Denmark.

In 2018, new specialist ranks were introduced to the Danish Home Guard. These new ranks were created to remove the need for leadership training at the lower ranks, as the selected functions no longer require actual leadership.

Republic of China (Taiwan).

Specialist ( "shàngděngbīng", "upper-rank soldier") is a rank in the Republic of China Army next to the rank of corporal, and has NATO equivalent code of OR-3.

United States.

U.S. Army.

Trades and specialties (1902–1920).

In 1920, the Army rank and pay system received a major overhaul. All enlisted and non-commissioned ranks were reduced from 128 different insignias and several pay grades to only seven rank insignias and seven pay grades, which were numbered in seniority from seventh grade (lowest) to first grade (highest). The second grade had two rank titles: first sergeant, which was three stripes, two rockers, and a lozenge (diamond) in the middle; and technical sergeant, which was three stripes and two rockers. By World War II, the rank of first sergeant had been elevated to first grade and a third rocker was added, with the lozenge in the center to distinguish it from master sergeant. The wearing of specialist badges inset in rank insignia was abolished, and a generic system of chevrons and arcs replaced them.

Private/specialist (1920–1942).

From 1920 to 1942, there was a rating (not a rank) for men of the sixth and seventh grades designated "private first class, specialist, or "private, specialist," that was graded in six classes (the lowest being sixth class and the highest being first class). They were considered the equal of a private first class or private in authority, but drew additional pay in relationship to the specialist level possessed on top of their base pay. The classes only indicated competency, not authority, and a specialist did not outrank another man of his respective non-specialist rank.  Officially, specialists wore the single chevron of a private first class because no special insignia was authorized to indicate their rank. Unofficially, a specialist could be authorized, at his commander's discretion, to wear one to six additional rockers (one rocker for sixth class, and a maximum of six rockers for first class) under their rank chevron to denote specialty level. Such insignia was commercially available through catalogs or the base Post Exchange (PX) and could also be ordered with inset trade badges.

Technician (1942–1948).

On 8 January 1942, the rank of technician was introduced to replace the private/specialist rank, which was discontinued by 30 June 1942. This gave technical specialists more authority by grading them as non-commissioned officers rather than senior enlisted personnel. They were parallel to pay grades of the time, going up in seniority from technician fifth grade, technician fourth grade, and technician third grade. A technician was paid according to his grade, and was senior to the next lowest pay grade; however, he was outranked by the corresponding non-commissioned officer grade and had no direct supervisory authority (that is, that of a private) outside of his specialty. To reduce the confusion this caused in the field, an embroidered "T" insignia was authorized for wear under the chevrons on 4 September 1942. The rank was finally discontinued on 1 August 1948.

Specialist (1955–present).

On 1 July 1955, four grades of specialist were established: Specialist third class (E-4 or SP3), specialist second class (E-5 or SP2), specialist first class (E-6 or SP1), and master specialist (E-7 or MSP). The insignia was yellow on a dark blue background. It was the same smaller size as women's NCO stripes—to differentiate specialists from NCOs, they were the same shape as NCO stripes—but were inverted to distinguish them, and the General Service Army Eagle was set in the center. The senior specialist ranks of SP2 (E5), SP1 (E6), and MSP (E7) were indicated by one, two, or three yellow arcs over the Eagle, respectively.  In 1956 the Army Green uniform was adopted. The enlisted stripes were changed from yellow on a blue backing to Goldenlite Yellow on a green backing. The specialist insignia was redesigned to be larger, broader, and more rounded.  In 1958 the DoD added two additional pay grades to give enlisted soldiers more opportunities to progress to a full career with additional opportunities for promotion. Thus the recognition was changed to six specialist ranks, and the pay grade was tied into the rank designation: specialist four (E-4), specialist five (E-5), specialist six (E-6), specialist seven (E-7), specialist eight (E-8), and specialist nine (E-9). The "Super Grades" of Spec./8 and Spec./9 were respectively given one and two Goldenlite chevrons below the Eagle.  CSM Daniel K. Elder goes on to explain, "In 1968 when the Army added the rank of command sergeant major, the specialist ranks at E-8 and E-9 were abolished", because they were notional rather than actual. "In 1978 the specialist rank at E-7 was discontinued and in 1985, the specialist ranks at E-5 and E-6 were discontinued."  These specialist ranks were created to reward personnel with higher degrees of experience and technical knowledge. Appointment to either specialist or non-commissioned officer status was determined by military occupational specialty (MOS). Different military occupational specialties had various transition points. For example, in the band career field (excluding special bands at D.C. and West Point), a bandsman could not achieve non-commissioned officer status until pay grade E-6 was attained. In some military occupational specialties, a soldier was appointed either a specialist or non-commissioned officer depending on which particular position or "slot" that he filled in his organization. A cook was a specialist, while a mess steward held the rank of sergeant (E-5 through E-7).  Specialist grades paralleled the corresponding grades of non-commissioned officer (E-4 through E-7) only in terms of pay. The specialist grades, although they outranked the enlisted grades (E-1 to E-3), were outranked by all non-commissioned officers (E-4 to E-9) and lacked the authority conferred on an NCO. This is the major differentiation between a specialist and a "hard striper".  Only the lowest specialist grade survives today and the rank of specialist 4 simply became known as "specialist", which is how it is referred to today. While the official abbreviation was changed from "SP4" to "SPC" upon the elimination of the SP5 and SP6 ranks, the SIDPERS database was initially authorized to continue using SP4 until such time as the change could be made at little or no additional expense in conjunction with other system upgrades. The continued use of SP4 on automatically produced documents (transfer orders, leave and earnings statements, unit manning reports, "inter alia"), hampered the adoption of the new abbreviation (and, to a lesser extent, the absence of "-4" in the non-abbreviated rank) by individual soldiers who viewed the computer-produced documents as the final word on what the proper term was.  Today, the rank of specialist is the typical rank to which privates first class are promoted after two years of service, although PFCs may be waived into the rank of specialist after 18 months' time in service and six months' time in grade. It is granted far more often than corporal (E-4), which is now reserved for personnel who have either passed the Basic Leader Course or have been assigned low-level supervisory duties (with two or more soldiers under direct command).  Specialists were informally called "specs" (pronunciation IPA: /ˈspɛk/ ) plus the numerical grade of their rank. Thus, a specialist 4 was called "spec 4". As of July 2016 the rank of Specialist is the most common rank in the U.S. Army, being held by 115,033 of the Army's 473,844 soldiers. This force wide prevalence has led to the humorous description of this pay grade as the "E-4/Spec4 Mafia".

Recruits with college degrees and Officer Candidates.

New recruits enlisting into the United States Army who have earned a four-year degree, and those with civilian-acquired job skills, will enter as a specialist (pay grade E-4). Typically, newly recruited officer candidates hold the rank of specialist when enlisted and during BCT (basic combat training) prior to their official enrollment into OCS (Officer Candidate School) where they will be administratively promoted to the pay grade of E-5 but are referred to as "officer candidate" (OC) as opposed to sergeant (SGT).

United States Navy (1941–1974).

Specialists (1941–1948).

Between 1941 and 1948, the United States Navy maintained an enlisted rate of Specialist in the petty officer pay grade structure. This was to absorb directly appointed civilian experts needed in the rapidly expanding Navy. A seaman would typically be known as a specialist followed by a letter indicating what field the specialty was held. For instance, a Specialist (C) served as a "classification interviewer", while a Specialist (T) was a "navy teacher", among several other specialist designations.  The concept was first proposed in late 1941 and was approved by the Secretary of the Navy sometime in November or December of that year. The Navy started with four specialties in February 1942, expanding to twenty-two specialties and their associated sub-specialties by the war's end in 1945. The Coast Guard added an additional five exclusive specialties in 1943 (D, CW, PR, PS and TR); four were awarded double letters to avoid duplication. The WAVES added Specialist (U) for "Utility"—a general purpose title that was abolished in 1944 and merged with the similar Specialist (X), for "Specialist (Not Elsewhere Classified)".  The trade badge was an embroidered diamond-shaped border inset with the specialty letter and set between the US Navy Eagle and the rank chevrons. Specialists 3rd, 2nd, and 1st Class (Grades 4, 3, and 2; equivalent to Petty Officers 3rd, 2nd and 1st Class) had 1 to 3 downward red chevrons. A Chief Specialist (Grade 1; equivalent to a Chief Petty Officer) had the US Navy Eagle perched on a red rocker over three red chevrons, with the diamond trade badge inset between the stripes.

Specialties (1942–1948).

Source:

Emergency Service ratings (1948–1974).

The Navy's use of the specialist grade was reorganized in 1948 to integrate them into the petty officer structure. The assigned letters and job titles changed several times in the rank's history.  Some positions were reclassified as "Emergency Service Ratings" (ESRs) from 1948 to 1957 and "Emergency Ratings" (ERs) from 1957 to 1965. All personnel holding an Emergency Service rating were members of the Naval Reserve subject to activation only in time of war or national emergency. Their specialty letters had a prefix of "ES" added and were different than that of those in regular service.  A pruning and absorption or discontinuing of specialty ratings commenced between 1957 and 1964 and nearly all of the remaining specialties were discontinued in 1965. The sole remaining specialty was ESK (ES Specialty (K) – "Telecommunications Censorship Technician"). It was renamed "Information Security Specialist" in 1972 and disestablished in 1974.

Specialist (abbreviated "SPC") is a military rank in some countries' armed forces. In the United States military, it is one of the four junior enlisted ranks in the U.S. Army, above private first class and equivalent in pay grade to corporal. Unlike corporals, specialists are not considered junior non-commissioned officers (NCOs). Specialist E-4 is the most common rank that is held by US Army soldiers.

Specialist (SPC) ist der höchste militärische Mannschaftsdienstgrad in der US Army. Er entspricht in der Besoldung dem Rang des Corporal. Ihn kennzeichnen jedoch spezielle Qualifikationen oder technische Fähigkeiten, die außerhalb des Verantwortungsbereichs des Corporals liegen. Im Gegenzug wird bei einem Corporal mehr Wert auf seine Führungsqualität im Gefecht gelegt, was erklärt, warum ein Specialist in der Befehlskette unter dem Corporal steht. Der Specialist hat den NATO-Rangcode OR-4, liegt einen Rang über dem Private First Class und einen Rang unter dem Sergeant und ist in etwa vergleichbar mit einem Stabsgefreiten der Bundeswehr bzw. Zugsführer beim österreichischen Bundesheer.


History.

Before HF/DF.

Radio direction finding was a widely used technique even before World War I, used for both naval and aerial navigation. The basic concept used a loop antenna, in its most basic form simply a circular loop of wire with a circumference decided by the frequency range of the signals to be detected. When the loop is aligned at right angles to the signal, the signal in the two halves of the loop cancels out, producing a sudden drop in output known as a "null".  Early DF systems used a loop antenna that could be mechanically rotated. The operator would tune in a known radio station and then rotate the antenna until the signal disappeared. This meant that the antenna was now at right angles to the broadcaster, although it could be on either side of the antenna. By taking several such measurements, or using some other form of navigational information to eliminate one of the ambiguous directions, the bearing to the broadcaster could be determined.  In 1907 an improvement was introduced by Ettore Bellini and Alessandro Tosi that greatly simplified the DF system in some setups. The single loop antenna was replaced by two antennas, arranged at right angles. The output of each was sent to its own looped wire, or as they are referred to in this system, a "field coil". Two such coils, one for each antenna, are arranged close together at right angles. The signals from the two antennas generated a magnetic field in the space between the coils, which was picked up by a rotating solenoid, the "search coil". The maximum signal was generated when the search coil was aligned with the magnetic field from the field coils, which was at the angle of the signal in relation to the antennas. This eliminated any need for the antennas to move. The Bellini–Tosi direction finder (B-T) was widely used on ships, although rotating loops remained in use on aircraft as they were normally smaller.  All of these devices took time to operate. Normally the radio operator would first use conventional radio tuners to find the signal in question, either using the DF antenna(s) or on a separate non-directional antenna. Once tuned, the operator rotated the antennas or goniometer looking for peaks or nulls in the signal. Although the rough location could be found by spinning the control rapidly, for more accurate measurements the operator had to "hunt" with increasingly small movements. With periodic signals like Morse code, or signals on the fringe of reception, this was a difficult process. Fix times on the order of one minute were commonly quoted.  Some work on automating the B-T system was carried out just prior to the opening of World War II, especially by French engineers Maurice Deloraine and Henri Busignies, working in the French division of the US's ITT Corporation. Their system motorized the search coil as well as a circular display card, which rotated in sync. A lamp on the display card was tied to the output of the goniometer, and flashed whenever it was in the right direction. When spinning quickly, about 120 RPM, the flashes merged into a single (wandering) dot that indicated the direction. The team destroyed all of their work in the French office and left France in 1940, just before Germany invaded, and continued the development in the US.

Watson-Watt.

It had long been known that lightning gives off radio signals. The signal is spread across many frequencies, but is particularly strong in the longwave spectrum, which was one of the primary radio frequencies for long-range naval communications. Robert Watson-Watt had demonstrated that measurements of these radio signals could be used to track thunderstorms and provide useful long-range warning for pilots and ships. In some experiments he was able to detect thunderstorms over Africa, away.  However, the lightning strikes lasted such a short time that traditional RDF systems using loop antennas could not determine the bearing before they vanished. All that could be determined was an average location that produced the best signal over a long period, incorporating the signal of many strikes. In 1916 Watt proposed that a cathode ray tube (CRT) could be used as an indicating element instead of mechanical systems, but did not have the ability to test this.  Watt worked at the RAF's Met Office in Aldershot, but in 1924 they decided to return the location to use for the RAF. In July 1924 Watt moved to a new location at Ditton Park near Slough. This site already hosted the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Radio Section research site. Watt was involved in the Atmospherics branch, making basic studies in the propagation of radio signals through the atmosphere, while the NPL were involved in field strength measurements in the field and direction finding investigations. NPL had two devices used in these studies that would prove critical to the development of huff-duff, an Adcock antenna and a modern oscilloscope.  The Adcock antenna is an arrangement of four monopole masts that act as two virtual loop antennas arranged at right angles. By comparing the signals received on the two virtual loops, the direction to the signal can be determined using existing RDF techniques. Researchers had set up the antenna in 1919 but had been neglecting it in favour of smaller designs. These were found to have very poor performance due to the electrical characteristics of the Slough area, which made it difficult to determine if a signal was being received on a straight line or down from the sky. Smith-Rose and Barfield turned their attention back to the Adcock antenna, which had no horizontal component and thus filtered out the "skywaves". In a series of follow-up experiments they were able to accurately determine the location of transmitters around the country.  It was Watt's continuing desire to capture the location of individual lightning strikes that led to the final major developments in the basic huff-duff system. The lab had recently taken delivery of a WE-224 oscilloscope from Bell Labs, which provided easy hook-up and had a long-lasting phosphor. Working with Jock Herd, in 1926 Watt added an amplifier to each to the two arms of the antenna, and sent those signals into the X and Y channels of the oscilloscope. As hoped, the radio signal produced a pattern on the screen that indicated the location of the strike, and the long-lasting phosphor gave the operator ample time to measure it before the display faded.  Watt and Herd wrote an extensive paper on the system in 1926, referring to it as "An instantaneous direct-reading radiogoniometer" and stating that it could be used to determine the direction of signals lasting as little as 0.001 seconds. The paper describes the device in depth, and goes on to explain how it could be used to improve radio direction finding and navigation. In spite of this public demonstration, and films showing it being used to locate lightning, the concept apparently remained unknown outside the UK. This allowed it to be developed into practical form in secret.

Battle of Britain.

During the rush to install the Chain Home (CH) radar systems prior to the Battle of Britain, CH stations were located as far forward as possible, along the shoreline, in order to provide maximum warning time. This meant that the inland areas over the British Isles did not have radar coverage, relying instead on the newly formed Royal Observer Corps (ROC) for visual tracking in this area. While the ROC were able to provide information on large raids, fighters were too small and too high to be positively identified. As the entire Dowding system of air control relied on ground direction, some solution to locating their own fighters was needed.  The expedient solution to this was the use of huff-duff stations to tune in on the fighter's radios. Every Sector Control, in charge of a selection of fighter squadrons, was equipped with a huff-duff receiver, along with two other sub-stations located at distant points, about away. These stations would listen for broadcasts from the fighters, compare the angles to triangulate their location, and then relay that information to the control rooms. Comparing the positions of the enemy reported by the ROC and the fighters from the huff-duff systems, the Sector Commanders could easily direct the fighters to intercept the enemy.  To aid in this process, a system known as "pip-squeak" was installed on some of the fighters, at least two per section (with up to four sections per squadron). Pip-squeak automatically sent out a steady tone for 14 seconds every minute, offering ample time for the huff-duff operators to track the signal. It had the drawback of tying up the aircraft's radio while broadcasting its DF signal.  The need for DF sets was so acute that the Air Ministry initially was unable to supply the numbers requested by Hugh Dowding, commander of RAF Fighter Command. In simulated battles during 1938 the system was demonstrated to be so useful that the Ministry responded by providing Bellini-Tosi systems with the promise that CRT versions would replace them as soon as possible. This could be accomplished in the field, simply by connecting the existing antennas to a new receiver set. By 1940 these were in place at all 29 Fighter Command "sectors", and were a major part of the system that won the battle.

Battle of the Atlantic.

Along with sonar ("ASDIC"), intelligence from breaking German codes, and radar, "Huff-Duff" was a valuable part of the Allies' armoury in detecting German U-boats and commerce raiders during the Battle of the Atlantic.  The Kriegsmarine knew that radio direction finders could be used to locate its ships at sea when those ships transmitted messages. Consequently, they developed a system that turned routine messages into short-length messages. The resulting "kurzsignale" was then encoded with the Enigma machine (for security) and transmitted quickly. An experienced radio operator might take about 20 seconds to transmit a typical message.  At first, the UK's detection system consisted of a number of shore stations in the British Isles and North Atlantic, which would coordinate their interceptions to determine locations. The distances involved in locating U-boats in the Atlantic from shore-based DF stations were so great, and DF accuracy was relatively inefficient, so the fixes were not particularly accurate. In 1944 a new strategy was developed by Naval Intelligence where localized groups of five shore-based DF stations were built so the bearings from each of the five stations could be averaged to gain a more reliable bearing. Four such groups were set up in Britain: at Ford End in Essex, Anstruther in Fife, Bower in the Scottish Highlands and Goonhavern in Cornwall. It was intended that other groups would be set up in Iceland, Nova Scotia and Jamaica. Simple averaging was found to be ineffective, and statistical methods were later used. Operators were also asked to grade the reliability of their readings so that poor and variable ones were given less weight than those that appeared stable and well-defined. Several of these DF groups continued into the 1970s as part of the Composite Signals Organisation.  Land-based systems were used because there were severe technical problems operating on ships, mainly due to the effects of the superstructure on the wavefront of arriving radio signals. However, these problems were overcome under the technical leadership of the Polish engineer Wacław Struszyński, working at the Admiralty Signal Establishment. As ships were equipped, a complex measurement series was carried out to determine these effects, and cards were supplied to the operators to show the required corrections at various frequencies. By 1942, the availability of cathode ray tubes improved and was no longer a limit on the number of huff-duff sets that could be produced. At the same time, improved sets were introduced that included continuously motor-driven tuning, to scan the likely frequencies and sound an automatic alarm when any transmissions were detected. Operators could then rapidly fine-tune the signal before it disappeared. These sets were installed on convoy escorts, enabling them to get fixes on U-boats transmitting from over the horizon, beyond the range of radar. This allowed hunter-killer ships and aircraft to be dispatched at high speed in the direction of the U-boat, which could be located by radar if still on the surface or ASDIC if submerged.  From August 1944, Germany was working on the "Kurier" system, which would transmit an entire "kurzsignale" in a burst not longer than 454 milliseconds, too short to be located, or intercepted for decryption, but the system had not become operational by the end of the war.

Description.

The basic concept of the huff-duff system is to send the signal from two aerials into the X and Y channels of an oscilloscope. Normally the Y channel would represent north/south for ground stations, or in the case of the ship, be aligned with the ship's heading fore/aft. The X channel thereby represents either east/west, or port/starboard.  The deflection of the spot on the oscilloscope display is a direct indication of the instantaneous phase and strength of the radio signal. Since radio signals consist of waves, the signal varies in phase at a very rapid rate. If one considers the signal received on one channel, say Y, the dot will move up and down, so rapidly that it would appear to be a straight vertical line, extending equal distances from the center of the display. When the second channel is added, tuned to the same signal, the dot will move in both the X and Y directions at the same time, causing the line to become diagonal. However, the radio signal has a finite wavelength, so as it travels through the antenna loops, the relative phase that meets each part of the antenna changes. This causes the line to be deflected into an ellipse or Lissajous curve, depending on the relative phases. The curve is rotated so that its major axis lies along the bearing of the signal. In the case of a signal to the north-east, the result would be an ellipse lying along the 45/225-degree line on the display. Since the phase is changing while the display is drawing, the resulting displayed shape includes "blurring" that needed to be accounted for.  This leaves the problem of determining whether the signal is north-east or south-west, as the ellipse is equally long on both sides of the display centre-point. To solve this problem a separate aerial, the "sense aerial", was added to this mix. This was an omnidirectional aerial located a fixed distance from the loops about 1/2 of a wavelength away. When this signal was mixed in, the opposite-phase signal from this aerial would strongly suppress the signal when the phase is in the direction of the sense aerial. This signal was sent into the brightness channel, or Z-axis, of the oscilloscope, causing the display to disappear when the signals were out of phase. By connecting the sense aerial to one of the loops, say the north/south channel, the display would be strongly suppressed when it was on the lower half of the display, indicating that the signal is somewhere to the north. At this point the only possible bearing is the north-east one.  The signals received by the antennas is very small and at high frequency, so they are first individually amplified in two identical radio receivers. This requires the two receivers to be extremely well balanced so that one does not amplify more than the other and thereby change the output signal. For instance, if the amplifier on the north/south antenna has slightly more gain, the dot will not move along the 45 degree line, but perhaps the 30 degree line. To balance the two amplifiers, most set-ups included a "test loop" which generated a known directional test signal.  For shipboard systems, the ship's superstructure presented a serious cause of interference, especially in phase, as the signals moved around the various metal obstructions. To address this, the ship was anchored while a second ship broadcast a test signal from about one mile away, and the resulting signals were recorded on a calibration sheet. The broadcast ship would then move to another location and the calibration would be repeated. The calibration was different for different wavelengths as well as directions; building a complete set of sheets for each ship required significant work.  Naval units, notably the common HF4 set, included a rotating plastic plate with a line, the "cursor", used to help measure the angle. This could be difficult if the tips of the ellipse did not reach the edge of the display, or went off it. By aligning the cursor with the peaks at either end, this became simple. Hash marks on either side of the cursor allowed measurement of the width of the display, and use that to determine the amount of blurring.

References.

Further reading

High-frequency direction finding, usually known by its abbreviation HF/DF or nickname huff-duff, is a type of radio direction finder (RDF) introduced in World War II. High frequency (HF) refers to a radio band that can effectively communicate over long distances; for example, between U-boats and their land-based headquarters. HF/DF was primarily used to catch enemy radios while they transmitted, although it was also used to locate friendly aircraft as a navigation aid. The basic technique remains in use to this day as one of the fundamental disciplines of signals intelligence, although typically incorporated into a larger suite of radio systems and radars instead of being a stand-alone system.

Huff-Duff ist ein Funkpeilgerät, das im Zweiten Weltkrieg eingesetzt wurde. Der Name leitet sich ab von der Abkürzung HFDF für High-Frequency Direction Finding, deutsch: Kurzwellenpeilung. Das Gerät wurde von den französischen Ingenieuren Maurice Deloraine und Henri Busignies entwickelt. Sie begannen die Entwicklung in Paris und beendeten sie nach ihrer Emigration in die USA.


Exploration and archaeology.

The periegetic writer Pausanias briefly mentions the site in his writings of the 2nd century AD, but does not describe the sanctuary in detail as he does for many others. The temple was made known in Western Europe by the publication of the "Antiquities of Ionia" (London, 1797). In 1811, the young English architect Charles Robert Cockerell, finishing his education on his academic Grand Tour, and Baron Otto Magnus von Stackelberg removed the fallen fragmentary pediment sculptures. On the recommendation of Baron Carl Haller von Hallerstein, who was also an architect and, moreover, a protégé of the art patron Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, the marbles were shipped abroad and sold the following year to the Crown Prince, soon to be King Ludwig I of Bavaria. Minor excavations of the east "peribolos" wall were carried out in 1894 during reconstruction of the last temple.  Systematic excavations at the site were carried out in the 20th century by the German School in Athens, at first under the direction of Adolf Furtwängler. The area of the sanctuary was defined and studied during these excavations. The area under the last temple could not be excavated, however, because that would have harmed the temple. In addition, significant remains from the Bronze Age were detected in pockets in the rocky surface of the hill. From 1966 to 1979, an extensive second German excavation under was performed, leading to the discovery in 1969 of substantial remains of the older Archaic temple in the fill of the later terrace walls. Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner and Martha Ohly were also associated with this dig, which continued after the death of Dieter Ohly until 1988. Sufficient remains were recovered to allow a complete architectural reconstruction of the structure to be extrapolated; the remains of the entablature and pediment of one end of the older temple have been reconstructed in the on-site museum.

Phases of the sanctuary.

The sanctuary of Aphaia was located on the top of a hill c. 160 m in elevation at the northeast point of the island. The last form of the sanctuary covered an area of c. 80 by 80 m; earlier phases were less extensive and less well defined.

Bronze Age phase.

In its earliest phase of use during the Bronze Age, the eastern area of the hilltop was an unwalled, open-air sanctuary to a female fertility and agricultural deity. Bronze Age figurines outnumber remains of pottery. Open vessel forms are also at an unusually high proportion versus closed vessels. There are no known settlements or burials in the vicinity, arguing against the remains being due to either usage. Large numbers of small pottery chariots and thrones and miniature vessels have been found. Although there are scattered remains dating to the Early Bronze Age such as two seal stones, remains in significant quantities begin to be deposited in the Middle Bronze Age, and the sanctuary has its peak use in the LHIIIa2 through LHIIIb periods. It is less easy to trace the cult through the Sub-Mycenean period and into the Geometric where cult activity is once more reasonably certain.

Late Geometric phase.

Furtwängler proposes three phases of building at the sanctuary, with the earliest of these demonstrated by an altar at the eastern end dating to c. 700 BC. Also securely known are a cistern at the northeast extremity and a structure identified as a treasury east of the propylon (entrance) of the sanctuary. The temple corresponding to these structures is proposed to be under the later temples and thus not able to be excavated. Furtwängler suggests that this temple is the "oikos" (house) referenced in a mid-7th-century BC inscription from the site as having been built by a priest for Aphaia; he hypothesizes that this house of the goddess (temple) was built of stone socles topped with mud brick upper walls and wooden entablature. The top of the hill was slightly modified to make it more level by wedging stones into the crevices of the rock.

Archaic phase (Aphaia Temple I).

Ohly detected a (stone socle and mudbrick upper level) "peribolos" wall enclosing an area of c. 40 by 45 m dating to this phase. This "peribolos" was not aligned to the axis of the temple. A raised and paved platform was built to connect the temple to the altar. There was a "propylon" (formal entrance gate) with a wooden superstructure in the southeast side of the "peribolos". A 14 m tall column topped by a sphinx was at the northeast side of the sanctuary. The full study and reconstruction of the temple was done by Schwandner, who dates it to before 570 BC. In his reconstruction, the temple is prostyle-tetrastyle in plan, and has a pronaos and – significantly – an adyton at the back of the cella. As is the case at the temples of Artemis at Brauron and Aulis (among others), many temples of Artemis have such back rooms, which may indicate a similarity of cult practice. The cella of the temple of Aphaia had the unusual feature of having two rows of two columns supporting another level of columns that reached the roof. The architrave of this temple was constructed in two courses, giving it a height of 1.19 m versus the frieze height of 0.815 m; this proportion is unusual among temples of the region, but is known from temples in Sicily. A triglyph and metope frieze is also placed along the inside of the pronaos. These metopes were apparently undecorated with sculpture, and there is no evidence of pedimental sculptural groups. This temple and much of the sanctuary was destroyed by fire around 510 BC.

Late Archaic Phase (Aphaia Temple II).

Construction of a new temple commenced soon after the destruction of the older temple. The remains of the destroyed temple were removed from the site of the new temple and used to fill a c. 40 by 80 m terrace within the overall sanctuary of c. 80 by 80 m. This new temple terrace was aligned on north, west, and south with the plan of the new temple. The temple was a hexastyle peripteral Doric order structure on a 6 by 12 column plan resting on a 15.5 by 30.5 m platform; it had a distyle in antis cella with an opisthodomos and a pronaos. All but three of the outer columns were monolithic. There was a small, off-axis doorway between the cella and the opisthodomos. In similar design but more monumental execution than the earlier temple, the cella of the new temple had two rows of five columns, supporting another level of columns that reached to roof. The corners of the roof were decorated with sphinx "acroteria", and the central, vegetal "acroterion" of each side had a pair of "kore" statues standing one on either side, an unusual feature. The antefixes were of marble, as were the roof tiles. Dates ranging from 510 to 470 BC have been proposed for this temple. Bankel, who published the complete study of the remains, compares the design features of the structure with three structures that were near contemporaries:  Bankel says the temple of Aphaia is more developed than the earlier phase of this structure, giving it a date of around 500 BC. The metopes of this temple, which were not found, were slotted into the triglyph blocks and attached to backer blocks with swallowtail clamps. If they were wooden, their lack of preservation is to be expected. If they were stone, then they may have been removed for the ancient antiquities market while the structure was still standing. The altar was redone for this phase as well.  If still in use by the 4th-century, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.

Pedimental sculptures.

The marbles from the Late Archaic temple of "Aphaia", comprising the sculptural groups of the east and west pediments of the temple, are on display in the Glyptothek of Munich, where they were restored by the Danish neoclassic sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. These works exerted a formative influence on the local character of Neoclassicism in Munich, as exhibited in the architecture of Leo von Klenze. Each pediment centered on the figure of Athena, with groups of combatants, fallen warriors, and arms filling the decreasing angles of the pediments. The theme shared by the pediments was the greatness of "Aigina" as shown by the exploits of its local heroes in the two Trojan wars, one led by Heracles against Laomedon and a second led by Agamemnon against Priam. According to the standard myths, Zeus raped the nymph "Aigina", who bore the first king of the island, Aiakos. This king had the sons Telamon (father of the Homeric hero Ajax) and Peleus (father of the Homeric hero Achilles). The Greek idolize heroes who fallen at war, to die on the battleground was a great honor it depicted courage and strength. When a hero died it was thought that they become immortal because they prove themselves to the Gods. The sculptures preserve extensive traces of a complex paint scheme, and are crucial for the study of painting on ancient sculpture. The marbles are finished even on the back surfaces of the figures, despite the fact that these faced the pediment and were thus not visible. Ohly had contended that there were four total pedimental groups (two complete sets of pediments for the east and west sides of the temple); Bankel uses the architectural remains of the temple to argue that there were only three pedimental groups; later in his life, Ohly came to believe that there were only two, which was shown persuasively by Eschbach. There were shallow cuttings and many dowels used to secure the plinths of the sculptures of the west pediment (the back of the temple). The east pediment used deep cuttings and fewer dowels to secure the plinths of the statues. There were also a number of "geison" blocks that had shallow cuttings and many dowels like the west pediment, but that did not fit there. Bankel argues that sculptures were set on both the east and the west pediments with these shallow cuttings, but that the sculptures of the east pediment were removed (along with the "geison" blocks cut to receive them) and replaced with a different sculptural group. This replacement appears to have been carried out before the raking "geisa" were installed on the east pediment, since the corner geisa were not cut down to join to the raking "geisa": i.e. the 1st phase of the east pediment was replaced with the 2nd phase before that end of the temple was completed. As the eastern facade of the temple (the front) was the most important visually, it is not surprising that the builders would choose to focus additional efforts on it.

Eastern pediment.

The first Trojan war, not the one described by Homer but the war of Heracles against the king of Troy Laomedon is the theme, with Telamon figuring prominently as he fights alongside Heracles against king Laomedon. This pediment is thought to be later than the west pediment and to show a number of features appropriate to the Classical period: the statues show a dynamic posture especially in the case of Athena, chiastic composition, and intricate filling of the space using the legs of fallen combatants to fill the difficult decreasing angles of the pediment. Part of the eastern pediment was destroyed during the Persian Wars, possibly by a thunderbolt. The statues that survived were set up in the sanctuary enclosure, and those that were destroyed, were buried according to the ancient custom. The old composition was replaced by a new one with a scene of a battle, again with Athena at the center.

Western pediment.

The second Trojan war – the one described by Homer – is the theme, with Ajax (son of Telamon) figuring prominently. The style of these sculptures is that of the Archaic period. The composition deals with the decreasing angles of the pediment by filling the space using a shield and a helmet.

The Temple of Aphaia () or Afea is located within a sanctuary complex dedicated to the goddess Aphaia on the Greek island of Aigina, which lies in the Saronic Gulf. Formerly known as the Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, the great Doric temple is now recognized as dedicated to the mother-goddess Aphaia. It was a favorite of the neoclassical and romantic artists such as J. M. W. Turner. It stands on a c. 160 m peak on the eastern side of the island approximately 13 km east by road from the main port.

Das auf einer Bergkuppe gelegene Heiligtum der Aphaia befindet sich auf der griechischen Insel Ägina, zwischen dem Hafen Athens und dem Küstenstrich von Epidauros. Schon in mykenischer Zeit wurden hier der Fruchtbarkeitsgottheit Aphaia Opfergaben dargebracht. Um 570 v. Chr. wurde an derselben Stelle ein steinerner Prostylos-Tempel errichtet, der ungefähr 70 Jahre später durch einen spätarchaischen Peripteros, einen allseits von Säulen umgebenen Tempel, ersetzt wurde. Das Heiligtum verfiel seit dem 1. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Einmalig sind die 1811 entdeckten Giebelskulpturen („Aegineten“) des Tempels, da die Figuren aus dem Westgiebel noch der Archaik angehören, die des Ostgiebels aber schon der Frühklassik. Sie bilden somit einen wichtigen Anhaltspunkt zur Datierung der Stile. Die Figuren befinden sich heute in der Münchner Glyptothek.


History.

The university's Honour School of Natural Science started in 1850, but the facilities for teaching were scattered around the city of Oxford in the various colleges. The university's collection of anatomical and natural history specimens were similarly spread around the city. Regius Professor of Medicine, Sir Henry Acland, initiated the construction of the museum between 1855 and 1860, to bring together all the aspects of science around a central display area. In 1858, Acland gave a lecture on the museum, setting forth the reason for the building's construction. He viewed that the university had been one-sided in the forms of study it offered—chiefly theology, philosophy, the classics and history—and that the opportunity should be offered to learn of the natural world and obtain the ""knowledge of the great material design of which the Supreme Master-Worker has made us a constituent part"". This idea, of Nature as the Second Book of God, was common in the 19th century.  The largest portion of the museum's collections consist of the natural history specimens from the Ashmolean Museum, including the specimens collected by John Tradescant the elder and his son of the same name, William Burchell and geologist William Buckland. The Christ Church Museum donated its osteological and physiological specimens, many of which were collected by Acland. The construction of the building was accomplished through money earned from the sale of Bibles. Several departments moved within the building—astronomy, geometry, experimental physics, mineralogy, chemistry, geology, zoology, anatomy, physiology and medicine. As the departments grew in size over the years, they moved to new locations along South Parks Road, which remains the home of the university's Science Area.  The last department to leave the building was the entomology department, which moved into the zoology building in 1978. However, there is still a working entomology laboratory on the first floor of the museum building. Between 1885 and 1886 a new building to the east of the museum was constructed to house the ethnological collections of General Augustus Pitt Rivers—the Pitt Rivers Museum. In 19th-century thinking, it was very important to separate objects made by the hand of God (natural history) from objects made by the hand of man (anthropology).

The building.

The neo-Gothic building was designed by the Irish architects Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward, mostly Woodward. The museum's design was directly influenced by the writings of critic John Ruskin, who involved himself by making various suggestions to Woodward during construction. Construction began in 1855, and the building was ready for occupancy in 1860. The adjoining building that houses the Pitt Rivers Museum was the work of Thomas Manly Deane, son of Thomas Newenham Deane. It was built between 1885 and 1886.  The museum consists of a large square court with a glass roof, supported by cast iron pillars, which divide the court into three aisles. Cloistered arcades run around the ground and first floor of the building, with stone columns each made from a different British stone, selected by geologist John Phillips (the Keeper of the Museum). The ornamentation of the stonework and iron pillars incorporates natural forms such as leaves and branches, combining the Pre-Raphaelite style with the scientific role of the building.  Statues of eminent men of science stand around the ground floor of the court—from Aristotle and Bacon through to Darwin and Linnaeus. Although the university paid for the construction of the building, the ornamentation was funded by public subscription, and much of it remains incomplete. The Irish stone carvers O'Shea and Whelan had been employed to create lively freehand carvings in the Gothic manner. When funding dried up, they offered to work unpaid, but they were accused by members of the University Convocation of "defacing" the building by adding unauthorised work. According to Acland, the O'Shea brothers responded by caricaturing the members of Convocation as parrots and owls in the carving over the building's entrance. Acland insists that he forced them to remove the heads from these carvings.

Significant events.

The 1860 evolution debate.

A significant debate in the history of evolutionary biology took place in the museum in 1860 at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Representatives of the Church and science debated the subject of evolution, and the event is often viewed as symbolising the defeat of a literalist interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative. However, there are few eye-witness accounts of the debate, and most accounts of the debate were written by scientists.  The biologist Thomas Huxley and Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, are generally cast as the main protagonists in the debate. Huxley was a keen scientist and a staunch supporter of Darwin's theories. Wilberforce had supported the construction of the museum as the centre for the science departments, for the study of the wonders of God's creations.  On the Wednesday of the meeting, 27 June 1860, botanist Charles Daubeny presented a paper on plant sexuality, which made reference to Darwin's theory of natural selection. Richard Owen, a zoologist who believed that evolution was governed by divine influence, criticised the theory pointing out that the brain of the gorilla was more different from that of man than that of other primates. Huxley stated that he would respond to this comment in print, and declined to continue the debate. However, rumours began to spread that the Bishop of Oxford would be attending the conference on the following Saturday.  Initially, Huxley was planning to avoid the bishop's speech. However, evolutionist Robert Chambers convinced him to stay.  Wilberforce's speech on 30 June 1860 was good-humoured and witty, but was an unfair attack on Darwinism, ending in the now infamous question to Huxley of whether "it was through his grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey." Some commentators suggested that this question was written by Owen, and others suggested that the bishop was taught by Owen. (Owen and Wilberforce had known each other since childhood.)  Wilberforce is purported to have turned to his neighbour, chemist Professor Brodie and exclaiming, "The Lord has delivered him into mine hands." When Huxley spoke, he responded that he had heard nothing from Wilberforce to prejudice Darwin's arguments, which still provided the best explanation of the origin of species yet advanced. He ended with the equally famous response to Wilberforce's question, that he had "no need to be ashamed of having an ape for his grandfather, but that he would be ashamed of having for an ancestor a man of restless and versatile interest who distracts the attention of his hearers from the real point at issue by eloquent digression and skilled appeals to religious prejudice."  However it seems unlikely that the debate was as spectacular as traditionally suggested – contemporary accounts by journalists do not make mention of the words that have become such notable quotations. Additionally, contemporary accounts suggest that it was not Huxley, but Sir Joseph Hooker who most vocally defended Darwinism at the meeting.  While all the accounts of the event suggest that the supporters of Darwinism were the most persuasive, it seems likely that the exact nature of the debate was made more sensational in the reports of Huxley's supporters to encourage further support for Darwin's theories.

The 1894 demonstration of wireless telegraphy.

The first public demonstration of wireless telegraphy took place in the lecture theatre of the museum on 14 August 1894, carried out by Professor Oliver Lodge. A radio signal was sent from the neighbouring Clarendon Laboratory building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theatre.

Charles Dodgson and the dodo.

Today the head and foot of a dodo displayed at the museum are the most complete remains of a single dodo anywhere in the world. Many museums have complete dodo skeletons, but these are composed of the bones of several individuals. The museum also displays a 1651 painting of a dodo by Flemish artist, Jan Savery.  Charles Dodgson, better known by his pen-name Lewis Carroll, was a regular visitor to the museum, and Savery's painting is likely to have influenced the character of the Dodo in Carroll's "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland".

The museum today.

The museum collections are divided into three sections: Earth Collections covering the Palaeontological collections and the mineral and rock collections, Life Collections which include zoological and entomological collections, and the Archive Collections. The museum is led by a Director (currently Professor Paul Smith, formerly Head of the School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Birmingham), who succeeded Professor Jim Kennedy in 2011, and there are front of house, education, outreach, IT, library, conservation and technical staff.  Since 1997 the museum has benefited from external funding, from government and private sources, and undertaken a renewal of its displays. As well as central exhibits featuring the dodo and dinosaurs, there are sets of displays with contemporary designs but within restored Victorian cabinets, on a variety of themes: Evolution, Primates, the History of Life, Vertebrates, Invertebrates and Rocks and Minerals. There are also a number of popular touchable items, which include two bears, a fox and other taxidermy. Additionally there is a meteorite and large fossils and minerals. Visitors can also see large dinosaur reconstructions and a parade of mammal skeletons. A famous group of ichnites was found in a limestone quarry at Ardley, 20 km northeast of Oxford, in 1997. They were thought to have been made by "Megalosaurus" and possibly "Cetiosaurus". There are replicas of some of these footprints, set across the front lawn of the museum.  The Hope Entomological Collections, numbering over 5 million specimens are held by the museum. The Hope Department was founded by Frederick William Hope and the first appointed curator of the collections was John Obadiah Westwood. Many important insect and arachnid specimens from various collectors and collections make up the museums holdings including (but not limited to) those of Octavius Pickard-Cambridge, George Henry Verrall, Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean, Pierre André Latreille, Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin, Jacques Marie Frangile Bigot, and Pierre Justin Marie Macquart among others.  The roof of the museum is a popular nesting area for migrating swallows. Cameras have been installed which broadcast a live stream to a display near the main enterance.  On March 17, 2020, the museum shut indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Oxford University Museum of Natural History, sometimes known simply as the Oxford University Museum or OUMNH, is a museum displaying many of the University of Oxford's natural history specimens, located on Parks Road in Oxford, England. It also contains a lecture theatre which is used by the university's chemistry, zoology and mathematics departments. The museum provides the only public access into the adjoining Pitt Rivers Museum.

Das Oxford University Museum of Natural History, manchmal auch einfach Oxford University Museum, ist ein Museum, das viele der naturhistorischen Arten-Sammlungen der University of Oxford zeigt. Es besitzt auch einen Hörsaal, der von den Fakultäten für Chemie, Mathematik und Zoologie genutzt wird. An das Museum schließt sich das Pitt Rivers Museum an.


Biography.

He was born at Versailles; his father was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent in mathematical studies and later joined the artillery. In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at the Battle of Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808, returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly all the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809.  In 1811 he was chosen to inspect and report on the fortifications of Gdańsk. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers attached to the emperor, whom he followed closely through the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to enter the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron, and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 in Saxony he again showed courage and prowess, especially at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in the first battle of 1814, near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding furiously towards Napoleon's tent.  Wounded at the Battle of Montmirail, he recovered in time to be involved in several of the conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of King Louis XVIII of France in the summer of 1814, he embraced the cause of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), was named general and "aide-de-camp" by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo.  After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22, 1815), Gourgaud retired with him to Rochefort. It was to Gourgaud that Napoleon entrusted the letter of appeal to the prince regent for asylum in England. Gourgaud set off in HMS "Slaney", but was not allowed to land in England. Determined to share Napoleon's exile, he sailed with him on HMS "Northumberland" to Saint Helena. The ship's secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining account of some of Gourgaud's "gasconnades" at table.  His extreme sensitivity and vanity soon brought him into collision with Napoleon's other companions, Las Cases and Montholon, in their exile at Longwood. The former he styles in his journal a Jesuit and a scribbler who went there only to become famous. The friction with Montholon, his senior in rank, was so acute that he challenged him to a duel, for which he was sharply rebuked by Napoleon himself. Tiring of the life at Longwood, he decided to leave the island. The comments he made to his English captors helped to convince Hudson Lowe that Napoleon was feigning illness, that he should not be moved from Longwood, and they led indirectly to the expulsion of Napoleon's doctor, Barry Edward O'Meara. Once in London, Gourgaud quickly demonstrated his support for Napoleon by sending letters to the Empress Marie-Louise and to the Emperors of Austria and Russia. In 1840, he joined other survivors of the captivity who returned to St. Helena to bring back Napoleon's remains for burial in Paris. He also sharply criticised Sir Walter Scott's "Life of Napoleon".  He soon published his "Campagne de 1815", in the preparation of which he had had some help from Napoleon. However, Gourgaud's "Journal de Ste-Hélène" was not published till the year 1899. Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or collaborated in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of Count P de Ségur's work on the campaign of 1812, with the result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him. He became a deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1849.

Works.

Gourgaud's works are:  He collaborated with Montholon in the work entitled "Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire de France sous Napoleon" (Paris, 1822–1823), and with Belliard and others in the work entitled "Bourrienne et ses erreurs" (2 vols., Paris, 1830). Gourgaud's most important work is the "Journal inédit de Ste-Hélène" (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably lifelike record of life in exile at Longwood. See also

Gaspard, Baron Gourgaud (September 14, 1783 – July 25, 1852), also known simply as Gaspard Gourgaud, was a French soldier, prominent in the Napoleonic wars.

Baron Gaspard Gourgaud (* 14. September 1783 in Versailles; † 25. Juli 1852 in Paris) war ein französischer Général de brigade.


Biography.

Early life and ordination.

Jorge Urosa was born in Caracas to Luis Manuel Urosa Joud and Ligia Savino del Castillo de Urosa. He studied humanities at Colegio De La Salle Tienda Honda, and philosophy at the Interdiocesan Seminary of Caracas. From 1962 to 1965, he studied theology at St. Augustine's Seminary in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.  Urosa then attended the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, where he obtained his doctorate in dogmatic theology, until 1971. During his time at the Gregorian, he returned to Caracas to be ordained to the priesthood by Cardinal José Quintero Parra on August 15, 1967.

Professor.

After concluding his Roman studies in at the Pius Latin American Pontifical College, Urosa served as a professor and the rector of the Seminary San José in Caracas. He later served as rector of the Interdiocesan Seminary in Caracas as well. Before becoming vicar general of the Archdiocese of Caracas, he was President of the Organization of Latin American Seminaries and founded a parochial vicariate in a "chabolas" neighborhood of Caracas.

Bishop.

On July 6, 1982, Urosa was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Caracas and Titular Bishop of Vegesela in Byzacena by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on the following September 22 from Archbishop José Lebrún Moratinos, with Archbishops Domingo Roa Pérez and Miguel Salas Salas, CIM serving as co-consecrators. Urosa was named Archbishop of Valencia on March 16, 1990, and Archbishop of Caracas on September 19, 2005.  He was elected as the second Vice-President of the Venezuelan Episcopal Conference on January 10, 2006.

Cardinal.

Pope Benedict XVI created him Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria ai Monti in the consistory of March 24, 2006. Urosa is the fifth member of the College of Cardinals from Venezuela.  Besides his native Spanish, he speaks English, Italian, French, and Latin.  As of October 2011, he was the Honorary President of the Venezuelan Episcopal Conference.  He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis.  Pope Francis accepted his resignation as archbishop on 9 July 2018.

Views.

Cardinal Urosa rejected the creation of the Reformed Catholic Church in Venezuela, whose representatives were introduced in July 2008, as in line with the Bolivian socialism of President Hugo Chávez. He called the group as "an irregular association".  Urosa and his auxiliary bishops have warned against using the Mass for political purposes and declared that the Mass at which a blessing was given to the President-elect of Paraguay, former bishop Fernando Lugo, was not authorized by the archdiocese.

Jorge (Liberato) Urosa (y Savino) (born August 28, 1942) is a Venezuelan Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of Caracas from 2005 to 2018. He was made a cardinal in 2006.

Kardinal Jorge Liberato Urosa Savino (* 28. August 1942 in Caracas, Venezuela) ist ein venezolanischer Geistlicher und emeritierter römisch-katholischer Erzbischof von Caracas.


Life.

Education and priesthood.

Poreku Der was born in 1918 Zimuopare in the Ko Parish as the fourth of ten children to Theodore Poreku and Agnes Zoore in the house of his uncle Ngmankurinaa. He was born soon after the death of his immediate older brother. One other brother was Alipo Poreku.  The belief and practice of the Dagaare speaking people of North-Western Ghana and Southern Burkina-Faso dictates that a male child born not long after the death of his immediate elder brother is believed to be the reincarnation of the deceased brother and was thus given the additional name "Der" to demonstrate that. In keeping with that belief and practice his pagan parents thus referred to him as such.  He later converted to Roman Catholicism being baptized (alongside ten others) in Jirapa on 24 December 1932. He then altered his name "Der" with a "Y" at the end while taking the name "Peter" in honor of Saint Peter. In 1932 he was sent to Jirapa to become a catechist so he could return to his village to teach his people in the faith.  Poreku studied for the priesthood in Navrongo from 1934 to 1939 prior to commencing his philosophical and theological studies at Saint Victor's school in Wiagha. He received his ordination to the priesthood in Nandom at Saint Theresa's Church from Bishop Gérard Bertrand in 1951 before furthering his studies. He earned a diploma in social studies from the Saint Francis Xavier college in Antigonish in Canada in 1958 and also obtained his doctorate from the International Catechetical Institute "Lumen vitae" in Brussels in Belgium. The former permitted him to enter after the Knights of Columbus granted him a scholarship in 1957. He returned to his homeland in 1959 serving as a parochial vicar in Nandom before serving as the vicar-general for the Tamale archdiocese until 1960.

Episcopate.

On 16 March 1960 he was appointed as the first Bishop of Wa after Pope John XXIII created the new diocese. He received his episcopal consecration two months later from John XXIII himself with Bishops Napoléon-Alexandre Labrie and Venerable Fulton Sheen serving as the co-consecrators in Saint Peter's Basilica. Poreku made his formal installation in his new see on the following 10 June and then requested permission from competent ecclesial authorities in Rome to translate the Mass into Dagaare and have it sung in local melodies with local musical instruments; permission was given and he composed the first Dagaare Mass. This proved to be a significant milestone in the "Africanization" of the Ghanaian Church.  Poreku attended the Second Vatican Council and focused on the involvement of the faithful as well as both education and the promotion of vocations during his tenure. He was remembered in Wa for driving a Datsun saloon car with foodstuffs from Wa to Accra on terrible roads just so he could meet with the families of his old parishioners and to distribute food to people.  He was later named as the Apostolic Administrator for the Tamale archdiocese and later became the fourth Bishop of Tamale on 18 November 1974. He was the first non-religious to hold the position since all his predecessors had belonged to the White Fathers. He was promoted to the rank of a metropolitan archbishop upon Tamale's elevation to an archdiocese in 1977. From 1982 to 1988 he served as the president of the Ghanaian Episcopal Conference.  Poreku attended two sessions of episcopal gatherings that Pope John Paul II had convoked with the first being held from 24 November to 8 December 1985 and the second being held from 1–30 October 1987. It was at the former that he said Roman officials should allow for "enculturation" to allow for the Ghanaian Church to assume its own cultural sense of identification in "matters of life and worship". Poreku also served two terms on the Pontifical Council for the Laity during the pontificates of both Paul VI and John Paul II. He resigned from his position on 26 March 1994 after two decades of service and upon reaching the retirement age. The resignation letter was sent in 1993 but was not accepted after the pope responded "nunc pro tunc" meaning "not until we can replace" with a new archbishop. But the resignation was accepted not long after in 1994 after Poreku suffered a stroke.

Cardinalate.

Pope Benedict XVI created Poreku as the Cardinal-Deacon of Sant'Elena fuori Porta Prenestina on 26 March 2006 in Saint Peter's Square; he was elevated as one of the prelates over age 80 meaning that he was not eligible to vote in future papal conclaves. Poreku was in a wheelchair and was lifted onto the dais to greet Benedict XVI who conferred the red hat and title upon him.

Death and funeral.

Poreku died in his sleep at his Tamale residence on 6 March 2008 at 6:20 pm. His longtime aide Mark Attabeh and his doctor Augustine Kabir aided him in his final months. He had been bedridden for the last seven months of his life after slipping in 2007 causing hip difficulties. His remains were taken to the morgue before being taken to the archdiocesan cathedral to lie in state. On 31 March a vigil was held at Jubilee Park with Cardinal Peter Turkson presiding over the funeral on 1 April; the President John Kufuor and Vice-President Aliu Mahama were in attendance with Archbishop Peter Akwasi Sarpong delivering the sermon and Felix Owusu Adjepong delivering a tribute on the government's behalf.

Recognitions.

Poreku was granted several awards and recognitions during his life:

Beatification.

In June 2013 at a memorial service Mass held in Tamale it was announced that the cause for beatification would be initiated with the formal request lodged to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints on 15 June 2013. The "nihil obstat" (no objections) was declared on 13 July 2013 which allowed for Poreku to be titled as a Servant of God. The diocesan process commenced on 9 May 2015 in Tamale and was tasked with assembling documentation on his life and works as well as collecting testimonies from those who knew the late cardinal. As of June 2016 a total of 45 people had been interviewed as part of the process. Testimonies were heard in Tamale and Damongo as well as in Yendi and Navrongo-Bolgatanga with successive sessions to be heard in Wa.  The current postulator for this cause is Dr. Waldery Hilgeman.

Peter Poreku (10 May 1918 – 6 March 2008) – given the surname Der then Dery – was a Ghanaian Roman Catholic cardinal. He served as Archbishop of Tamale from 1974 to 1994 and was elevated to the cardinalate in 2006. Poreku had also served as the Bishop of Wa prior to his elevation as archbishop.

Peter Poreku Kardinal Dery (* 10. Mai 1918 in Zemuopare-Ko, Ghana; † 6. März 2008 in Tamale, Ghana) war Erzbischof von Tamale.


Discovery.

"Rutherfordia" was discovered on 4 November 1932, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southwest Germany. On 29 November 1932, it was independently discovered by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte at the Uccle Observatory in Belgium. The Minor Planet Center only recognizes the first discoverer.

Orbit and classification.

"Rutherfordia" is a member of the Flora family (), a giant asteroid family and the largest family of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.4 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,211 days; semi-major axis of 2.22 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.08 and an inclination of 5° with respect to the ecliptic.  The asteroid was first observed as at Simeiz Observatory in September 1925. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg on 22 November 1932, or three weeks after its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

In the Tholen classification, "Rutherfordia" is an S-type asteroid, as is the overall spectral type of the Flora family.

Rotation period.

Several rotational lightcurves of "Rutherfordia" have been obtained from photometric observations since 2001. The so-far best-rated lightcurve with a rotation period of 18.242 hours and a brightness amplitude of 0.71 magnitude, was measured by the Spanish amateur astronomer group OBAS in December 2015 (). The asteroid's elongated shape, indicated by its high brightness amplitude has previously been confirmed by physical modelling "(see below)."

Spin axis.

In 2013, an international study modeled a lightcurve from various data sources including the Uppsala Asteroid Photometric Catalogue and the Palomar Transient Factory survey. The lightcurve gave a concurring period of 18.2183 hours and allowed for the determination of two spin axis of (32.0°, 74.0°) and (197.0°, 65.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Rutherfordia" measures between 12.41 and 15.77 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.172 and 0.2778.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.2778 and a diameter of 12.41 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.54.

Naming.

Several sources erroneously attributed the naming of this asteroid to famous New Zealand-born British physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937). This minor planet, however, was named after the city of Rutherford, New Jersey, which is a inner suburb of metropolitan New York City. The naming was proposed by Irving Meyer and endorsed by German astronomer Gustav Stracke who mentioned on a postcard in February 1937, that his American college, Meyer, who himself did not discover any asteroids, requested the naming after the city of Rutherford, where a private observatory was located at the time.

1249 Rutherfordia, provisional designation, is an elongated, stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 13 kilometers in diameter. Discovered by Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in 1932, the asteroid was named after Rutherford, New Jersey a suburb of New York City, United States.

(1249) Rutherfordia ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 4. November 1932 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


Orbit and classification.

"Galanthus" is a non-family asteroid from the main belt's background population. It orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 1.9–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 1 month (1,488 days; semi-major axis of 2.55 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.27 and an inclination of 15° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg the night after its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

"Galanthus" is an assumed carbonaceous C-type asteroid.

Rotation period.

In the early 1980s, a rotational lightcurve of "Galanthus" was obtained during a survey conducted by Richard P. Binzel at the McDonald Observatory, Texas. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 3.92 hours with a brightness variation of 0.28 magnitude (). The period was confirmed from photometric observations by astronomers at the Palomar Transient Factory in October 2015, which gave a similar period of 3.918 hours and an amplitude of 0.22 magnitude ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Galanthus" measures between 17.18 and 21.00 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.04 and 0.06.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0500 and a diameter of 21.0 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.26.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after the herbaceous plant "Galanthus", also known as "snowdrop". The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

Reinmuth's flowers.

Due to his many discoveries, Karl Reinmuth submitted a large list of 66 newly named asteroids in the early 1930s. The list covered his discoveries with numbers between and. This list also contained a sequence of 28 asteroids, starting with 1054 Forsytia, that were all named after plants, in particular flowering plants "(also see list of minor planets named after animals and plants)".

1250 Galanthus, provisional designation, is a dark background asteroid from the central regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 20 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 25 January 1933, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg Observatory. The asteroid was named for the herbaceous plant "Galanthus", also known as "snowdrop".

(1250) Galanthus ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 25. Januar 1933 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


Biography.

Bonk began his career at BSG Motor Nema Netzschkau as a track and field athlete and set the East German youth record for the shot put in 1967 with 17.82 m. To build up the necessary strength for shot putting, he regularly lifted weights. After participating in weightlifting contests and having greater successes in it than in shot putting, he shifted his focus completely towards weightlifting in 1969 at SC Karl-Marx-Stadt, Chemnitz. His coach was Klaus Kroll, a former top weightlifter of the GDR. In 1971 Bonk became GDR super heavyweight champion (with a bodyweight above 110 kg). During the Baltic-Cup, in Lübeck in the same year, he had his international debut, where he made three failed pressing attempts. Being a top lifter, he was never able to beat Vasiliy Alekseyev from the Soviet Union or Rudolf Mang from Germany up to 1980. His specialty was the clean and jerk, where he set two world records. In 1980 he once more placed third at the European Championships and even lifted 430 kg (180–250) in a smaller competition. Because he was not nominated for the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow, he stepped back from professional weightlifting.  Bonk lived in Limbach/Vogtland as a pensioner. He was one of the prominent victims of doping in East Germany reporting in 2003 that he had "diabetes, a failing liver and his feet are numb, among a host of signs of a failing body".  In 2002 he was awarded the Georg von Opel Prize for Silent Winners in the category "Special Warriors".

World records.

Bonk set two world records in clean and jerk:

GDR Championships.

Bonk was East German champion in 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977 and 1979 and won another 15 East German champion titles in clean and press (until 1972), snatch and clean and jerk.

Gerd Bonk (26 August 1951 – 20 October 2014) was a weightlifter active for East Germany from 1969 to 1980 who during his career won a silver medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics, a bronze medal at the 1972 Summer Olympics, set two world records and achieved numerous other top-three ranks at World Championships and European Weightlifting Championships. He was also a master mechanic.

Gerd Bonk (* 26. August 1951 in Limbach, Landkreis Plauen, Sachsen; † 20. Oktober 2014 in Greiz) war ein deutscher Gewichtheber, der auf internationaler Ebene für die DDR startete. Er gehörte dem Sportclub SC Karl-Marx-Stadt an und zählte als 15-maliger Medaillengewinner bei Olympischen Spielen und Weltmeisterschaften in den 1970er Jahren zu den weltweit erfolgreichsten Protagonisten seiner Sportart. Zudem war der Sachse sowohl im Junioren- als auch im Seniorenbereich der erste DDR-Gewichtheber, der einen Weltrekord aufstellte. Nach dem Ende seiner leistungssportlichen Laufbahn arbeitete Bonk zunächst in seinem erlernten Beruf als Kfz-Mechaniker und wurde 1989 Invalidenrentner. Er galt als eines der bekanntesten Opfer des Dopings im DDR-Leistungssport.


Life.

Dang began studying the piano in Hanoi with his mother, Madame Thai Thi Lien, then a professor at the Vietnam National Academy of Music. He was discovered by a Russian pianist, Isaac Katz, on a visit to Vietnam in 1974. He studied at the Moscow Conservatory in Russia. In Moscow, he studied with Vladimir Natanson, a pupil of Samuil Feinberg, and subsequently with Dmitri Bashkirov.  Dang has performed in more than 40 countries and on concert stages such as Lincoln Center, Barbican Center (London), Salle Pleyel (Paris), Herculessaal (Munich), Musikverein (Vienna), Concertgebouw (Amsterdam), Sydney Opera House (Sydney) Suntory Hall (Tokyo).  He has played with numerous world-class orchestras such as The Philharmonia Orchestra, BBC Philharmonic, City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Orchestre de Paris, St-Petersburg Philharmonic, Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal, Czech Philharmonic, Staatskapelle Berlin, Dresden Philharmonic Oslo Philharmonic, Warsaw National Philharmonic, Prague Symphony, NHK Symphony, New Japan Philharmonic, Helsinki Philharmonic, Sydney Symphony, Hungarian State Symphony, Moscow Philharmonic, Russian National Symphony, as well as Virtuosi of Moscow, Sinfonia Varsovia, Vienna Chamber, Zurich Chamber, Royal Swedish Chamber Orchestras, and the Ensemble Orchestral de Paris. Also, he has appeared under the direction of Sir Neville Marriner, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Pinchas Zukerman, Mariss Jansons, Pavvo Jarvi, Ivan Fisher, Frans Bruggen, Vladimir Spivakov, Dimitri Kitaenko, Sakari Oramo and John Nelson among others.  In the field of chamber music, he has performed with the Berlin Philharmonic Octet, the Smetana String Quartet, Barry Tuckwell, Tsuyoshi Tsutsumi, Pinchas Zukerman, Boris Belkin, Joseph Suk, Alexander Rudin, and he has played duo-piano with Andrei Gavrilov.  Other career highlights include a New Year's Day concert (1995) with Yo Yo Ma, Seiji Ozawa, Kathleen Battle, and the late Mstislav Rostropovich, in a major international event produced by the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation NHK; in January 1999, a Gala-concert opening the Chopin year, where he was the only foreign artist invited to appear as soloist with the Warsaw National Opera Theatre Orchestra; concerts in Isaac Stern's last festival in Miyazaki, Japan in 2001, which included three performances with Pinchas Zukerman; a special performance in 2005 as the only guest artist at the Opening Gala Concert of the XVth International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw, where he was also a member of the jury; and on Chopin's 200th Birthday, March 1st, 2010, he played at the Gala Concert the Concerto in f-minor with the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century under the direction of Frans Bruggen at the Warsaw National Opera Theatre.  Dang Thai Son is frequently invited to give master classes around the world - such as the special class in Berlin in October, 1999, where he taught alongside Murray Perahia and Vladimir Ashkenazy. He has sat on the juries of prestigious competitions such as the Warsaw International Chopin Piano Competition (2005, 2010, 2015), Cleveland (USA), Clara Haskil (Switzerland), Artur Rubinstein (Tel-Aviv), Hamamatsu, Sendai (Japan), Piano Masters of Monte Carlo, Sviatoslav Richter (Moscow), Prague Spring International, Montreal International Piano Competition, and Ferruccio Busoni International Piano Competition among others.  During the 2012-2013 season, Dang Thai Son toured around the world with an ambitious program of all five Beethoven's piano concertos, the Beethoven Marathon. This colossal project was considered the most significant since his winning at the International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1980.  He was a visiting professor at the Kunitachi Music College (Tokyo), and has been teaching at the Universite de Montreal (Canada) for the last 20 years. Dang joined the piano faculty at the Oberlin Conservatory of Music in 2018 and will be teaching at the New England Conservatory in the Fall of 2020. He was named as Specially appointed Professor of Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Chinese National School of Music and China Conservatory of Music. In June of 2019, he was invited to be the honorary Professor at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing, China as well as visiting professor at the Taiwan National Normal University.  Dang is the winner of the Prix Opus in the 2016 "Concert of the Year" category for his concert presented by the Fondation Arte Musica at the Musee de Beaux Arts' Bourgie Hall in Montreal, Canada..  In September of 2018, Dang Thai Son received the Gold Medal "Zasluzony Kulturze Gloria Artis" (Medal for Merit to Culture) from the Ministry of Culture of Poland. This is the highest level of distinction awarded to people for their distinguished contributions to Polish culture and national heritage.  Dang Thai Son has received the "Doctor Honoris Causa" from the Music Academy in Bydgoczsz, Poland.

Discography.

Dang Thai Son has recorded for Deutsche Grammophone, Melodya, Polskie Nagrania, CBS Sony, Analekta, Victor JVC, and the Fryderyk Chopin Institute.  Mr. Dang's album "Chopin's Concertos" on Fryderyk Chopin Institute label was awarded in 2013 a Platinum Disc by the Polish Association of Audio-Video Producers for sales of over 10,000 copies. This disc features recordings of the Chopin Piano Concertos on a 1849 Erard piano and period instruments under the baton of the late Frans Bruggen and his Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century, documenting two memorable events in the festival "Chopin and his Europe" in 2005 and 2006.  Two exciting recording projects were released in 2017. The first one is a Schubert recording with Victor Kenwood Japan, a company that Dang Thai Son has worked with since 1995. The second recording devotes to Paderewski's compositions which includes the Piano Concerto in a minor and a selection of Paderewski's solo works. The Piano Concerto on this CD was recorded live with the Philharmonia Orchestra under the baton of Vladimir Ashkenazy during the "Chopin and his Europe" Festival in Warsaw on August 29th, 2015. This recording was selected as "La clef du mois" (Disc of the Month) by ResMusica (Paris, France.)  Dang Thai Son was chosen by Deutsche Grammophone, in partnership with The Frederyk Chopin Institute, to be featured as one of the artists in their recently released 2-volume recording of music of Chopin on period instruments.

Đặng Thái Sơn (born July 2, 1958 in Hanoi, Vietnam) is a Vietnamese-Canadian classical pianist. He was the Gold Medalist of the Tenth International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw, Poland in 1980, and became the first pianist from Asia to achieve this prize.

Đặng Thái Sơn (* 2. Juli 1958 in Hanoi, Vietnam) ist ein international tätiger Konzertpianist. Er erlangte Bekanntheit, als er im Oktober 1980 im Chopin-Wettbewerb von Warschau den ersten Preis errang.


Early life.

Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Dana graduated from the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University. Before becoming a race driver, he worked as a mechanic, a private racing coach, a driving instructor, and a PR & marketing account representative. He also was an editor and journalist covering motorsport, his writing having appeared in "AutoWeek", "Sports Illustrated" and "Maxim".

Racing career.

In 1996 Dana was working as a mechanic at the Bridgestone Racing School in Ontario when he won his first races there. In 1998 he moved to Indianapolis and began competing in Barber Dodge Pro Series, and his top 20 finish earned him an invitation to the inaugural Formula Dodge National Championship. He then competed in the Infiniti Pro Series where he captured one race win and placed second in the 2004 championship. He then secured sponsorship to run in the IndyCar Series with sponsorship from Ethanol suppliers, which he brought to Hemelgarn Racing.  After competing in three IndyCar Series events, Dana suffered a spinal fracture while practicing for the 2005 Indianapolis 500 and missed the rest of the season, replaced by Jimmy Kite. He returned to the series to race for Rahal Letterman Racing after he recovered from his injuries.

Death.

In the practice session for the first race of the 2006 IndyCar Series season, at Homestead-Miami Speedway, Dana collided with Ed Carpenter's disabled car after Carpenter's tire went flat, thrusting Carpenter's car into a retaining wall, before it slid to the bottom of the track. Dana, in the Rahal-Letterman car, was told to "go low" by his spotter. Slow-motion footage showed that Dana had hit debris from Carpenter's car just before impact, which caused damage to the right-front suspension and prevented effective braking.  ABC/ESPN's telemetry indicated Dana's car hit Carpenter's car at about, while Scott Sharp, who was running alongside Dana, reported that he had slowed to approximately by the time of Dana's impact.  Dana was transported to Jackson Memorial Hospital, where he died due to complications from injuries sustained in the crash. He was 30 years old, and was survived by his wife Tonya. The morning of his death, Dana's wife found out she was expecting their first child.  After his death, Dana's teammates Buddy Rice and Danica Patrick did not compete in the race as a mark of respect for their deceased teammate.  On his March 27, 2006, television show, an emotional David Letterman paused during his monologue to offer his condolences to Dana's family:It's not hard to imagine the despair and sorrow that Paul Dana's wife, Tonya, and the rest of his family are feeling now, and I want them to know that they have the thoughts and the prayers of myself, the entire Rahal-Letterman team, and the entire racing community and, hopefully, that will give them the slightest amount of comfort. I did not know Paul personally but we were all proud to have him on our team and are deeply saddened by his tragic passing at such a young age.

Paul Dana (; April 15, 1975 – March 26, 2006) was an American racing driver in the Indy Racing League IndyCar Series.

Paul Dana (* 15. April 1975 in St. Louis, Missouri, Vereinigte Staaten; † 26. März 2006 in Miami, Florida) war ein US-amerikanischer Autorennfahrer. Er wurde 2004 Vizemeister der Infiniti Pro Series. 2005 und 2006 startete er bis zu seinem Tod in der IndyCar Series.


Plot.

On a Northeastern United States college campus. Derrick Webb, Cathy Jones (referred to as simply "Jones") and Travis are students as well as roommates. They all take a Communications class with Professor Goodwin, in which the subject of gossip is brought up. For their final project, the three decide to start a rumor and track the results.  One night, while at a nightclub, they run into Naomi Preston and her boyfriend Beau Edson. It is common knowledge through the campus that Naomi is saving her virginity for marriage. Jones, in particular, has a problem with Naomi's wealth and sense of entitlement. Furthermore, Naomi seems to have started a rumor about Jones having sex with Goodwin.  While at the party, Derrick meets a girl and brings her upstairs. At this point, the girl becomes ill; Derrick then notices Beau and Naomi in the adjacent room kissing. Beau attempts to have sex with Naomi but is rejected. Derrick, Jones and Travis proceed to begin a rumor that Naomi and Beau had sex. Naomi soon discovers the rumor, but denies it to her friends and becomes convinced she was raped by Beau; under the encouragement of her friends, she reports it to the police. As a result, Beau is expelled.  It is eventually revealed that Derrick and Naomi came from the same hometown and were a couple in high school; much like Beau, Naomi refused Derrick and Derrick raped Naomi. He denied the allegation and said Naomi made it up so her father wouldn't be upset with her; as a result, his popularity at school skyrocketed, so he moved after graduation and intentionally wanted to spread a rumor about Naomi as revenge. Beau learns this, and the two fight. Derrick manages to manipulate Beau into thinking they're both victims of Naomi's lies. Derrick goes to Naomi's dorm to confront her, but she attacks him and he leaves.  The next day, Naomi is pronounced dead and, because of Derrick and Naomi's past (plus the new marks on Derrick's face), campus police accuse Derrick of killing her. Investigators come to his apartment to search for clues and their suspicions intensify. Under the overwhelming psychological pressure, Derrick confesses to raping Naomi to Travis. The investigation was proven to be a setup by Jones, Travis and Goodwin. To Derrick's surprise, following his admission, Naomi steps forward.

Reception.

"Gossip" received negative reviews from critics and currently holds a 28% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 65 reviews.

Box office.

The film opened at #12 at the North American box office making $2.3 million USD in its opening weekend. The film suffered a 59% decline in box office earnings the following week, descending to #17.

Gossip is a 2000 American teen psychological thriller film directed by Davis Guggenheim and featuring an ensemble cast including James Marsden, Lena Headey, Norman Reedus, and Kate Hudson.

Tödliche Gerüchte (Originaltitel: "Gossip") ist ein amerikanischer Film aus dem Jahr 2000, der unter der Regie von Davis Guggenheim entstand. Das englische Wort "Gossip" bezeichnet im weiteren Sinne Gerüchte bzw. Tratsch und/oder Klatsch.


British years.

Marilyn gained three Women's AAA titles as a junior in the 100 yds and 150 yds in the under 15s category in 1967 and won the 220 yds in the under 17 category in 1968. In 1969, she was second at the Women's AAA Championships behind Dorothy Hyman in the 200 m, where she ran 24.3 seconds. Marilyn first appeared on the international scene in September 1969, when she ran the 4 × 400 m in a Great Britain vs West Germany match in Hamburg. In March 1970, she competed for Great Britain in the European Indoor Athletics Championships and won gold over 400 m in 53.01, breaking her outdoor PB of 54.2 and the world indoor record, as well as the UK National Junior Indoor Record which stood until February 2019 when Amber Anning ran 53.00 dead. Later in 1970, she won the WAAA outdoor title at the same distance in 52.6.

Jamaican years.

In the summer, before the 1970 British Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh Marilyn chose to represent her country of birth, Jamaica over her country of residence. This caused wide controversy with many members of the British public saying she had betrayed where she was trained and considered her switch like treason. At the Commonwealth Games Neufville established a new world record by improving the preceding mark previously held by the Frenchwomen Colette Besson and Nicole Duclos with 51.0 (electronically timed as 51.02) at the age of 17. This made her the first and so far only Jamaican female athlete to break an outdoor world record. In 1970, she gained more recognition at ISTAF athletics meet in Berlin then at the AAA championships running 52.6 in front of Germany’s Christel Frese and Inge Eckhoff. In 1971, in the indoor AAA championships, Marilyn was beaten by Jannette Champion which reversed the result of the previous year. The same year, in the Pan-American Championships in Cali, she gained her third gold medal and bronze in the 4 × 400 m. At the 1971 Central American and Caribbean Championships she won a fourth gold medal. Her successes earned her two Jamaica Sportswoman of the year awards in 1970 and 1971. In 1972, she enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley. She is still ranked number 3 on the school's all-time list. After battling with injuries Marilyn returned at the 1974 British Commonwealth Games but was a shadow of her former self only finishing sixth in the 400 m final. In the 1976 Summer Olympics Neufville made her Olympic debut finishing fourth in her heat but had to pull out of her round 2 heat through injury.

Honours.

European Athletics Indoor Championships.

1970 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Vienna, Austria

British Commonwealth Games.

1970 British Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, Scotland 1974 British Commonwealth Games in Christchurch, New Zealand

Pan-American Games.

1971 Pan American Games in Cali, Colombia

Central American and Caribbean Championships.

1971 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Athletics in Kingston, Jamaica

Marilyn Fay Neufville (born 16 November 1952) is a retired sprint runner who was active between 1967 and 1971. Neufville broke the world record in the 400 m and won four gold medals and one bronze in various regional championships. Born in Jamaica, she emigrated at eight years old to Great Britain.

Marilyn Neufville (* 16. November 1952 in Hectors River, Portland Parish) ist eine ehemalige britisch-jamaikanische Sprinterin. Sie stellte zwei Weltrekorde im 400-Meter-Lauf auf und gewann bei internationalen Veranstaltungen vier Goldmedaillen.


Use as praise versus criticism.

The term conceit can be used positively or derogatorily.  In modern writing (e.g., reviews of movies or books, or descriptions of others' inventions or ideas), the word "conceit", when used by itself without preceding adjectives (such as "brilliant" or "unpersuasive"), tends to be used more often as criticism than as praise. Such use is especially common when writing for a broad audience rather than specialists in poetry or literary criticism. Which sense is actually intended, however, must be inferred from the overall content and tone of the passage containing the phrase.

In poetry.

Metaphysical.

In English literature the term is generally associated with the 17th century metaphysical poets, an extension of contemporary usage. The metaphysical conceit differs from an extended analogy in the sense that it does not have a clear-cut relationship between the things being compared. Helen Gardner observed that "a conceit is a comparison whose ingenuity is more striking than its justness" and that "a comparison becomes a conceit when we are made to concede likeness while being strongly conscious of unlikeness." An example of the latter occurs in John Donne's "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", in which a couple faced with absence from each other is likened to a compass.  <poem> Dull sublunary lovers' love Absence, because it doth remove  But we by a love so much refined, Inter-assured of the mind,  Our two souls therefore, which are one, A breach, but an expansion,  If they be two, they are two so Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show  And though it in the center sit, It leans and hearkens after it,  Such wilt thou be to me, who must, Thy firmness makes my circle just,  The metaphysical conceit is often imaginative, exploring specific parts of an experience. John Donne's "" is a poem seemingly about fleas in a bed. When Sir Philip Sidney begins a sonnet with the conventional idiomatic expression "My true-love hath my heart and I have his", he takes the metaphor literally and teases out a number of literal possibilities in the exchange of hearts. The result is a fully formed conceit.

Petrarchan.

The Petrarchan conceit is a form of love poetry wherein a man's love interest is referred to in hyperbole. For instance, the lover is a ship on a stormy sea, and his mistress is either "a cloud of dark disdain" or the sun.  The paradoxical pain and pleasure of lovesickness is often described using oxymoron, for instance uniting peace and war, burning and freezing, and so forth. But images which were novel in the sonnets of Petrarch, in his innovative exploration of human feelings, became clichés in the poetry of later imitators. Romeo uses hackneyed Petrarchan conceits when describing his love for Rosaline as "bright smoke, cold fire, sick health".

Etymology.

In the Renaissance, the term (which is related to the word concept) indicated any particularly fanciful expression of wit, and was later used pejoratively of outlandish poetic metaphors.  Recent literary critics have used the term to mean simply the style of extended and heightened metaphor common in the Renaissance and particularly in the 17th century, without any particular indication of value. Within this critical sense, the Princeton Encyclopedia makes a distinction between two kinds of conceits: the Metaphysical conceit, described above, and the Petrarchan conceit. In the latter, human experiences are described in terms of an outsized metaphor (a kind of metaphorical hyperbole), like the stock comparison of eyes to the sun, which Shakespeare makes light of in his Sonnet 130: "My mistress' eyes are nothing like the sun."

In modern literary criticism, more common with genre fiction, conceit often means an extended rhetorical device, summed up in a short phrase, that refers to a situation which either does not exist, or exists rarely, but is needed for the plot.

Ein Concetto (ital.), auch concepto (span.), conceit (engl.), ist ein scharfsinniger Einfall, der zwei eigentlich disparate Wirklichkeitsbereiche in Form eines Vergleiches, einer Metapher, einer Allegorie oder eines Rätsels miteinander in Verbindung bringt, um aufgrund einer gesuchten Analogie eine besondere Überraschungswirkung zu erzielen und auf einprägsame Weise eine neue Einsicht zu ermöglichen.