979 bis 1988.


Seven Years' War.

Although the Seven Years' War was a global conflict, it acquired a specific intensity in the European theater based on the recently concluded War of the Austrian Succession (1741–1748). The 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded the earlier war with Austria. Frederick II of Prussia, known as Frederick the Great, acquired the prosperous province of Silesia. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the treaty to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances; she intended to regain ascendancy in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1754, escalating tensions between Britain and France in North America offered the Empress the opportunity to regain her lost territories and to limit Prussia's ever growing power. Similarly, France sought to break the British dominance of Atlantic trade. France and Austria put aside their old rivalry to form a coalition of their own. Britain aligned herself with the Kingdom of Prussia; this alliance drew in not only the British king's territories held in personal union, including Hanover, but also those of his relatives in the Electorate of Hanover and the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel. This series of political maneuvers became known as the Diplomatic Revolution.  After over-running Saxony, Frederick campaigned in Bohemia and defeated the Austrians on 6 May 1757 at the Battle of Prague. Learning that French forces had invaded his ally's territory of Hanover, Frederick moved west. On 5 November 1757, he defeated the combined French and Austrian force at the Battle of Rossbach. In his absence, the Austrians had managed to retake Silesia: Prince Charles had taken the city of Schweidnitz and moved on Breslau in Lower Silesia.

Background.

The duke of Brunswick-Bevern was supposed to cover Silesia with a force of 32,000 troops. This soon turned out to be a difficult task as he had to face the superior Austrian forces, whose main army of 54,000 troops was led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine and Count Leopold Joseph von Daun. The corps of 28,000 troops under Franz Leopold von Nádasdy was also able to advance to the front. Despite their overwhelming superiority, the Austrians wanted to initially avoid a battle.  After Nádasdy's corps had been reinforced bringing its strength up to 43,000 troops, the Austrians surrounded Schweidnitz on 14 October. The handover then took place on 13 November. Until then, Bevern had managed to keep the main Austrian army engaged in battle. However, after joining Nádasdy's corps it had been considerably strengthened.  As a direct result of the additional reinforcements, the Austrian army command gave up their position and decided to launch an immediate attack on the Prussians; their intention was to take Breslau should before the arrival of the main Prussian forces so that they would be unable to winter in Silesia.  The Prussians had over 40 battalions and 102 squadrons at their disposal (totaling 28,400 troops). The Austrian army, however, consisted of 96 battalions, 93 grenadier companies, 141 squadrons and 228 artillery pieces (totaling 83.606 troops).

Course of battle.

Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine attacked the Prussian forces on 22 November outside the gates of Breslau, between the villages of Kosel und Gräbschen, launching the battle with a cannonade. The Prussians, who had taken up fortified positions in the surrounding villages, were then attacked at three separate points. After the Austrians were able to conquer the first few villages, they manned them with howitzers and intensified their cannonade, after which the duke of Brunswick-Bevern gathered ten regiments together and began a counter-attack. A tough, bloody struggle for the villages began, in which the Prussians were able to score several decisive successes against the superior Austrian forces. It has never been established whether Bevern wanted to lead another counter-attack the next day or retreat. Nevertheless, the Prussians did retreat, which seemed to have begun suddenly as if on cue, whether it had been ordered or not. The battle field was consequently abandoned to Prince Charles and the Prussians went back to Glogau via Breslau.  The battle, which had lasted almost the entire day, cost the Austrians 5,723 men and the Prussians 6,350 men.

Results.

Following the withdrawal of the Prussian army, 10 battalions under General Johann Georg von Lestwitz remained behind in the fortress of Breslau. The Austrians immediately laid siege under the direction of General Nádasdy. The Austrian-minded population of Breslau made the Prussians' defense difficult as not only did Breslau's citizens pressure Lestwitz to vacate the fortress but they also aided any Prussian deserters.  Prussian morale was extremely low due to their defeat on the battlefield and the high proportion of conscripts serving in the army. Discipline almost collapsed. Lestwitz surrendered on the night of 25 November on condition of being allowed to withdraw unhindered. Out of the 4,227 Prussian soldiers, only 599 of them began the march to Glogau; the rest deserted.  Frederick had been marching west to help his British allies defend Hanover. Due to these events, Frederick was forced to completely change his campaign plans. Before reversing his course, though, he soundly defeated an allied force of French and Austrian troops at the Battle of Rossbach. After the battle, he reversed his course and in 12 days covered the to Leuthen. There, on 4 December, he executed a brilliantly conceived plan of maneuver and subterfuge, fooling both Prince Charles and Daun. Following his decisive win at Leuthen, most of the Austrians defending the city decamped, although they left behind a garrison of 17,000 plus stores and ammunition, commanded by Soloman Sprecher von Bernegg. After a brief but brutal siege, Frederick forced the capitulation in late December 1757.

The Battle of Breslau (also known as the "Battle on the Lohe") was a battle fought on 22 November 1757 in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland) during the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War). A Prussian army of 28,000 men fought an Austrian army of 84,000 men. The Prussians held off the Austrian attack, losing 6,000 men to the Austrians 5,000 men. But one day later the Prussians beat a retreat. Breslau's garrison surrendered on 25 November 1757.

Am 22. November 1757 kam es während des Siebenjährigen Krieges zur Schlacht bei Breslau (auch "Schlacht an der Lohe") zwischen Preußen und Österreich.


Career.

Scott was born in Vegreville, Alberta, but grew up in Vermilion, Alberta. Supported by her parents, she began cross-country skiing at the age of five. She entered her first competition at age seven and attended the Junior National Championships in 1988. She went on to win seventeen World Cup medals in sprint, individual Scott is a three-time Olympian, participating at the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, the 2002 Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, Utah, and the 2006 Winter Olympic Games in Turin, Italy. Her best-placed finish in Nagano was 45th, but Scott won a gold medal in cross-country skiing at the Salt Lake City games. She originally finished third in the 5 km pursuit, but she was upgraded to the gold medal when winner Olga Danilova and runner-up Larissa Lazutina were eventually disqualified for using darbepoetin, a performance-enhancing drug. Scott was awarded a silver medal before receiving her gold medal in June 2004, almost two and a half years after the Olympics ended. She became the first Canadian and first North American woman to win an Olympic medal in cross-country skiing.  Scott is an Officer of the Order of Canada, and has been honoured with a variety of awards in Canada. She has been inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame, the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame, the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame, and the Alberta Sports Hall of Fame. She holds honorary Doctorates of Laws from the University of Alberta and the University of British Columbia. Scott was inducted into the Alberta Order of Excellence on October 17, 2019.  On March 29, 2005, Scott agreed to join the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) athlete committee.  On February 23, 2006, Scott was elected as an athlete member of the International Olympic Committee along with Finnish ice hockey player Saku Koivu. Scott retired on April 12, 2006, as the most decorated Canadian cross-country skier. 2006 was also her best season, with multiple victories and podiums on the World Cup circuit, to go with her Olympic silver in one of her races in Turin, and she lost out on winning her first World Cup overall season title to the great Marit Bjørgen by the smallest margin.  In September 2012 Scott was appointed to WADA's executive committee. In September 2018, Scott resigned from the WADA compliance and review committee responsible for making a recommendation to end the Russian Anti-Doping Agency's suspension from WADA.

Cross-country skiing results.

All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).

Rebecca "Beckie" Scott, (born August 1, 1974) is a Canadian former cross-country skier. She is Chair of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Athlete Committee, and served as an International Olympic Committee member by virtue of being elected to the IOC Athlete's Commission along with Saku Koivu between 2006 and 2014.

Beckie Scott OC, AOE (* 1. August 1974 in Vegreville, Alberta) ist eine ehemalige kanadische Skilangläuferin. Beckie Scott wuchs in der Kleinstadt Vermilion in Alberta auf. Im Alter von fünf Jahren begann sie mit dem Skilanglauf und bestritt mit sieben Jahren ihr erstes Rennen. 1988 nahm sie an den Junioren-Weltmeisterschaften teil. Bei den Olympischen Winterspielen 1998 in Nagano war Scotts bestes Resultat ein 45. Platz im Verfolgungsrennen.


Variants.

Piranhas are available in 4×4, 6×6, 8×8, and 10×10 wheel versions. There are several variants within these versions, giving different degrees of armour protection and several kinds of turret, for use in a variety of roles. Piranha derivatives have been assigned roles as troop transports, command vehicles, fire support vehicles, tank trainers, and police vehicles.  Piranhas are used by the Swiss Army. Swiss-built Piranha derivatives have been exported to Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, Romania, Spain, and Belgium. The Romanian and Belgian Armies have selected the Piranha IIIC 8×8. Belgium converted to an all-wheeled force, and replaced all their M113s, AIFVs and Leopard 1s with 268 Piranha IIIC in 7 variants.  Piranha derivatives have been manufactured under license by General Dynamics (Canada), BAE Systems Land Systems (UK), Cardoen and FAMAE (Chile), and in the USA.  A new Piranha V version, weighing in between 25 and 30 tons, was announced as the provisional winner of the British Army's FRES program on 8 May 2008. However, this was withdrawn seven months later and bidding has started again.  General Dynamics European Land Systems launched their new Piranha Class 5 at EUROSATORY 2010 on 15 June and it is reported that the British MoD are showing renewed interest, but are struggling with budget constraints.

MOWAG Piranha 4×4 IB.

The MOWAG Piranha 4×4 IB was an armored personnel carrier.  To complete the Piranha I Family of 1974, the Piranha 4×4 IB was designed as a light vehicle with the purpose of a rapid reconnaissance and attack vehicle. It could take part in amphibious operations thanks to twin propellers and could operate in NBC contaminated areas. The Piranha 4×4 was also designed to meet police needs. In addition, the MOWAG Grenadier and Mowag Spy sub-versions were also developed. The prototype of the Piranha 4×4 IB went through numerous tests and received different equipment and different engines. Due to the rapid technological developments and adjustments to requirements for military vehicles, no Piranha with gasoline engine was sold. The prototype is now in the Full Military Museum.

MOWAG Piranha IB 6×6.

The first Piranha prototype ever built was the 6×6 IB in 1972. It can be seen as a milestone for the Piranha series due to various technical innovation like (at the time) modern designed drive with independent suspension, compact power unit in the right front and (as an amphibian drive) being powered by two propellers. This prototype was demonstrated with different engines and features for potential customers such as the Canadian Army who locally produced them as the AVGP. Switzerland sold a license to manufacture this machine to Chile in 1983. In the Swiss Army, the Piranha 6×6 is used as an ambulance, C3 command vehicle and, together with the BGM-71 TOW, as a Tank Destroyer. The prototype is along with an ambulance Piranha 6×6 on display in the Full Military Museum.

MOWAG Piranha IIIC 10×10.

With the continuous evolution of the Piranha family due to increasing demands, and the projected development of the Mowag Shark as a heavy weapons carrier, the Piranha design reached the limit of its payload capacity. The Piranha 10×10 (built in 1994), was an attempt to expand the payload, using a 5th axle of the same type as used in the smaller Piranha models. The Piranha 10×10 was designed as a heavy weapons carrier, but only a small number were built for Sweden as the LIRKA command tank and Kapris radar carrier. The Piranha IIIC 10×10 marked an important development from the Piranha IIIC 8×8. The Piranha IIIC 10×10 prototype was used in various tests, including in Sweden, and now stands in the "Schweizerisches Militärmuseum Full".

The MOWAG Piranha is a family of armoured fighting vehicles designed by the Swiss company MOWAG (since April 2010 General Dynamics European Land Systems – Mowag GmbH).

Der Mowag Piranha ist ein in den 1970er Jahren entwickeltes Fahrzeugkonzept von Radschützenpanzern des Schweizer Unternehmens Mowag (heute "General Dynamics European Land Systems – Mowag GmbH"). Sie wurden in den Ausführungen 4×4, 6×6, 8×8 und 10×10 gebaut, darunter mit verschiedenen Ausstattungsmöglichkeiten wie z. B. einer amphibischen Ausführung. Insgesamt sind momentan 10.000 Piranhas weltweit im Einsatz.


Organisation.

The SNSF consists of three main bodies: Foundation Council, National Research Council and Administrative Offices. The Foundation Council is the highest authority and makes strategic decisions. The National Research Council is composed of distinguished researchers who mostly work at Swiss institutions of higher education. They assess research proposals submitted to the SNSF and make funding decisions. The National Research Council comprises up to 100 members and is subdivided into four divisions:  The divisions work together with local Research Commissions, which are based at institutions of higher education. These commissions act as a link to the SNSF and they offer a local perspective on applications emanating from their institution.  The administrative offices support and coordinate the activities of the Foundation Council, the Research Council and the Research Commissions. Their tasks include financial controlling of research funding, requesting and evaluating external reviews of proposed projects, maintaining national and international contacts in the area of research policy, representing the SNSF in relevant bodies and communicating with the public. The administrative offices are located in Bern.  In 2016, Angelika Kalt was appointed Director of the SNSF.

Funding schemes.

Mandated by the federal authorities, the Swiss National Science Foundation supports basic science in all academic disciplines. It evaluates research proposals submitted by researchers and funds projects selected on the basis of scientific criteria. The SNSF provides fundings for research projects and for research career, among which fellowships, SNSF professorships and Marie Heim-Vögtlin grants (programme for the promotion of women in research). By awarding fellowships and special grants, the SNSF also supports young researchers. In addition, the SNSF supports international collaborations with specific programmes and collaborations and it funds conferences and publications (mainly dissertations and habilitations).

Research Programmes and Centres of Competence in Research.

The National Research Programmes (NRP) and National Centres of Competence in Research (NCCR) are the most important research programmes of the SNSF. Mandated by the Federal Council, NRPs generate scientific knowledge aimed at solving pressing problems. They generally run for up to five years and have an overall budget of eight to twelve million Swiss francs. Since 1975, the SNSF has launched over 69 NRPs. NCCRs aim to strengthen research structures in Switzerland. Each NCCR is based at an institution of higher education and consists of a centre of competence as well as a national and international network. NCCRs benefit from SNSF funding of 20 to 60 million Swiss francs over a period of ten to twelve years, as well as university and third party funding.

National Centres of Competence in Research (NCCR).

Completed:  Ongoing:

Research magazine "Horizons".

The research magazine "Horizons" (German title: "Horizonte", French title: "Horizons") is a joint publication of the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences (it was edited by the SNSF alone before 2012). In four quarterly editions, it reports on the latest results and insights from all research disciplines: from biology, medicine, natural sciences and mathematics to social and cultural sciences. The magazine addresses a broad public interested in research issues and is available as a free subscription (as well as freely accessible on-line).  "Horizons" has been available in English online since the publication of its hundredth issue in March 2014.

Other.

The Swiss National Science Foundation awards the Swiss Latsis Prize (funded by the Latsis Foundation).

The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF, German: "Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung", SNF; French: "Fonds national suisse de la recherche scientifique", FNS) is a science research support organisation mandated by the Swiss Federal Government. The Swiss National Science Foundation was established under private law by physicist and medical doctor Alexander von Muralt in 1952.

Der Schweizerische Nationalfonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung (SNF,,, englisch: "Swiss National Science Foundation", "SNSF") ist eine privatrechtliche Stiftung zur Forschungsförderung, deren Gründung 1952 vom Physiker und Mediziner Alexander von Muralt initiiert wurde. 2010 verfügte der SNF über ein Budget von rund 800 Mio. SFr.


Early life.

Nicolaus Zink was born in Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany, on February 4, 1812. He was a career civil engineer and former Bavarian army officer. In 1844, Zink and his wife Louise von Kheusser emigrated to Texas with other Adelsverein colonists.

Texas.

New Braunfels.

For four months, December 1844 to March 1845, Zink oversaw the settling of the colonists who arrived at Indianola, renamed Carlshafen in honor of Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels. The colonists rode covered wagons, pushcarts, and walked, as Zink led them to New Braunfels, arriving on March 21, 1845. The first structure in their new home was a fort named Zinkenburg, in honor of the man who brought them from Indianola. Zink laid out the townsite and adjoining acreage. Zink Street in New Braunfels is named for him. In return for his labors, Zink was given 25 acres in New Braunfels and 100 acres of farmland. He subdivided the farm acreage and sold it in tracts. By 1846, Zink was bringing new colonists and merchandise from Houston to New Braunfels.

Sisterdale.

Sisterdale on the banks of Sister Creek was settled in 1847 by Nicolaus Zink. Originally part of Comal County, Sisterdale became part of Kendall County when the latter county was formed in 1862. Zink originally intended to settle in Fredericksburg when he left New Braunfels. Zink was among the 1847 Petitioners to Create Gillespie County, Texas. Instead of Fredericksburg, Zink built a new two-story log home on Sister Creek.  Sisterdale was one of the Latin settlements, resulting from the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. Those who came were Forty-Eighters, intellectual liberal abolitionists who enjoyed conversing in Latin and believed in utopian ideals that guaranteed basic human rights to all. They reveled in passionate conversations about literature, music, and philosophy. The free thinkers petitioned the Texas Congress in 1853 for a charter to operate a German-English college to be built at Sisterdale, but the petition did not come to fruition.  Among the other original settlers in Sisterdale were German pioneers Fritz and Betty Holekamp, geographer Ernst Kapp; Anhalt Premier progeny journalist Dr. Carl Adolph Douai; August Siemering who later founded the "San Antonio Express News"; author, journalist, and diplomat Dr. Julius Fröbel; future Wall Street financial wiz Gustav Theissen; Edgar von Westphalen, brother to Jenny von Westphalen who was married to Karl Marx; and Edward Degener, future Republican U.S. Representative from Texas during Reconstruction.  In Sisterdale, Zink gained success in farming, and became shrewd in his financial dealings when selling his wheat crop to the United States Army posts.

Personal life and death.

In 1847, Zink divorced Louise. By 1850, he was married to Elisabeth Mangold. They sold their Sisterdale home and acreage to Eduard Degener and moved to Barons Creek near Fredericksburg to start a gristmill. On June 4, 1866, Zink married Sara Agnes Williams.  In 1853, Zink was living in Comfort, which had opened to German settlements in 1852.  Zink acquired land on the Kendall County settlement of Welfare in 1868 and built a limestone house there. He died in Welfare on November 3, 1887, and is buried in an unmarked grave on the property.

Nicolaus Zink (1812–1887) was the founder of Sisterdale, Texas, and builder of the fort Zinkenburg. Under the direction of Prince Carl of Solms-Braunfels, Zink led a caravan of new settlers from Indianola to New Braunfels. He laid out the town and divided the original allotted farm acreage. In 1984, the Zink house in Welfare, Texas, was designed a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark, marker 3595.

Nicolaus Zink (* 4. Februar 1812 in Bamberg; † 3. November 1887 in Comfort, Texas, USA) war ein deutschamerikanischer Bauingenieur und Landwirt. Er führte Anfang 1845 den ersten Siedler-Treck des Mainzer Adelsvereins nach Texas und baute dort das Fort "Zinkenburg", den Vorläufer der Ortschaft New Braunfels im Comal County.


History.

The show was created by Victoria Pile after being commissioned by Caroline Leddy of Channel 4 and Peter Fincham at Talkback, who believed that audiences would welcome a female orientated sketch show.  The show's title was intended as a spoof of the kind of stories that would feature in annuals aimed at young girls. Originally "Spot the Pony", it was changed at Kevin Lygo's suggestion to "Smack the Pony" which some people mistakenly assumed was some kind of sexual euphemism.  A pilot was filmed featuring Sally Phillips, Fiona Allen and Amanda Holden. When a full series was commissioned Holden dropped out and Doon Mackichan took her place. Holden still appeared in four episodes of the first series.  Other contributors making regular appearances were Sarah Alexander, Darren Boyd and Cavan Clerkin, while Miranda Hart also appeared in a first series episode.  In Germany, the first transmission of the show aired on ProSieben, where the theme tune was changed to Texas' 2001 version of "I Don't Want a Lover", and featured a different title sequence.  Deliberately silly and avoiding repetitive catchphrases, the show's surreal humour proved popular and the series had a regular audience of around 2.5 million viewers in the UK.  In 2003 the show's leads announced that they would not be continuing with the format, preferring to quit while the show was a success rather than risk diminishing the quality of the material.  The trio reunited for a skit in aid of Comic Relief for Red Nose Day 2017.

Selected characters.

Most of the characters in the programme are non-recurring.  Dating Agency Videos – A part of almost every episode, we see different women or often sisters/couples looking for a partner/partners. This was at first represented by a title screen featuring a picture of the person, and their name and age. This then was replaced by that of a website page.  Irritating Flatmate – An irritating nurse who shares a flat with two of her colleagues. She emphasises everything, which often leads to her flatmates' doing something behind her back, such as adding soap and cleaning chemicals to her yoghurt.  The Fake Diabetic – A woman who fakes diabetic hypoglycemia so she can have special offers and free items at shops and supermarkets, and which the staff treats seriously. This skit only happened from series 3 onwards.  The Oblivious Women – Consists of three women (in different sketches) who are completely oblivious to very obvious things. Sketches included a dog-walking woman being asked to sign a petition so that owners could walk their dogs near the pond. She says that she is not a dog person and is actually phobic. The petitioner and woman look down causing the woman to realize she is walking a dog and then scream. Others included a woman not realising she was pregnant until being asked to sign a petition affecting children.  Singing Match – In this sketch, a woman sings along to a tune on the radio, only to be outshone completely by her co-worker who takes over in the following verse. During the rest of the song, her singing becomes more and more intense and extreme as she tries to get back at the other singer, and she ends up screaming and excusing herself with a paper cut on her finger. This particular sketch was voted number 22 in the 2005 Channel 4 programme "50 Greatest Comedy Sketches", chosen by members of the public. It was written by Marie Findley of the Mediæval Bæbes and was also based on their antics.  Competitive rivals – This involves the four women who try to 'outdo' each other by subtly showing off bigger and better items such as water bottles and gifts.  Naked man – This recurring skit appears in a few first series episodes. The female cast members are going about their daily business when a totally naked man walks across the screen, gets off from bus etc. and causes the women to faint, then they pick themselves up.  High-heeled woman – This sketch was spread over all the series, and had a woman performing sports (such as a relay race or surfing) wearing inappropriate high-heeled shoes.  The "Vet" – The sketch featured more prominently from the second series. It featured a vet who had difficulty recognising animals, who would then recommend silly and unusual diagnoses to the animals, such as telling a woman her kitten needed glasses.  The Ex – Another sketch that featured more in the second series. A woman clings to the leg of her ex-boyfriend constantly (at work, a nightclub, and even clinging to his leg at his wedding etc.), telling him that she's still in love with him, and hopes to reconcile (unsuccessfully, however).

Awards.

In 1999 and 2000, the first two series of "Smack the Pony" won the Emmy Award for the 'Best Popular Arts Show', and all three series were nominated for Bafta awards.  Two sketches from the show made it onto Channel 4's "50 Greatest Comedy Sketches", the first being "Saying Goodbye" at number 39 and "Singing Match" at number 22.

Video and DVD.

In Britain, a VHS and DVD of "The Best of Smack the Pony" were released in 2002 and 2003 respectively. The complete first and second series were released on DVD in Germany (dubbed in German but with alternative English soundtrack) in January and June 2006 respectively.  Seasons 1-3 plus the Christmas Specials are available in the UK iTunes store.  The complete series 1–3 have been released on DVD in Scandinavia by Pan Vision and Finnkino in 2008. It features original soundtrack with Swedish, Finnish, Norwegian and Danish subtitles but excludes the specials.  The series is currently available in the United States on Hulu.com as of at least 2012.

Russian version.

Russian TNT-TV hosts a localised version of the show titled "Women's League" (, "Ženskaya Liga"). The show features some recurring themes from the original, as well as the original content.

Smack the Pony is a British sketch comedy show that was originally broadcast between 1999 and 2003 on Channel 4. The main performers on the show were Fiona Allen, Doon Mackichan and Sally Phillips. There were also regular appearances from Sarah Alexander, Darren Boyd and Cavan Clerkin. The show's theme tune was a version of the Dusty Springfield song "In the Middle of Nowhere", sung by Jackie Clune. In addition to the three principal cast members, the show was written by many writers, the core of which went on to write "Green Wing" and "Campus".

Smack the Pony ist eine britische Sketch Comedy, die von 1999 bis 2003 auf Channel 4 lief. In Deutschland lief die Sendung in der Erstausstrahlung vom 6. September 2001 bis 27. März 2003 auf ProSieben. Die Hauptdarstellerinnen und Autorinnen waren Fiona Allen, Doon Mackichan und Sally Phillips. Außerdem spielten auch häufig die Darsteller Sarah Alexander und Darren Boyd mit.


Plot.

In the late 19th century, an English couple and their infant son survive a shipwreck. They end up near an uncharted rainforest on the Congolese coast, where they build themselves a treehouse from the ship's wreckage. Meanwhile, Kerchak, the leader of a troop of gorillas, and his mate Kala mourn the death of their baby at the hands of a savage leopard named Sabor. Soon afterward, Kala hears the infant son's cries and finds the treehouse, where she discovers that Sabor has killed the couple as well. Kala encounters Sabor and escapes with the infant in her possession. Kala takes the infant back to her troop to raise as her own, an action which Kerchak objects to. Kala adopts the human child, naming him Tarzan. When aged seven, Tarzan begins to befriend other animals, including Kala and Kerchak's niece Terk and a paranoid elephant named Tantor; but he is treated hostilely by Kerchak due to physical differences, so he makes great efforts to improve himself. As an adult, Tarzan manages to slay Sabor with a spear he crafted, gaining Kerchak's respect.  One day, the gorillas' peaceful life is interrupted by the arrival of a team of English explorers, consisting of Professor Archimedes Q. Porter, his daughter Jane, and their tour guide, a hunter named Clayton, who have come looking for gorillas to study. Jane drifts out of the group, and is attacked by a gang of mandrills, who chase her through the trees' branches, but a curious Tarzan manages to save her. Tarzan realizes that Jane is similar to him, and she leads him to their camp, where Porter and Clayton garner interest in him. Porter views Tarzan as an opportunity for scientific advancement, while Clayton desires to persuade Tarzan to lead him to the gorillas. Kerchak firmly warns Tarzan to stay away from them, but Tarzan disobeys his warnings and continues to return to the camp, where the Porters and Clayton teach him what the human civilization is like with the use of a slide projector and various other gadgets. A few months pass, and Jane and Tarzan begin to develop feelings for each other, but Tarzan still refuses to lead them to the gorillas out of respect for Kerchak.  The explorers' ship soon returns to retrieve them. Jane asks Tarzan to return with them to England, but Tarzan asks Jane to stay with him when Jane says that it is unlikely that they will ever return. Clayton convinces Tarzan that Jane will stay with him if he leads them to the gorillas. Tarzan agrees and leads the trio to the nesting grounds, while Terk and Tantor lure Kerchak away to prevent him from attacking the humans. Jane and her father are excited to mingle with the gorillas, when suddenly, Kerchak returns and attacks the Porters and Clayton, but Tarzan stops him, allowing them to escape. Kerchak accuses Tarzan of betraying the troop, who turns against him. Kala takes Tarzan to the treehouse where she found him and reveals his past to him. He dons a suit that once belonged to his father, signifying his decision to go to England, before he and Kala share a bittersweet goodbye.  When Tarzan boards the ship with Jane and Porter, they are all captured by Clayton and his band of stowaway poachers. Clayton reveals his plan to capture the gorillas and sell them for a fortune, and he was just using the Porters for a way to go to the jungle. He subsequently used Tarzan to find the nesting grounds and locks him, Jane, and Porter away in the storage area of the ship. Tarzan manages to escape with the help of Terk and Tantor and returns to the jungle to save the gorillas. During the ensuing battle, Clayton fatally shoots Kerchak and fights Tarzan across the treetops. Although Tarzan spares his life and destroys his shotgun, Clayton tries to kill him with his machete. After Tarzan traps Clayton in vines, Clayton wildly slashes the vines with his machete, causing him to fall from the tree with a vine tangled around his throat, hanging and killing him. Kerchak apologizes to Tarzan, finally accepts him as his son, and names him his successor before peacefully dying.  The next day, Jane and her father prepare to leave on the ship, but Tarzan remains behind with the gorilla troop, intending to withhold Kerchak's last wish to lead and protect the family in his place. As the ship departs, Porter encourages his daughter to stay with Tarzan, and Jane jumps overboard to meet Tarzan with her father shortly following her. The Porters reunite with Tarzan and embark on their new life together.

Production.

Development.

Disney's "Tarzan" was the first Tarzan film to be animated. Thomas Schumacher, the President of Walt Disney Feature Animation, expressed surprise that there weren't any previous attempts to animate a "Tarzan" film, saying, "Here is a book that cries out to be animated. Yet we're the first filmmakers to have ever taken Tarzan from page to screen and presented the character as Burroughs intended." He noted that in animated form, Tarzan can connect to the animals on a deeper level than he can in live action versions.  Following work on "A Goofy Movie" in late 1994, Kevin Lima was approached to direct "Tarzan" by studio chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg who desired to have the film animated at a Canadian-based satellite television animation studio, in which Lima was reluctant to do because of the animation complexities being done by inexperienced animators. Following Katzenberg's resignation from the Walt Disney Company, Lima was again contacted about the project by Michael Eisner, who decided to have the film produced through the Feature Animation division by which Lima signed on. Following this, Lima decided to read "Tarzan of the Apes" where he began to visualize the theme of two hands being held up against each other. That image became an important symbol of the relationships between characters in the film, and a metaphor of Tarzan's search for identity. "I was looking for something that would underscore Tarzan's sense of being alike, yet different from his ape family", Lima said, "The image of touching hands was first conceived as an idea for how Tarzan realizes he and Jane are physically the same." Following his two-month study of the book, Lima approached his friend, Chris Buck, who had just wrapped up work as a supervising animator on "Pocahontas", to ask if he would be interested in serving as co-director. Buck was initially skeptical but accepted after hearing Lima's ideas for the film. By April 1995, the "Los Angeles Times" reported that the film was in its preliminary stages with Lima and Buck directing after Disney had obtained the story rights from the estate of Edgar Rice Burroughs.

Writing.

Tab Murphy, who had just finished work on "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", was attracted to the theme of man-versus-nature in "Tarzan," and began developing a treatment in January 1995. For the third act, Murphy suggested that Tarzan should leave for England, as he did in the book, but the directors felt that it was incompatible with their central theme of what defines a family. In order to keep Tarzan in the jungle, the third act needed to be restructured by redefining the role of the villain and inventing a way to endanger the gorillas. In this departure from Burrough's novel, a villain named Clayton was created to serve as a guide for Professor Archimedes Q. Porter and his daughter, Jane. In addition to this, Kerchak was re-characterized from a savage silverback into the protector of the gorilla tribe.  In January 1997, husband-and-wife screenwriting duo Bob Tzudiker and Noni White were hired to help refocus and add humor to the script as a way to balance the emotional weight of the film. Comedy writer Dave Reynolds was also brought on to write humorous dialogue for the film. "I was initially hired on for six weeks of rewriting and punch-up", Reynolds said, "A year and a half later, I finished. Either they liked my work, or I was very bad at time management." One challenge the writers faced was how Tarzan should learn about his past. "When Kala takes Tarzan back to the tree house, she is essentially telling him that he was adopted", Bonnie Arnold, the producer for "Tarzan", said, "This is necessitated by him encountering humans and recognizing he is one of them." As a way to explore the feelings in that scene, Arnold brought in adoptive parents to talk with the story team. Another issue was the inherent and overt racism in the original Edgar Rice Burrough's Tarzan. The writers consciously chose to not include any African characters in order to avoid this topic.

Casting.

Brendan Fraser auditioned twice for the title character before portraying the lead role in "George of the Jungle". Tony Goldwyn auditioned for the title role as well, and according to co-director Kevin Lima, Goldwyn landed it because of "the animal sense" in his readings, along with some "killer baboon imitations". For the signature Tarzan yell, Lima and Buck desired the traditional yell, although Goldwyn faced difficulties with providing the yell stating "It's really hard to do, physically." Co-star Brian Blessed ultimately provided the yell. Terk was originally written as a male gorilla, but following Rosie O'Donnell's audition, Terk was re-characterized as a female. Furthermore, Woody Allen was initially cast as the neurotic elephant Tantor. However, Katzenberg persuaded Allen to leave the project for DreamWorks Pictures' "Antz" and in exchange, the studio would distribute his next four films. Agreeing to the deal, Allen departed from "Tarzan" in 1996 and was replaced by Wayne Knight.

Animation.

The animators were split into two teams, one in Paris and one in Burbank. The 6000-mile distance and difference in time zones posed challenges for collaboration, especially for scenes with Tarzan and Jane. Glen Keane was the supervising animator for Tarzan at the Paris studio, while Ken Duncan was the supervising animator for Jane at the studio in Burbank. To make coordinating scenes with multiple characters easier, the animators used a system called a "scene machine" that could send rough drawings between the two animation studios. Meanwhile, following production on "Mulan", two hundred animators at the Feature Animation Florida satellite studio provided character animation and special effects animation where the filmmakers had to discuss their work through daily video conferences among the three studios.  Keane was inspired to make Tarzan "surf" through the trees because of his son's interest in extreme sports, and he began working on a test scene. The directors expressed concern that Tarzan would be made into a "surfer dude", but when Keane revealed the test animation to them they liked it enough to use it in the film during the "Son of Man" sequence, with movements inspired by skateboarder Tony Hawk. Although Keane initially thought that Tarzan would be easy to animate because he only wears a loincloth, he realized that he would need a fully working human musculature while still being able to move like an animal. To figure out Tarzan's movements, the Paris animation team studied different animals in order to transpose their movements onto him. They also consulted with a professor of anatomy. This resulted in Tarzan being the first Disney character to accurately display working muscles.  To prepare for animating the gorillas, the animation team attended lectures on primates, made trips to zoos, and studied nature documentaries, with a group of animators also witnessing a gorilla dissection to learn about their musculature. In 1996, the animation team went on a two-week safari in Kenya to take reference photographs and observe the animals. On the trip, they visited Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda to view mountain gorillas in the wild, and get inspiration for the setting. In 2000, Chris Buck repeated the journey accompanied by journalists to promote the film's home video release.  To create the sweeping 3D backgrounds, "Tarzan"s production team developed a 3D painting and rendering technique known as "Deep Canvas" (a term coined by artist/engineer Eric Daniels). This technique allows artists to produce CGI background that looks like a traditional painting, according to art director Daniel St. Pierre. (The software keeps track of brushstrokes applied in 3D space.) For this advancement, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded the creators of "Deep Canvas" a Technical Achievement Award in 2003. After "Tarzan", "Deep Canvas" was used for a number of sequences in "" (2001), particularly large panoramic shots of the island and several action sequences. Expanded to support moving objects as part of the background, "Deep Canvas" was used to create about 75 percent of the environments in Disney's next major animated action film, "Treasure Planet" (2002).

Music.

In 1995, Phil Collins was initially brought onto the project as a songwriter following a recommendation by Disney music executive Chris Montan. Early into production, directors Kevin Lima and Chris Buck decided not to follow Disney's musical tradition by having the characters sing. "I did not want Tarzan to sing", Lima stated, "I just couldn't see this half-naked man sitting on a branch breaking out in song. I thought it would be ridiculous." Instead, Collins would perform the songs in the film serving as the narrator. The choice of Collins, a popular and well established adult contemporary artist, led to comparisons with Elton John's earlier music for "The Lion King". "Tarzan" was dubbed in thirty-five languages—the most for any Disney movie at the time, and Collins recorded his songs in French, Italian, German, and Spanish for the dubbed versions of the film's soundtrack. According to Collins, most of the songs he wrote for "Tarzan" came from improvisation sessions and his reactions while reading the treatment. Three of the songs he wrote, "Son of Man", "Trashin' the Camp", and "Strangers Like Me", were based on his initial impressions after he read the source material. The other two songs were "You'll Be in My Heart", a lullaby sung to Tarzan by Kala (voiced by Glenn Close), and "Two Worlds", a song Collins wrote to serve as the anthem for "Tarzan".  The instrumental scoring for the film was composed by Mark Mancina, who had previously produced music for "The Lion King", and the musical of the same name. Mancina and Collins worked closely to create music that would complement the film's setting and used many obscure instruments from Mancina's personal collection in the score. "The idea of score and song arrangement came together as one entity, as Phil and I worked in tandem to create what's heard in the film", Mancina said.

Release.

On June 12, 1999, the film premiered at the El Capitan Theater with the cast and filmmakers as attendees followed by a forty-minute concert with Phil Collins performing songs from the film. On July 23, 1999, Disney launched a digital projection release of "Tarzan" released only in three theatrical venues including Walt Disney World's Pleasure Island multiplex for three weeks. Although "" and " An Ideal Husband" were given earlier digital projection releases despite being shot on photographic film, "Tarzan" was notable for being the first major feature release to have been produced, mastered, and projected digitally.

Marketing.

Disney Consumer Products released a series of toys, books, and stuffed animals for "Tarzan", partnering with Mattel to produce a line of plush toys and action figures. Mattel also produced the Rad Repeatin' Tarzan action figure, but discontinued it after complaints regarding the toy's onanistic arm motions. Continuing its advertising alliance with McDonald's, its promotional campaign began on the film's opening day with several toys accompanied with Happy Meals and soda straws that replicated the Tarzan yell. Disney also worked with Nestle to create "Tarzan" themed candies, including a banana-flavored chocolate bar. In early 2000, Disney partnered again with McDonald's to release a set of eight Happy Meal toys as a tie-in for the film's home video. They also offered" Tarzan" themed food options, such as banana sundaes and jungle burgers.

Home media.

On February 1, 2000, the film was released on VHS and DVD. The DVD version contained bonus material, including the "Strangers Like Me" music video, the making of "Trashin' the Camp" featuring Collins and 'N Sync, and an interactive trivia game. A 2-Disc Collector's Edition was released on April 18, 2000. It included an audio commentary track recorded by the filmmakers, behind-the-scenes footage, and supplements that detailed the legacy of "Tarzan" and the film's development. Both editions were placed in moratorium on January 31, 2002 and placed back into the Disney Vault. On October 15, 2005, Disney released the "Tarzan" Special Edition on DVD. "Tarzan's" first Blu-ray edition was released throughout Europe in early 2012, and on August 12, 2014, Disney released the "Tarzan" Special Edition on Blu-ray, DVD, and Digital HD.

Reception.

Box office.

Pre-release tracking indicated that "Tarzan" was appealing to all four major demographics noticeably for the first time for a Disney animated film since the release of "The Lion King". The film's limited release was on June 16, 1999, and the wide release followed on June 18, 1999, in 3,005 screens. During the weekend of June 18–21, "Tarzan" grossed $34.1 million ranking first on its opening weekend notably grossing higher than "Mulan" and "A Bug's Life" in their respective box office weekends, and ranked second in Disney animated box office openings behind "The Lion King", which earned $40.9 million. By August 1999, the domestic gross was projected to approach $170 million, whereas in the following month, Disney executives expected the film to gross between $450 million to $500 million worldwide. Ultimately, the film closed its box office run with $448.2 million worldwide.

Critical reaction.

Rotten Tomatoes reported that 89% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 105 reviews, with an average score of 7.56/10. The critical consensus reads that "Disney's "Tarzan" takes the well-known story to a new level with spirited animation, a brisk pace, and some thrilling action set-pieces." Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 from top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 79 based on 27 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  "Entertainment Weekly" compared the film's advancement in visual effects to that of "The Matrix," stating that it had "the neatest computer-generated background work since Keanu Reeves did the backstroke in slow motion". They elaborate by describing how the characters moved seamlessly through the backgrounds themselves, giving the film a unique three-dimensional feel that far surpassed the quality of previous live-action attempts. Roger Ebert gave the film 4 stars, and he had similar comments about the film, describing it as representing "another attempt by Disney to push the envelope of animation", with scenes that "move through space with a freedom undreamed of in older animated films, and unattainable by any live-action process". Awarding the film three stars, James Berardinelli wrote: "From a purely visual standpoint, this may be the most impressive of all of Disney's traditionally animated features. The backdrops are lush, the characters are well realized, and the action sequences are dizzying, with frequent changes of perspectives and camera angles. No conventional animated film has been this ambitious before." Desson Howe, writing for "The Washington Post", claimed the film "isn't up there with "Aladdin," "The Lion King" and "The Little Mermaid," but it's easily above the riffraff ranks of "Hercules" and "Pocahontas"". Todd McCarthy of "Variety" proved to be less amused by the animation, claiming it was "richly detailed and colorfully conceived, but the computer animation and graphics are often intermingled and combined in ways that are more distracting in their differences than helpful in their vividness".  Lisa Schwarzbaum, who graded the film an A-, applauded the film as "a thrilling saga about a natural man, untainted by the complications of 'civilized' life, who can anticipate changes in the air by sniffing the wind — swings because the Disney team, having sniffed the wind, went out on a limb and kept things simple". Peter Stack of the "San Francisco Chronicle" admired the film for tackling "meanings of family relationships and ideas about society, guardianship and compassion" and "cunning and greed and the ultimate evil", as well as remaining faithful to Burroughs's original novel. Kenneth Turan of "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the "story unfolds with dangers as well as warm humor; a jungle jam session called 'Trashin' the Camp' is especially hard to resist. We may have seen it all before, but when it's done up like this, experiencing it all over again is a pleasure." In similarity, Janet Maslin, reviewing for "The New York Times", opined that ""Tarzan" initially looks and sounds like more of the same, to the point where Phil Collins is singing the words 'trust your heart' by the third line of his opening song. But it proves to be one of the more exotic blooms in the Disney hothouse, what with voluptuous flora, hordes of fauna, charming characters and excitingly kinetic animation that gracefully incorporates computer-generated motion."  The "Radio Times" review was not positive, stating the film "falls way short of Disney's best output" and featured "weak comic relief". The review concluded, "Lacking the epic sweep of "Mulan" or "The Lion King", and laced with feeble background songs from Phil Collins (inexplicably awarded an Oscar), this King of the Swingers may be merchandise-friendly, but it's no jungle VIP." Michael Wilmington of the "Chicago Tribune", while giving the film three stars, wrote that "Tarzan" "lacks that special pizazz that the string of Disney cartoon features from "The Little Mermaid" through "The Lion King" all had". He found faults in the film's politically correct storyline, lack of romantic tension between Tarzan and Jane, and the songs by Phil Collins, comparing them unfavorably with Elton John's "showstoppers" for "The Lion King". He wrote "depriving the characters of big numbers weakens the movie".  Ty Burr of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the soundtrack a B-, stating that it was awkwardly split between Collins's songs and the traditional score, was burdened by too many alternate versions of the tracks, and in some instances bore similarities to the scores of "The Lion King" and "Star Wars".

Accolades.

"Tarzan" was also nominated for 11 Annie Awards, winning one in the category for Technical Achievement in the Field of Animation. The award was given to Eric Daniels, who developed the Deep Canvas animation process for the film. Phil Collins was nominated for a Kids Choice Award for his song "Two Worlds", but lost to Will Smith's song "Wild Wild West". Rosie O'Donnell, the host of the 2000 Kids Choice Awards, was nominated for her voicework as Tarzan's best friend, Terk. She won the award for Favorite Voice From an Animated Movie, beating out both Tim Allen and Tom Hanks, the voices of Buzz Lightyear and Woody from "Toy Story 2".  The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Adaptations.

A spin-off animated series, "The Legend of Tarzan", ran from 2001 to 2003. The series picks up where the film left off, with Tarzan adjusting to his new role as leader of the apes following Kerchak's death, and Jane (whom he has since married) adjusting to life in the jungle. In July 1999, Disney announced that they were planning a sequel for "Tarzan". In 2002, "Tarzan & Jane" was released as a direct-to-video sequel, with Michael T. Weiss replacing Goldwyn as the voice of Tarzan. "Tarzan II", a direct-to-video follow-up, was released in 2005.  A Broadway musical produced by Disney Theatrical, also titled "Tarzan", began previews on March 24, 2006. It had an official opening night on May 10 of the same year. After running for over a year on Broadway, the show closed on July 8, 2007.  Five "Tarzan" video games have been released on various platforms. Tarzan's home is also featured as a playable world, "Deep Jungle", in the 2002 game "Kingdom Hearts", and in the 2013 HD remaster "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix", in which Goldwyn and Blessed were the only actors from the film to reprise their roles, while Jane was voiced by Naia Kelly and Audrey Wasilewski reprised her role as Terk from the 1999 video game based on the film. The world was originally meant to return in "", but ultimately did not appear and has not appeared in any subsequent "Kingdom Hearts" games due to Disney losing the rights to "Tarzan".

Tarzan is a 1999 American animated adventure film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation for Walt Disney Pictures. The 37th Disney animated feature film, the tenth and last released during the Disney Renaissance era, it is based on the story "Tarzan of the Apes" by Edgar Rice Burroughs, being the first animated major motion picture version of the story. Directed by Chris Buck in his directorial debut, and Kevin Lima from a screenplay by Tab Murphy, Bob Tzudiker, and Noni White, the film stars the voices of Tony Goldwyn, Minnie Driver, Glenn Close, Rosie O'Donnell, Brian Blessed, Lance Henriksen, Wayne Knight, and Nigel Hawthorne.

Tarzan ist der 37. abendfüllende Zeichentrickfilm der Walt Disney Studios und erschien im Jahr 1999. Er beruht auf dem Roman "Tarzan bei den Affen" "(engl. Tarzan of the Apes)" von Edgar Rice Burroughs aus dem Jahre 1912 und ist bis jetzt die einzige abendfüllende, animierte Version des Stoffes über den „Herrn des Dschungels“. Der Film war ein kommerzieller Erfolg, er spielte in den USA über 171 Millionen Dollar ein und wurde in Deutschland von über 5,6 Millionen Zuschauern gesehen.


Origin of name.

The church's name originates in the alleged visitations of John the Baptist to Otto Fetting and William Draves. In the Gospel of Matthew 11:14, Jesus Christ identifies John with the prophet Elijah in the Book of Malachi; hence the use of "Elijah Message". Malachi 4:5-6 says: "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord. And He shall turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the land with a curse". Members believe that the purported visits of this "messenger" fulfill Malachi's prophecy, as well as others found in Revelation 14:6, Malachi 3:1, Deuteronomy 18:15-19, and Daniel 7:9-10.

History.

Otto Fetting.

Otto Fetting was born on 20 November 1871 in Casco, St. Clair County, Michigan. Making his home in Port Huron, Michigan, he was baptised into the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints on February 9, 1891, and ordained to its priesthood in 1899. In 1925, dismayed by the "Supreme Directional Control" controversy within the RLDS church, Fetting switched his allegiance to the Temple Lot Church of Christ (also informally known as "Hedrickites"). At the time, this did not require rebaptism or reordination, as each group accepted the priesthood and sacraments of the other. In the spring of 1926, he was among seven men ordained to be Apostles in the Church of Christ.  On February 4 of 1927, Otto Fetting claimed that he had been visited by John the Baptist, who had delivered a message for him to relay to the Temple Lot organization. This missive directed construction of the long-awaited Temple in Independence, Missouri, first foretold by Latter Day Saint founder Joseph Smith in 1831. The Temple Lot church had a long history of direction via revelation and angelic visits, and thus was originally receptive to these alleged visits of the Biblical prophet, publishing Fetting's messages in their monthly periodical "Zion's Advocate". They also began work on the temple with a groundbreaking ceremony held on 6 April 1929. According to Fetting, the Hedrickites were given seven years to complete the structure.  Fetting's "visitor" revealed various architectural details for the building, and specifically directed surveyors to move their markers ten feet to the east of where they had originally been placed. The angel also revealed the location of two of Joseph Smith's original marker stones, which Smith had buried 98 years before to indicate the location for his planned temple. Another revelation indicated that the "Articles of Faith and Practice" of the Temple Lot church were correct, and should not be changed from their original form. On other occasions, the messenger indicated particular men to be ordained within the organization, including to its Quorum of Twelve Apostles.

Trouble on the Temple Lot.

Although the Temple Lot organization had enthusiastically accepted the first eleven of Fetting's messages, this would not hold true for the twelfth. In verse four of this missive, John the Baptist states that all persons coming into the Church of Christ must be rebaptized, as "the Lord has rejected all creeds and factions of men". While this reflects the practice of the majority of Latter Day Saint denominations (including the Temple Lot church itself, today), it did not reflect the policy of the Temple Lot church at the time, which accepted members during this period from the Reorganized church, certain other Latter Day Saint organizations, and Joseph Smith's pre-1844 church on their original baptisms. This message equally declared Fetting to have been given the same "keys to the priesthood" that were given to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery on May 15, 1829.  Controversy over the meaning and application of Fetting's twelfth message became so great that Fetting himself was "silenced" in October 1929 by the Temple Lot organization. Choosing to withdraw rather than continue under such a restriction, Fetting led approximately half of the Church of Christ members (including some of its apostles) to found a "Church of Christ" of his own, which became known as the Church of Christ (Fettingite). Since the main Temple Lot organization retained possession of the Temple Lot and its meetinghouse, Fetting's organization met in members' homes for a considerable period prior to building their own worship facilities.  Fetting would claim to be visited a total of 30 times by his "messenger" prior to his death on 30 January 1933.

William A. Draves.

Four years after Fetting's death, a young Fettingite elder named William A. Draves from Nucla, Colorado claimed that the same messenger who had appeared to Fetting had begun to appear to him, as well. While the Fettingite organization was initially receptive to these new missives, it ultimately decided to reject them all, leading to a split in the Fettingite organization in 1943. Draves' adherents formed the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, which claims to be the sole legitimate continuance of Fetting's original organization. Draves himself announced a total of 90 messages prior to his death in 1994, which were combined with Fetting's into a book entitled "The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel". Fetting's organization publishes its own compendium, simply entitled "The Word of the Lord", which contains only Fetting's original 30 messages.  Prior to W.A. Draves's death in 1994 the final three messages he had recorded reflected leadership disputes within The Church of Christ with the Elijah Message. These led to a division causing Apostles W.A. Draves, Leonard Draves and Mervyn Johnson to be blocked from church property by way of a restraining order. After a short legal battle, a failure to reconcile, and the death of W.A. Draves, six of the twelve leading Apostles decided to reincorporate the Church under the name The Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, Inc. in August 1994. This new organization would go on to become the Church of Christ With the Elijah Message, The Assured Way of the Lord, Inc. The remaining five Apostles, including those who filed the above restraining order, retained the corporate name "The Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, Established Anew 1929" and all properties including the headquarters building at 608 Lacy Rd. Independence, Missouri.

Doctrine and practices.

Other than their acceptance of Fetting's 30 "messages", and the 90 offered by William Draves, the beliefs and practices of the Elijah Message organization are virtually identical to those of the Church of Christ (Temple Lot). In common with the Temple Lot church, the Elijah Message church rejects the office of President of the Church, being led instead by their Quorum of Twelve Apostles; all members of that quorum are considered equal.  Also, like their Temple Lot cousins, the church rejects the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price, as well as Joseph Smith's Inspired Version of the Bible, preferring to use only the King James Bible and the Record of the Nephites (their name for the Book of Mormon) as standards. They also await an as-yet-unrevealed work of scripture which the Messenger was alleged to have shown to Draves in 1946. Baptism for the Dead, eternal marriage, polygamy and the eternal progression doctrine are all rejected. Members of the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message still believe that a temple will be reared on the Temple Lot, but it will not be like any of the LDS or Community of Christ temples currently in use.  In verse 6 of his twelfth "message", Otto Fetting quoted John the Baptist as saying that Joseph Smith had indeed been a true prophet, but that he "sinned before God" due to "pride, and the love and praise of men". "Much of his work has been destroyed", wrote Fetting, "but he will be saved as by fire, and will be numbered with the prophets of old". Accordingly, the Elijah Message church respects Joseph Smith as a prophet, but does not necessarily accept all of his teachings. In verse 1 of his first "message", Fetting's heavenly envoy commanded that the "Articles of Faith and Practice" of the Temple Lot organization (of which Fetting was then still an apostle) were to remain unchanged, "because the Lord inspired the men that wrote them". Hence, these remain the same in the Elijah Message organization, as well as within all Fettingite sects.

The Church of Christ with the Elijah Message, also known as The Church of Christ With the Elijah Message, Established Anew 1929, is a denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement, headquartered in Jackson County, Missouri. It split from the Church of Christ (informally referred to as the "Fettingites") in 1943 in a dispute over claimed revelations given to its founder William A. Draves. Draves, an elder in the Fettingite group, claimed to be receiving messages from an angelic being who identified himself as John the Baptist—the same person who had allegedly appeared to Fettingite founder Otto Fetting, a former apostle of the Temple Lot Church of Christ. While many Fettingites accepted these new missives, some did not, leading Draves to form his own church. His adherents claim it to be the sole legitimate continuation of Fetting's organization, as well as that of the Temple Lot church. As of 1987, the church had approximately 12,500 adherents spread between Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and the Americas.

Die Kirche Christi mit der Elias-Botschaft (englisch: „The Church of Christ with the Elijah Message“) hat als Glaubensgrundlage die Bibel, den „Bericht der Nephiten“ (Bezeichnung der Kirche für das Buch Mormon) sowie 120 Botschaften, die der auferstandene Johannes der Täufer als Engel den Aposteln Otto Fetting (von 1871 bis 1933) und W. A. Draves (von 1912 bis 1994) zwischen 1927 und 1994 überbracht haben soll. Nach Ansicht dieser Kirche ist Joseph Smith zwar ursprünglich von Gott beauftragt worden, aber in seinen späteren Lebensjahren von Gott und seinem Wort abgefallen. So werden auch sämtliche anderen Schriften und Offenbarungen Smiths verworfen. Dies gilt auch für die zusätzlich entstandenen Lehren und Prophetien von Smiths Nachfolgern innerhalb der HLT-Kirche. Die Kirche Christi mit der Elias-Botschaft betrachtet sich selbst nicht als mormonische Glaubensgemeinschaft.


History.

The development of the "oiler" paralleled the change from coal- to oil-fired boilers in warships. Prior to the adoption of oil fired machinery, navies could extend the range of their ships either by maintaining coaling stations or for warships to raft together with colliers and for coal to be manhandled aboard. Though arguments related to fuel security were made against such a change, the ease with which liquid fuel could be transferred led in part to its adoption by navies worldwide.  One of the first generation of "blue-water" navy oiler support vessels was the British RFA "Kharki", active 1911 in the run-up to the First World War. Such vessels heralded the transition from coal to oil as the fuel of warships and removed the need to rely on, and operate within range of "coaling stations". During the Second World War, the United States Navy's dramatically enlarged fleets, especially those in the Pacific Theater, required massive quantities of black oil, diesel oil, avgas, and other fuels and lubricants to support American land, sea, and air operations against remote, widely dispersed Japanese forces. Those supply demands resulted in U.S. Navy personnel refining many established practices for oilers and creating new procedures for replenishing warships while underway and for transporting highly combustible materials with increased effectiveness through hostile waters and over vast ocean distances.  Modern examples of the fast combat support ship include the large British Fort class, displacing and measuring in length; the Australian HMAS "Sirius"; and the United States', which displaces and has an overall length of.

Characteristics.

For smaller navies, such as the Royal New Zealand Navy, replenishment oilers are typically one of the largest ships in the navy. Such ships are designed to carry large amounts of fuel and dry stores for the support of naval operations far away from port. Replenishment oilers are also equipped with more extensive medical and dental facilities than smaller ships can provide.  Such ships are equipped with multiple refueling gantries to refuel and resupply multiple ships at a time. The process of refueling and supplying ships at sea is called underway replenishment. Furthermore, such ships often are designed with helicopter decks and hangars. This allows the operation of rotary-wing aircraft, which allows the resupply of ships by helicopter. This process is called vertical replenishment. Furthermore, such ships, when operating in concert with surface groups, can act as the aviation maintenance platform where helicopters receive more extensive maintenance than can be provided by the smaller hangars of the escorting ships.  Their size, additional facilities, and ability to support the operation of other vessels, means that replenishment oilers have been used as command ships, with some ships, such as the French, this capability being built into the vessels from the start.

Armament.

Because the replenishment oiler is not a combat unit, but rather a support vessel, such ships are often lightly armed, usually with self-defense systems (such as the Phalanx CIWS close-in weapons systems), small arms, machine guns and/or light automatic cannons. They may also carry man-portable air-defense systems for additional air defense capability.

Examples.

Replenishment oilers include:

United States Navy oilers.

In the United States Navy, an Oiler is a Combat Logistics ship that replenishes other ships with fuel and in some cases food, mail, ammunition and other necessities while at sea, in a process called Underway Replenishment or UNREP. Up through the Second World War Navy oilers used commercial tanker hulls, with the addition of UNREP gear, defensive guns, and military electronic and damage-control equipment; since the 1950s however they have been built from the keel up as specialized naval auxiliaries. They were previously classified as Fleet Oilers in the 20th Century; under the current MSC operation their full classification is listed as Fleet Replenishment Oilers. Since the 1960s the classification Transport Oiler (AOT) has applied to tankers which ship petroleum products to depots around the world, but do not engage in UNREP.  The first fleet oilers were identified by the hull designation AO, which is still in use. Large, fast multifunction oilers which also provide ammunition and dry stores are identified as Fast Combat Support Ships (AOE), and mid-size ones Replenishment Oilers (AOR). The AOR designation is no longer in use. All of these oilers provide the combined services of the AO, AE, AFS and AK.  The style "USNS" and prefix "T" identify a ship as being operated by a civilian crew under the Military Sealift Command (known as the Military Sea Transportation Service until 1970).

A replenishment oiler or replenishment tanker is a naval auxiliary ship with fuel tanks and dry cargo holds which can supply both fuel and dry stores during underway replenishment (UNREP) at sea. Many countries have used replenishment oilers.

Trossschiffe (spätmittelhochdeutsch "" „Gepäck“) haben als militärische Versorgungsschiffe die Aufgabe, große Kriegsschiffe wie Flugzeugträger oder Kreuzer und deren Verbände bei ausgedehnten Operationen weitab von heimatlichen Nachschubbasen zu versorgen. Sie dienen nicht wie andere Kriegsschiffe für unmittelbare Kampfhandlungen, sondern vielmehr der logistischen Unterstützung der Kampfeinheiten.