Early life.

Karin Ugowski was born in Berlin Johannisthal, Germany during the last stage of The Battle of Berlin in the middle of the Berlin bombings, 2 years before the end of Second World War. She grew up in postwar Germany behind the Iron Curtain and her parents were both wartime traumatized. After finishing Gymnasiale Oberstufe (comparable to Highschool in US) she was intended to study medicine. Against the will of her parents she attended to the Film University Babelsberg in 1962 and received her B.A. in drama from the Film University Babelsberg, Germany in 1965. She has a younger brother.

Career.

During her acting studies she already gained notice and received widespread recognition for her enchanting but self-confident impersonations of the princess roles in German classic theatrical motion pictures in the early 1960s based on historical fairy tales, like "Mother Holly" (1963), "The Golden Goose" (1964) and "King Thrushbeard" (1965) co-starring German cult actor Manfred Krug. Her first cinema appearances were heavily related to an ideal of female youth and beauty in the 1960s of postwar Germany. In this time she already became an up-and-coming film star building a fan base, which still remains until today for these old film classics, which are still airing in German TV frequently.  Already during her first film work she fell in love with theater, especially the experimental and political theatre, which was able to change something in the time of upheaval in Germany. As a permanent company member of the Volksbuehne Berlin theatre, she worked early with great personalities such as Benno Besson, Heiner Müller and later Frank Castorf, Johann Kresnik, Leander Haußmann, Christoph Schlingensief and other Berlin theater-greats with guest performances all over the world. This is how she became a member of the political movement "Neues Forum" in the late 1980s, supporting the political rally in November 1989 at the Berlin Alexanderplatz, which was part of the Fall of the Berlin Wall and the lifting of the Iron Curtain leading to the end of the Cold War.  The actress, who has frequently campaigned for art and culture support and development in Germany in the last decades and has carried a yearly exhibition festival with her husband to support artists in this area, became a talking point recently again by participating in a supporting role as mother of the lead in Samuel Maoz's latest international motion picture "Foxtrot" (Israel, 2017), a sequel of his award-winning motion picture Lebanon (2009), which will likely screen in Cannes and won the Silver lion (Grand Prix de Jury) at the Biennale 2017/18.  In all, the actress was involved in over 80 theater productions and over 150 film and television productions. Politically, Karin Ugowski can be considered as critical of any system, reasoned by her own history and which is mirrored in her commitment for political theater and various interpretive readings up to today. Since 2006, Karin Ugowski is an active member of the German Film Academy and member of the jury for the German film award (LOLA).

Personal life.

During her acting studies in the time when she came to be known for her first motion picture appearances in the 1960s she met her first husband Eberhart Ugowski and married very quickly. In this time her first son was born. Even if the marriage only lasted for a few years, her last name by which she is known (Ugowski) remains from this marriage. Since then she kept the name even after the divorce in 1967 because of the name recognition.  In the 1970s she was in a long-term relationship with the actor and well-known theater director Helmut Straßburger she met when working with him on theater stagings, bringing her second son into the world: the author, play wright, independent stage director and film maker, composer and music producer Sebastian Ugovsky (sometimes credited as Gilmano for musical works), the founder of the music record label REQQORD (formerly Slo' Jam) in Berlin, Germany, who has contributed music titles to film scores of motion pictures like The Equalizer (2014, Denzel Washington).  Karin Ugowski has cultivated a long-term friendship with the author and play wright Peter Brasch, brother of also well-known author, poet and play write Thomas Brasch and the actor Klaus Brasch. The parents of the Brasch brothers were Jewish immigrants to the UK in the late 1930s during the pogrom in Germany and moved back to Germany after the end of Second World War, which made both authors, Thomas and Peter, being strongly driven by the dream for eternal peace and freedom of thought in their work, a common ground between the Braschs and Karin Ugowski. Peter Brasch had a crash on Karin Ugowski and has dedicated a book of poetry to her (inscription) and wrote another radio play called "The Golden Goose - an audio drama adaptation" in 1989 inspired by her role of princess Roswitha in the classic movie. He died in 2001. He was one of the first having insights in the first writings of Karin Ugowski's son Sebastian Ugovsky.  Since 1993 she's married to the painter and scenographer Günter Horn, the last living advisee of the famous painter Otto Nagel.

Filmography.

A selection of Cinema and TV motion pictures.

Theatrography.

A selection.

Karin Ugowski née Karin Komischke (born July 11, 1943) is a German film and stage actress, voice actress, narrator, film producer and furtherer of art and culture in Germany with various stations of work in UK, France, Italy, Israel, Russia, Hungary, Poland, Spain, US and Germany.

Karin Ugowski (* 11. Juli 1943 in Berlin als "Karin Komischke") ist eine deutsche Film- und Theaterschauspielerin, Synchronsprecherin, Sprecherin, Produzentin, Kunst- und Kulturförderin sowie Kultur-Veranstalterin mit Arbeitsstationen in Deutschland, Großbritannien, Frankreich, Italien, Russland, Israel, Ungarn, Polen und den USA.


Biography.

Mlynek studied physics from 1970 to 1976 at the Technical University of Hannover and at the École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1979, he obtained his doctor ́s degree and habilitated in 1984.  Between 1976 and 1981, Mlynek was a scientific assistant in Hannover and in 1982 he worked for one year as a post-doctoral fellow with the IBM Research Laboratory in San Jose, California. After three years as academic assistant in Hannover he became a Heisenberg fellow of the German Research Foundation (DFG – Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) in 1985 and served as assistant professor at the ETH Zurich from 1986 to 1990.  In 1990, Mlynek became a full professor for experimental physics at the University of Konstanz. There he realized an atom inferometer for the first time and conducted groundbreaking experiments in the field of atom optics and quantum optics. Among them are his works on the Heisenberg microscope and the measurement of the Wigner function of the quantum state of matter and light. Since 2000 he has been professor for experimental physics at the Humboldt University of Berlin.  From 1996 to 2001, he was vice president of the German Research Foundation (DFG) where he dedicated himself to encouraging young academics. Between 2000 and 2005, Mlynek was president of the Humboldt University. During his term of presidency, he had to implement a series of reforms due to drastic reductions in order to downsize structures and to promote excellence. Besides, the sciences moved from Berlin Mitte to Adlershof and it was decided to build the Grimm library in Berlin Mitte.  In 2005, shortly after his reelection as president of the Humboldt University, Mlynek switched to the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres, Germany’s largest science organization, and became president. In June 2009, he was reelected for a second and last presidential term (2010-2015). During his presidency, program-oriented research was enhanced and the Helmholtz mission was strengthened in terms of strategic research for the national benefit. In addition, he developed new tools of strategic cooperation with universities like Helmholtz alliances and Helmholtz Institutes.  In 2006, Mlynek was one of the co-founders of the foundation "Haus der kleinen Forscher" which was supported by the Helmholtz Association from the beginning. It has now become the most successful initiative on education for young children in the German speaking countries. Furthermore, he established the Helmholtz Management Academy for teaching management techniques in the domain of science. The academy is also open to partner organizations and universities.  Since September 2015 he has resumed teaching as a professor in the physics department of the Humboldt University. Since the spring term in 2016, he has been officially released as a professor. Among his offices are Chairman of the Board of Trustees at the Falling Walls Foundation, Chairman of the Foundation Board at the "Haus der kleinen Forscher", Chairman of the Board of Trustees at the Foundation Brandenburger Tor, board member of the Wilhelm und Else Heraeus Foundation, as well as member of various university and science committees. Furthermore, he is a board member of the Holtzbrinck publishing group, of the company Carl Zeiss and WISTA-Management GmbH.  Mlynek worked in the field of experimental quantum optics, atomic physics and surface physics. He has published more than 200 papers (SCI:7875 / h-index:47).  He is married since 1972 to teacher Dagmar Mlynek and has two sons.

Honors and awards.

Mlynek is a member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, National Academy of Science and Engineering (acatech) and the Academia Europaea.

Jürgen Mlynek (born in Gronau, Lower Saxony on 15 March 1951) is a German physicist and was president of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres from 2005 to 2015.

Jürgen Mlynek (* 15. März 1951 in Gronau (Leine)) ist ein deutscher Physiker und war von 2005 bis 2015 Präsident der Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft.


Background.

The aircraft involved in this accident, initially registered D-ADBQ, was first flown on 29 December 1997 and operated by DBA from 1998. It was leased by Helios Airways on 16 April 2004, when it was re-registered 5B-DBY with nickname "Olympia". Besides the downed aircraft, the Helios fleet also included two leased Boeing 737-800s and an Airbus A319-100 which were delivered on 14 May 2005.  The plane had arrived at Larnaca International Airport at 01:25 local time on the day of the accident. It was scheduled to leave Larnaca at 09:00 and fly to Prague Ruzyně International Airport with a stop off at Athens International Airport where it was due to arrive at 10:45. The captain of the flight was Hans-Jürgen Merten, a 59-year-old German contract pilot hired by Helios for holiday flights, who had been flying for 35 years (previously for Interflug before 1990) and had accrued a total of 16,900 flight hours, including 5,500 hours on the Boeing 737. The first officer was Pampos Charalambous, a 51-year-old Cypriot pilot who had flown exclusively for Helios for the past five years, accruing 7,549 flight hours throughout his career, 3,991 of them on the Boeing 737. Louisa Vouteri, a 32-year-old Greek national living in Cyprus, had replaced a sick colleague as the chief flight attendant.

Flight and crash.

When the aircraft arrived from London earlier that morning, the previous flight crew had reported a frozen door seal and abnormal noises coming from the right aft service door. They requested a full inspection of the door. The inspection was carried out by a ground engineer who then performed a pressurization leak check. In order to carry out this check without requiring the aircraft's engines, the pressurisation system was set to "manual". However, the engineer failed to reset it to "auto" on completion of the test.  After the aircraft was returned into service, the flight crew overlooked the pressurisation system state on three separate occasions: during the pre-flight procedure, the after-start check, and the after take-off check. During these checks, no one in the flight crew noticed the incorrect setting. The aircraft took off at 9:07 with the pressurisation system still set to "manual", and the aft outflow valve partially open.  As the aircraft climbed, the pressure inside the cabin gradually decreased. As it passed through an altitude of, the cabin altitude warning horn sounded. The warning should have prompted the crew to stop climbing, but it was misidentified by the crew as a take-off configuration warning, which signals that the aircraft is not ready for take-off, and can only sound on the ground. The alert sound is identical for both warnings.  In the next few minutes, several warning lights on the overhead panel in the cockpit illuminated. One or both of the equipment cooling warning lights came on to indicate low airflow through the cooling fans (a result of the decreased air density), accompanied by the master caution light. The passenger oxygen light illuminated when, at an altitude of approximately, the oxygen masks in the passenger cabin automatically deployed.  Shortly after the cabin altitude warning sounded, the captain radioed the Helios operations centre and reported "the take-off configuration warning on" and "cooling equipment normal and alternate off line". He then spoke to the ground engineer and repeatedly stated that the "cooling ventilation fan lights were off". The engineer (the one who had conducted the pressurization leak check) asked "Can you confirm that the pressurization panel is set to AUTO?" However, the captain, already experiencing the onset of hypoxia's initial symptoms, disregarded the question and instead asked in reply, "Where are my equipment cooling circuit breakers?". This was the last communication with the aircraft.  The aircraft continued to climb until it leveled off at FL340, approximately. Between 09:30 and 09:40, Nicosia ATC repeatedly attempted to contact the aircraft, without success. At 09:37, the aircraft passed from Cyprus flight information region (FIR) into Athens FIR, without making contact with Athens ATC. Nineteen attempts to contact the aircraft between 10:12 and 10:50 also met with no response, and at 10:40 the aircraft entered the holding pattern for Athens Airport, at the KEA VHF omnidirectional range, still at FL340. It remained in the holding pattern, under control of the auto-pilot, for the next 70 minutes.  Two F-16 fighter aircraft from the Hellenic Air Force 111th Combat Wing were scrambled from Nea Anchialos Air Base to establish visual contact. They intercepted the passenger jet at 11:24 and observed that the first officer was slumped motionless at the controls and the captain's seat was empty. They also reported that oxygen masks were dangling in the passenger cabin.  At 11:49, flight attendant Andreas Prodromou entered the cockpit and sat down in the captain's seat, having remained conscious by using a portable oxygen supply. Prodromou held a UK Commercial Pilot Licence, but was not qualified to fly the Boeing 737. Crash investigators concluded that Prodromou's experience was insufficient for him to be able to gain control of the aircraft under the circumstances. Prodromou waved at the F-16s very briefly, but almost as soon as he entered the cockpit, the left engine flamed out due to fuel exhaustion and the plane left the holding pattern and started to descend. Ten minutes after the loss of power from the left engine, the right engine also flamed out, and just before 12:04 the aircraft crashed into hills near Grammatiko, from Athens, killing all 121 passengers and crew on board.

Passengers.

The aircraft was carrying 115 passengers and a crew of six. The passengers included 67 due to disembark at Athens, with the remainder continuing to Prague. The bodies of 118 people were recovered. The passenger list included 93 adults and 22 children. The passengers comprised 103 Cypriot nationals and 12 Greek nationals.

Investigation.

The flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder were sent to Paris for analysis. The CVR recording enabled investigators to identify Prodromou as the flight attendant who entered the cockpit in order to try to save the plane. He called "Mayday" five times but, because the radio was still tuned to Larnaca, not Athens, he was not heard by ATC. His voice was recognized by colleagues who listened to the CVR recording.  Many of the bodies recovered were burned beyond recognition by the post-impact fire. Autopsies on the crash victims showed that all were alive at the time of impact, but it could not be determined whether they were conscious as well.  The emergency oxygen supply in the passenger cabin of this model of Boeing 737 is provided by chemical generators that provide enough oxygen, through breathing masks, to sustain consciousness for about 12 minutes, normally sufficient for an emergency descent to 10,000 feet (3,000 m), where atmospheric pressure is sufficient for humans to sustain consciousness without supplemental oxygen. Cabin crew have access to portable oxygen sets with considerably longer duration.  The Hellenic Air Accident Investigation and Aviation Safety Board (AAIASB) listed the direct causal chain of events that led to the accident as:

Previous pressurization problems.

On 16 December 2004, during an earlier flight from Warsaw, the same aircraft experienced a rapid loss of cabin pressure and the crew made an emergency descent. The cabin crew reported to the captain that there had been a bang from the aft service door, and that there was a hand-sized hole in the door's seal. The Air Accident and Incident Investigation Board (AAIIB) of Cyprus could not conclusively determine the causes of the incident, but indicated two possibilities: an electrical malfunction causing the opening of the outflow valve, or the inadvertent opening of the aft service door.  The mother of the first officer killed in this crash claimed that her son had repeatedly complained to Helios about the aircraft getting cold. Passengers also reported problems with air conditioning on Helios flights. During the 10 weeks before the crash, the aircraft's environmental control system was repaired or inspected seven times.  A 2003 flight of a Boeing 737 between Marseilles and London Gatwick showed that a cabin-wide pressurization fault can be recognized by the flight crew. A problem was first noticed when the crew began to feel some discomfort in their ears. This was shortly followed by the cabin altitude warning horn which indicated that the cabin altitude had exceeded 10,000 feet and this was seen to continue to climb on the cockpit gauge. At the same time, the primary AUTO mode of the pressure control failed, shortly followed by the secondary STBY mode. The crew selected the first manual pressure control mode, but were unable to control the cabin altitude. An emergency descent and subsequent diversion to Lyon was carried out. The failure of the pressurization control system was traced to burnt electrical wiring in the area aft of the aft cargo hold. The wiring loom had been damaged by abrasion with either a p-clip or "zip" strap that, over time, exposed the conductors, leading to short circuits and subsequent burning of the wires. There was no other damage. The wiring for all the modes of operation of the rear outflow valve, in addition to other services, run through this loom.

Subsequent developments.

The company announced successful safety checks on their Boeing fleet on 29 August 2005 and put them back into service. It later changed its name from "Helios Airways" to "αjet". However, when authorities in Cyprus detained the company's aircraft and froze the company's bank accounts about a year later, the airline announced that it would stop operating on 31 October 2006.  In March 2011, the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States released an Airworthiness Directive requiring all Boeing 737 aircraft from −100 to −500 models to be fitted with two additional cockpit warning lights. These would indicate problems with take-off configuration or pressurization. Aircraft on the United States civil register were required to have the additional lights by 14 March 2014.

Lawsuits and criminal proceedings.

Families of the dead filed a lawsuit against Boeing on 24 July 2007. Their lawyer, Constantinos Droungas, said, "Boeing put the same alarm in place for two different types of dysfunction. One was a minor fault, but the other – the loss of oxygen in the cockpit – is extremely important." He also said that similar problems had been encountered before on Boeings in Ireland and Norway. The families sued for 76 million euros in compensation from Boeing.  In early 2008, an Athens prosecutor charged six former employees with manslaughter over the incident. Reports at the time said the suspects were two Britons, one Bulgarian national, and three Cypriots.  On 23 December 2008, Helios Airways and four of its officials were charged in Cyprus with 119 counts of manslaughter and of causing death by recklessness and negligence. The four officials were former chief pilot Ianko Stoimenov, chairman of the board Andreas Drakos, chief executive officer Demetris Pantazis, and operations manager Giorgos Kikidis. The trial began in November 2009; the state prosecutors finished presenting their case in June 2011. The case was dismissed, and the defendants acquitted, on 21 December 2011. The panel of judges hearing the case ruled that there was no "causal association between the defendants and the negligence they were charged with for the fatal accident". An appeal was filed by the Cypriot Attorney-general, and in December 2012 the Supreme Court set aside the acquittal and ordered a new trial. Two months later, the retrial was dropped under double jeopardy rules, as the charges had already been heard in Athens.  In December 2011, shortly after the end of the case in Cyprus, a new trial began in a Greek magistrate's court in which chief executive officer Demetris Pantazis, flight operations manager Giorgos Kikkides, former chief pilot Ianko Stoimenov and chief engineer Alan Irwin were charged with manslaughter. All except Irwin had been previously charged and acquitted by the Cypriot authorities. In April 2012 all were found guilty and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and remained free on bail pending an appeal.  As of August 2013, all defendants lost their appeal at the Athens High Court. Their sentence of 10 years was ordered to stand but the defendants were given the option to buy out their sentence for around €75,000 each. Greek investigators blamed the crash of the Helios Airways flight outside Athens on human error after the aircraft failed to pressurize after taking off from Larnaca Airport. Prosecutors in both countries blamed airline officials for cutting corners on safety operations while also saying that they failed to act on advice that the pilots did not meet the necessary aviation standards.  Relatives of the dead filed a class action suit against the Cypriot government – specifically the Department of Civil Aviation – for negligence that led to the air disaster. They claim that the DCA was ignoring airlines' loose enforcement of regulations, and that in general the department cut corners when it came to flight safety.

In popular culture.

The Discovery Channel Canada / National Geographic TV series "Mayday" featured the accident in a Season 4 episode titled "Ghost Plane". The accident was featured again during "Mayday" season 6, in an episode titled "Ripped Apart".

References.

Cited text:

Helios Airways Flight 522 was a scheduled passenger flight from Larnaca, Cyprus to Prague, Czech Republic with a stopover to Athens, Greece, that crashed on 14 August 2005, killing all 121 passengers and crew on board. A loss of cabin pressurization incapacitated the crew, leaving the aircraft flying on autopilot until it ran out of fuel and crashed near Grammatiko, Greece. It was the deadliest aviation accident in Greek history.

Helios-Airways-Flug 522 (HCY 522) war ein Linienflug der zyprischen Helios Airways von Larnaka über Athen nach Prag. Am 14. August 2005 zerschellte die eingesetzte Boeing 737-300 an einem Hügel nahe dem Dorf Grammatiko, Gemeinde Marathon in Griechenland, etwa 33 Kilometer vom Athener Flughafen entfernt. Alle 121 Insassen kamen ums Leben.


Career in Venezuela.

In May 1791, the Caracas Council (Cabildo) gave him a position as teacher in the "Reading and Writing School for Children". In 1794, he presented his critical writing "Reflection on the flaws vitiating the Reading and Writing School for Children in Caracas and Means of Achieving its Reform and a New Establishment" to the council, which represented an original approach to a modern school system. His role in the failed Gual and España conspiracy against the Spanish crown in 1797 forced him to leave Venezuela.

Exile.

In Kingston, Jamaica he changed his name to Samuel Robinson, and after staying some years in the United States he traveled to France (1801). There, in 1804, he met his former protégé, Simón Bolivar; together they made a long journey across Europe. They witnessed the coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte in Milan, as King of Italy and in Rome, witnessed how Bolívar took his famous oath that he would liberate all of America from the Spanish Crown, and registered it for history: "I swear before you; I swear on my parent’s God; I swear on them; I swear on my honor; and I swear on my Motherland; that I won’t give rest to my arm, nor repose to my soul, until I have broken the chains that oppress us by will of the Spanish power."  Between 1806 and 1823, Rodríguez lived in Italy, Germany, Prussia, Poland and Russia. He would later say of this time: "I stayed in Europe for more than twenty years; I worked in an Industrial Chemistry Laboratory [...] attended some secret socialist-oriented meetings [...] studied a little literature; learned languages and directed a Reading and Writing School in a small Russian town".  Rodríguez returned to America in 1823, using his name "Simón Rodríguez" again. In Colombia he established the first workshop-school in 1824. He was called to Peru by Simón Bolívar and became "Director for Public Education, Physical and Mathematical Sciences and Arts" and "Director of Mines, Agriculture and Public Roads" of Bolivia.  In 1826, Rodríguez established a second workshop-school, as part of a project for all Bolivia. But Antonio José de Sucre, president of Bolivia since October 1826, did not have a good relationship with him, and Rodríguez resigned the same year, working during the rest of his life as educator and writer, living alternatively in different places of Peru, Chile and Ecuador. His work "Sociedades Americanas" ("American Societies") was divided in several issues and published in Arequipa (1828), in Concepción (1834), Valparaíso (1838), and Lima (1842).

Last years and legacy.

Most of Rodríguez's written works remained in Guayaquil, Ecuador, but were lost in the large city fire of 1896. Rodriguez is the face on the 50 Bolivar Fuerte bills. He was also the face in the old 20,000 Bolívar bills (until 2007). One of the Bolivarian Missions of Hugo Chávez, Mission Robinson, is named for him.

Tribute.

On October 28, 2018, Rodríguez was honoured with a Google Doodle posthumously on his 249th birthday.

Simón Rodríguez (October 28, 1769, Caracas, Venezuela – February 28, 1854, Amotape, Peru), known during his exile from Spanish America as Samuel Robinson, was a Venezuelan philosopher and educator, notably Simón Bolívar's tutor and mentor.

Carlo Contarini, (* 5. Juli 1580 in Venedig; † 1. Mai 1656 ebenda) war von 1655 bis 1656 100. Doge von Venedig.


History.

Tamra is an ancient village on hill. Old squared stone blocks have been reused in village homes. Cisterns, and tombs carved into rock have also been found here.  In the 1253, during the Crusader era, John Aleman, Lord of Caesarea, sold several villages, including Tamra, to the Hospitallers. In 1283 it was mentioned as part of the domain of the Crusaders, according to the hudna between the Crusaders in Acre and the Mamluk sultan Qalawun.

Ottoman era.

Tamra, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, and in the census of 1596 the village was located in the "Nahiya" of Acca, part of Safad Sanjak. The population was 22 Muslim households. They paid a fixed tax rate of 20% on wheat, barley, fruit trees, cotton, occasional revenues, beehives and winter pastures; a total of 2,929 akçe. In 1799 it was named "Tomrat" on the map of Pierre Jacotin.  In 1859 the British Consul Rogers estimated the population to be 1,200, all Muslims, and the cultivated area 80 feddans, while Victor Guérin found it in 1875 to have 800 inhabitants, all Muslim.  In 1881, the PEF's "Survey of Western Palestine" (SWP) described Tamra as: "A large village, with a small mosque on the east and well on the north. There is a rock-cut tomb west of the houses. South of the village, in the valley, a fine olive-grove extends as far as er Rueis."  A population list from about 1887 showed that Tamra had about 535 inhabitants; all Muslims.

British Mandate era.

At the time of the 1922 census of Palestine Tamra had a population of 1,111, all Muslims, increasing in the 1931 census to 1,258, all Muslims, in a total of 282 houses.  In the 1945 statistics, Tamra had 1,830 inhabitants, all Muslims, while the total jurisdiction of the village was 30,559 dunams of land. 1,564 dunams were used for plantations and irrigable land, 14,434 dunams for cereals, while 206 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

State of Israel.

Tamra was captured by Israeli forces from the Arab Liberation Army and the Syrian Army in 1948 Arab–Israeli War as a part of Operation Dekel. On 20 May 1948 the civilian population had been evacuated on orders from Arab irregular forces. According to Benny Morris it was feared that the village would surrender to the Yishuv. The city grew rapidly in the period of Israel's first years as a nation due to the influx of Palestinian refugees from destroyed nearby villages such as al-Birwa or al-Damun. Large percentages of the city's farming land was expropriated by Israeli authorities and allocated to farming cooperatives and nearby Jewish settlement towns such as Mitzpe Aviv. Tamra achieved local council status in 1956 and was declared a city in 1996.  The city became famous for its large dairy factory named "Rajeb-Tamra", taking a certain portion of the dairy market in Israel, especially in the Arab sector.

Demographics.

According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), at the end of 2007 the city had a total population of 27,300. In 2001, the ethnic makeup of the city was almost entirely Arab (99.6% Muslim), with no significant Jewish population. See Population groups in Israel.  According to CBS, in 2001 there were 11,900 males and 11,400 females. The population of the city was spread out with 48.5% 19 years of age or younger, 18.0% between 20 and 29, 19.7% between 30 and 44, 9.0% from 45 to 59, 1.6% from 60 to 64, and 3.0% 65 years of age or older. The population growth rate in 2001 was 3.3% and 2005 had dropped to 2.5%.  The largest and most influential clan in Tamra is the Diab, which consists of several branches. Other clans include the Hejazi, and the smaller clans of Abd al-Hadi, Abu Na'ama, Abu Rumi, Amar, Arshid, Awwad, Kanaan, Muhsin, Nasser, Natour, Ourabi, Radi, Shama, Shaqir, Sheikh Ali and Yassin. In addition to the aforementioned clans, whose presence in Tamra predates the state of Israel, the city is home to internally displaced Palestinians and their descendants from the nearby villages of al-Damun, Hadatha, Mi'ar and al-Ruways, which were depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

Income.

According to CBS, as of 2000, in the city there were 3,908 salaried workers and 375 are self-employed. The mean monthly wage in 2000 for a salaried worker in the city is ILS 2,887, a real change of -2.2% over the course of 2000. Salaried males have a mean monthly wage of ILS 3,358 (no real change) versus ILS 1,977 for females (a real change of -7.6%). The mean income for the self-employed is 4,763. There are 445 people who receive unemployment benefits and 5,290 people who receive an income guarantee.

Education.

According to CBS, there are 13 schools and 5,779 students in the city. They are spread out as 9 elementary schools and 4000 elementary school students, and 3 high schools and 2,324 high school students. 54.6% of 12th grade students were entitled to a matriculation certificate in 2001.  During the late 1990s sociologist As'ad Ghanem set up an NGO in Tamra. It was called "Ibn Khaldun" and campaigned for more Arab history to be taught in Israeli schools.

Sports.

The current football teams in the city are Maccabi Tamra and F.C. Tzeirei Tamra, both play in Liga Gimel, the fifth tier of Israeli football. Maccabi Tamra and Hapoel Bnei Tamra (which is now defunct), played in the past in Liga Artzit, having been promoted from Liga Alef in 1988 and 2006 respectively.

Tamra (, or ) is an Arab city in the North District of Israel located in the Lower Galilee north of the city of Shefa-'Amr and approximately east of Acre. In it had a population of.

Tamra (, ) ist eine Stadt im Nordbezirk Israels. Sie liegt in Galiläa; Haifa und Akko sind je etwa 20 Kilometer entfernt. Im Jahr hatte sie eine Bevölkerung von Einwohnern, von denen 99,6 % arabische Israelis waren.


History.

Polskie Radio was founded on 18 August 1925 and began making regular broadcasts from Warsaw on 18 April 1926.  Czesław Miłosz, recipient of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature, worked as a literary programmer at Polish Radio Wilno in 1936.  Before the Second World War, Polish Radio operated one national channel – broadcast from 1931 from one of Europe's most powerful longwave transmitters, situated at Raszyn just outside Warsaw and destroyed in 1939 due to invasion of German Army – and nine regional stations: A tenth regional station was planned for Łuck, but the outbreak of war meant that it never opened.  After the war, Polskie Radio came under the tutelage of the state public broadcasting body "Komitet do Spraw Radiofonii" "Polskie Radio" (later "Polskie Radio i Telewizja" – PRT, Polish Radio and Television). This body was dissolved in 1992, Polskie Radio S.A. and Telewizja Polska S.A. becoming politically dependent corporations, each of which was admitted to full active membership of the European Broadcasting Union on 1 January 1993.

Channels.

Regional stations.

Polskie Radio also operates 17 regional radio stations (operating on FM, also on DAB+), located in:

City stations.

Polskie Radio offers city stations in: All city stations but Radio Szczecin Extra are being broadcast on FM and in Internet, while Radio Szczecin Extra is available only in Internet and via DAB+.

Digital-only.

Polskie Radio also offers regional digital-only stations (all operating in Internet and DAB+ only) in:

Music charts.

Polskie Radio Trójka has been compiling Polish music charts since 1982 – in an era before there were any commercial sales or airplay rankings – making them a significant record of musical popularity in Poland. Chart archives dating from 1982 are available to the public via the station's website.

See also.

Other radio stations in Poland:

Polskie Radio Spółka Akcyjna (PR S.A.; English: Polish Radio) is Poland's national public-service radio broadcasting organization owned by the government of Poland.

Polskie Radio [] (kurz PR; ) ist die öffentlich-rechtliche Hörfunkanstalt in Polen. Die Polskie Radio SA betreibt landesweite und internationale Hörfunkprogramme, sowie 17 regionale Sender. Polskie Radio ist Mitglied der Europäischen Rundfunkunion.


Model updates.

For the 1969 model year Volvo enlarged the B18 to become the 2.0 litre B20 and replaced the generator with a more modern alternator. It was also in 1969 that Volvo introduced the 164, which shared much of the 140 series structure and styling aft of the windshield while incorporating a six-cylinder engine, the B30 which was simply a B20 with two more cylinders and a few strengthened and enlarged components. Volvo also introduced the Express this year (see below).  In 1970 a flow-through ventilation system, where vents were added towards the rear of the car (on the exterior under the rear window on the 142 and 144 and as a grille next to the right side taillight of the 145) and electrically defrosted rear windows, were introduced. The split rear side window on the 145 became one piece which was no longer possible to open.  In 1971 the first of several styling changes were introduced, including a revised black grille which saw the now ubiquitous Volvo diagonal line introduced as well as new wheels. 1971 also saw the introduction of the B20E, which was a high compression version of the B20 which introduced Bosch D-Jetronic electronic fuel injection, giving a power figure of 100 kW SAE or 90 kW DIN. These new cars were either given the designation E (the German word Einspritzer, or "injection") or GL (for Grand Luxe), which was a more upmarket version of the car. A console on the transmission tunnel with a clock was now standard.  The styling changes continued in 1972 with the introduction of flush mounted door handles and a slightly revised dashboard with fake woodgrain trim, newly designed switches and a small central panel with a clock. The transmission tunnel was taken from the 164 as was the same short-shifter gear stick and the automatic transmission became controlled by a T-bar mounted on the floor at the same place. The outer rear seats now had the mounting points for retractable seatbelts. A low compression fuel injected engine, the B20F was introduced for the US and certain other markets.  In 1973 the 140 series received a major facelift, with a new plastic grille, new larger indicators and a completely revised tail end. Also, the S designation was dropped and the range consisted of three trim levels, standard (with no designation, known as L, or "luxe"), de Luxe, and the most upmarket, Grand Luxe. The interior also had a completely redesigned padded dashboard with a new instrument cluster consisting of dials rather than the strip speedometer previously used, rocker switches replacing the push-pull switches (with the exception of the headlight switch), and vents to direct air towards the person augmenting the defrost and floor vents. This dashboard in its basic form was carried over to the 200-series with only small modifications.  In 1974, the B20E/F engine switched from using the Bosch D-Jetronic to the K-Jetronic mechanical fuel injection system. Also, several safety changes were introduced including a fuel tank that was located close to the axle to protect it in the case of a rear-end collision, and larger bumpers that protruded more from the body. The quarter-light windows in the front doors were removed as a result of the improvements in ventilation inside the car, and small anodised aluminium strips were added to the bottom of the side windows.  Total Production 412,986 2-doors sedans, 523,808 4-doors sedans, 268,317 station wagons  In 1974 the 140 series evolved into the 240 series for the 1975 model year. The 164 was continued for another year in certain markets.

145 Express.

Volvo produced a high roofed version of the Volvo 145 station wagon known as an "Express" as a replacement for the Volvo Duett. From the windscreen back the roof was raised by approximately, and from the B-pillar back it was raised again by about. It was available in three configurations: standard station wagon (full glazing and five seats with the option of an extra two rear-facing seats), fully glazed panel-van with only two seats, and a two-seater panel van with no glass in the rear doors and rear quarter panels. It found a niche market, and several coachbuilder firms later made "Express" versions of the 245. Its rear hatch was made of glass-reinforced plastic.

The Volvo 140 Series is a line of mid-size cars manufactured and marketed by Volvo from 1966 to 1974 in two- and four-door sedan (models 142 and 144 respectively) as well as five door station wagon (model 145) body styles—with numerous intermediate facelifts. More than a million Volvo 140s were built.

Der Volvo 140 war ein Mittelklassewagen des schwedischen Autoherstellers Volvo, der von August 1966 bis August 1974 produziert wurde. Es wurde in drei Karosserievarianten angeboten: als zwei- oder viertürige Limousine mit Stufenheck (P 142 bzw. P 144; schwed.: Personvagn) und als fünftüriger Kombi (P 145). Die zweite Ziffer gibt die Zylinderzahl des Motors, die letzte die Anzahl der Türen an.


Geographic distribution.

The Bhojpuri-speaking region in India borders the Awadhi-speaking region to the west, the Nepali-speaking region to the north, the Magahi- and Maithili-speaking regions to the east, and the Magahi- and Bagheli-speaking regions to the south. In Nepal, Bhojpuri is a major language. Bhojpuri-speaking Muslims live in Bangladesh. Their population is lower than that of Bhojpuri speakers in Mauritius, South Africa, Fiji, and Caribbean nations.  Bhojpuri is spoken by descendants of indentured labourers brought in the 19th and early 20th centuries for work in plantations in British colonies. These Bhojpuri speakers live in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Fiji, Jamaica, South Africa, and other parts of the Caribbean.

Dialects.

Bhojpuri has several dialects: Southern Standard Bhojpuri, Northern Standard Bhojpuri, Western Standard Bhojpuri, and Nagpuria Bhojpuri. The first three are the major dialects.  Southern Standard Bhojpuri is prevalent in the Shahabad district (Buxar, Bhojpur, Rohtas, and Kaimur districts) and the Saran region (Saran, Siwan and Gopalganj districts) in Bihar, and the eastern Azamgarh (Ballia and Mau districts) and Varanasi (eastern part of Ghazipur district) regions in Uttar Pradesh. The dialect is also known as "Kharwari". It can be further divided into Shahabadi, Chhaprahiya, and Pachhimahi.  Northern Bhojpuri is common in the western Tirhut division (east and west Champaran districts) in Bihar, and Gorakhpur division (Deoria, Kushinagar, Gorakhpur, and Maharajganj districts) and Basti division (Basti, Sidharthanagar, and Sant Kabir Nagar districts) in Uttar Pradesh. It is also spoken in Nepal.  Western Bhojpuri is prevalent in the areas of Varanasi (Varanasi, Chandauli, Jaunpur, and the western part of Ghazipur district), Azamgarh (Azamgarh district), and Mirzapur (Mirzapur, Sant Ravidas Nagar, and Bhadohi districts) in Uttar Pradesh. Banarasi is a local name for Bhojpuri, named after Banaras. Other names for Western Bhojpuri include "Purbi" and "Benarsi".  Nagpuria Bhojpuri is the southernmost popular dialect, found in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand, particularly parts of Palamau and Ranchi. It has been influenced more by the Magahi language than by other dialects. It is sometimes referred to as "Sadari".  A more specific classification recognises the dialects of Bhojpuri as Bhojpuri Tharu, Domra, Madhesi, Musahari, Northern Standard Bhojpuri (Basti, Gorakhpuri, Sarawaria), Southern Standard Bhojpuri (Kharwari), and Western Standard Bhojpuri (Benarsi, Purbi).

Phonology.

Bhojpuri is, sociolinguistically, one of the seven Hindi languages (Haryanvi, Braj, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, and Kannauji). Of the seven, Bhojpuri has the most allophonic variations in vowels.  Bhojpuri has 6 vowel phonemes and 10 vocoids. The higher vowels are relatively tense, and the lower vowels are relatively lax. The language has 31 consonant phonemes and 34 contoids (6 bilabial, 4 apico-dental, 5 apico-alveolar, 7 retroflex, 6 alveo-palatal, 5 dorso-velar, and 1 glottal).  Linguist Robert L. Trammell published the phonology of Northern Standard Bhojpuri in 1971. According to him, the syllable system is peak type: every syllable has the vowel phoneme as the highest point of sonority. Codas may consist of one, two, or three consonants. Vowels occur as simple peaks or as peak nuclei in diphthongs. The intonation system involves 4 pitch levels and 3 terminal contours.

Writing system.

Bhojpuri was historically written in Kaithi script, but since 1894 Devanagari has served as the primary script. Kaithi is now rarely used for Bhojpuri.  Kaithi script was used for administrative purposes in the Mughal era for writing Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, Magahi, and Hindustani from at least the 16th century up to the first decade of the 20th century. Government gazetteers report that Kaithi was used in a few districts of Bihar throughout the 1960s. Bhojpuri residents of India who moved to British colonies in Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Caribbean in the 19th and early 20th centuries used both Kaithi and Devanagari scripts.  By 1894 both Kaithi and Devanagari became common scripts to write official texts in Bihar. At present almost all Bhojpuri texts are written in Devanagari, even in islands outside of India where Bhojpuri is spoken. In Mauritius, Kaithi script was historically considered informal, and Devanagari was sometimes spelled as "Devanagri". In modern Mauritius, the major script is Devanagari.

Politeness.

Bhojpuri syntax and vocabulary reflects a three-tier system of politeness. Any verb can be conjugated through these tiers. The verb "to come" in Bhojpuri is "aana", and the verb "to speak" is "bolna". The imperatives "come!" and "speak!" can be conjugated in five ways, each marking subtle variation in politeness and propriety. These permutations exclude a host of auxiliary verbs and expressions, which can be added to verbs to add another degree of subtle variation. For extremely polite or formal situations, the pronoun is generally omitted.  Similarly, adjectives are marked for politeness and formality. The adjective "your" has several forms with different tones of politeness: "tum" (casual and intimate), "tōhār" (polite and intimate), "t'hār" (formal yet intimate), "rā'ur" (polite and formal), and "āpke" (extremely formal). Although there are many tiers of politeness, Bhojpuri speakers mainly use the form "tum" to address a younger individual and "aap" for an individual who is older, or holds a higher position in workplace situations.

Status.

Greater official recognition of Bhojpuri, such as by inclusion in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India, has been demanded. In 2018, Bhojpuri was given second-language status in Jharkhand state of India. It is an official language in Nepal, and Fiji as Fiji Hindi.  Bhojpuri is taught in matriculation and at the higher secondary level in the Bihar School Education Board and the Board of High School and Intermediate Education Uttar Pradesh. It is also taught in various universities in India, such as Veer Kunwar Singh University, Banaras Hindu University, Nalanda Open University, and Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University.

Literature.

Lorikayan, the story of Veer Lorik contains Bhojpuri folklore from Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Bhikhari Thakur's Bidesiya is a play, written as a book. "Phool Daliya" is a well-known book by Prasiddh Narayan Singh. It comprises poems of "veer ras" (A style of writing) on the theme of "azaadi" ("Freedom") about his experiences in the Quit India movement and India's struggle with poverty after the country gained independence.

Media.

Many Bhojpuri magazines and papers are published in Bihar, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh. Several Bhojpuri newspapers are available locally in North India; they are not wealthy enough to be published online. "Parichhan" is a contemporary literary-cultural Maithili-Bhojpuri magazine, published by a Maithili-Bhojpuri academy and the government of Delhi, and edited by Parichay Das. "The Sunday Indian, Bhojpuri" is a regular national news magazine in Bhojpuri. "Aakhar" is a monthly online Bhojpuri literature magazine. Other media in Bhojpuri include "Lok Lucknow", and the channels Mahuaa TV and Hamar TV.

Example text.

The following is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in four languages:

Bhojpuri (; ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern-eastern India and the Terai region of Nepal. It is one of the most rapidly growing languages in the world according to People's Linguistic Survey of India. It is chiefly spoken in western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Sociolinguistically, Bhojpuri is considered one of several Hindi dialects. The language is a minority language in Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, South Africa, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.

Bhojpuri (भोजपुरी "Bhojpurī" []) ist eine hauptsächlich im östlichen Nordindien gesprochene Sprache der indoarischen Sprachfamilie. Sie gehört zur Gruppe der Bihari-Sprachen, die mit dem Hindi nah verwandt sind.


Life and career.

Takakura was born in Nakama, Fukuoka in 1931. He attended Tochiku High School in nearby Yahata City where he was a member of the boxing team and English society. It was around this time that he gained his streetwise swagger and tough-guy persona watching "yakuza" movies. This subject was covered in one of his most famous movies, "Showa Zankyo-den" ("Remnants of Chivalry in the Showa Era"), in which he played an honorable old-school yakuza among the violent post-war gangs. After graduating from Meiji University in Tokyo, Takakura attended an audition on impulse in 1955 at the Toei Film Company while applying for a managerial position.  Toei found a natural in Takakura as he debuted with "Denko Karate Uchi" ("Lightning Karate Blow") in 1956. In 1959 he married singer Chiemi Eri, but divorced in 1971. His breakout role would be in the 1965 film "Abashiri Prison", and its sequel "Abashiri Bangaichi: Bokyohen" ("Abashiri Prison: Longing for Home", also 1965), in which he played an ex-con antihero. By the time Takakura left Toei in 1976, he had appeared in over 180 films.  He gained international recognition after starring in the 1970 war film "Too Late the Hero" as the cunning Imperial Japanese Major Yamaguchi, the 1974 Sydney Pollack sleeper hit "The Yakuza" with Robert Mitchum, and is probably best known in the West for his role in Ridley Scott's "Black Rain" (1989) where he surprises American cops played by Michael Douglas and Andy García with the line, "I do speak fucking English". He again appeared to Western audiences with the 1992 Fred Schepisi comedy "Mr. Baseball" starring Tom Selleck.  Takakura was one of the few Japanese actors who experienced popularity in China, due to his appearance in Junya Satō's 1976 crime drama "Kimi yo Fundo no Kawa o Watare" (known in some territories as "Manhunt"), the first foreign film shown after the Cultural Revolution.  He appeared in three films since 2000: in May 2001, "Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles", by Chinese director Zhang Yimou, in late December 2005, and Yasuo Furuhata's "Anata e" ("Dearest") in late August 2012, after a six-year hiatus. He died of lymphoma on November 10, 2014. Shintaro Ishihara described him as "the last big star (in Japan)." A huge number of Chinese internet users expressed their sympathies and condolences, including many celebrities in the Chinese movie industry. The spokesman of China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs Hong Lei said that Takakura made significant contributions to the cultural exchange between China and Japan.  A documentary based on Takakura's life entitled "Ken San" premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival and was released in Japanese theaters on August 20, 2016. It was directed by photographer Yuichi Hibi and features interviews with filmmakers and actors such as Martin Scorsese, Paul Schrader, Michael Douglas, John Woo, and Yoji Yamada.

, born, was a Japanese actor and singer who appeared in over 200 films. Affectionately referred to as "Ken-san" by audiences, he was best known for his brooding style and the stoic presence he brought to his roles. He won the Japan Academy Prize for Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role four times, more than any other actor. Takakura additionally received the Japanese Medal of Honor with purple ribbon in 1998, the Person of Cultural Merit award in 2006, and the Order of Culture in 2013.

Ken Takakura ( "Takakura Ken"; * 16. Februar 1931 in Nakama, Präfektur Fukuoka als Gōichi Oda ( "Oda Gōichi"); † 10. November 2014 in Tokio) war ein japanischer Schauspieler, bekannt als „japanischer Clint Eastwood“.


Early life and education.

Born in Georgetown, British Guiana, Brasher went to Rugby School and then St John's College, Cambridge.

Sporting career.

On 6 May 1954, he acted as pacemaker for Roger Bannister when the latter ran the first sub-four-minute mile at Iffley Road Stadium in Oxford. Brasher paced Bannister for the first two laps, while his friend Chris Chataway paced the third. Two years later, at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Brasher finished first in the 3,000 metres steeplechase with a time of 8 minutes 41.2 seconds, but was disqualified for allegedly interfering with another runner, Ernst Larsen of Norway. The following day, after an investigation, he was reinstated as gold medallist. Brasher had been celebrating for several hours before the delayed medal ceremony, and later claimed to have been “the only Olympic champion to be totally and absolutely slaughtered when he received a medal”.  He was one of the pioneers of orienteering in Britain and can claim the first public mention of the sport in an article in "The Observer" in 1957:

Later career.

He had distinguished careers in print journalism, as sports editor for "The Observer" newspaper, and in broadcasting, as a reporter for the "Tonight" programme.  He founded Chris Brasher's Sporting Emporium in 1971; this later became Sweatshop. In 1978, he designed the innovative Brasher Boot – a walking boot with the comfort of a running shoe. In their time these were amongst the best products, but declined in quality, were merged with Berghaus under Pentland ownership in 2014, and were finally discontinued before 2017.  In 1981 John Disley and Brasher founded the London Marathon. In 1983 he became the second president of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races, an office which he held until 1987.  Also in 1983 Brasher partnered with his longtime friend John Disley to found Fleetfoot Limited in Lancaster, England. Fleetfoot distributed The Brasher Boot and other sporting goods to retailers. Fleetfoot acquired the rights to be the UK distributor of Reebok and subsequently traded as Reebok UK before becoming a subsidiary of the Pentland Group in 1988.  After the acquisition by Pentland, Brasher remained active in the company as chairman of the board. Reebok UK was sold to Reebok International in 1990 when Pentland Group sold its 55% ownership of Reebok United States and Reebok International.

Personal life and honours.

Brasher was married to tennis champion Shirley Brasher née Bloomer.  Brasher was awarded the CBE in 1996. He was awarded the Royal Scottish Geographical Society's Livingstone Medal in 2002.  In 2003, he died at his home in Chaddleworth, Berkshire, after struggling for several months against pancreatic cancer.

Christopher William Brasher CBE (21 August 1928 – 28 February 2003) was a British track and field athlete, sports journalist and co-founder of the London Marathon.

Christopher William „Chris“ Brasher (* 21. August 1928 in Georgetown (Guyana); † 28. Februar 2003 in Chaddleworth, Berkshire) war ein britischer Leichtathlet und Olympiasieger 1956 im 3000-Meter-Hindernislauf.


Foundation.

The Brothers.

The Ratisbonne brothers, who were Jews, were drawn to accept Christianity. For Theodore, this came about through the conversion of several close friends and the slow results of study and reading. He was baptized in 1826 and ordained in 1830.  Alphonse, however, was more reluctant to believe in Christ. This changed dramatically on 20 January 1842 in the course of a trip to Rome, made just prior to his planned wedding. While on a visit to the Church of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared to him. Both brothers believed that this was a sign from God, not only for Alphonse's personal conversion, but of their common call to bring their fellow Jews to accept the Christian faith.  To this end, Alphonse was baptized and soon entered the Society of Jesus, where he spent several years. In 1843 Theodore founded a small community of women who wished to collaborate with him in the education of Jewish children, starting with two Jewish sisters who had come to him for guidance and later converted to Christianity. In 1850, with the permission of the pope and of the Jesuit Superior General, Alphonse left the Society to join his brother and his work. Together the Ratisbonne brothers established the Congregation of the Fathers of Our Lady of Sion in 1852.  In 1855 Alphonse moved to the Holy Land, where, in 1858, he established the Convent of the "Ecce homo" on the site of a ruined church of that name on the famed Via Dolorosa for the Sisters of the congregation. On the grounds of the convent, Ratisbonne built an orphanage and vocational school which the Sisters ran. These institutions were open to all the children of the city, regardless of creed. A motherhouse was established in Paris for the Fathers. In 1874, Alphonse began the construction of the Ratisbonne Monastery, on a site then on the outskirts of Jerusalem, which was a school for boys. It now houses a branch of the Salesian Pontifical University.  After the re-direction of the official teachings regarding Judaism, the Fathers changed from an emphasis on the conversion of Jews to working to foster understanding and the development of deeper ties between Christians and Jews. Today they have communities in France, Israel and Brazil.

The Sisters.

For many years most of the Sisters were teachers in Sion schools in France and the Holy Land. They later expanded overseas to the British Isles and Australia. The sisters of Sion define themselves as “woman who help to heal a fractured world”. The Sisters were invited to England by Cardinal Manning to help with the expansion of Catholic education in the country. They arrived in 1860 and have had a presence in England ever since. They then established a presence in Australia with the first Sisters arriving in 1890.  Since the Second Vatican Council the work of the Sisters has expanded and developed. Now there is a wide variety of ministries. The congregation now has Sisters in 22 countries worldwide, with their General Motherhouse located in Rome.  Like the Fathers, the Sisters no longer emphasise conversion, but instead describe themselves as working to improve Catholic-Jewish relations and to witness to God's faithful love for the Jewish people.  One of its best-known members of the Congregation was Sœur Emmanuelle, N.D.S., (1908-2008) who worked in Istanbul and Cairo.

The Congregation of Our Lady of Sion (, abbreviated by its members as N.D.S.) is composed of two Roman Catholic religious congregations founded in Paris, France. One is composed of Catholic priests and Religious Brothers, founded in 1852, and the other is composed of Religious Sisters, founded in 1843, both by Marie Theodor Ratisbonne, along with his brother Marie-Alphonse Ratisbonne, ""to witness in the Church and in the world that God continues to be faithful in his love for the Jewish people and to hasten the fulfillment of the promises concerning the Jews and the Gentiles."" (Constitution, article 2).

Die katholische Ordensgemeinschaft Notre Dame de Sion (kurz „Sionsschwestern“; Lat.: "Congregatio Nostrae Dominae de Sion"; Ordenskürzel: NDS) wurde 1843 durch den vom Judentum zum Katholizismus konvertierten Théodore Ratisbonne gegründet. Sie hat einen apostolischen und einen kontemplativen Schwesternzweig, wie auch einen männlichen, nämlich die Brüder Unserer Lieben Frau von Sion. Sein ursprüngliches und primäres Engagement ist die christlich-jüdische Verständigung. Heute ist die Gemeinschaft in 24 Ländern der Erde vertreten, so auch in Deutschland (Halle/Saale) und Österreich (Wien).


Heraldry.

The coat of arms of the village of Fontaine-de-Vaucluse is:"Blue, with a Trout and a Grayling, poised horizontally." (Malte-Brun, in "France Illustrated", book V, 1884)

Geography.

Fontaine-de-Vaucluse ("spring of Vaucluse") is built around the Fontaine de Vaucluse, a spring in a valley at the foot of the Vaucluse Mountains, between Saumane and Lagnes, not far from L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue. It is named after the spring, the source of the River Sorgue.

Hydrography.

The fountain, or spring, of Vaucluse, situated at the feet of a steep limestone cliff 230 metres high, is the biggest spring in France. It is also the fifth largest in the world with an annual flow of 630 million cubic metres.  The fountain of Vaucluse surges in March for about 5 weeks and then subsides. The increased flow of water swells the Sorgue to flood. The mechanism behind the surging remains somewhat of a mystery.

History.

This village of 600 inhabitants was once called "Vaucluse" or "the closed valley" ("Vallis Clausa" in Latin) and it gave its name to the French department of "Vaucluse". Several trails indicate human occupation in the area since the neolithic era. Its spring has been the object of a major cult since Antiquity, and the Sorgue was used as a trade route by the Phoenicians of Massalia and later the Romans. Following some major discoveries from two cave dives by the SSFV, two archaeological sites under the protection of the SRA PACA has allowed more than 1600 antique coins from the first century BC to the 5th century AD to be brought back up to the surface.  In the Middle Ages, a hermit supposedly lived in the spot. Eventually, he performed miracles that led to his being consecrated as Bishop of Cavaillon. His successor, Walcaudus, received the consent of the ruling counts of the area to settle monks there. A monastery was constructed, but was ruined by the 11th century. Clement, the Bishop of Cavaillon, ordered its reconstruction by Isarn, abbot of Sainte-Victoire. The poet Petrarch made it his preferred residence in the 14th century, writing, "The illustrious source of the Sorgue, famous for itself long ago, became even more famous by my long stay and my songs." (Petrarch, Seniles, X, 2).  The poet left in 1353 after his son's death. The village was razed shortly afterward by bandits, who withdrew at the sight of the intimidating episcopal seat. A museum stands on the spot of Petrarch's house today, and the town is twinned with Arquà Petrarca, where the poet died. Following this attack, the village and valley fell into oblivion. Thought of as a wild place, it was avoided through the 16th and 17th centuries. Vaucluse was again popularized by a duel between the famous Honore Gabriel Riqueti and Louis-Francois de Galliffet. A letter published by Riqueti brought fame to the area again, and a column was built to honour Petrarch in the eighteenth century.  In 1946, Jacques Cousteau and another diver were almost killed while searching for the bottom of the spring. An air compressor used to fill their tanks had taken in its own exhaust fumes and produced carbon monoxide—nearly killing them before they could return to the surface from a depth of approximately 100 meters.

Demographics.

Historical population:

Fontaine-de-Vaucluse ("La Fònt de Vauclusa" or simply "Vauclusa" in Occitan) is a commune in the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. The name Vaucluse comes from the Latin phrase "vallis clausa" or "closed valley".

Fontaine-de-Vaucluse ist eine französische Gemeinde mit Einwohnern (Stand ) im Département Vaucluse in der Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Ihr ursprünglicher Name war bis 1946 „Vaucluse“ ("vallis clausa", lateinisch: geschlossenes Tal). Das Département Vaucluse wurde 1793 nach der Gemeinde benannt. Sie gehört zum Kanton L’Isle-sur-la-Sorgue im Arrondissement Avignon.


History.

Early years.

The airport was built in 1928. The first commercial flights in Skopje were introduced in 1929 when the Yugoslav carrier Aeroput introduced a route linking the city with the capital, Belgrade. A year later, the route was extended to Thessaloniki in central Macedonia, Greece, and further extended to Athens in 1933. In 1935, Aeroput linked Skopje with Bitola and Niš, and also operated a longer international route linking Vienna and Thessaloniki through Zagreb, Belgrade and Skopje.  After the Second World War, Aeroput was replaced by JAT Yugoslav Airlines, which linked Skopje to a number of domestic and international destinations until the dissolution of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.

Development since the 2000s.

In December 2006, the conservative VMRO-DPMNE-led government of the Republic of Macedonia renamed the airport after Alexander the Great, sparking further controversy in the ongoing diplomatic feud with Greece. Both countries consider Alexander the Great as part of their respective heritages, demonstrated by the fact that the regional airport of Kavala in Greek Macedonia is also named after Alexander. However, the airport in Kavala was the first to be named as such since 1992.  In 2008, the Macedonian Government signed a contract with the Turkish company Tepe Akfen Ventures (TAV) for a twenty-year-long concession during which this company would manage Macedonia's two existing airports - the Skopje Alexander the Great Airport and the St. Paul the Apostle Airport in Ohrid. In September 2011, the new terminal building, extension of the runway, new administrative building, cargo building and new access road with parking facilities were opened.  In February 2018, "Alexander the Great" was dropped from the airport's name in a move to improve relations with Greece. A few months before, Aegean Airlines announced future flights between Athens and Skopje, the first flights to Greece for several years, another example of improved relations between the two countries following the Prespa agreement.

Airlines and destinations.

The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Skopje:

Statistics.

Traffic development.

The number of passengers has increased since 1990, from 312,492 passengers in that year, to 2,158,258 passengers in 2018. However, traffic was often dropped in twenty years. In 2000 the airport handled 1,005,852 passengers, but in 2001 the number of passengers dropped to 499,789. This was influenced in part by a number of airlines replacing services to Skopje with services to nearby. In 2014 Skopje airport handled 1,208,359 passengers, surpassing one million for the first time since 2000.

Ground transportation.

Taxis to Skopje are available. There is also a bus service linking the airport and the city with several stops.

Skopje International Airport (),(, ), also known as Skopje Airport () and previously known as Petrovec Airport () and Skopje Alexander the Great Airport (), is the larger and busier of the two international airports in North Macedonia, with the other being the St. Paul the Apostle Airport in Ohrid which is located southwest from the national capital Skopje.

Der Internationale Flughafen Skopje ist der wichtigste Flughafen Nordmazedoniens. Er liegt 20 km südöstlich der Hauptstadt Skopje in der Gemeinde Petrovec und stellt neben dem Flughafen Ohrid den einzigen weiteren internationalen Flughafen des Landes dar.


Upbringing.

Paul Hintze was born in 1864 in the little town of Schwedt approximately eighty miles northeast of Berlin. The Hintze family was part of the hardworking German middle class of the Prussian country towns. Schwedt only had ten thousand inhabitants but because the city is located on the Oder River it benefited from trade. Paul's father owned a tobacco plant, making cigars of the raw tobacco he imported. He also had a seat in the City Council. The Hintze family was one of the best regarded and wealthiest in town. Paul attended the humanistic Gymnasium (high school) and graduated with a baccalaureate in 1882. Rather than serving the mandatory year in the military, he joined the navy as an eighteen-year-old. Paul struck his superiors as very smart and very tough. After basic training on the school ship "Prinz Adalbert", Hintze sailed the seven seas for the next twelve years, in which he saw the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, North and South America. In 1894 the navy lieutenant (Kapitänleutnant) studied at the Naval Academy at Mürwik, a school for which very few officers had the honor of admission.  Among the many that trained and studied at the Naval Academy in Kiel there were several graduates worth mentioning for this story: Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (then Captain Tirpitz) graduated in 1865, von Hintze (then without noble title) in 1896. Karl Boy-Ed, eight years von Hintze's junior, joined the class of 1894. After serving in active duty in the Far East, Boy-Ed became German Naval Attaché in Washington in 1912 and worked for then Ambassador von Hintze in his partial responsibility for Mexico. Franz von Rintelen (although he never had a noble title), the son of a well-known Berlin banker, graduated in 1905. Rintelen was to become a notorious German sabotage agent in the United States in World War I. All three worked for Grand Admiral von Tirpitz who became the loudest voice clamoring for unrestricted submarine warfare in the Great War. After Paul Hintze completed his studies at the Naval Academy in 1896, he joined the Naval Command in Berlin.

Military service.

In 1898, Rear Admiral Tirpitz commissioned navy captain Hintze to join the East Asian battle group as a "Flaggleutnant," the liaison officer to the German Imperial Naval High Command. In this capacity Hintze faced an outraged Admiral George Dewey when the German navy obstructed Dewey's efforts to subdue the Spanish in the Philippines in the Spanish–American War. German ships had operated so close to the U.S. navy that Dewey had to employ searchlights, which gave away the American positions to the Spanish. Dewey also had declared a blockade and accordingly expected any naval vessel to allow search parties to board. Naturally the proud German navy rejected this infringement on international law. Hintze never commented on his confrontation with Dewey, which must have been so heated that news stories about it could be found twenty years later. According to newspapers, Dewey told the German naval officer "if he [German Admiral Otto von Diederichs] wants a fight he can have it now." Cooler heads prevailed. Rather than shooting out their differences, the German fleet found a way to compromise with the Americans and eventually left the Philippine theater. Ambassador Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff commented on the affair in his 1920 memoirs. According to the ambassador, the underlying cause of the aggression was that Germany tried to "acquire" the Philippine islands after the U.S. had declared it did not want to hold on to them in the long term. "[A] misunderstanding had occurred, as a result of which the Berlin Foreign Office had acted in perfect good faith. In the public mind in the United States, however, the feeling still rankled that Germany had wished to make a demonstration against their Government." It was unfortunate that Hintze had to find himself in the middle of this "misunderstanding."

Diplomatic Assignment to St. Petersburg.

In 1903, the navy dispatched their thirty-nine-year-old and experienced naval captain Hintze to the German embassy in Saint Petersburg. "His social suaveness...his empathy for the idiosyncrasies of other people made him quickly establish friendly relationships." He had been a popular commander at sea. As the new naval attaché to St. Petersburg Hintze occupied a critical position in the embassy: Emperor Wilhelm II became extraordinarily interested in reports from Tirpitz’ protégé. Hintze's assessment of Russian politics and the quality of his intelligence soon caused the Kaiser to use Hintze for most sensitive missions between the German government and the Russian Czar. Never trusting of the Foreign Office, the Emperor preferred communication with his cousin "Nikki" to go through naval attaché Hintze. In 1905, Hintze joined the two emperors in a summit meeting in the Swedish city of Bjoerko. A year later Hintze received the title "Flügeladjutant." This promotion, in a roundabout way, made him the direct representative of the German Emperor in Russia, a position that in many ways was more powerful than that of the ambassador. Hintze's close relationship with the two emperors and the circumvention of the Foreign Office by the Kaiser made him a long-term target of career diplomats in the Reich. In 1908, Wilhelm II made Hintze into a nobleman with the title of Baron that could be inherited. As such, the middle class tobacco merchants of Schwedt became nobility. Von Hintze also received the promotion to rear admiral that year.

Ambassador in Mexico.

As the German ambassador to Mexico, Karl Buenz, left his post as the result of an illness, Emperor Wilhelm II was on the outlook for a fitting successor. The situation in Mexico had become critical as the result of the Mexican Revolution that had broken out in 1910. The choice fell on von Hintze, especially because of his military background. The new ambassador was dispatched not only to represent Germany to the new revolutionary government of Francisco León de la Barra, but also to provide important intelligence about the revolution. Von Hintze arrived in Veracruz on April 25, 1911. Members of von Hintze's clandestine network of agents in Mexico included Consul Otto Kueck, Felix A. Sommerfeld, and Carl Heynen. Sanctioned by the German government, von Hintze promoted German arms sales to Mexico. Many of the sales the German government contracted at that time with the Mexican government did not arrive in Mexico until Victoriano Huerta was dictator, prompting historians to allege German support for the dictator. He also relentlessly pursued the murderers of four German citizens in the city of Covadonga. As a result of von Hintze's efforts, the German government was the only one to receive payments for its murdered citizens from the revolutionary Mexican government. Von Hintze's efforts resulted in a restitution of 400,000 German Marks (about $95,000 at the time, $2 million in today's value) to Germany in June 1912. The perpetrators were tried and executed in the presence of the German ambassador in March 1913 (by then the Huerta government ruled Mexico). Von Hintze's relationship with the government of Francisco I. Madero was a productive one. Through his agent Felix Sommerfeld, who became Madero's secret service chief, the German ambassador kept up with political developments in the capital and the fight against uprisings along the Mexican–American border, most notably the revolt of Bernardo Reyes in the fall of 1911 and the uprising of Pascual Orozco in the spring of 1912.  In February 1913, however, the political unrest reached the capital of Mexico. In the Decena Tragica General Victoriano Huerta unseated President Madero and had him murdered. The German ambassador kept apprised of developments through his contacts with the other diplomats in the capital and through Felix Sommerfeld who stayed at the German embassy for most of the uprising. Von Hintze knew that a coup was about to happen. Rather than waiting for the military to make its move, the ambassador proposed for Madero to install Huerta as a successor, while he and his administration would retreat to safety. He pitched the idea first to Foreign Minister Pedro Lascuráin. Madero initially agreed but then relented. The coup happened and Madero was arrested. Von Hintze negotiated with American Ambassador Wilson as well as General Victoriano Huerta to secure the release and safe conduct of Madero and his family. He did not succeed. Despite General Huerta's assurances Madero and Pino Suárez were murdered.  Von Hintze returned to Germany for most of 1913 to recuperate from a flame up of amoebic dysentery. When he returned to Mexico in September 1913, President Huerta was waging a civil war against the revolutionary forces under the leadership of Venustiano Carranza. Von Hintze bluntly assessed the quality of the understaffed federal officer corps describing President Huerta as so desperate that he "...promotes waiters, accountants and such from one day to the next to lieutenants and captains -lawyers to generals...The Mexican army has plenty of generals...these are for the most part the type of people which are called ‘funeral generals’ in Russia, since their only activity is to parade in uniform for funeral processions – for money...one has to expect worse losses than Alviles Canon, Torreón and Durango, since now the generals who so-far remained in their salons are sent into the battlefield." Von Hintze correctly reported to Germany in the beginning of 1914 that Huerta was finished. Generals Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregon were dealing Huerta one military blow after another in the field. The final nail in Huerta's coffin was the United States occupation of Veracruz on April 21, 1914. Von Hintze's role in the causes of the intervention is under dispute. The facts are that the German HAPAG ship SS Ypiranga (Ypiranga incident) had large amounts of arms and ammunition on board destined for the Huerta regime. American forces sought to prevent these weapons to land and occupied the harbor of Veracruz as a result. Ambassador von Hintze officially requisitioned the Ypiranga to serve the German navy as an auxiliary cruiser to carry German refugees. Whether the objective was to carry refugees in case of a war between the United States and Mexico or to force the delivery of the weapons to the Huerta regime, which is what actually happened, is unclear.  In July 1914, General Huerta gave up his fight against the Constitutionalists in the Mexican Revolution. On 20 July 1914 he departed from Puerto Mexico (now Coatzacoalcos) on the German cruiser SMS Dresden (1907), dutifully supplied by Ambassador von Hintze.

Service in the World War.

In July 1914, not only Huerta left Mexico. Ambassador von Hintze received his wartime assignment to China (1914–1915). He built up the German naval intelligence organization in the Far East and provided supplies for the German East Asia Squadron under Admiral Maximilian von Spee. After his China assignment von Hintze served in Norway between 1915 and 1918. Despite his lack of political experience, von Hintze was appointed Foreign Minister on July 9, 1918, following the resignation of his predecessor, Richard von Kühlmann, who had fallen afoul of the military High Command, led by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff, who effectively governed the country. During his time in the foreign ministry, Hintze pushed the Kaiser towards liberalization of the government and was involved in the discussions which led to the decision to seek an armistice at the end of September. After the resignation of the government of Chancellor Georg von Hertling on October 3, Hintze was replaced as Foreign Minister by Wilhelm Solf.

Paul von Hintze (13 February 1864, in Schwedt/Oder – 19 August 1941, in Meran) was a German naval officer, diplomat, and politician who served as Foreign Minister of Germany in the last stages of World War I, from July to October 1918.

Paul Hintze, ab 1908 von Hintze (* 13. Februar 1864 in Schwedt/Oder; † 19. August 1941 in Meran) war ein deutscher Konteradmiral, Gesandter und 1918 Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen.