Playing career.

Bobek was born in Zagreb and started playing at the age of 13 for Viktorija, a lower league club, using his brother's registration papers. When he was 20 he became the center-forward of Građanski Zagreb.  He also played for Croatia U21 between 1943 and 1945.  He was the top scorer of the Yugoslav First League twice, in 1945 (25 goals) and 1954 (21 goals).

Partizan.

He came to FK Partizan in 1945 and played for them until 1958. During his time in Partizan, he played 468 games and scored 403 goals, still holding the club record. Bobek won two Yugoslav League titles and the Yugoslav Cup four times.  He scored his first goals in official matches, on 1 September 1946, in 2nd leg of Yugoslav First League. He scored a twice in a 6–1 home victory over Budućnost. On 5 January 1947, Bobek scored his first goal, in first Eternal derby against Red Star Belgrade, in 3–4 home defeat. That was also first goal in Derby, scored by Partizan player, because previous two was a own goals. On 8 June 1947 in a league match played in Niš between 14. Oktobar and FK Partizan (1–10), Bobek scored eight goals – an absolute record that has never been broken until the end of Yugoslav First League or its successor leagues. He scored 25 goals in 22 matches in first season of First League of SFR Yugoslavia and also won first title and gave a great contribution.  In May 1951, Partizan played three friendly matches in England. The first match was played on 9 May, against Hull City and Partizan beat them 3–2. Bobek played brilliant and scored two goals in great victory. Three days later he again played brilliant match and scored a one goal in second Partizan's victory, over English teams. The result was the same like three days before, but this time against Middlesbrough. One month later, he scored a twice in one of the biggest victories in Eternal Derby, in a 6–1 home victory over Red Star. In November of that year, Bobek scored a six goals against Sloboda Titovo Užice, in a "qualifying round" of Yugoslav Cup, in a 11–1 away victory. A week later, he also set a record in Yugoslavian Cup. He scored eight goals in 15–0 home victory over Sloga Petrovac na Mlavi.  On 29 November 1952, Bobek scored a goal in a 6–0 victory over a arch rival Red Star Belgrade in the "final" of Yugoslav Cup. A three weeks before, he scored a hat-trick in a 4–0 home victory over one of the best German teams at that time – 1. FC Köln.  Bobek continued with great performances in next seasons. He scored a goal in biggest victory ever in Eternal Derby. After four minutes, he scored first goal on the match, in a 7–1 home victory over Red Star, on 6 December 1953. On 11 April 1954, he scored a four goals in 8–0 home league victory over Rabotnički.  Two years later after winning second Yugoslav Cup, he won a third. Again Partizan beat Red Star, but this time 4–1 and Bobek again scored one goal.  On 4 September 1955, Bobek scored a first goal in first ever match of European Cup. Partizan draw (3–3) with Sporting CP, in Lisbon. He played all four matches in 1955–56 European Cup. Should be noted a legendary victory 3–0 over Real Madrid in "quarter-finals".

National team.

Bobek made his debut for the Yugoslavia national football team on 9 May 1946, at Letná Stadium in 2–0 win over Czechoslovakia in Prague. That was a first ever match of SFR Yugoslavia. He scored his first goal in national team, against Czechoslovakia, in Belgrade, on 29 September 1946, in 4–2 home victory. That was first match of national team in SFR Yugoslavia.  Bobek won silver medal with Yugoslavia, on Olympic Games, in London 1948. He scored four goals in four matches. In every match, he scored one goal. One goal against Luxembourg in "first round" (6–1 victory), Turkey in "quarter-finals" (3–1 victory), Great Britain in "semi-finals" (3–1 victory) and one against Sweden in "final" (1–3 defeat).  Bobek played on 1950 FIFA World Cup, in Brazil (where he scored one goal in the 4–1 win over Mexico).  On 21 September 1952, Bobek scored his first hat-trick in national team, in 4–2 home victory over Austria. Two years later, he scored his second hat-trick in national team, in 5–1 home victory over Turkey. That was his last goals for "The Blues".  Bobek played on World Cup in Switzerland 1954. He also played in two Olympic Games, in London 1948 (where he scored 4 goals and Yugoslavia won the silver medal) and in Helsinki 1952 (he scored three goals in the tournament and Yugoslavia won the Silver Medal).

Managerial career.

After retiring from the play, he became a football manager. In 1959 he became the coach of CWKS Warszawa in Poland, moving back to Yugoslavia the next season to manage FK Partizan. The team won three successive Yugoslav League championships under him, after which he was replaced by Kiril Simonovski in 1963. In 1964 he had another spell in Warsaw, and then he moved to Greece where he led Panathinaikos in the 1960s. In the 1967–68 and 1968–69 seasons, he again returned to manage FK Partizan. In 1970, he moved to Olympiacos. In 1972, he was the manager of Dinamo Zagreb and during 1974–75 season of Panathinaikos for a second time, but without former success. He also coached Vardar Skopje and led them to 1978–79 Yugoslav Second League's East Division title and subsequent promotion to the First League.  In 1995, he was named the all-time greatest player of Partizan Belgrade. In 2009, Bobek's biography written by sports journalist Fredi Kramer was published.

Death.

Bobek died shortly after midnight on 22 August 2010 in Belgrade. He is interred in the Alley of Distinguished Citizens in the Belgrade New Cemetery.

Stjepan Bobek (; 3 December 1923 – 22 August 2010) was a Croatian and Yugoslav professional football striker and later football manager.

Stjepan Bobek (* 3. Dezember 1923 in Zagreb; † 22. August 2010 in Belgrad) war ein jugoslawischer Fußballspieler und -trainer, der bei den Olympischen Sommerspielen 1948 in London wie auch 1952 in Helsinki jeweils mit der jugoslawischen Fußballnationalmannschaft die Silbermedaille gewann.


Part 1: Classification of air cleanliness.

ISO 14644-1 covers the classification of air cleanliness in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. Classification in accordance with this standard is specified and accomplished exclusively in terms of concentration of airborne particulates. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-1:1999 in the United States, following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E.

Part 2: Specifications for testing and monitoring to prove continued compliance with ISO 14644-1.

Part 2 specifies requirements for periodic testing of a cleanroom or clean zone to prove its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. It also specifies requirements for the monitoring of a cleanroom or clean zone (installation) to provide evidence of its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. It became an International Standard following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E. In the United States in 2000 it was adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-2:2000.

Part 3: Test Methods.

This part specifies test methods for designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness and for characterizing the performance of cleanrooms and clean zones. These test methods are specified in the document for two different types of cleanrooms and clean zones; unidirectional flow and nonunidirectional flow.  The most important objectives of this highly referenced document are to provide an internationally common basis of measurement and evaluation of cleanrooms and, at the same time, not to prevent the introduction of new technologies.

Part 4: Design, construction and start-up.

This part specifies requirements for the design and construction of cleanroom and clean air devices, as well as requirements for start-up and qualification, but does not prescribe specific technological nor contractual means to meet the requirements. This document is intended for purchasers, suppliers, and designers of cleanroom installations. It was submitted as an American National Standard in 2001.

Part 5: Operations.

ISO 14644-5 provides the basic requirements for operating and maintaining cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. This standard addresses requirements that are basic to the operation of all cleanrooms, regardless of the application. Topics include:  This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-5:2004 in the United States.

Part 6: Vocabulary.

This part is an important document for any contamination control professional. This document describes all the terms and definitions in ISO 14644 and ISO 14698. In March 2008 this ISO Standard recently became an American National Standard.

Part 7: Separative devices (clean air hoods, gloveboxes, isolators and minienvironments).

This part of ISO 14644 specifies the minimum requirements for the design, construction, installation, testing and approval of separative devices in those respects where they differ from cleanrooms as described in Parts 4 and 5. Separative devices range from open to closed systems.  The limitations are:  This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-7:2004.

Part 8: Classification of airborne molecular contamination.

This part of ISO 14644 covers the classification of airborne molecular contamination (AMC) in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments, in terms of airborne concentrations of specific chemical substances (individual, group or category) and provides a protocol to include test methods, analysis and time-weighted factors within the specification for classification.  This document became a Standard in 2006. It was developed by the Secretariat of ISO Technical Committee 209, IEST.

Part 9: Classification of surface particle cleanliness.

This ISO document describes the classification of the particle contamination levels on solid surfaces in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments applications. Recommendations on testing and measuring methods as well as information about surface characteristics are given in informative annexes.

ISO 14644 Standards were first formed from the US Federal Standard 209E Airborne Particulate Cleanliness Classes in Cleanrooms and Clean Zones. The need for a single standard for cleanroom classification and testing was long felt. After ANSI and IEST petitioned to ISO for new standards, the first document of ISO 14644 was published in 1999, ISO 14644-1.

Die EN ISO 14644 ist eine Norm für Reinräume und zugehörige Reinraumbereiche. Die Teile 1 und 2 der Norm lösten den alten US Federal Standard 209E ab. Dieser ist in den Jahren zuvor zum Ermitteln einer Reinraumklassifikation verwendet worden. Aus diesem Grund baut die EN ISO 14644 auf ihm auf, und die Reinraumklassifikationen sind mit denen des Federal Standard vergleichbar.


Early life.

West was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, where he became an Eagle Scout with Bronze Palms, and attended Atkins High School (where his parents were teachers), graduating as valedictorian in 1959.  He subsequently entered Howard University, obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering in 1965. He received his Juris Doctor degree from the Howard University School of Law in 1968, receiving "cum laude" honors and graduating first in his class.  While a freshman at Howard University, he became a brother of Zeta Phi chapter of Alpha Phi Omega service fraternity. West was a member of the Kappa Psi chapter of Omega Psi Phi fraternity.

Early career.

While a law student at Howard, West became the managing editor for the "Howard Law Journal". Around that time, he met Gail Berry, who later became his wife.  A member of St. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square, he served as a vestryman and Senior Warden.  West was a member of the National Executive Board of the Boy Scouts of America, the organization's governing body. He was named a Distinguished Eagle Scout by the Boy Scouts of America and was awarded the Silver Buffalo Award for his national contributions to America's youth. He previously served as the President of the National Capital Area Council of the Boy Scouts of America.

Military and government career.

After completing law school and clerking for a federal judge, West entered the United States Army and served in the Judge Advocate General's Corps. He was in the Army Field Artillery Corps from 1965–68 and the Army Judge Advocate General's Corps from 1969 to 1973.  From his military service, he earned the Legion of Merit and the Meritorious Service Medal. He subsequently practiced law at the firm of Covington & Burling before being appointed an Associate Deputy Attorney General in the administration of President Gerald Ford.  West held several posts in the administration of Jimmy Carter: General Counsel of the Navy (1977–79), Special Assistant to the Secretary and to the Deputy Secretary of Defense (1979), and General Counsel of the Department of Defense (1980–81). As the Secretary of the Army, West weighed in on the Aberdeen scandal, prompting stricter enforcement and investigation into the Army's sexual harassment policies.  West returned to private practice in 1981 with the firm of Patterson Belknap Webb & Tyler and later worked as senior vice president for government relations of the Northrop Corporation until he became a member of the Clinton administration.  West was nominated by President Bill Clinton on January 27, 1998, during Clinton's second term, and was confirmed by the Senate on May 4, 1998. He had previously served as Secretary of the Army from 1993 to 1998. From January 2, 1998, through May 4, 1998, he served a dual role as Acting Secretary of Veterans Affairs and Secretary of the Army while awaiting confirmation as Secretary of Veterans Affairs.

Post-government career.

After leaving office, West practiced law and served on the boards of various institutions. From 2004 to 2006, he served as president of the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, a Washington-based think tank focused on issues of concern to minorities. He was a strong supporter of and past board member of the Mount Vernon preservation society.  West and former Chief of Naval Operations retired Admiral Vernon Clark led the Defense Department's investigation into the Fort Hood massacre, issuing a report in January 2010.  West died of a heart attack on March 8, 2018, at the age of 75, while on a cruise between Barbados and Puerto Rico.

Togo Dennis West Jr. (June 21, 1942 – March 8, 2018) was an American attorney and public official. A Democrat, he was the third person to occupy the post of Secretary of Veterans Affairs during the Bill Clinton administration serving from 1998 until his resignation in 2000. He was the second African American to be Secretary of Veterans Affairs.

Togo Dennis West, Jr. (* 21. Juni 1942 in Winston-Salem, North Carolina; † 8. März 2018 zwischen Barbados und Puerto Rico) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Demokratische Partei). Er war Heeresminister sowie Minister für Kriegsveteranen.


Biography.

The archival documents from his personal file as a student at Saint-Petersburg University of Civil Engineering (1887-1893), published by professor and head of the Department of the History of Western Art of Saint Petersburg State University Roman Sokolov, Ph.D., show that Mikhail Eisenstein was born as Moisey Eisenstein into a merchant Jewish family in Bila Tserkva (Kiev Governorate, in present-day Ukraine).  Eizenstein converted to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1897. According to his son, he was a "staunch representative and admirer of the Russian bureaucratic class". He studied in Saint Petersburg and graduated as a civil engineer in 1893. Soon thereafter he moved to Riga, the present-day capital of Latvia, which was then part of the Russian Empire. He would continue living in Riga until 1917. He was employed at the traffic road department of the regional authorities in the Governorate of Livonia in 1895 and in 1900 appointed head of the department. His work at the department contributed to a rationalization of the maintenance and management of infrastructure in the region. He was awarded several medals and awards for his work as a civil servant, including the Order of Saint Anna (II and III classes) and the Order of Saint Stanislaus (II and III classes). At the same time, he practiced as an independent architect.  In 1897 he married Yulia Ivanovna Konetskaya, who came from a prosperous non-Jewish family in Saint Petersburg. The couple settled in a large apartment in central Riga and took active part in the social life of the city's upper strata. According to the recollections of his son, the family had an international outlook and Eisenstein spoke both German and French in addition to Russian. He was interested in history and literature, and his library contained the works of Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Emile Zola, Alexander Dumas and Victor Hugo. Apart from his interest in contemporary architecture, Eisenstein enjoyed art and especially admired the paintings of Konstantin Makovsky. Due to "differences in temperament" and after Yulia had an affair with a general, the couple separated in 1909 and formally divorced in 1912. The couple had only one son, Sergei Eisenstein, who would become a well-known Soviet film director.  Following the Russian Revolution, Eisenstein joined the "Whites" (anti-revolutionaries) as an engineer in 1918. His son chose to join the Bolsheviks, which ended their relationship. After the end of the Russian Civil War, Eisenstein settled in Berlin, where he died in 1920. He is buried at the Berlin-Tegel Russian Orthodox Cemetery.

Architecture.

Eisenstein was active as an independent architect in Riga at a time of great economical expansion and consequent enlargement of the city, which coincided with the flourishing of Art Nouveau in the city. Even today, Riga has the highest concentration of Art Nouveau buildings anywhere in the world.  Eisenstein designed some of the arguably most well-known of these Art Nouveau buildings, several of which are grouped together on Alberta iela (Albert Street) with other noteworthy buildings by Konstantīns Pēkšēns and Eižens Laube. Since almost no archival or biographical documents remain connected to the life of Eisenstein, his artistic development can only be sketched. It is known that he visited Paris and he may have attended to "Exposition Universelle" of 1900 and experienced the Art Nouveau architecture of Hector Guimard and Gustave Serrurier-Bovy as well as the "L'Art Nouveau" art gallery of S. Bing first-hand; he certainly brought home large numbers of French architectural reviews. Inspiration may also have come from the Vienna Secession and the architecture of Viennese architects Otto Wagner and Josef Hoffmann, which display some superficial similarities with that of Eisenstein. Contemporary Art Nouveau architecture in Saint Petersburg also clearly influenced Eisenstein. It has furthermore been noted that the decorative motifs employed by Eisenstein suggest a strong association with Symbolist ideas.  In any case, the main corpus of buildings designed by Eisenstein share a number of characteristics. They are representatives of a highly, occasionally extremely, decorative form of Art Nouveau and display some innovative use of new materials such as cast iron but are conservative in their spatial layout. Although well known because they are so lavish, Eisenstein's buildings are not representative of Art Nouveau buildings in Riga more broadly.

Buildings by Eisenstein.

Eisenstein designed a total of about 20 buildings in Riga. While Eisenstein designed buildings as early as 1897, these were in a rather typical and plain Historicist style and bear little resemblance with his later work, characterized by "exuberance and love of ornament".  The work for which Eisenstein is most well-known are a set of buildings on and near Alberta iela built between 1901 and 1906. Together they form an architectural ensemble which Jeremy Howard has described in the following way: "As a whole the tenements create a distinctively stylised and energised ensemble, yet at the same time each building appears to compete with its neighbours in terms of modern decorative extravagance." Several of these houses were commissioned by Eisenstein's wealthy client A. Lebedinsky.  The first of the buildings forming this loose ensemble is a tenement house on Elizabetes iela (Elisabeth Street) 33, built in a transitional style between Historicism and Art Nouveau in 1901. Already in this building, Eisenstein's characteristic use of pronounced stringcourses and rich sculptural decoration drawing from a Symbolist vocabulary of forms is present. These and other traits, such as Eisenstein's "dramatic sense of contrasts expressed in architectural, sculptural and decorative forms as well as in color, texture and scale" become even more pronounced in the somewhat later buildings on Alberta iela, for example the somewhat more vertically oriented house on number 8 (1903), the strikingly red- and cream-coloured building on number 6 (1903) and the building on Elizabetes iela 10b (1903) with its unusual giant female heads flanking the central bay.  The facade of Elizabetes iela 10b was based on patterns and drawings published by two Leipzig-based architects, G. Wünschmann and H. Kozel. The building on Alberta iela 10a was originally designed by Eižens Laube but the facade was rebuilt in 1903 by Eisenstein, containing elements which may have been inspired by the Secession Building in Vienna by Joseph Maria Olbrich. The building on Alberta iela number 4 (1904), also commissioned by Lebedinsky, is more ornamentally restrained with a facade dominated by contrastic window shapes and several large sculptures, including two standing lions elevated above the roof on pedestals at the corners, medusa heads and reliefs of lions or griffins flanking the entrance. It has been described as one of the most distinctive of Eisenstein's facades, together with the building on 2a.  The building on Alberta iela 2a (in which the Russian-British philosopher Isaiah Berlin lived 1905–1915) on the other hand is characterized by strong colour contrasts and a strong vertical orientation of the facade; it was designed in 1905. Another project for Lebedinsky is the building on the corner of Alberta iela and Strelnieku iela, built 1904–1906 again in a richly decorated Symbolist form of Art Nouveau with elements of Historicism. The last building of this ensemble, located on Brīvības iela 99 and built in 1905, again displays plentiful sculptural ornament and deep horizontal grooves and stringcourses.  A few later buildings by Eisenstein also survive in Riga, so for example on Strugu iela 3 and Lomonosova iela 3. These buildings, built in 1911, lack the characteristic profuse sculptural decoration of Eisenstein's earlier work and may reflect an adaptation to changing international trends towards a reduction in ornamentation, formulated in Adolf Loos' influential essay from 1910, "Ornament and Crime". These later buildings by Eisenstein however still contain recognizable traits of the architect, notably the use of lively colour contrasts.

Mikhail Osipovich Eisenstein (, ; – 2 July 1920) was a civil engineer and architect working in Riga, the present-day capital of Latvia, when the city was part of the Russian Empire. He was active as an architect in the city at a time of great economic expansion and consequent enlargement, which coincided with the flourishing of Art Nouveau architecture. During the years 1901–1906, Eisenstein designed many of the best-known Art Nouveau buildings of Riga. His son, Sergei Eisenstein, became a well-known Soviet film director.

Michail Ossipowitsch Eisenstein (, lettisch "Mihails Eizenšteins"; * 5. September 1867 in Bila Zerkwa; † 1. Juli 1920 in Berlin) war ein russischer Bauingenieur und Architekt des Jugendstils.


Early years and establishment of Norfolk Island settlement.

Philip Gidley King was born at Launceston, England on 23 April 1758, the son of draper Philip King, and grandson of Exeter attorney-at-law John Gidley. He joined the Royal Navy at the age of 12 as captain's servant, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1778. King served under Arthur Phillip who chose him as second lieutenant on HMS "Sirius" for the expedition to establish a convict settlement in New South Wales. On arrival, in January 1788, King was selected to lead a small party of convicts and guards to set up a settlement at Norfolk Island, leaving Sydney on 14 February 1788 on board HMS "Sirius."  On 6 March 1788, King and his party landed with difficulty, owing to the lack of a suitable harbour, and set about building huts, clearing the land, planting crops, and resisting the ravages of grubs, salt air and hurricanes. More convicts were sent, and these proved occasionally troublesome. Early in 1789 he prevented a mutiny when some of the convicts planned to take him and other officers prisoner, and escape on the next boat to arrive. Whilst commandant on Norfolk Island, King formed a relationship with the female convict Ann Inett – their first son, born on 8 January 1789, was named Norfolk. (He went on to become the first Australian-born officer in the Royal Navy and the captain of the schooner "Ballahoo".) Another son was born in 1790 and named Sydney.  Following the wreck of "Sirius" at Norfolk Island in March 1790, King left and returned to England to report on the difficulties of the settlements at New South Wales. Ann Inett was left in Sydney with the boys; she later married another man in 1792, and went on to lead a comfortable and respected life in the colony. King, who had probably arranged the marriage, also arranged for their two sons to be educated in England, where they became officers in the navy. Whilst in England King married Anna Josepha Coombe (his first cousin) on 11 March 1791 and returned shortly after on HMS "Gorgon" to take up his post as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island, at an annual salary of £250. King's first legitimate offspring, Phillip Parker King, was born there in December 1791, and four daughters followed.  On his return to Norfolk Island, King found the population of nearly one thousand torn apart by discontent after the strict regime of Major Robert Ross. However, he set about enthusiastically to improve conditions. He encouraged settlers, drawn from ex-convicts and ex-marines, and he listened to their views on wages and prices. By 1794 the island was self-sufficient in grain, and surplus swine were being sent to Sydney. The number of people living off the government store was high, and few settlers wanted to leave. In February 1794 King was faced with unfounded allegations by members of the New South Wales Corps on the island that he was punishing them too severely and ex-convicts too lightly when disputes arose. As their conduct became mutinous, he sent twenty of them to Sydney for trial by court-martial. There Lieutenant-Governor Francis Grose censured King's actions and issued orders which gave the military illegal authority over the civilian population. Grose later apologised, but conflict with the military continued to plague King.

Governor of New South Wales.

Suffering from gout, King returned to England in October 1796, and after regaining his health, and resuming his naval career, he was appointed to replace Captain John Hunter as the third Governor of New South Wales. King became governor on 28 September 1800. He set about changing the system of administration, and appointed Major Joseph Foveaux as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island. His first task was to attack the misconduct of officers of the New South Wales Corps in their illicit trading in liquor, notably rum. He tried to discourage the importation of liquor, and began to construct a brewery. However, he found the refusal of convicts to work in their own time for other forms of payment, and the continued illicit local distillation, increasingly difficult to control. He continued to face military arrogance and disobedience from the New South Wales Corps. He failed to receive support in England when he sent an accused officer John Macarthur back to face a court-martial.  King had some successes. His regulations for prices, wages, hours of work, financial deals, and the employment of convicts brought some relief to smallholders, and reduced the numbers 'on the stores'. He encouraged construction of barracks, wharves, bridges, houses, etc. Government flocks and herds greatly increased, and he encouraged experiments with vines, tobacco, cotton, hemp, and indigo. Whaling and sealing became important sources of oil and skins, and coal mining began. He took an interest in education, establishing schools to teach convict boys to become skilled tradesmen. He encouraged smallpox vaccinations, was sympathetic to missionaries, strove to keep peace with the indigenous inhabitants, ordered the printing of Australia's first book, "New South Wales General Standing Orders", and encouraged the first newspaper, the "Sydney Gazette". Exploration led to the survey of Bass Strait and Western Port, and the discovery of Port Phillip, and settlements were established at Hobart and Port Dalrymple in Van Diemen's Land.  While still aware that Sydney was a convict colony and always alert to the ebb and flow of the rebellious Irish political prisoners he established his own body guard. He gave opportunities to emancipists, considering that ex-convicts should not remain in disgrace forever. He appointed emancipists to positions of responsibility, regulated the position of assigned servants, and laid the foundation of the 'ticket of leave' system for deserving prisoners. Although he directly profited from a number of commercial deals, cattle sales, and land grants, he was modest in his dealings compared with most of his subordinates. Most famously he quelled the Castle Hill Rebellion in March 1804. The increased animosity between King and the New South Wales Corps led to his resignation and replacement by William Bligh in 1806, and he returned to England. Here his health failed and he died on 3 September 1808.  Although he worked hard for the good of New South Wales and left it very much better than he found it, the abuse from the officers harmed his reputation, and illness and the hard conditions of his service eventually wore him down. Of all the members of the First Fleet, Philip Gidley King perhaps made the greatest contribution to the early years of the colony.

Artist.

King is also remembered for his art works, several of which survive. An engraving by William Blake, entitled "A Native Family of New South Wales", and published in John Hunter's "Historical Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson and Norfolk Island" (1793) was made from one of his watercolors. The original sketch is among the Banks Papers held by the Mitchell Library, Sydney, along with several others, unsigned but clearly by the same artist.

Captain Philip Gidley King (23 April 1758 – 3 September 1808) was the third Governor of New South Wales, and did much to organise the young colony in the face of great obstacles.

Richard Chelimo (* 27. Februar 1972 in Chesubet, Distrikt Marakwet; † 15. August 2001 in Eldoret) war ein kenianischer Langstreckenläufer. Er stellte einen Weltrekord über 10.000 Meter auf.


Etymology and National Symbols.

The official name of the dominion was "Newfoundland" and not, as was sometimes reported, "Dominion of Newfoundland". The distinction is apparent in many statutes, most notably the Statute of Westminster that listed the full name of each realm, including the "Dominion of New Zealand", the "Dominion of Canada", and "Newfoundland".  The Newfoundland Blue Ensign was used as the colonial flag from 1870 to 1904. The was used as the 'de facto' national flag of the dominion until the legislature adopted the Union Flag on 15 May 1931.  The anthem of the Dominion was the "Ode to Newfoundland", written by British colonial governor Sir Charles Cavendish Boyle in 1902 during his administration of Newfoundland (1901 to 1904). It was adopted as the dominion's anthem on 20 May 1904, until confederation with Canada in 1949. In 1980, the province of Newfoundland re-adopted the song as a provincial anthem, making Newfoundland and Labrador the only province in Canada to adopt a provincial anthem. The "Ode to Newfoundland" continues to be heard at public events in the province; however, only the first and last verses are traditionally sung.

Political origins.

In 1854 the British government established Newfoundland's responsible government. In 1855, Philip Francis Little, a native of Prince Edward Island, won a parliamentary majority over Sir Hugh Hoyles and the Conservatives. Little formed the first administration from 1855 to 1858. Newfoundland rejected confederation with Canada in the 1869 general election. Prime Minister of Canada Sir John Thompson came very close to negotiating Newfoundland's entry into confederation in 1892.  It remained a colony until the 1907 Imperial Conference resolved to confer dominion status on all self-governing colonies in attendance. The annual holiday of Dominion Day was celebrated each 26 September to commemorate the occasion.

First World War and afterwards.

Newfoundland's own regiment, the 1st Newfoundland Regiment, fought in the First World War. On 1 July 1916, the German Army wiped out most of that regiment at Beaumont Hamel on the first day on the Somme, inflicting 90 percent casualties. Yet the regiment went on to serve with distinction in several subsequent battles, earning the prefix "Royal". Despite people's pride in the accomplishments of the regiment, Newfoundland's war debt and pension responsibility for the regiment and the cost of maintaining a trans-island railway led to increased and ultimately unsustainable government debt in the post-war era.  After the war, Newfoundland along with the other dominions sent a separate delegation to the Paris Peace Conference but, unlike the other dominions, Newfoundland neither signed the Treaty of Versailles in her own right nor sought separate membership in the League of Nations.  In the 1920s, political scandals wracked the dominion. In 1923, the attorney general arrested Newfoundland's prime minister Sir Richard Squires on charges of corruption. Despite his release soon after on bail, the British-led Hollis Walker commission reviewed the scandal. Soon after, the Squires government fell. Squires returned to power in 1928 because of the unpopularity of his successors, the pro-business Walter Stanley Monroe and (briefly) Frederick C. Alderdice (Monroe's cousin), but found himself governing a country suffering from the Great Depression.  The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council resolved Newfoundland's long-standing Labrador boundary dispute with Canada to the satisfaction of Newfoundland and against Canada (and, in particular, contrary to the wishes of Quebec, the province that bordered Labrador) with a ruling on 1 April 1927. Prior to 1867, the Quebec North Shore portion of the "Labrador coast" had shuttled back and forth between the colonies of Lower Canada and Newfoundland. Maps up to 1927 showed the coastal region as part of Newfoundland, with an undefined boundary. The Privy Council ruling established a boundary along the drainage divide separating waters that flowed through the territory to the Labrador coast, although following two straight lines from the Romaine River along the 52nd parallel, then south near 57 degrees west longitude to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Quebec has long rejected the outcome, and Quebec's provincially issued maps do not mark the boundary in the same way as boundaries with Ontario and New Brunswick.  Newfoundland only gradually implemented its status as a self-governing Dominion. In 1921, it officially established the position of High Commissioner to the United Kingdom (for which Sir Edgar Rennie Bowring had already assumed the role in 1918), and it adopted a national flag and established an external affairs department in 1931, after it had given its assent for the passage of the "Statute of Westminster 1931".

End of responsible government.

As a small country which relied primarily upon the export of fish, paper, and minerals, Newfoundland was hit very hard by the Great Depression. Economic frustration combined with anger over government corruption led to a general dissatisfaction with democratic government. On 5 April 1932, a crowd of 10,000 people marched on the Colonial Building (seat of the House of Assembly) and forced Prime Minister Squires to flee. Squires lost an election held later in 1932. The next government, led once more by Alderdice, called upon the British government to take direct control until Newfoundland could become self-sustaining. The United Kingdom, concerned over Newfoundland's likelihood of defaulting on its war-debt payments, established the Newfoundland Royal Commission, headed by a Scottish peer, William Mackenzie, 1st Baron Amulree. Its report, released in 1933, assessed Newfoundland's political culture as intrinsically corrupt and its economic prospects as bleak, and advocated the abolition of responsible government and its replacement by a Commission of the British Government. Acting on the report's recommendations, Alderdice's government voted itself out of existence in December 1933.  In 1934, the Dominion suspended Newfoundland's self-governing status and the Commission of Government took control. Newfoundland remained a dominion in name only. Newfoundland was ruled by a governor who reported to the colonial secretary in London. The legislature was suspended.  The severe worldwide Great Depression persisted until the Second World War broke out in 1939.

Second World War.

Given Newfoundland's strategic location in the Battle of the Atlantic, the Allies (especially the United States of America) built many military bases there. Large numbers of unskilled men gained the first paycheques they had seen in years by working on construction and in dockside crews. National income doubled as an economic boom took place in the Avalon Peninsula and to a lesser degree in Gander, Botwood, and Stephenville. The United States became the main supplier, and American money and influence diffused rapidly from the military, naval, and air bases. Prosperity returned to the fishing industry by 1943. Government revenues, aided by inflation and new income, quadrupled, even though Newfoundland had tax rates much lower than those in Canada, Britain, or the United States. To the astonishment of all, Newfoundland started financing loans to London. Wartime prosperity ended the long depression and reopened the question of political status.  The American Bases Act became law in Newfoundland on 11 June 1941, with American personnel creating drastic social change on the island. This included significant intermarriage between Newfoundland women and American personnel.  A new political party formed in Newfoundland to support closer ties with the U.S., the Economic Union Party, which Earle characterises as "a short-lived but lively movement for economic union with the United States". Advocates of union with Canada denounced the Economic Union Party as republican, disloyal and anti-British. No American initiative for union was ever created.

National Convention and referendums.

As soon as prosperity returned during the war, agitation began to end the Commission. Newfoundland, with a population of 313,000 (plus 5,200 in Labrador), seemed too small to be independent. Joey Smallwood was a well-known radio personality, writer, organizer, and nationalist who long had criticized British rule. In 1945 London announced that a Newfoundland National Convention would be elected to advise on what constitutional choices should be voted on by referendum. Union with the United States was a possibility, but Britain rejected the option and offered instead two options, return to dominion status or continuation of the unpopular Commission. Canada cooperated with Britain to ensure that the option of closer ties with America was not on the referendum.  In 1946, an election took place to determine the membership of the Newfoundland National Convention, charged with deciding the future of Newfoundland. The Convention voted to hold a referendum to decide between continuing the Commission of Government or restoring responsible government. Smallwood, the leader of the confederates, moved for the inclusion of a third option – that of confederation with Canada. The Convention defeated his motion, but he did not give up, instead gathering more than 5,000 petition signatures within a fortnight, which he sent to London through the governor. Britain insisted that it would not give Newfoundland any further financial assistance, but added this third option of having Newfoundland join Canada to the ballot. After much debate, the first referendum took place on 3 June 1948, to decide between continuing with the Commission of Government, reverting to dominion status, or joining the Canadian Confederation.  Three parties participated in the referendum campaign: Smallwood's Confederate Association campaigned for the confederation option while in the anti-confederation campaign Peter Cashin's Responsible Government League and Chesley Crosbie's Economic Union Party (both of which called for a vote for responsible government) took part. No party advocated petitioning Britain to continue the Commission of Government. Canada had issued an invitation to join it on generous financial terms. Smallwood was the leading proponent of confederation with Canada, insisting, "Today we are more disposed to feel that our very manhood, our very creation by God, entitles us to standards of life no lower than our brothers on the mainland." Due to persistence, he succeeded in having the Canada option on the referendum. His main opponents were Cashin and Crosbie. Cashin, a former finance minister, led the Responsible Government League, warning against cheap Canadian imports and the high Canadian income tax. Crosbie, a leader of the fishing industry, led the Party for Economic Union with the United States, seeking responsible government first, to be followed by closer ties with the United States, which could be a major source of capital.  The result proved inconclusive, with 44.5 percent supporting the restoration of dominion status, 41.1 percent for confederation with Canada, and 14.3 percent for continuing the Commission of Government. Due to no option getting at least 50 percent of the vote, a second referendum with the top two options from the first referendum was scheduled to be held on 22 July. Between the first and second referenda, rumour had it that Catholic bishops were using their religious influence to alter the outcome of the votes. The Orange Order, incensed, called on all its members to vote for confederation, as the Catholics voted for responsible government. The Protestants of Newfoundland outnumbered the Catholics by a ratio of 2:1. Some commentators believe that this sectarian divide influenced the outcome of the second referendum, on 22 July 1948, which asked Newfoundlanders to choose between confederation and dominion status, produced a vote of 52 to 48 percent for confederation, and Newfoundland joined Canada in the final hours of 31 March 1949.

See also.

Political parties in the Dominion of Newfoundland

Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 to 1934. The dominion, situated in northeastern North America along the Atlantic coast, comprised the island of Newfoundland as well as Labrador on the continental mainland. Before attaining dominion status, Newfoundland was a British colony, self-governing from 1855.

Das Dominion Neufundland () existierte von 1907 bis 1934 als eigenständiges Dominion innerhalb des Britischen Reiches und bildete damit einen dritten Staat in Nordamerika nördlich von Mexiko. Es war in dieser Zeit dem damaligen Dominion Kanada staatsrechtlich gleichgestellt. Hauptstadt war wie bei der heutigen Provinz Neufundland und Labrador die Stadt St. John’s.


Olympic Champion in 2008.

He jumped a new personal best of 2.38, in the London Grand Prix 25 July 2008, and was selected at the last minute to join the Russian team at the 2008 Olympics, where he won the gold medal with a jump of 2.36. His performance in Beijing was astonishing, as he was the only competitor to clear every height on his first attempt and was the only jumper to succeed at 2.36. He then by-passed the Olympic Record of 2.39 and had the bar raised to 2.42, where he missed all three attempts.

2009 and 2010 Seasons.

Silnov's 2009 season was blighted by injury and he was ruled out of competition with an Achilles injury for nearly 12 months. He returned to competition in early 2010.

2011 Outdoor Season.

Silnov's first major outdoor competition of 2011 was at the Prefontaine Classic in Eugene, Oregon on Saturday 4 June. This Diamond League invitational brought together an elite field of 8 of the world's best jumpers. Silnov opened at 2.16 (as did every jumper except Spank) and he cleared every height on his first jump, until missing once at 2.32. When none of the three remaining jumpers could clear 2.35, German Raul Spank was the winner on the basis of his first-try clearance at 2.32, Silnov was second, and American Jesse Williams was third (with a third try clearance at 2.32).

Politician.

In 2014 Silnov was elected a member of Legislative Assembly of Rostov Region.

Andrey Alexandrovich Silnov (, born 9 September 1984) is a Russian high jumper and the 2008 Olympic champion. Born in Shakhty, Rostov Oblast, he is 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) and weighs 83 kg (183 lbs).

Andrei Alexandrowitsch Silnow (; ; * 9. September 1984 in Schachty, Russische SFSR, Sowjetunion) ist ein ehemaliger russischer Leichtathlet, der 2008 Olympiasieger im Hochsprung wurde.


Life.

He most likely came to Prague from the Rhineland (workshop of William of Cologne?) following a study trip to northern Italy in the 1350s. Pujmanová states that in about 1309 a sculptor described as ‘Magister Theodoricus de Alemania’, who could have been an ancestor of his and his brother - the painter Giletto, were active at the court of Charles II of Anjou in Naples. The waiting period for civic rights in Prague was three years, and the newly arrived person wasn’t able to become a member of the fraternity of painters straightaway. The date he was entered in the list of the Prague painters’ fraternity (Brotherhood of Saint Luke, established 1346), where he was described as a superior ("primus magister") and as "malerius imperatoris", is uncertain. Earlier it was assumed to be 1348, however it is possible that an honorary function was only offered to him when he executed the painting of the royal palace at Prague Castle in 1360.  In 1359 he is mentioned as "malerius imperatoris" and owner of a house in Hradčany in the "Records of the Hradčany town". His house was mentioned once again in 1368 (house no. 185/IV above Úvoz on Hradčany Square. Between 1359 and 1367 he worked as the leading court painter of Charles IV in Prague and at Karlštejn Castle. The emperor called his painter and courtier "Pictor noster et familiaris". In a special document of 28th April 1367, Charles IV certified that Theodoric’s court and fields in the village of Mořina would be freed of all taxes and other charges. This privilege also applied to Theodoric’s heirs and was granted in recognition of his decoration of the royal chapel at Karlštejn. Theodoric’s court was mentioned again in 1381, when it was sold, in a letter by Wenceslaus IV. Mikuláš Mendl of Jílové, father of the goldsmith Jorg, and the goldsmith Jan Waczenser, sold the court to Zdena, the widow of Ješek Mráz of Lazevice. This document is the only one that establishes Theodoric’s death before the 8th March 1381 and indicates that he left no descendants.

Work.

Theodoric’s magnum opus is a collection of panel paintings and wall paintings that were done on the commission of Charles IV for the Chapel of the Holy Cross at Karlštejn. All together, there are 129 works, all of saints, prophets, or angels. The National Gallery in Prague said that they “only few equals in the world: we believe that it is no exaggeration to say that they bear comparison with such artistic monuments and phenomena as the Arena in Padua, the churches at Assisi or Sta, Croce in Florence and the palace of the popes in Avignon.”  Known for his bold and vigorous style, he is seen as a central figure in the development of Bohemian art. As many other Gothic painters, he used very bright and attention-grabbing colors and bold lines. He painted powerful figures in small frames, filling the viewer with the notion of monumentality. Famous for his use of light and reflection, he created the illusion of endless space in his work by allowing light to travel beyond the frame. Art historians have disagreed on several aspects of Theodoric’s career. One historian noted that Theodoric was a “unique phenomenon” whose works could not be explained by stylistic evolution, as there were no precedents for his art work, making one believe that he may have been self-taught. Another scholar holds an opposite opinion—that he was influenced both by Italian and French contemporary art.  Theodoric followed on from the work of his predecessor in the service of Charles IV, the Master of the Luxembourg Genealogy, who painted the decoration of the imperial castle-palace at Karlštejn and the ‘relic scenes’ in the "Chapel of the Virgin Mary" between 1356 and 1357. This master was familiar with Franco-Flemish art of the 1350th and brought major innovations to mural painting in Bohemia. Several panel paintings ascribed to Theodoric’s workshop repeat the typology of faces and patterns of movement in figures of the Genealogy. According to Homolka, two heavily damaged panel paintings of SS Peter and Paul from the "Chapel of the Holy Cross" could have directly originated in the workshop of the Master of the Luxembourg Genealogy, since the technology of their foundation layers is more typical of mural painting and thus differs significantly from the other paintings.  Theodoric’s workshop carried out the unique overall decoration of the "Chapel of the Holy Cross" at Karlštejn Castle between 1360 and 1365. The chapel belongs to the tradition of lavishly decorated reliquiary chapels that include the emperor chapel in Constantinople, Sancta Sanctorum in the Lateran Palace, or Sainte Chapelle in Paris. The decoration comprises 129 (originally 130) panel paintings in four rows, portraying the half-length figures of male saints, female saints and prophets who represented the ‘Army of Heaven’ guarding the relics kept in the chapel. Several of the picture frames had small openings into which reliquaries could be inserted. The depiction of the saints in the "Holy Cross Chapel" was directly linked to the veneration of their relics. The presence of relics of the Passion perhaps served to guarantee, that on his return Christ would descend to the Chapel.  With the stylisation of the figures, the abandoning of the Gothic linear style and the modelling of the faces and drapery using light and shade, Theodoric’s paintings surpass the preceding artistic style. It is clear that he was acquainted with French grisaille painting. The pictures can be attributed to Theodoric on the basis of analysing the underdrawings and comparing the execution of the painting. The drawn designs of the compositions, details of the faces and drapery, as well as the overall completion of the most important portraits in the Chapel of the Holy Cross were ascribed to Theodoric. Theodoric ́s brush drawing on the heads of the paintings is delicate and firm. On the draperies it is strong and energetic and overlaps onto the frame.  Study of the typology of the heads showed that the shape of the head and the details of the face, i.e. eyes, nose, are completely identical in a number of cases, as though they originated through tracing. However, some of the faces of saints captivate the viewer ́s attention with their prominent, seemingly individualized features and psychologized expressions, which anticipate portrait painting of 15th century. The portrait of St Luke the Evangelist might even be the autoportrait of Theodoric himself. Specialised craftsmen took care of a series of secondary tasks such as preparing the picture panels, the plastic decoration and goldsmith’s elements. There are no records of the painters employed at Theodoric’s workshop, however there must have been several of them judging by the scale of the commission and the short time frame of execution, as well as by the assertained types of underdrawings, confirmed by infrared reflectography. Certain art historians even suppose that several masters and their workshop collaborators were involved.  In the "Chapel of the Holy Cross" there are two places that testify to the juxtaposition of different painting styles. They can be found in the perfectly executed preparatory drawings on the altar wall that is then repeated in a simpler form or in mirror reverse in the underdrawings of the paintings. Theodoric’s predecessor, the Master of the Luxembourg Genealogy, in all likelihood created the drawn designs on the wall of the "Chapel of the Holy Cross". Theodoric presumably devised the concept of the entire Chapel about 1360, establishing the composition and palette of all the paintings. His distinctive painting style can be identified in several portraits of the prophets, kings and knights that are part of the overall series.  Innovations in the form of painted still lifes appear in the panel paintings of the Church Fathers that originate in Theodoric’s workshop (Saint Augustine, Saint Ambrose, Saint Gregory). Clearly made by another talented artist, these paintings stand out with their unusual degree of realism, the spatial design of their still lifes and their sophisticated colour scheme. With these qualities, they anticipate the development of painting progressing towards the early 15th century and the northern European Renaissance.  Master Bertram, who was later active in Hamburg, evidently worked in Theodoric’s workshop. The Master of the Třeboň Altarpiece and the artist who painted the Votive Panel of Jan Očko of Vlašim most probably also came out of Theodoric’s workshop as well. In terms of its technology and composition, the mural painting of the Adoration of the Three Kings in the Saxon Chapel of St Vitus Cathedral is similar to Theodoric’s paintings. According to Homolka, the illuminators of the A2 and A3 Chapter House Bibles had much in common with Theodoric or else came out of his workshop. Although the International Gothic "Soft style" had no direct successors, the context of the workshop itself influenced succeeding generations of Bohemian Gothic painters.

The technique of Theodoric’s panel paintings.

The preparation of the panels (beechwood), including a double-layered siliceous and chalk base, is identical to practice in France and Germany but doesn’t appear in Italy. The preparatory black underdrawing in brush is linear and highly detailed in places. In the final painting, however, numerous divergences have been found, for example in the position of hands. The preparatory drawing is covered with a layer of oil-based lead white paint. This layer also reflects diffuse light falling on it through translucent lazure layers and shines through the uppermost parts of the drapery. The painting itself is executed in egg tempera alternating with layers of oil. The oil base enabled both the arranging of contrasting colour layers and the gradual modelling of the volume. Theodoric’s painting is characterised by laying down of semi-lazure layers with the help of the slow-drying oil (possibly walnut) base that enabled wet-on-wet painting. In the flesh tones, the moist oil base allows the modelling of smooth transitions into a single layer by adding pigment "alla prima" (Charlemagne).  It was necessary for other specialised artists, who created a complex system of decorations, to collaborate on the final form of the pictures. These included relief decoration of the background and frame of the pictures (pastiglia), glued plastic decoration, small goldsmith’s applications cast from tin and lead into moulds, the gilding of the background and goldsmith’s products as, for example, small crosses attached to the panel with silver nails.

Mural Paintings in the Chapel of the Holy Cross at Karlštejn Castle.

Mural paintings in the Chapel of the Holy Cross feature the apocalyptic prophesy - anticipation of the Second coming of Christ on Judgement Day. The walls opposite each other on the vaults of the window niches of the chapel are ascribed to Master Theodoric and his workshop. The drapery of the figures is characterised by the soft modelling of light. With its muted colour tones, it has an affinity to the grisaille painting method. The faces are closely related to several of Theodoric’s panel paintings and repeatedly feature the characteristic motif of hair and whiskers coiled into individual strands. The painting is embellished with gilded relief decorations and the backgrounds of the scenes are filled out with gold plastic star shapes.

The apocalyptic God in a mandorla is surrounded by choirs of angels (the west niche).

The painting’s colour scheme is adapted to the opposite wall depicting the Adoration of the Twenty-four Old Men (twelve prophets and twelve apostles, or 24 world rulers) ascribed to the Master of the Luxembourg Genealogy. The monumental painting of God is executed in grisaille. In his hand, God is holding seven stars and a book above which there hang seven candleholders.

The Annunciation to the Virgin Mary (north-east niche, north vault).

With the high quality of its execution, the scene of the Annunciation has much in common with the most advanced techniques used in panels paintings by Theodoric’s workshop (St Ambrose). Archangel Gabriel’s wings are made from strips of tin sheet decorated with lazure painting and gilded plastic decoration. The space is deepened by polygonal Gothic architecture of a cathedral and by the Virgin Mary’s diagonal reading stand.

The Adoration of the Three Kings (north-east niche, south vault).

The largest and best-preserved painting depicts the holy family in a hut with animals and three kings bearing gifts. The high artistic quality of the execution, the specific typology of the faces and the painting style attest to Master Theodoric as the artist of this work. The painting is characterised above all by the careful execution of the details (the figure of the Infant Christ, the strands of whiskers and hair, the woven wicker fence, the plastically executed royal crown and fine gifts). The figure of the third king, considered to be a cryptoportrait of Charles IV, is the very first such appearance of a monarch in European art.

Christ meeting Mary Magdalene and Martha / The anointing of Christ in the home of Simon (south-east niche, north vault).

The paintings are heavily damaged, however the chiaroscuro modelling of the clothes, typology of the faces and execution of the hands has closely related counterparts in the panel paintings of Master Theodoric.

The Raising of Lazarus / Noli me tangere (south-east niche, south vault).

The rich composition with its landscape scenery in the background is badly damaged, however numerous similar formal analogies rank it alongside Master Theodoric’s mural paintings in the Chapel of the Holy Cross.

Master Theodoric, in Latin Magister Theodoricus (* before 1328? - before March 8, 1381, Prague, active - ca. 1360–1380) is best documented Bohemian Gothic painter. He was favourite court painter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. and the first Bohemian painter whose name can be linked to a body of work. Theodoric is considered the chief representative of the phase of International Gothic known as "the Soft style". His masterpiece is the Chapel of the Holy Cross at Charles' newly completed Karlštejn Castle near Prague, containing a large series of slightly over-lifesize half-length panel portraits of saints and other notable figures on a gold ground. The whole decoration of the Chapel was commissioned in 1359 and completed over a number of years. Decoration of the Chapel of the Holy Cross was unique and unprecedented north of Alps. Theodoric ́s oeuvre is not comparable to anything in European art after the mid-14th century (1360th).

Theoderich von Prag (lateinisch "Magister Theodoricus de Praga"; tschechisch "Mistr Theodorik"; auch "Dětřich", "Jetřich", "Dittrich"; erwähnt von 1359 bis 1368) war Hofmaler des Kaisers Karls IV.


Forms.

Appeals to authorities.

Historically, opinion on the appeal to authority has been divided: it is listed as a valid argument as often as a fallacious argument in various sources, as some hold that it is a strong or at least valid argument and others that it is weak or an outright fallacy.  If all parties agree on the reliability of an authority in the given context it forms a valid inductive argument.

Use in science.

Scientific knowledge is best established by evidence and experiment rather than argued through authority as authority has no place in science. Carl Sagan wrote of arguments from authority: One of the great commandments of science is, "Mistrust arguments from authority."... Too many such arguments have proved too painfully wrong. Authorities must prove their contentions like everybody else.  One example of the use of the appeal to authority in science dates to 1923, when leading American zoologist Theophilus Painter declared, based on poor data and conflicting observations he had made, that humans had 24 pairs of chromosomes. From the 1920s until 1956, scientists propagated this "fact" based on Painter's authority, despite subsequent counts totaling the correct number of 23. Even textbooks with photos showing 23 pairs incorrectly declared the number to be 24 based on the authority of the then-consensus of 24 pairs.  This seemingly established number generated confirmation bias among researchers, and "most cytologists, expecting to detect Painter's number, virtually always did so". Painter's "influence was so great that many scientists preferred to believe his count over the actual evidence", and scientists who obtained the accurate number modified or discarded their data to agree with Painter's count.  A more recent example involved the "When contact changes minds: An experiment on transmission of support for gay equality" paper, published in 2014. The paper was a fraud based on forged data, yet concerns about it were ignored in many cases due to appeals to authority. One analysis of the affair notes that "Over and over again, throughout the scientific community and the media, LaCour’s impossible-seeming results were treated as truth, in part because of the weight [the study's co-author] Green's name carried". One psychologist stated his reaction to the paper was "that's very surprising and doesn't fit with a huge literature of evidence. It doesn't sound plausible to me... [then I pull it up and] I see Don Green is an author. I trust him completely, so I'm no longer doubtful". The forger, LaCour, would use appeals to authority to defend his research: "if his responses sometimes seemed to lack depth when he was pressed for details, his impressive connections often allayed concerns", as one of his partners states "when he and I really had a disagreement, he would often rely on the kind of arguments where he’d basically invoke authority, right? He's the one with advanced training, and his adviser is this very high-powered, very experienced person...and they know a lot more than we do".  Much like the erroneous chromosome number taking decades to refute until microscopy made the error unmistakable, the one who would go on to debunk this paper "was consistently told by friends and advisers to keep quiet about his concerns lest he earn a reputation as a troublemaker", up until "the very last moment when multiple'smoking guns' finally appeared", and he found that "There was almost no encouragement for him to probe the hints of weirdness he’d uncovered".

Appeals to non-authorities.

Fallacious arguments from authority are also frequently the result of citing a non-authority as an authority. The philosophers Irving Copi and Carl Cohen characterized it as a fallacy "when the appeal is made to parties having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter at hand".An example of the fallacy of appealing to an authority in an unrelated field would be citing Albert Einstein as an authority for a determination on religion when his primary expertise was in physics.  It is also a fallacious "ad hominem" argument to argue that a person presenting statements lacks authority and thus their arguments do not need to be considered. As appeals to a perceived lack of authority, these types of argument are fallacious for much the same reasons as an appeal to authority.  Other related fallacious arguments assume that a person without status or authority is inherently reliable. For instance, the appeal to poverty is the fallacy of thinking that someone is more likely to be correct because they are poor. When an argument holds that a conclusion is likely to be true precisely because the one who holds or is presenting it lacks authority, it is a fallacious "appeal to the common man".

Cognitive bias.

The argument from authority is based on the idea that a perceived authority must know better and that the person should conform to their opinion. This has its roots in psychological cognitive biases such as the Asch effect. In repeated and modified instances of the Asch conformity experiments, it was found that high-status individuals create a stronger likelihood of a subject agreeing with an obviously false conclusion, despite the subject normally being able to clearly see that the answer was incorrect.  Further, humans have been shown to feel strong emotional pressure to conform to authorities and majority positions. A repeat of the experiments by another group of researchers found that "Participants reported considerable distress under the group pressure", with 59% conforming at least once and agreeing with the clearly incorrect answer, whereas the incorrect answer was much more rarely given when no such pressures were present.  Another study shining light on the psychological basis of the fallacy as it relates to perceived authorities are the Milgram experiments, which demonstrated that people are more likely to go along with something when it is presented by an authority. In a variation of a study where the researchers did not wear lab coats, thus reducing the perceived authority of the tasker, the obedience level dropped to 20% from the original rate, which had been higher than 50%. Obedience is encouraged by reminding the individual of what a perceived authority states and by showing them that their opinion goes against this authority.  Scholars have noted that certain environments can produce an ideal situation for these processes to take hold, giving rise to groupthink. In groupthink, individuals in a group feel inclined to minimize conflict and encourage conformity. Through an appeal to authority, a group member might present that opinion as a consensus and encourage the other group members to engage in groupthink by not disagreeing with this perceived consensus or authority. One paper about the philosophy of mathematics notes that, within academia, If...a person accepts our discipline, and goes through two or three years of graduate study in mathematics, he absorbs our way of thinking, and is no longer the critical outsider he once was...If the student is unable to absorb our way of thinking, we flunk him out, of course. If he gets through our obstacle course and then decides that our arguments are unclear or incorrect, we dismiss him as a crank, crackpot, or misfit.  Corporate environments are similarly vulnerable to appeals to perceived authorities and experts leading to groupthink, as are governments and militaries.

Appeal to false authority.

A similar fallacy is the appeal to false authority. This fallacy is used when a person uses a false authority as evidence for his or her claim.

An argument from authority ("argumentum ab auctoritate"), also called an appeal to authority, or argumentum ad verecundiam, is a form of defeasible argument in which the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument. It is well known as a fallacy, though some consider that it is used in a cogent form when all sides of a discussion agree on the reliability of the authority in the given context. Other authors consider it a fallacy to cite an authority on the discussed topic as the primary means of supporting an argument.

Ein argumentum ad verecundiam (lat. für „Beweis durch Ehrfurcht“) oder Autoritätsargument ist ein Argument, das eine These durch die Berufung auf eine Autorität, wie zum Beispiel einen Experten oder einen Vorgesetzten, beweisen will. Da Autorität als solche keine Garantie für Wahrheit ist, handelt es sich nicht um eine logisch zwingende Schlussfolgerung.


Life and career.

Early life and education.

Greenberg, the son of Conservative Jewish parents, was raised in Columbus, Ohio. When he was about 15, he began studying with an Orthodox rabbi. He attended Yeshiva University in New York as an undergraduate and then as a rabbinical student. When he was 20, he went to study at the Yeshivat Har Etzion, a hesder yeshiva in Alon Shvut in Gush Etzion near Jerusalem. He received his BA in philosophy from Yeshiva University, and his rabbinic ordination from the rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (RIETS) in 1983.  While at Yeshivat Har Etzion, he was attracted to a fellow student and concluded that he was bisexual. He went to consult with rabbi Yosef Sholom Eliashiv, a respected old rabbi in Jerusalem, telling him: "Harav, I am attracted to both men and women. What shall I do?" And the rabbi replied according to Greenberg: "My dear one, my friend, then you have twice the power of love. Use it carefully." Greenberg remembers that he left with the trust that it would all work out. However, he realised that the rabbi wasn't permitting him to have sex with men, but was telling him that his desire was not ugly in and of itself.  Greenberg did not acknowledge he was gay until he was 28, and even afterwards continued to date women for another seven years. In 1993, he wrote the article "Gayness and God", admitting he was gay, and published it under the pseudonym "Yaakov Levado" (meaning Jacob alone) in "Tikkun" magazine, but only came out six years later in an article titled "In the name of partnership" published in the Israeli daily newspaper "Maariv" on March 5, 1999.

Career.

Early in his career, Greenberg held an Orthodox pulpit on Roosevelt Island in New York City. Since 1985, he has been a Senior Teaching Fellow and Director of the Diversity Project at CLAL – the National Jewish Center for Learning and Leadership, an interdenominational Jewish think tank, leadership training institute, and resource center. He is a co-founder and director of Eshel, a support, education and advocacy organization for orthodox LGBT Jews that saves lives and families. He is also on the faculty of the Shalom Hartman Institute of North America, a project of the Shalom Hartman Institute.  From 1996 to 1998 he spent two years as a Jerusalem Fellow with the Mandel Institute, studying educational policy issues and researching rabbinic attitudes toward homosexuality. Greenberg participated in the critically acclaimed 2001 documentary film "Trembling Before G-d", featured at the Sundance Festival. The film about gay men and women raised in the orthodox Jewish world helped break the silence around homosexuality in religious Jewish circles.  On November 10, 2011, Greenberg officiated a civil marriage according to the laws of the District of Columbia in Washington, D.C. It was widely misreported Greenberg performed a religious ceremony; Greenberg has repeatedly agreed that same gender kiddushin is incompatible with Jewish law.

2011 same-sex commitment ceremony.

Greenberg officiating at a civil marriage between two orthodox men in the United States, first reported by "+972 Magazine" on November 11, 2011, attracted controversy and was misunderstood and rejected by many within the orthodox Jewish community. Many were confused and thought that he had performed the rites of a Jewish wedding (kiddushin).  Greenberg described the wedding as a "same-sex commitment ceremony", commenting that "while it was a wedding according to the laws of the District of Columbia, it was not a kiddushin," adding "my position was and still is that kiddushin is not appropriate for same-sex couples." Two weeks later, he wrote in an article in the "Jewish Week", "I did not conduct a 'gay Orthodox wedding'. I officiated at a ceremony that celebrated the decision of two men to commit to each other in love and to do so in binding fashion before family and friends. Though it was a legal marriage according to the laws of the District of Columbia, as far as Orthodox Jewish law (halacha) is concerned, there was no kiddushin (Jewish wedding ceremony) performed."  On December 5, 2011, in response to the ceremony, more than 100 orthodox rabbis signed a statement calling gay marriage a "desecration of Torah values", saying: "We, as rabbis from a broad spectrum of the Orthodox community around the world, wish to correct the false impression that an Orthodox-approved same-gender wedding took place. By definition, a union that is not sanctioned by Torah law is not an Orthodox wedding, and by definition a person who conducts such a ceremony is not an Orthodox rabbi."

Personal life.

Greenberg currently lives in Boston with his family.

Publications.

Greenberg has been a frequent commentator for the media and has published several articles on Jewish law and church and state issues.  In a 2001 article "Between Intermarriage and Conversion: Finding a Middle Way" published in CLAL, Greenberg proposes using the rabbinic concept of "ger toshav", (resident alien), to provide an accepted place for non-Jewish partners of intermarried couples, allowing them to experience "the joys of living in a Jewish home without insisting on conversion". As a marriage of a Jew and a ger toshav would not be legitimate under halachic law, Greenberg suggests using "cultural creativity" to find "new rituals that partake of Jewish resources and speak honestly about what is actually happening", the same as for gay couples, where in his opinion "kiddushin, the traditional ritual for the Jewish wedding, simply doesn't apply".  In 2004 Greenberg's book, "Wrestling with God and Men: Homosexuality in the Jewish Tradition" was published, meeting with critical acclaim. In particular it addressed permitted and forbidden sexual behaviour: "While the common understanding of the verse 'Thou shall not lie with a male as one lies with a woman' [] has been taken to refer to both active and passive partners... it would appear that the verse directly refers only to the active partner engulfing his penis in the body of another man. According to this analysis the verse prohibits one, and only one, sexual practice between men, namely, anal intercourse, and speaks specifically to the active partner. There is no mention of any other behavior that this verse would prohibit." In Greenberg's reading "the verse prohibits the kind of sex between men that is designed to effect the power and mastery of the penetrator. Sex for the conquest, for shoring up the ego, for selfaggrandizement, or worse, for the perverse pleasure of demeaning another man is prohibited," and he adds that reading Leviticus 18:22 "as a law against sexual domination and appropriation... offers gay people a way to reconnect to God, Torah, and the Jewish people". Greenberg says that he interprets the passage in this way "because it offers me a way of coming back to Judaism. It's a radical reading, but if you believe that God hates what you are, why would you go to such a temple?"  In addition to it, Greenberg's interpretation of Leviticus 18:22, "the very verse that was for centuries read as requiring the ongoing demotion of women through the marking of intercourse as humiliation and thus femininity as degraded could be read as a full-fledged critique of the maledominated social hierarchy! The only way to redeem intercourse from its inevitable dominations is to press for gender equality on the deepest of emotional planes, to work formally toward ending the gender hierarchy, and to heal the ugly misogyny at its foundation".  "Wrestling with God and Men" received the 2005 Koret Jewish Book Award for Philosophy and Thought, considered one of the highest honors for authors writing prose on Jewish themes, and was a finalist for the 17th Annual Lambda Literary Awards.

Reception.

Some orthodox Jews have criticized Rabbi Greenberg and questioned his orthodox credentials. After Greenberg came out, Rabbi Moshe Tendler, Rosh Yeshiva at Yeshiva University stated: "Being an Orthodox Rabbi and actively gay is an oxymoron... [It is] the exact same as if he said, 'I'm an Orthodox rabbi and I eat ham sandwiches on Yom Kippur'. In Tendler's opinion "it is very sad that an individual who attended our yeshiva sunk to the depths of what we consider a depraved society" and called Greenberg "a Reform rabbi". Commenting on Greenberg's role in "Trembling before God", Rabbi Avi Shafran, a public relations professional for Agudath Israel of America who scolded the movie for not showing Orthodox Jews who have undergone conversion therapy to change their sexual inclinations, wrote: "Rabbi Steve Greenberg, billed as 'the first openly gay Orthodox rabbi'[, a]ddressing the Torah's strong prohibition of male homosexual acts,... suggests to the camera, without elaboration: 'There are other ways of reading the Torah'. What Rabbi Greenberg apparently believes is that elements of the Jewish religious tradition are negotiable, that the Torah, like a Hollywood script, can be sent back for a rewrite. That approach can be called many things, but 'Orthodox' is not among them."  In his review of "Wrestling with God and Men" for the Edah Journal, Rabbi Asher Lopatin affirmed Greenberg's "importance as a voice within the Orthodox community", and calls him "a brilliant, thoughtful and courageous rabbi" and his book "a brilliant work of creativity and research", he writes that ""Wrestling with God and Man" [sic], and Rabbi Greenberg's voice in this book fall outside the bounds of Orthodoxy" for three reasons: Because Greenberg "is not committing himself fully to Orthodoxy", because he "does not follow Orthodox methodology", and because he "is not sufficiently halakhically creative", not having "combined — in a novel way to be sure — [his] commitment to his homosexual identity and way of life with the binding nature of halakhah". At the same time, Lopatin is confident, that "Greenberg can write the Orthodox book that will show us that he is committed to staying the long and difficult course of persuasion that Orthodoxy demands".

Steven Greenberg (born June 19, 1956) is an American rabbi with a rabbinic ordination from the Orthodox rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (RIETS). He is described as the first openly gay Orthodox Jewish rabbi, since he publicly disclosed he was gay in an article in the Israeli newspaper "Maariv" in 1999 and participated in a 2001 documentary film about homosexual men and women raised in the Orthodox Jewish world.

Steven J. Greenberg (* 19. Juni 1956) ist ein US-amerikanischer Rabbiner mit einer Ordination als orthodoxer Rabbiner der Yeshiva University in New York. Er wird oft als „der erste offen homosexuelle orthodoxe Rabbiner“ bezeichnet. Greenberg ist am "National Jewish Center for Learning and Leadership (CLAL)" tätig. 2004 erschien sein Buch über Homosexualität im Judentum "Wrestling with God and Men. Homosexuality in the Jewish Tradition", das mit dem 2005 Koret Jewish Book Award für Philosophie ausgezeichnet wurde.


History.

The eduroam initiative started in 2002 when during the preparations for the creation of TERENA's task force TF-Mobility Klaas Wierenga of SURFnet shared the idea of combining a RADIUS-based infrastructure with IEEE 802.1X technology to provide roaming network access across research and education networks. Initially the service was joined by institutions in the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, Portugal, Croatia and the United Kingdom. Later, other NRENs in Europe embraced the idea and started joining the infrastructure, which was then called eduroam. Since 2004, the European Union co-funded further research and development work related to the eduroam service through the GN2 and GN3 projects. From September 2007, the European Union also funded through these projects the continued operation and maintenance of the eduroam service at the European level.  The first non-European country to join eduroam was Australia, in December 2004. In Canada, eduroam started as an initiative of the University of British Columbia, which was later taken over by CANARIE as a service of its Canadian Access Federation. In the United States, eduroam was initially a pilot project between the National Science Foundation and the University of Tennessee (UTK). In 2012, Internet2 announced the addition of eduroam to its NET+ service offerings. AnyRoam LLC, a private company, was formed by former UTK staff to serve as an Internet2 active corporate member administering the top-level servers.

Technology.

The eduroam service uses IEEE 802.1X as the authentication method and a hierarchical system of RADIUS servers. The hierarchy consists of RADIUS servers at the participating institutions, national RADIUS servers run by the National Roaming Operators and regional top-level RADIUS servers for individual world regions. When a user visits a remote institution, the user's mobile device presents their credentials to the local RADIUS server. That RADIUS server discovers that it is not responsible for the realm of the user's home institution and proxies the access request to the national RADIUS server. If the visited institution is in a different country than the home institution, the request is in turn proxied to the regional top-level RADIUS server, and then to the national RADIUS server of the user's home country. That national server forwards the credentials to the home institution, where they are verified. The 'acknowledge' travels back over the proxy-hierarchy to the visited institution and the user is granted access.  Because the user's credentials travel via a number of intermediate servers, not under the control of the home institution of the user, it is important that the credentials are protected. This requirement limits the types of authentication methods that can be used. Basically there are two categories of useful authentication methods: those that use credentials in the form of some public-key mechanism with certificates and those that use so-called tunnelled authentication. Most institutions use a tunnelled authentication method that only requires server certificates. These server certificates are used to set up a secure tunnel between the mobile device and the authentication server, through which the user credentials are securely transported.  A complication arises if the user's home institution does not use a two-letter country-code top-level domain as part of its realm, but a generic top-level domain such as.edu or.org. By inspection of such realms, it is not possible to determine which national RADIUS server the request should be routed to. Such domains will thus by default fail to work in international roaming. The workaround for this problem involves the creation of exceptions in the international RADIUS request routing tables; however, this workaround does not scale as the number of exception entries grows. Several solutions have been proposed to eliminate this workaround in future, the most promising of which is "RADIUS over TLS with Dynamic Discovery", which does not rely on static routing tables inside a RADIUS server configuration to route requests to their proper destination. Instead, the participating institution adds one single DNS resource record to its own domain's DNS zone which states by which server eduroam authentication for the domain is handled.

Governance.

TERENA has established a lightweight global governance structure. Recognising the large variety in the organisation and funding of research and education (networking) in different countries and regions, rules imposed on the operations of eduroam are limited to technical and administrative requirements that are necessary to ensure the smooth and secure operations of eduroam worldwide. Moreover, the eduroam operators have the leading role in creating and maintaining the rules of the global eduroam governance.  The Global eduroam Governance Committee (GeGC) has the central role in the global eduroam governance structure. Its members are nominated by the "European eduroam confederation", respectively by the National Roaming Operators in other world regions, and are appointed by TERENA. The GeGC is composed of three members representing Europe, two representing Asia-Pacific, two representing North America, two representing Latin America and two representing Africa. In addition, TERENA may appoint one or more experts as non-voting members of the GeGC.

Geographical deployment.

eduroam is available at selected locations in countries with a National Roaming Operator that has signed the eduroam Compliance Statement. Those sixty-seven countries are listed below. In addition, there may be pilot deployments in countries that are in the process of joining eduroam.

Europe.

The NRENs that are members of the consortium of the GN3 project have joined the "European eduroam confederation" by signing the confederation's policy that requires its members to comply to a set of technical and organisational requirements, which are more specific than those in the global eduroam Compliance Statement.  As a consequence, eduroam is deployed in the following countries: Austria (ACOnet), Belgium (Belnet), Bulgaria (BREN), Croatia (CARNet), Cyprus (CYNET), Czech Republic (CESNET), Denmark (NORDUnet, operated by DeIC), Estonia (EENet), Finland (NORDUnet, operated by FUNET), France (RENATER), Germany (DFN), Greece (GRNET), Hungary (NIIF), Iceland (NORDUnet, operated by RHnet), Ireland (HEAnet), Israel (IUCC), Italy (GARR), Latvia (SigmaNet), Lithuania (LITNET), Luxembourg (RESTENA), Macedonia (MARNET), Malta (University of Malta), Montenegro (MREN), Netherlands (SURFnet), Norway (NORDUnet, operated by UNINETT), Poland (PSNC), Portugal (FCCN), Romania (RoEduNet), Serbia (AMRES), Slovakia (SANET), Slovenia (ARNES), Spain (RedIRIS), Sweden (NORDUnet, operated by SUNET), Switzerland (SWITCH), Turkey (ULAKBIM), United Kingdom (Janet).  In addition, three NRENs that are associate members of the consortium of the GN3 project without voting rights joined the European eduroam confederation; they represent Belarus (UIIP), Moldova (RENAM) and Russia (Joint Supercomputer Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences).  Finally, five NRENs not involved in the GN3 project joined the European eduroam confederation on a voluntary basis, enabling the deployment of the service in Andorra (Universitat d'Andorra), Armenia (ASNET-AM), Azerbaijan (AzScienceNet), Kazakhstan (KazRENA) and Kyrgyzstan (KRENA).  The European top-level RADIUS servers are operated by SURFnet and Forskningsnettet.

Asia-Pacific.

eduroam is deployed in the following countries and economies: Australia (AARNet), China (CSTNET and CERNET), Hong Kong (Harnet), India (ERNET), Indonesia (UII), Japan (NII), Macau (University of Macau), Malaysia (MYREN), New Zealand (REANNZ), Fiji (Fiji National University), Saudi Arabia (KAUST), Singapore (SingAREN), South Korea (KREONET), Sri Lanka (Lanka Education and Research Network, University of Kelaniya, University of Moratuwa), Taiwan (Ministry of Education) and Thailand (UniNet).  The Asia-Pacific top-level RADIUS servers are operated by AARNet and by the University of Hong Kong.

North America.

eduroam is deployed in Canada (CANARIE) and the United States (Internet2, operated by ANYROAM LLC). It is also deployed in Mexico.

Latin America.

eduroam is deployed in Argentina (Innova-RED), Brazil (RNP), Chile (REUNA), Colombia (RENATA), Costa Rica (RedCONARE), Ecuador (CEDIA), Mexico (CUDI) and Peru (RAAP).

Africa.

eduroam is deployed in Kenya (KENET), Morocco (MARWAN), Ghana (GARNET) and South Africa (TENET).

eduroam ("edu"cation "roam"ing) is an international roaming service for users in research, higher education and further education. It provides researchers, teachers, and students easy and secure network access when visiting an institution other than their own. Authentication of users is performed by their home institution, using the same credentials as when they access the network locally, while authorization to access the Internet and possibly other resources is handled by the visited institution. Users do not have to pay for using eduroam.

Education Roaming (eduroam) ist eine Initiative, die Mitarbeitern und Studierenden von partizipierenden Universitäten und Organisationen einen Internetzugang an den Standorten aller teilnehmenden Organisationen unter Verwendung ihres eigenen Benutzernamens und Passwortes oder eines persönlichen X.509-Nutzer-Zertifikates einer gültigen PKI über Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) oder Local Area Network (LAN) ermöglichen will.


Publication history.

The original title ran for 12 years and 124 issues. It was an anthology series that told war stories with horror, mystery, fantasy and science fiction elements. Changes in the Comics Code Authority made the use of horror elements possible. The first seven issues were reprinted material. Each issue beginning with issue #8 was hosted by Death, usually depicted as a skeleton dressed in a different military uniform each issue. The title's name was inspired by editor Joe Orlando. Walt Simonson's first professional published comic book work appeared in "Weird War Tales" #10 (January 1973). Roger McKenzie and Frank Miller's first collaboration was on a two-page story published in "Weird War Tales" #68 (October 1978). Recurring characters began to appear late in the series run, notably the G.I. Robot, and the return of "The War that Time Forgot" which originally ran in "Star Spangled War Stories". Writer J. M. DeMatteis and penciler Pat Broderick created the Creature Commandos in "Weird War Tales" #93 (November 1980).  In "Weird War Tales" #101 (July 1981), the G.I. Robot is deployed to a Pacific island alongside the Marines to fight the Japanese military. Although the robot is technically named "Jungle Automatic Killer - Experimental Number 1" (J.A.K.E. 1), it is given the nickname of the G.I. Robot. J.A.K.E. 1 is destroyed in "Weird War Tales" #111 (May 1982) but is replaced by J.A.K.E. 2, which continues to fight on various Pacific islands, including Dinosaur Island. It later teams with the Creature Commandos.  Several issues featured a series of short vignettes titled "The Day After Doomsday" featuring largely doomed characters dealing with various threats and harsh ironies of living in a post-nuclear war apocalyptic landscape. The first few stories dealt with a society reduced to medieval ways seven centuries after a war but most others dealt with the near-term aftermath, with the unexpected results of radiation or infrastructure damage almost always catching the characters by surprise.  Other stories featured robot soldiers, ghosts, the undead, and other paranormal characters from different eras of time.

Revival.

"Weird War Tales" was revived for DC Comics' Vertigo imprint in 1997. It was published as a four-issue limited series, followed by a single-issue special in 2000.

Weird War Tales was a war comic book title with supernatural overtones published by DC Comics. It was published from September–October 1971 to June 1983.

Weird War Tales (dt. etwa „Sonderbare Kriegsgeschichten“) war der Titel einer Comicheftserie, die der US-amerikanische Verlag DC Comics zwischen September 1971 und Juni 1983 herausgab. 1997 wurde der Titel für eine Miniserie wiederbelebt.


Name.

This tree gets its common name from the African spear - the Zulu Assegai - which was traditionally made from this tree's strong wood. The Zulu would intentionally damage the tree's main trunk, causing the tree to coppice from its base. The straight, strong shoots of the coppice were used for the shafts of the spears.  Its genus name, ""Curtisia"", is from the botanist William Curtis (founder of "The Botanical Magazine") and ""dentata"" is simply the Latin for "toothed", referring to the slightly serrated margins of its leaves.

Appearance.

A medium to tall evergreen tree (up to 15 m in height), usually immediately recognizable due to the striking contrast between its dark, glossy foliage and its sprays of cream-white berries. It has a clean, unbuttressed bole and the bark is smooth and grey or cinnamon-coloured. The leaves have pointed tips and toothed edges, and are arranged in opposite pairs. The leaf surface is smooth and dark glossy green, while the stalks and the twigs are covered in silky reddish hair. Very young growth is also velvety to the touch and bronze-gold in colour. The tiny flowers are cream-coloured and velvety, but relatively inconspicuous.<br> The tree bears dense clusters of small, white berries. They generally appear in winter and are pure white (sometimes tinged with pink or red). They remain on the tree for a long time and can be very decorative.

Distribution.

The Assegai tree grows in the forests of South Africa and Swaziland, ranging from sea level to 1800 meters elevation, and from Cape Town in the south to Limpopo province in the north. In deep Afromontane forest it grows into a tall tree, but on open mountain slopes and by the coast it remains a small bushy tree. "Curtisia" has been in decline in some areas, as its bark is highly valued for traditional medicine. It is now a Protected Tree in South Africa.

Growing "Curtisia dentata".

The Assegai tree is attractive, fast-growing and hardy. When planted alone, it grows into a shapely, evergreen tree. Planted in a row it makes an attractive, tall, leafy hedge and it grows especially dense and bushy when planted in the sun. However, it can be grown in light shade as well as full sun, and its roots are non-invasive so it can also be planted near to buildings. It does not create much leaf litter, and it is storm-firm due to its deep roots and tough branches. The tree's edible (but bitter) berries also attract birds to the garden. <br> The bark of this tree is widely used as a traditional medicine for curing stomach ailments and diarrhoea. It is also reputed to be an aphrodisiac. Due to this, the tree is often overexploited and even effectively exterminated from some parts of the country.  The Assegai is best propagated by seed. Remove the fleshing covering of its white berries and plant them in moist soil. Germination takes a few weeks and seedlings grow rapidly, though they should be kept well-watered and out of direct sunlight. It is sensitive to frost and drought, although established trees can survive both.

Curtisia dentata (commonly known as the Assegai tree or Cape lancewood,,, ) is a flowering tree from Southern Africa. It is the sole species in genus Curtisia, which was originally classed as a type of "dogwood" ("Cornaceae"), but is now placed in its own unique family Curtisiaceae.

Curtisia dentata ist die einzige Art der monotypischen Gattung Curtisia und der Pflanzenfamilie der Curtisiaceae innerhalb der Ordnung der Hartriegelartigen (Cornales). Sie ist im südlichen Afrika von Mosambik und Simbabwe bis Südafrika verbreitet.