Early career and mainstream success (1986–1992).

The Primitives were formed in the summer of 1984 by PJ Court (born Paul Jonathan Court) (vocals, guitar), Steve Dullaghan (born Stephen Anthony Dullaghan, ex-Nocturnal Babies) (bass), Peter Tweedie (drums) and Keiron McDermott, ex-Nocturnal Babies (vocals). Vocalist McDermott was later replaced by Tracy Tracy (born Tracy Louise Cattell). Tig Williams replaced Pete Tweedie on drums in October 1987.  According to legend, McDermott left the band claiming that he could not work with new manager Wayne Morris and so reformed the Nocturnal Babies. Needing a singer for an upcoming gig, Paul wrote on a piece of scrap paper "male singer wanted" and posted it at the Coventry library. Tracy responded that afternoon.  The band were part of the indie music scene of the mid-1980s alongside bands like The Jesus and Mary Chain, Primal Scream, My Bloody Valentine, The Soup Dragons and The Wedding Present. Their major rivals within the 'blonde pop' scene were Transvision Vamp and The Darling Buds. They received valuable publicity when The Smiths singer Morrissey was photographed wearing a Primitives t-shirt.  The band's early singles were released on their own Lazy Records imprint. In late 1987, they signed the label over to RCA, who released the band's material from then until their split. Their first album, "Lovely" (1988) reached No. 6 in the UK Albums Chart, and produced two Top 40 hit singles: "Crash" (UK No. 5, US Modern Rock No. 3) and "Out of Reach" (UK No. 25). "Way Behind Me" was released as a single soon after, and was included on later versions of the debut album, as well as on the follow-up. Towards the end of 1988, the band had a sell-out tour of the UK, ending in two nights at London's Town & Country Club.  The band's second album "Pure" (1989) was preceded by three singles - "Way Behind Me" (UK No. 36, US Modern Rock No. 8), "Sick of It" (UK No. 24, US Modern Rock No. 9) and "Secrets", (UK No. 49, US Modern Rock No. 12).  In 1990, the band did a co-headlining tour of the US with The Sugarcubes as well as a short tour of Japan. They split in 1992 following the commercial failure of their 1991 album, "Galore".

Reformation (2009–present).

Steve Dullaghan died in Coventry on 4 February 2009, following which, after nearly 18 years of dormancy, The Primitives re-formed, with new bassist Raphael Moore. Their first live shows were in Coventry and at the Buffalo Bar in London in October 2009. In spring of 2010, The Primitives toured the UK and also performed a single US concert at The Bell House in Brooklyn, New York. The Primitives supported The Wedding Present at Koko in Camden, London on 13 December 2010 as part of that band's "Bizarro" album 21st anniversary tour.  The Primitives also went back into the studio with original producer Paul Sampson, recording the EP "Never Kill A Secret", featuring two original songs - the title track and "Rattle My Cage" - and two cover versions of lesser-known female-fronted songs - "Need All the Help I Can Get" (written by Lee Hazlewood and originally recorded by Suzi Jane Hokom in 1966) and "Breakaway" (originally recorded by Toni Basil in 1966). The EP was released on 7 March 2011. The album "Echoes and Rhymes" followed in 2012, featuring 14 further recordings of lesser-known female-fronted songs. The Japanese edition of "Echoes and Rhymes" featured a further three bonus tracks, two of which are remix versions of "Need All the Help I Can Get" and "Breakaway". The third bonus track "Can't Stop The Want", also featured on the digital EP "Turn Off The Moon".  A new original track featured on the Elefant Records Christmas compilation album "A Christmas Gift For You From Elefant Records" called "You Trashed My Christmas". An accompanying video for the track was also released.  A compilation album was issued in March 2013 titled "Everything’s Shining Bright – The Lazy Recordings 1985 – 1987". The compilation featured all the Lazy releases, plus, from 1987, previously unreleased, different versions of songs that ended up on "Lovely", along with some 1985 demos and the 1987 ICA show, with Morrissey introducing the band on stage.  A new single "Lose The Reason" was released on 18 February 2013, through Elefant Records.  The group's fifth studio album, "Spin-O-Rama", was released on Elefant on 13 October 2014, and was preceded by the release of the title track as a 7" and download single.  In April 2017 the four song album "New Thrills" was released. The first 1000 copies were personally autographed by Paul, Tracy, and Tig. Included with the album was a code and instructions for digital download. Tracks are: 1. I'll Trust The Wind 2. Squeak 'N' Squawk 3. Oh Honey Sweet 4. Same Stuff  The band toured California in June 2017.  In April 2019 The Primitives visited Tokyo, Japan and were enthusiastically received.

Members.

Current members  Former members

The Primitives are an English indie rock band from Coventry, best known for their 1988 international hit single "Crash". Formed in 1984, disbanded in 1992 and reformed in 2009, the band's two constant members throughout their recording career have been vocalist Tracy Tracy and guitarist Paul Court. Drummer Tig Williams has been a constant member since 1987. Often described as an indie pop or indie rock band, The Primitives' musical style can also be seen as straddling power pop, new wave and post-punk.

The Primitives ist eine britische Indie-Pop-Band aus dem englischen Coventry und wurden 1985 durch Keiron McDermott (Gesang), PJ Court (bürgerlicher Name Paul Jonathan Court, Gesang, Gitarre), Steve Dullaghan (Bass) und Pete Tweedie (Schlagzeug) gegründet. Keiron wurde bald durch Tracy Tracy (bürgerlicher Name Tracy Cattell, geboren in Australien) ersetzt. Die blonde Leadsängerin verhalf der Band mit ihrer markanten Stimme zu einem großen Erfolg, der aber nur von relativ kurzer Dauer war. Die Karriere der Primitives wurde unter anderem auch dadurch gefördert, als The Smiths-Sänger Morrissey sie zu einer seiner Lieblings-Bands ernannte.


History.

Homeboy Industries began in 1988 as a job training program (called Jobs for a Future)  In 1992, an abandoned warehouse was converted into the first business, Homeboy Bakery, to create more opportunities for employment. The Bakery started off producing tortillas and eventually received a contract for baking bread. Eventually more businesses were added, and in 2001, Homeboy Industries became an independent non-profit. "Nothing stops a bullet like a job" is the guiding principle.  Dolores Mission Alternative School was created to offer high school drop outs a chance for a diploma. In 2010, Learning Works became the new high school. There are currently 75 students enrolled, and in 2012 enrollment is expected to reach 105.  In October 2007, Homeboy Industries opened a new $8.5 million headquarters at the Fran and Ray Stark building, in a gang-neutral downtown location.  In addition to jobs, Homeboy Industries offers training in anger management, domestic violence, yoga, spiritual development, parenting, substance abuse, budgeting, art and other areas of self-development. In addition, they offer free mental health counseling, tattoo removal, legal services, job development and case management.  One of Homeboy's most successful programs is free tattoo removal. Young people who find that tattoos inhibit their ability to secure employment can receive treatments on site at Homeboy's center in Downtown Los Angeles, California, USA. Though tattoo removal by laser is known to be painful and takes an average of eight to ten treatments per tattoo, and in some cases up to 1 year to complete, patient retention is virtually 100%. The clinic completes about 560 treatments per month. According to the Los Angeles Times, in 2018, Homeboy removed 43,777 tattoos from former gang members trying to turn their lives around.  Homeboy Industries faced financial difficulties in 2010, but the organization has reached a strong point in 2011 and is seeing more clients than ever before. New developments in 2010 and 2011 included the launch of Homeboy Tortilla Strips and Salsa in Ralphs stores across California, and the expansion of the Homeboy social enterprises with the Homeboy Diner at City Hall and Homeboy Farmers Markets. The title of Fr. Boyle's memoir, "Tattoos on the Heart: The Power of Boundless Compassion" reflects Father Boyle's unwavering focus in helping gang members walk a new path.  Homeboy currently employs between 200–235 high-risk, formerly gang-involved, and recently incarcerated youth in its six social enterprises and headquarters, though the free services (from tattoo removal to Baby and Me class) are utilized by more than 10,000 community members a year.  In 2014, the Global Homeboy Network was founded to work with other organizations to provide similar programs and the social enterprise employment structure across the globe. Father Greg hopes organizations will not duplicate Homeboy Industries, but seek to creating a community and a place of welcome to those in trouble.  According to its annual budget, Homeboy Industries receives government support from the Department of Labor and the City of L.A.’s Gang Reduction Youth Development program. The nonprofit also receives donations from corporations and individuals to fund trainee compensation, programs, fundraising, administration and businesses. The annual budget is around $14.7 million dollars, where 25% of the revenue is utilized to sustain all the free services and programs for young adults who have recently left prison.

Homeboy Grocery.

The growing number of ex-gang members and prisoners had quickly outnumbered the amount of available jobs at Homeboy Industries. According to Father Boyle, Homeboy Industries laid off approximately 330 employees in 2010, including senior staff and administrators. Homeboy Industries failed to generate its $5 million dollars needed to operate. In order to rehabilitate their finances, Homeboy Industries created "Homeboy Groceries" in January of 2011, consisting of foods such as chips, salsa, and guacamole.  Because of Homeboy’s new partnerships and job opportunities that Homeboy Grocery has provided, Homeboy Industries is continuing to operate.  The salsas are based on Homegirl Café's Chef Patricia “Pati” Zarate’s recipes, but actually are made by El Burrito Food Products Inc., based in the City of Industry. The chips, on the other hand, are made by Snak King, also based in City of Industry. Homeboy receives a part of the sales in an agreement with the manufacturers, the distributor and Ralph's, and all of the proceeds go to funding Homeboy services such as tattoo removal and counseling. Royalties from Homeboy Grocery sales exceeded $1.1 million annually. Most recently, on June 13, 2019, Homeboy Industries celebrated the introduction of Homeboy Salsa and Homeboy Guacamole in forty different Southern California Walmart stores. This celebration took place in the Compton chain, featuring Compton’s Mayor, Aja Brown, as well as Walmart’s Senior Director of Community Relations, Javier Angulo.  Homeboy Groceries goods are currently available in the DELI section at Ralph’s, Gelson’s, Walmart, and Stop & Shop.

Recognition and awards.

Although Boyle and Homeboy Industries have been criticized by the LAPD for glorifying gang life and harboring criminals, the organization has received recognition and praise from other law enforcement agency and government officials in LA. These include the Los Angeles County Sheriff Lee Baca, LAPD Chief Charlie Beck, and Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa. In 2005, former First Lady Laura Bush visited a bakery run by Homeboy Industries to see how it was helping young people involved in gangs.  In 2007, an independent documentary titled "Father G. and the Homeboys" was released about the organization and what it did for ex-gang members.  Homeboy Industries made its first foray into the mainstream market with its salsa being sold at Ralphs Supermarket.  In 2007, Boyle appeared in an episode of MTV's True Life, which followed an employee of Homeboy Industries named Dennis.  Boyle and Homeboy Industries were awarded in the humanitarian category by of the 10th Annual Bon Appétit Awards in September 2007.  Members of Homeboy Industries were also shown in the music video for Daughtry's "What About Now" in July 2008.  For his work with Homeboy Industries, Boyle received the 2008 James Irvine Foundation Leadership Award.”  Boyle was inducted into the California Hall of Fame in December 2011.  Boyle was named the 2016 Humanitarian of the Year by the James Beard Foundation, a national culinary-arts organization.  The 2017 Laetare Medal, a prestigious annual award given by the University of Notre Dame to an American Catholic, was awarded to Boyle.  Homeboy’s 2019 “"Lo Maximo"” award ceremony was hosted by actresses Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin and celebrated notable allies of Homeboy Industries, including former California Governor Jerry Brown, who was presented with the 2019 “Kinship Award.”

External links.

Homeboy Industries is a youth program founded in 1992 by Father Greg Boyle following the work of the Christian base communities at Dolores Mission Church in Boyle Heights, Los Angeles. The program is intended to assist high-risk youth, former gang members and the recently incarcerated with a variety of free programs, such as mental health counseling, legal services, tattoo removal, curriculum and education classes, work-readiness training, and employment services. A distinctive aspect of Homeboy Industries is its structure of a multifaceted social enterprise and social business. This helps young people who were former gang members and former inmates to have an opportunity to acquire job skills and seek employment in a safe, supportive environment. Among the businesses are the Homeboy Bakery, Homegirl Café & Catering, Homeboy/Girl Merchandise, Homeboy Farmers Markets, The Homeboy Diner at City Hall, Homeboy Silkscreen & Embroidery, Homeboy Grocery, and Homeboy Cafe & Bakery in the American Airlines terminal at Los Angeles International Airport.

Homeboy Industries ist ein in Los Angeles ansässiges US-amerikanisches Selbsthilfe-Projekt von ehemaligen Gangmitgliedern. Es wurde von dem Jesuitenpfarrer und Sozialarbeiter Gregory Boyle gegründet. Bekannt geworden ist es jedoch durch die Produktion von Modeartikeln, die teils nur kurz mit Homeboy beschriftet sind.


History.

Fillmore, located near the geographic center of the territory, was originally built as the capital of Utah Territory. The Utah Territorial Legislature approved a plan to locate the capital in the Pahvant Valley. On October 28, 1851, Utah governor Brigham Young chose the specific site for Fillmore. Jesse W. Fox, that same day, surveyed the town. Anson Call headed the colonizing company that shortly followed; they built houses, a grist mill and a sawmill. The capitol building was begun in 1852.  In the following years some disagreements developed with the Native Americans in the area, but Brigham Young sent Dimick B. Huntington to the area and he managed to negotiate a peace. The region was considered as a route, along the 38th parallel, for the transcontinental railroad. Captain John W. Gunnison, leading a military party surveying the region, was attacked by a band of Pahvants (Ute) west of Fillmore. Gunnison and seven of his men were killed (October 1853). During the 1860s two forts, Fort Deseret and Cove Fort were constructed nearby as protection from Indian unrest.  In 1855, the territorial legislature met in Fillmore. However, in 1856, the legislature decided to move the Territorial Capital to the larger community of Salt Lake City.

Geography.

Fillmore is located at in elevation. It lies in the Pahvant Valley, near the base of the Pahvant Mountain Range.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.8 square miles (14.9 km2), all of it land.

Climate.

In the Köppen climate classification, Fillmore has either a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") or humid continental climate ("Dfa") depending on which variant of the system is used.

Demographics.

In 1853, 304 people were recorded as belonging in the LDS Church congregation when John A. Ray replaced Anson Call as the leader of the Mormons in Fillmore. In 1880, the larger population was divided into two LDS congregations ("wards"). In November 1882, the two congregations were joined together again. In 1920, the congregation was again divided. In 1930 Fillmore had a population of 1374.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 2,253 people, 732 households, and 562 families in the city. The population density was 388.4/sqmi (150.0/km2). There were 823 housing units at an average density of 141.9/sqmi (54.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 91.70% White, 0.09% African American, 1.38% Native American, 2.00% Asian, 3.46% from other races, and 1.38% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.19% of the population.  There were 732 households out of which 43.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.8% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.1% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.06 and the average family size was 3.62.  The city population contained 36.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,719, and the median income for a family was $34,830. Males had a median income of $31,944 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,061. About 15.6% of families and 21.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.1% of those under age 18 and 11.9% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 census Fillmore had a population of 2,435. The ethnic and racial make-up of the population was 78.7% non-Hispanic white, 1.1% Native American, 1.6% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian, 2.3% reporting two or more races and 17.2% Hispanic or Latino.

Government.

Fillmore uses a city council consisting of five council members as well as the mayor and city attorney. As of April 2020, the current mayor of Fillmore is Michael D. Holt.

Fillmore is a city in Millard County, Utah, United States. The population was 2,435 at the 2010 United States Census. It is the county seat of Millard County. It is named for the thirteenth US President Millard Fillmore, who was in office when Millard County was created by the Utah Territorial legislature.

Fillmore ist ein Ort und County Seat des Millard County im Bundesstaat Utah. Zum United States Census 2010 wohnten in Fillmore 2435 Menschen.


History.

National Formosa University was founded in 1980 as Provincial Yunlin Institute of Technology by the Taiwan Provincial Government. Tien-Chin Chang was appointed as its first president. Five departments were established: Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Mechanical Design, Power Mechanical Engineering, and Electrical Engineering.  In 1981, the school changed its name to National Yunlin Institute of Technology (NYIT). The departments of Electro-Optical Engineering and Automation Engineering were added to NYIT in 1988.  In 1989 Cheng-Kuan Yu was appointed as the second president by the Ministry of Education. In 1991, the English name of NYIT was changed to National Yunlin Polytechnic Institute (NYPI). The Department of Industrial Engineering and Management was established. Two years later, the Department of Vehicle Engineering was established. In 1994, the Department of Aeronautical Engineering started. With the approbation from the Ministry of Education in 1997, NYPI was renamed to National Huwei Institute of Technology (NHIT), whose five-year junior college system was to be replaced gradually by two-year and four-year college systems.  Due to the retirement of President Cheng-Kuang Yu in 1999, Feng-Tsun Chen, Dean of Academic Affairs, served as the acting president. Chien-Chang Lin became the first elected president. The Department of Information Management was established in 2000. On year later. The Department of Applied Foreign Languages began. In 2002, the Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, the Department of Finance, the Graduate Institute of Electro-Optical and Materials Science, and the Graduate Institute of Power Mechanical Engineering were established. In 2003, the Department of Business Administration and the Department of Biotechnology began. In 2004, NHIT was renamed National Huwei University of Science and Technology (NHUST). Four colleges were established: Applied Arts & Science, Engineering, Electrical & Computer Engineering, and Management. The Department of Multimedia Design, the Department of Leisure Management, the Graduate Institute of Industrial Engineering and Management, and the Graduate Institute of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering were established. A master's degree program was added to the Department of Information Management. In 2005, the English name of NHUST was changed to National Formosa University (NFU). President Chien-Chang Lin retired; Yeong-Ley Tsay, dean of Academic Affairs, served as the acting president. The Department of Electronic Engineering was established. The master's degree and doctoral degree programs were initiated at the Department of Electrical Engineering and the Graduate Institute of Electro-Optical and Materials Science, respectively. In 2006, Jenn-Der Lin assumed the presidency of NFU. The Graduate Institute of Materials Science and Green Energy Engineering and the Graduate Institute of Business and Management were established. The Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering was renamed the Department of Mechanical and Computer-Aided Engineering. The Department of General Education and the Center of Teacher Education were merged and became the Center for General Education. In 2007, the Graduate Institute of Aeronautical and Electronic Engineering and the Graduate Institute of Innovation Engineering and Precision Technology were established. The Department of Leisure Management was renamed the Department of Leisure and Recreation.  In 2008, the Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, the Department of Automation Engineering, and the Department of Biotechnology began master's degree programs. The Department of Mechanical Design Engineering and the Department of Leisure and Recreation established master's degree programs in 2009. The Department of Electronic Engineering and the Department of Vehicle Engineering established master's degree programs the next year. In 2011, the Department of Finance established a master's degree program. The Executive Yuan consented to NFU's procurement of a new campus. The preparatory center for the new campus was started. In 2012, the Executive Yuan allocated a land of 17.18 hectares in THSR Yunlin Station area for NFU new campus. In 2013, NFU received funding from the Subsidy Directions for Developing Technological University Paradigms, the Ministry of Education. Wen-Yuh Jywe was elected as the president.

National Formosa University (NFU; ) is a technical university in Huwei District, Yunlin County, Taiwan. It is the only university in Taiwan to include the historical name of Formosa in its title. NFU was established in Huwei Township in 1980.

Die Nationaluniversität Formosa (), englischer Name National Formosa University, Abkürzung NFU, ist eine staatliche Universität der Republik China (Taiwan). Sie befindet sich in der Stadtgemeinde Huwei westlich von Douliu im Landkreis Yunlin.


Operating principle.

Hair clippers comprise a pair of sharpened comb-like blades in close contact one above the other and the side which slide sideways relative to each other, a mechanism which may be manual or electrical to make the blades oscillate from side to side, and a handle. The clipper is moved so that hair is positioned between the teeth of the comb, and cut with a scissor action when one blade slides sideways relative to the other. Friction between the blades needs to be as low as possible, which is attained by choice of material and finish, and frequent lubrication.

Manual clippers.

Hair clippers are operated by a pair of handles which are alternately squeezed together and released. Barbers used them to cut hair close and fast. The hair was picked up in locks and the head was rapidly depilated. Such haircuts became popular among boys, mostly in schools, and young men in the military and in prisons.  Manual clippers were invented between 1850 and 1890 by Nikola Bizumić, a Serbian barber. While they were widely used in the distant past, the advent and reduction in cost of electric hair clippers has led to them largely replacing manual clippers. Some barbers in Western countries continue to use them for trimming. They are also used in the Russian army: when conscripts enter boot camp, they cut their hair close to the skin, sometimes using manual clippers.

Culture.

In Greece, male students had their heads shaved with manual hair clippers from the early 20th century until it was abolished in 1982. The same practice was used in the military, where recruits had their heads shaved as they set foot in boot camp. In the 1950s and 1960s a law was implemented in Greece whereby head shaving with manual clippers was to be used as a punishment for young people caught by police, such as teddyboys and prostitutes. This practice was extended to Greek hippies and leftist youths during the 1967-73 military regime. Obligatory hair clipping was abolished in Greece in 1982.  Manual hair clippers are used extensively by barbers in India to give short back and sides haircuts. Orthodox Jews tend to avoid clipping the side of their heads. Among Muslim men, some consider it haram to clip more than a fistful of the beard.

Electric clippers.

Electric hair clippers work in the same way as manual ones, but are driven by an electric motor which makes the blades oscillate from side to side. They have gradually displaced manual hair clippers in many countries. Three different motor types are used in clipper production: magnetic, rotary and pivot. Rotary style may be driven by direct current or alternating current electricity source. Both magnetic and pivot style clippers use magnetic forces derived from winding copper wire around steel. Alternating current creates a cycle attracting and relaxing to a spring to create the speed and torque to drive the clipper cutter across the combing blade.  Leo J. Wahl invented the first electric hair clipper. He first designed a hand-held massager for his uncle, Dr. Frank Wahl. Frank Wahl opened a manufacturing plant in Sterling, Illinois to produce and sell Leo’s massager. During this time, Leo would sell massagers to various barbers and noticed an opportunity to improve upon the tools barbers were using at the time.  Leo Wahl took over his uncle’s manufacturing business after Frank left to serve in the Spanish–American War in 1898. Leo continued to work on his inventions and by 1921, he patented his final design of an invention more than a decade in the making- the first electric hair clipper. Within a year, Wahl Manufacturing had manufactured and sold thousands of clippers all over the United States and in 1921 Leo renamed the company the Wahl Clipper Corporation. When Leo J. Wahl died on May 20, 1957 he had over 100 patent applications to his name. His descendants still operate the company today. Wahl Clipper is now an international industry leader in the manufacturing of products for the professional beauty and barber salon trade, consumer personal care and animal grooming. Wahl products are available in 165 countries around the world.  By 1921, Mathew Andis Sr. entered the electric clipper industry. Production of these clippers began in the basement of his home, with help from Anna, his wife. Andis sold his electric clippers door to door and one year later established the Andis O M Manufacturing with John Oster and Henry Meltzer. After the three men parted ways, Mathew established Andis Clipper Company the following year. Today, Andis Company remains a family-held business. In 1928, the John Oster Manufacturing Company joined the electric clipper market. In 1960, the John Oster Manufacturing Co. was acquired by Sunbeam Corporation. Oster continues to manufacture clippers today but is also known for their kitchenware including but not limited to toasters, ovens, blenders, etc. Wahl Clipper, Andis Company and Oster Company all remain in business today and are highly successful in the clipper industry as are many other companies, such as Kim Laube & Co. Kim Laube & Co specializes in clippers powerful enough for the animal grooming industry, and is committed to keep their manufacturing in U.S.A.

Maintenance.

Electric hair clipper blades must be lubricated frequently. Each major hair clipper manufacturer sells its own brand of hair clipper oil. Clippers can also be maintained with aerosol clipper spray which acts as a coolant, disinfectant, lubricant, cleaner, and rust preventative. It is possible to find out what is inside such a product by viewing the product's safety data sheet online. Wahl Hair Clipper Oil, for example, is simply mineral oil packaged in a bottle with a dropper tip.  Most consumer grade hair clippers use a vibrating motor that moves the blade at a high resonant frequency. Sometimes the motor will come out of tune and make a loud noise. There is a screw on the side that is used to retune the motor and bring it back into resonance. Turn the clipper off and rotate the screw counter-clockwise half a turn. Turn the clipper back on and the loud buzzing should have stopped, indicating the motor is back in resonance. No further tuning is needed. The motor will transfer maximum power to the blade at this setting.

Blade material.

Blades are usually made of rust-resistant stainless steel. Ceramic cutters are available; they are not subject to corrosion, and stay sharper longer because of a higher resistance to wear than metal blades. They remain cool to the touch even with fairly prolonged use, as ceramic is a poor heat conductor. However, ceramic blades are brittle and easily broken, and more expensive to replace than metal blades.

A hair clipper (often individually known by the apparent plural hair clippers in a similar way to "scissors") is a specialised implement used to cut human head hair. They work on the same principle as scissors, but are distinct from scissors themselves and razors. Similar but heavier-duty implements are used to shear sheep, but are called handpieces or machine shears.

Eine Haarschneidemaschine, auch Haartrimmer oder Tondeuse, bei Anwendung am Tier Schermaschine genannt, ist ein Gerät zum Schneiden von Haaren. Sie besteht aus den eigentlichen Schneidwerkzeugen und einem manuellen oder elektrischen Antrieb.


Family division.

Chemakum is now extinct. It was spoken until the 1940s on the east side of the Olympic Peninsula between Port Townsend and Hood Canal. The name Chemakum is an Anglicized version of a Salishan word for the Chimakum people, such as the nearby Twana word "čə́bqəb" (earlier ).  Quileute is now severely endangered. It is spoken by a few people south of the Makah on the western coast of the Olympic peninsula south of Cape Flattery at La Push and the lower Hoh River. The name Quileute comes from "kwoʔlí·yot"', the name of a village at La Push.

Phonology.

The Chimakuan languages have phonemic inventories similar to other languages of the Mosan sprachbund, with three vowels, ejective consonants, uvular consonants, and lateral affricates. However, both languages have typological oddities: Chemakum had no simple velar consonants, and Quileute has no nasal consonants.

Proto-Chimakuan.

The (pre-)Proto-Chimakuan sound system contained three vowels, long and short, and lexical stress. It had the following consonants.  In Proto-Chimakuan the series occurred (mostly?) before the vowel. On the other hand, occurred (mostly?) before the vowels. These series may have become separate phonemes before Chimakum and Quileute split, but if so, it seems clear that they had been allophones not long before then.  In Quileute the stress became fixed to the penultimate syllable, though subsequent changes made it somewhat unpredictable, and the glottalized sonorants became allophonic with glottal stop-sonorant sequences and so can no longer be considered phonemic. Open syllables developed long vowels. Perhaps as recently as the late 19th century, the nasals became voiced plosives.  In Chemakum, stressed vowels frequently acquired glottal stops; depalatalized to, while palatalized to ; sonorants lost their glottalization; and the approximants hardened to in the environment of stressed vowels.

The Chimakuan language family consists of one extinct and one severely endangered language spoken in northwestern Washington state, United States, on the Olympic Peninsula. It is part of the Mosan sprachbund, and one of its languages is famous for having no nasal consonants. The two languages were about as close as English and German.

Chimakum ist eine aus zwei Einzelsprachen bestehende Sprachfamilie, die im Nordwesten des amerikanischen Bundesstaats Washington gesprochen wird. Die namensgebende Sprache Chimakum ist ausgestorben. Die andere Sprache der Familie, Quileute, hat noch ca. zehn Sprecher. Eventuell sind die Chimakum-Sprachen entfernt mit den Wakash-Sprachen verwandt, aber ihre Ähnlichkeit kann auch auf areale Kontaktphänomene zurückgeführt werden.


Language contact.

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Arawakan languages due to contact.

Families.

The Macro-Jê family was first proposed in 1926, and has undergone moderate modifications since then. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal "probable".  Eduardo Ribeiro of the University of Chicago finds no evidence to classify Fulniô (Yatê) and Guató as Macro-Je, "pace" Kaufman, nor Otí and Chiquitano, "pace" Greenberg.  These languages share irregular morphology with the Tupi and Carib families, and Rodrigues (2000) and Ribeiro connect them all as a Je–Tupi–Carib family.  Pache (2018) suggests a distant genetic relationship between Macro-Jê and Chibchan.  "Glottolog" accepts Jean, Krenak (Aimore), Karaja, Maxakalian, Ofaie, Rikbaktsa, and Yabutian (Jabuti). Lexical parallels with Kamakanan and Purian have yet to be corroborated with reconstructions; the similarities with Purian disappear once Coropo is reclassified as Maxakalian. It notes suggestive grammatical similarities with Bororoan, Kariri, and Chiquitano, of the kind also shared with Tupian and Cariban, but little lexical evidence.

Jolkesky (2016).

Jolkesky (2016) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:

Nikulin (2020).

Nikulin (2020) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:  Nikulin (2020) does not accept the following languages and language families as part of Macro-Jê.  However, Nikulin (2020) considers Chiquitano to be a sister of Macro-Jê.

Proto-language.

Proto-Macro-Jê is notable for having relatively few consonants and a large vocalic inventory. There are also complex onsets with rhotics, as well as contrastive nasalization for vowels.  Phonological inventory of Proto-Macro-Jê as reconstructed by Nikulin (2020):  For a list of Proto-Macro-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020), see the corresponding.

Macro-Jê (also spelled Macro-Gê) is a medium-sized language stock in South America, mostly in Brazil but also in small parts of Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia. It is centered on the Jê language family, with all other branches currently being single languages due to recent extinctions.

Macro-Ge ist eine indigene amerikanische Sprachfamilie, die 41 Sprachen umfasst, von denen 23 bereits ausgestorben sind, und früher im östlichen Teil Südamerikas, insbesondere Brasiliens verbreitet war. Viele Sprecher von Macro-Ge-Sprachen haben sich ans Portugiesische assimiliert und ihre Muttersprache aufgegeben. Die verbliebenen Sprachgemeinschaften des Macro-Ge sind zahlenmäßig klein. Die sprecherreichste Sprache ist die Sprache der Kaingang mit 18.000 Muttersprachlern, die in den brasilianischen Bundesstaaten São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina und Rio Grande do Sul gesprochen wird. Hinsichtlich der Sprecherzahl folgen das Xavante (8000) und die Sprache der Kayapó (7000). Diese drei sprecherreichsten Sprachen gehören alle zur Gruppe der Ge-Sprachen.


History.

The ancestors of the Croats in the Czech Republic arrived in the 1500s from central Croatia, fleeing before the Ottoman Turks. The period of their settling is at the same time as the arrival of the Croats to Austria, Hungary and Slovakia, who are called the Burgenland Croats. The migration of the Croats to Moravia got the attention of ethnographers, linguists, and historians in that era. The first mention of Croats was at the end of the eighteenth century. They tried to explain the reasons for the migration of the Croats from their ancestral homeland. They believed that the colonization of the Croats started from the Croatian regions south of the Kupa and Petrova Gora, better known as Banska Krajina [or today Banovina], was summarized by Adolf Turek.  The Czech Croats lived without a main settlement in parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany and Austria. Once, it used to be a continuous string of villages, especially the so-called "Croatian Corridor", assimilation and repression was brought onto the local Croats which directly affected the ties of the Czech Croats with the other Croatians in the Diaspora, especially the Burgenland Croatians. In fact, this corridor was known as link a between the Western Slavs and the Southern Slavs, more precisely, Slovene-Croat-Serb state or later, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and Czechoslovakia itself. Croat-Prague student groups thought of the idea of a "Slavic corridor" that went between Bratislava and Varazdin. Later, idea of a "Croatian corridor" was given life and personally published by Stjepan Radić. This idea as well as others that were national orientation, and started by the Croats ended ingloriously. However it did allow the creation of the Burgenland, the cradle of the Burgenland Croatians in neighboring Austria.

Languages.

A saying of the Czech Croats was "We are a people of three languages." Of all the national minorities, only the Croats were trilingual. They spoke German, and Czech and nurtured Croatian at home. Considering that they often used Czech and German in schools, churches, public administration, the grammar and vocabulary of the Moravian Croats did not remain untouched. The Croatian Cakavian and Ikavian language was mixed with loan words of both Czech and German origins. Croatian is not studied in Czech schools, so the majority younger generation does not speak it. The older generation of Czech Croats preserved the language, culture, and customs by gathering in organizations and reading magazines in Croatian.

Croats are one of the 12 recognized minorities in the Czech Republic. They number 850 – 2,000. They have the right to use the Croatian language in communication with Czech authorities and government according to the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms of the Czech Republic. They form a portion of the 29% minority in the Czech Republic. They live primarily in Moravia, in the villages of Jevišovka (Frielištof), Dobré Pole (Dobro Polje) and Nový Přerov (Nova Prerava).

Als mährische Kroaten (kroatisch: "Moravski Hrvati", tschechisch: "Moravští Charváti") wird eine kleine, seit dem 16. Jahrhundert ansässige kroatische Minderheit in Tschechien bezeichnet. Sie zählen im weiteren Sinne zu den Burgenlandkroaten und waren bis 1948 die nördlichste Sprachinsel in Europa, in welcher der čakavische Dialekt des Kroatischen gesprochen wurde. Heute umfasst die Volksgruppe rund 1500 Personen, von denen aber nur 150 sprachliche Kompetenz im Čakavischen haben.


History.

Origins.

From the beginning of the American Civil War, the state of Missouri had chosen not to secede from the Union but not to fight for it or against it either: its position, as determined by an 1861 constitutional convention, was officially neutral. Missouri, however, had been the scene of much of the agitation about slavery leading up to the outbreak of the war, and was home to dedicated partisans from both sides. In the mid-1850s, local Unionists and Secessionists had begun to battle each other throughout the state, and by the end of 1861, guerrilla warfare erupted between Confederate partisans known as "bushwhackers" and the more organized Union forces. The Missouri State Guard and the newly elected Governor of Missouri, Claiborne Fox Jackson, who maintained implicit Southern sympathies, were forced into exile as Union troops under Nathaniel Lyon and John C. Frémont took control of the state. Still, pro-Confederate guerrillas resisted; by early 1862, the Unionist provisional government mobilized a state militia to fight the increasingly organized and deadly partisans. This conflict (fought largely, though not exclusively, between Missourians themselves) raged until after the fall of Richmond and the surrender of General Robert E. Lee, costing thousands of lives and devastating broad swathes of the Missouri countryside.  The conflict rapidly escalated into a succession of atrocities committed by both sides. Union troops often executed or tortured suspects without trial and burned the homes of suspected guerrillas and those suspected of aiding or harboring them. Where credentials were suspect, the accused guerrilla was often executed, as in the case of Lt. Col. Frisby McCullough after the Battle of Kirksville. Bushwhackers, meanwhile, frequently went house to house, executing Unionist farmers.  The James and Younger brothers belonged to slave-owning families from an area known as "Little Dixie" in western Missouri with strong ties to the South. Zerelda Samuel, the mother of Frank and Jesse James, was an outspoken partisan of the South, though the Youngers' father, Henry Washington Younger, was believed to be a Unionist. Cole Younger's initial decision to fight as a bushwhacker is usually attributed to the death of his father at the hands of Union forces in July 1862. He and Frank James fought under one of the most famous Confederate bushwhackers, William Clarke Quantrill, though Cole eventually joined the regular Confederate Army. Jesse James began his guerrilla career in 1864, at the age of sixteen, fighting alongside Frank under the leadership of Archie Clement and "Bloody Bill" Anderson.  At the war's end, Frank James surrendered in Kentucky; Jesse James attempted to surrender to Union militia but was shot through the lung outside of Lexington, Missouri. He was nursed back to health by his cousin, Zerelda "Zee" Mimms, whom he eventually married. When Cole Younger returned from a mission to California, he learned that Quantrill and Anderson had both been killed. The James brothers, however, continued to associate with their old guerrilla comrades, who remained together under the leadership of Archie Clement. It was likely Clement who, amid the tumult of Reconstruction in Missouri, turned the guerrillas into outlaws.

Early years: 1866 to 1870.

On February 12, 1866, a group of gunmen carried out one of the first daylight, peacetime, armed bank robberies in U.S. history when they held up the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri. The outlaws stole some $60,000 in cash and bonds and killed a bystander on the street outside the bank. State authorities suspected Archie Clement of leading the raid, and promptly issued a reward for his capture. In later years, the list of suspects grew to include Jesse and Frank James, Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Oliver Shepherd, Bud and Donny Pence, Frank Greg, Bill and James Wilkerson, Joab Perry, Ben Cooper, Red Mankus, and Allen Parmer (who later married Susan James, Frank and Jesse's sister).  Four months later, on June 13, 1866, two members of Quantrill's Raiders were freed from prison in Independence, Missouri; the jailer, Henry Bugler, was killed. The James brothers are believed to have been involved. The crime began a string of robberies, many of which were linked to Clement's group of bushwhackers. The hold-up most clearly linked to the group was of Alexander Mitchell and Company in Lexington, Missouri, on October 30, 1866, which netted $2,011.50. Clement was also linked to violence and intimidation against officials of the Republican government that now held power in the state. On election day, Clement led his men into Lexington, where they drove Republican voters away from the polls, thereby securing a Republican defeat. A detachment of state militiamen was dispatched to the town. They convinced the bushwhackers to disperse, then attempted to capture Clement, who still had a price on his head. Clement refused to surrender and was shot down in a wild gunfight on the streets of Lexington.  Despite the death of Clement, his old followers remained together, and robbed a bank across the Missouri River from Lexington in Richmond, Missouri, on May 22, 1867, in which the town mayor and two lawmen were killed. This was followed on March 20, 1868, by a raid on the Nimrod Long bank in Russellville, Kentucky. In the aftermath of the two raids, however, the more senior bushwhackers were killed, captured or simply left the group. This set the stage for the emergence of the James and Younger brothers, and the transformation of the old crew into the James–Younger Gang. John Jarrett and Arthur McCoy were mentioned in numerous newspaper accounts, so they were likely active in gang activities up to 1875.  On December 7, 1869, Frank and Jesse James are believed to have robbed the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri. Jesse is suspected of having shot down the cashier, John W. Sheets, in the mistaken belief that he was Samuel P. Cox, the Union militia officer who had ambushed and killed "Bloody Bill" Anderson during the Civil War. The James brothers were unknown up to this point; this may have been their first robbery. Their names were later added to previous robberies as an afterthought.

1871 to 1873.

John Younger was almost arrested in Dallas County, Texas in January 1871. He killed two lawmen during the attempt and escaped. On June 3, 1871, the gang robbed a bank in Corydon, Iowa; the James and Younger brothers were suspects. The bank contacted the Pinkerton National Detective Agency in Chicago, the first involvement of the famous agency in the pursuit of the James–Younger Gang. Agency founder Allan Pinkerton dispatched his son, Robert Pinkerton, who joined a county sheriff in tracking the gang to a farm in Civil Bend, Missouri. A short gunfight ended indecisively as the gang escaped. On June 24, Jesse James wrote a letter to the "Kansas City Times", claiming Republicans were persecuting him for his Confederate loyalties by accusing him and Frank of carrying out the robberies. "But I don't care what the degraded Radical party thinks about me," he wrote, "I would just as soon they would think I was a robber as not."  On April 29, 1872, the gang robbed a bank in Columbia, Kentucky. One of the outlaws shot the cashier, R.A.C. Martin, who had refused to open the safe. On September 23, 1872, three men (identified by former bushwhacker Jim Chiles as Jesse James and Cole and John Younger) robbed a ticket booth of the Second Annual Kansas City Industrial Exposition, amid thousands of people. They took some $900, and accidentally shot a little girl in the ensuing struggle with the ticket-seller. Apart from Chiles' testimony, there is no other evidence this crime was committed by the James or Younger brothers, and Jesse later wrote a letter denying his or the Youngers' involvement. Cole was furious over this, because neither he nor brother John had been linked to the crime before the letter. The crime was praised by "Kansas City Times" editor John Newman Edwards in a famous editorial entitled, "The Chivalry of Crime." Edwards soon published an anonymous letter from one of the outlaws (believed to be Jesse) that referred to the approaching presidential election: "Just let a party of men commit a bold robbery, and the cry is hang them. But [President Ulysses S.] Grant and his party can steal millions and it is all right," the outlaw wrote. "They rob the poor and rich, and we rob the rich and give to the poor."  On May 27, 1873, the James–Younger Gang robbed the Ste. Genevieve Savings Association in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri. As they rode off they fired in the air and shouted, "Hurrah for Hildebrand!" Samuel S. Hildebrand was a famous Confederate bushwhacker from the area who had recently been shot dead in Illinois. Arthur McCoy had lived in this area and knew it quite well; he was likely involved and may have been the planner and leader.  On July 21, 1873, the gang carried out what was arguably the first train robbery west of the Mississippi River, derailing a locomotive of the Rock Island Railroad near Adair, Iowa. Engineer John Rafferty died in the crash. The outlaws took $2,337 from the express safe in the baggage car, having narrowly missed a transcontinental express shipment of a large amount of cash.  On November 24, John Newman Edwards published a lengthy glorification of the James brothers, Cole and John Younger, and Arthur McCoy, in a twenty-page special supplement to his newspaper the "St. Louis Dispatch" (Edwards had moved from the "Kansas City Times" to the "Dispatch" in 1873). Most of the supplement, entitled "A Terrible Quintet," was devoted to Jesse James, the gang's public face, and the article stressed their Confederate loyalties.

1874 to 1876.

In January 1874, the outlaws were suspected of holding up a stagecoach in Bienville Parish, Louisiana. Later another suspected stage robbery took place between Malvern and Hot Springs, Arkansas. There, the gang returned a pocket watch to a Confederate veteran, saying that Northern men had driven them to outlawry and that they intended to make them pay for it. On January 31, the gang robbed a southbound train on the Iron Mountain Railway at Gads Hill, Missouri. For the first of two times in all their train robberies, the outlaws robbed the passengers. In both train robberies, their usual target, the safe in the baggage car belonging to an express company, held an unusually small amount of money. On this occasion, the outlaws reportedly examined the hands of the passengers to ensure that they did not rob any working men. Many newspapers reported this was actually done by the "Arthur McCoy" gang. To correct errors, the gang telegraphed a report of the Gads Hill robbery to the St. Louis Dispatch newspaper for publication. The Adams Express Company, which owned the safe robbed at Gads Hill, hired the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. On March 11, 1874, John W. Whicher, the agent who was sent to investigate the James brothers, was found shot to death alongside a rural road in Jackson County, Missouri. Two other agents, John Boyle and Louis J. Lull, accompanied by Deputy Sheriff Edwin B. Daniels to track the Youngers, posed as cattle buyers. On March 17, 1874, the trio was stopped and attacked by John and Jim Younger on a rural stretch of road near Monegaw Springs, Missouri. Daniels was killed instantly, Lull and John Younger shot and killed each other, while Boyle and Jim Younger escaped. Lull lived long enough to testify before a coroner's inquest before succumbing to his wounds a few days later.  The Pinkerton deaths added to the growing embarrassment suffered by Missouri's first post-war Democratic governor, Silas Woodson. He issued a $2,000 reward offer for the Iron Mountain robbers (the reward usually offered for criminals was $300). He also persuaded the state legislature to provide $10,000 for a secret fund to track down the famous outlaws. The first agent, J.W. Ragsdale, was hired on April 9, 1874. On August 30, three of the gang held up a stagecoach across the Missouri River from Lexington, Missouri, in view of hundreds of onlookers on the bluffs of the town. A passenger identified two of the robbers as Frank and Jesse James. The acting governor, Charles P. Johnson, dispatched an agent selected from the St. Louis police department to investigate.  The gang next robbed a train on the Kansas Pacific Railroad near Muncie, Kansas, on December 8, 1874. It was one of the outlaws' most successful robberies, gaining them $30,000. William "Bud" McDaniel was captured by a Kansas City police officer after the robbery, and later was shot during an escape attempt.  On the night of January 25, 1875, Pinkerton agents surrounded the James farm in Kearney, Missouri. Frank and Jesse James had been there earlier but had already left. When the Pinkertons threw an iron incendiary device into the house, it exploded when it rolled into a blazing fireplace. The blast nearly severed the right arm of Zerelda Samuel, the James boys' mother (the arm had to be amputated at the elbow that night), and killed their 9-year-old half-brother, Archie Samuel. On April 12, 1875, an unknown gunman shot dead Daniel Askew, a neighbor and former Union militiaman who may have been suspected of providing the Pinkertons with a base for their raid. Allan Pinkerton then abandoned the chase for the James–Younger Gang.  By September 1875, at least part of the gang had ventured east to Huntington, West Virginia, where they robbed a bank on September 7. Two new members participated: Tom McDaniel (brother of Bud) and Tom Webb (a Confederate veteran who had been at Lawrence with Frank and Cole). McDaniel was killed by a posse and Webb was caught. The other two robbers, Frank and Cole, escaped.  Also in 1875, the two James brothers moved to the outskirts of Nashville, Tennessee, probably to save their mother from further raids by detectives. Once there, Jesse James began to write letters to the local press, asserting his place as a Confederate hero and a martyr to Radical Republican vindictiveness.  On July 7, 1876, Frank and Jesse James, Cole and Bob Younger, Clell Miller, Charlie Pitts, Bill Chadwell and Hobbs Kerry robbed the Missouri Pacific Railroad at the "Rocky Cut" near Otterville, Missouri. The new man, Kerry, was arrested soon after and he readily identified his accomplices.

Northfield, Minnesota Raid.

The Rocky Cut raid set the stage for the final act of the James–Younger Gang: the famous Northfield, Minnesota raid on September 7, 1876. The target was the First National Bank of Northfield, which was far outside of the gang's usual territory. The idea for the raid came from Jesse and Bob Younger. Cole tried to talk his brother out of the plan, but Bob refused to back down. Reluctantly, Cole agreed to go, writing to his brother Jim in California to come home. Jim Younger had never wanted anything to do with Cole's outlaw activities, but he agreed to go out of family loyalty. The Northfield bank was not unusually rich. According to public reports, it was a perfectly ordinary rural bank, though rumors persisted that General Adelbert Ames, son of the owner of the Ames Mill in Northfield, had deposited $50,000 there. Shortly after the robbery, Bob Younger declared that they had selected it because of its connection to two Union generals and Radical Republican politicians: Benjamin Butler and his son-in-law Adelbert Ames. General Ames had just stepped down as Governor of Mississippi, where he had been strongly identified with civil rights for freedmen. He had recently moved to Northfield, where his father owned the mill on the Cannon River and had a large amount of stock in the bank. One of the outlaws "had a spite" against Ames, Bob said. Cole Younger said much the same thing years later and recalled greeting "General Ames" on the street in Northfield just before the robbery. Cole, Jim and Bob Younger, Frank and Jesse James, Charlie Pitts, Clell Miller and Bill Chadwell took the train to St. Paul, Minnesota in early September 1876. After a layover in St. Paul they divided into two groups, one going to Mankato, the other to Red Wing, on either side of Northfield. They purchased expensive horses and scouted the terrain around the towns, agreeing to meet south of Northfield along the Cannon River near Dundas on the morning of September 7, 1876. The gang attempted to rob the bank about 2:00 PM on September 7. Northfield residents had seen the gang leave a local restaurant near the mill shortly after noon, where they dined on fried eggs. They testified at the Younger brothers' trial that the group smelled of alcohol and that the gang was obviously under the influence when they greeted General Ames.  Three of the outlaws (Bob Younger, Frank James and Charlie Pitts) crossed the bridge by the Ames Mill and entered the bank; the other five (Jesse James, Cole and Jim Younger, Bill Stiles and Clell Miller) stood guard outside. Two were standing outside the bank’s front door and the other three were waiting in Mills Square to guard the gang's escape route. According to some reports, J. S. Allen shouted to the townspeople, “Get your guns, boys, they’re robbing the bank!” Once local citizens realized a robbery was in progress, several took up arms from local hardware stores. Shooting from behind cover, they poured deadly fire on the outlaws. During the gun battle, medical student Henry Wheeler killed Miller, shooting from a third-floor window of the Dampier House Hotel, across the street from the bank. Another civilian named A.R. Manning, who took cover at the corner of the Sciver building down the street, killed Stiles. Other civilians wounded the Younger brothers (Cole was shot in his left hip, Bob suffered a shattered elbow, and Jim was shot in the jaw). The only civilian fatality on the street was 30-year-old Nicholas Gustafson, an unarmed recent Swedish immigrant, who was killed by Cole Younger at the corner of 5th Street and Division.  Thirteen Swedish families lived west of Northfield in the Millersburg area in 1876, including Peter Gustafson, who had recently been joined by his brother Nicolaus and nephew Ernst from Sweden. West of Millersburg that morning, Peter Youngquist harnessed his mules and headed for Northfield to sell farm produce, accompanied by Gustafson and three others. The Swedes arrived in Northfield about 1:00 PM and set up their vegetable wagon along the Cannon River near 5th Street. About 2:00 PM, they heard gunshots. Nicolaus Gustafson ran to the intersection of Division and 5th a block away, where he was shot in the head as the bank was being robbed. Gustafson died four days later. Another Swede named John Olson was an eyewitness to the Gustafson shooting and later testified against Cole Younger.  Inside the bank, the assistant cashier Joseph Lee Heywood refused to open the safe and was murdered for resisting. The two other employees in the bank were teller Alonzo Bunker and assistant bookkeeper Frank Wilcox. Bunker escaped from the bank by running out the back door despite being wounded in the right shoulder by Pitts as he ran. The three robbers then ran out of the bank after hearing the shooting outside and mounted their horses to make a run for it, having taken only several bags of nickels from the bank. Every year in September, Northfield hosts "Defeat of Jesse James Days", a celebration of the town's victory over the James–Younger Gang.  In addition to the death of Miller and Stiles, every one of the rest of the gang was wounded, including Frank James and Pitts, both shot in their right legs. Jesse James was the last one to be shot, taking a bullet in the thigh as the gang escaped. The six surviving outlaws rode out of town on the Dundas Road toward Millersburg where four of them had spent the night before.

Aftermath.

Minnesotans joined posses and set up picket lines by the hundreds. After several days the gang had only reached the western outskirts of Mankato when they decided to split up (despite persistent stories to the contrary, Cole Younger told interviewers that they all agreed to the decision). The Youngers and Pitts remained on foot, moving west, until finally they were cornered in a swamp called Hanska Slough, just south of La Salle, Minnesota, on September 21, two weeks after the Northfield raid. In the gunfight that followed, Pitts was killed and the Youngers were again wounded. The Youngers surrendered and pleaded guilty to murder in order to avoid execution. Frank and Jesse secured horses and fled west across southern Minnesota, turning south just inside the border of the Dakota Territory. In the face of hundreds of pursuers and a nationwide alarm, Frank and Jesse escaped, but the infamous James–Younger Gang was no more.  On September 23, 1876, the Younger brothers were taken to the Rice County jail in Faribault. On November 16, a grand jury issued four indictments — one each for the first-degree murders of Joseph Heywood and Nicolaus Gustafson, one for bank robbery, and one for assault with deadly weapons on the wounded bank clerk, Bunker. The three brothers pleaded guilty on November 20, 1876 and were sentenced to life terms in the state penitentiary at Stillwater.  Nicolaus Gustafson was buried in Northfield because the Millersburg Swedes had no cemetery in 1876. After his death, the Millersburg Swedes determined to establish their own church and burial ground. Peter Youngquist and Carl Hirdler donated an acre of land adjacent to their homes overlooking Circle Lake and in 1877 John Olson was hired to build the Christdala Evangelical Swedish Lutheran Church west of Millersburg. Today the church is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and historical markers in front of the church tell the story of Nicolaus Gustafson and the founding of Christdala.

Final years.

Having successfully escaped, Frank James joined Jesse in Nashville, Tennessee, where they spent the next three years living peacefully. Frank in particular seems to have thrived in his new life farming in the Whites Creek area. Jesse, however, did not adapt well to peace. Accordingly, he gathered up new recruits, formed a new gang and returned to a life of crime. On October 8, 1879, Jesse and his gang robbed the Chicago and Alton Railroad near Glendale, Missouri. Unfortunately for Jesse, one of the men, Tucker Basham, was captured by a posse. He told authorities he had been recruited by Bill Ryan.  On September 3, 1880, Jesse James and Bill Ryan robbed a stagecoach near Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. On October 5, 1880, they robbed the store of John Dovey in Mercer, Kentucky. On March 11, 1881, Jesse, Ryan, and Jesse's cousin Wood Hite robbed a federal paymaster at Muscle Shoals, Alabama, taking $5,240. Shortly afterward, a drunk and boastful Ryan was arrested in Whites Creek, near Nashville, and both Frank and Jesse James fled back to Missouri. On July 15, 1881, Frank and Jesse James, Wood and Clarence Hite, and Dick Liddil robbed the Rock Island Railroad near Winston, Missouri of $900. Train conductor William Westfall and passenger John McCullough were killed. On September 7, 1881, Jesse James carried out his last train robbery, holding up the Chicago and Alton Railroad. The gang held up the passengers when the express safe proved to be nearly empty. With this new outbreak of train robberies, the new Governor of Missouri, Thomas T. Crittenden, convinced the state's railroad and express executives to put up the money for a large reward for the capture of the James brothers. Creed Chapman and John Bugler were arrested for participating in the robbery on September 7, 1881. Though they were confirmed as having participated in the robbery by convicted members of the gang, neither was ever convicted. In December 1881, Wood Hite was killed by Liddil in an argument over Martha Bolton, the sister of the Fords. Bob Ford, not yet a member of the gang, assisted Liddil in his gunfight. Ford and Liddil, with Bolton as an intermediary, made deals with Governor Crittenden. On February 11, 1882, James Timberlake arrested Wood Hite's brother Clarence, who made a confession but died of tuberculosis in prison. Ford, on the other hand, agreed to bring down Jesse James in return for the reward.  On April 3, 1882, Ford fatally shot Jesse James behind the ear at James' rented apartment in St. Joseph, Missouri. Bob and his brother Charley surrendered to the authorities, pleaded guilty, and were promptly pardoned by Crittenden. On October 4, 1882, Frank James surrendered to Crittenden. Accounts say that Frank surrendered with the understanding that he would not be extradited to Northfield, Minnesota. Only two cases ever came to trial – one in Gallatin, Missouri for the July 15, 1881 robbery of the Rock Island Line train at Winston, Missouri in which a train crewman and a passenger were killed, and one in Huntsville, Alabama for the March 11, 1881 robbery of a United States Army Corps of Engineers payroll at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Frank James was found not guilty by juries in both cases (July 1883 at Gallatin and April 1884 at Huntsville). Missouri kept jurisdiction over him with other charges but they never came to trial and they kept him from being extradited to Minnesota. Frank James died on February 8, 1915, at the age of 72.  The Youngers remained loyal to the Jameses when they were in prison and never informed on them. They ended up being model prisoners and in one incident helped keep other prisoners from escaping during a fire at the prison. Cole Younger also founded the longest-running prison newspaper in the United States during his stay in Stillwater State Prison. Bob Younger died in prison of tuberculosis on September 15, 1889, at the age of 36. After much legal dispute, Cole and Jim Younger were paroled in 1901 on the condition they remain in Minnesota. Jim committed suicide on October 19, 1902 while on parole in St. Paul, at the age of 54. Cole Younger received a pardon in 1903 on the condition that he leave Minnesota and never return. He traveled to Missouri where he joined a "Wild West" show with Frank James and died there on March 21, 1916, at the age of 72.

Legacy.

Bill Ayers and Diana Oughton headed a splinter group of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) that called itself the "Jesse James Gang" and evolved into the Weather Underground.

The James–Younger Gang was a notable 19th-century gang of American outlaws that revolved around Jesse James and his brother Frank James. The gang was based in the state of Missouri, the home of most of the members.

Die James-Younger-Gang war ein Zusammenschluss von Banditen, die von 1866 bis 1881 Verbrechen verübten. Die Bande bestand aus Jesse und Frank James sowie Jim, John, Bob und Cole Younger. Jesse, Frank, Jim und Cole waren in der „Quantrills-Guerillabande“, die am 21. August 1863 mit 448 Reitern die Stadt Lawrence überfielen. Bei dem anschließenden Massaker von Lawrence wurden 142 Menschen getötet. Bei Quantrills Bande handelte es sich um konföderierte Partisanen im Sezessionskrieg.


History.

Light This City's first album, "The Hero Cycle", was released through Reflections on Ruin Records in 2003. Tyler Gamlen (guitars) and Ben Murray (drums) were the co-founders of Reflections of Ruin Records, and the album was also the label's first official release.  The band's next three albums, "Remains of the Gods" (2005), "Facing the Thousand" (2006), and "Stormchaser" (2008) were released through Prosthetic Records.  In 2008, Light This City decided to disband for a period. After disbanding, Laura Nichol (vocalist), and Ben Murray (drummer) formed a punk rock band called "Heartsounds". Ryan Hansen (Guitarist) and Jon Frost (Bassist) formed the metal band "The Urchin Barren".  In 2010, Light This City began to become active again, after completing four reunion shows from April 8, 2010 to April 11, 2010. Light This City played another reunion show on November 8, 2015 on the San Francisco date of Darkest Hour's 20th anniversary tour. In September, 2017, following a 10 year hiatus, Light This City announced that they had reformed and were working on completing a new album through Creator-Destructor Records. Subsequently, the album Terminal Bloom, is set for an official release on 25 May 2018.  Light This City's albums have featured collaborations with renowned musicians such as Chuck Billy of Testament ("Firehaven" off "Stormchaser"), and Trevor Strnad of The Black Dahlia Murder ("Fear of Heights" off "Facing the Thousand").

Band members.

Previous members.

Timeline

Discography.

"The Hero Cycle" (2003, Reflections of Ruin Records)
 "Remains of the Gods" (2005, Prosthetic Records)
 "Facing the Thousand" (2006, Prosthetic Records)
 "Stormchaser" (2008, Prosthetic Records)
 "Light This City - Digital Collection" (2017, Prosthetic Records)
 "Terminal Bloom" (2018, Creator-Destructor Records)<br

Light This City is an American melodic death metal band from the Bay Area of San Francisco, that has been active from 2002. The band is notable for the aggressive vocal approach of front-woman, Laura Nichol.

Light This City war eine Melodic-Death-Metal- und Thrash-Metal-Band aus San Francisco, Kalifornien, die im Jahr 2002 gegründet wurde und sich 2008 auflöste.


History.

Background.

By the 1970s, most metro lines in the Soviet Union were using the E-series trainsets, which started mass production in 1963 (although the prototype was built in 1959). They were a further development of the G and D-series sets from the late 1940s and 1950s, but with upgraded electric equipment (contactor-based, built by the Dinamo Electric Machines Factory of Moscow). Although there was improvement in the construction of the carbodies (based on the Riga-built ER1 EMUs of the Soviet Railways), the traction motors were quite weak, and the contactor system had limits. This, in relation to the weight of the cars and the oversimplified electric system, which was built in order to emphasize on energy conservation, led to a poor acceleration performance, which reduced the headway on metro lines on various networks at the time. To counter this, engineers came up with 3 different solutions:  The pulse voltage regulation system was already attempted. The Ečs subseries of the E-series, which was delivered to Prague from 1972 to 1976, was much different from the Ev subseries delivered to Budapest from 1969 to 1979: it featured thyristor pulse converters to regulate the excitation of traction motors during acceleration and deceleration, increasing their performance, whilst retaining the same carbody. Another upgrade was the Ež3/Em508T subseries, delivered to multiple Soviet cities from 1973 to 1979. Using experiences learnt from the Ei subseries (delivered from 1968 to 1973), it applied pulse voltage regulation on traction motors too, and eliminated the ripple-effects within the ALS-ARS safety systems, greatly improving the general performance of these sets and at the same time, keeping electric consumption to the strictly necessary. In regards to weight reduction, it was still decided to reduce some weight, so the carbodies would be built from aluminium. A more powerful traction engine was developed, too.  Thus, in 1973, at the Mytishchi Machine-Building Plant, a team of engineers under the leadership of the plant's chief designer A. G. Akimov, designed three different prototypes of the new trains, which later became known as the I-series (in the numbered classification, 81-715 was the control car, and 81-716 was the trailer car). The first prototype of the I-series was manufactured in 1974, and it was a drastic change from the other Moscow Metro sets that were using the network at the time: compared to the original E-series, which produced 72 kWh, the new sets produced 90 (later 100) kWh. The aluminium alloy carbodies reduced the tare mass of the cars by 2 tonnes, and featured thyristorized voltage regulation and excitation, which greatly increased the speed and acceleration of the trains. In addition to this, the new train implemented forced ventilation (removing the humps of the roof that were for ventilation of the passenger area), new lightning in the passenger area, and removal of cabs on the trailer cars, leaving only 1 cab at the each end of the train.  This greatly increased the passenger capacity and performance. But despite its advantages, it posed disadvantages to its manufacturers: it was too complex to be mass produced, in such a short time. The factories that were to produce the cars could not set up aluminium manufacturing facilities in such a short time, and additionally, the voltage regulation system and thyristors required refinement. The type 1 prototype of the I-series was eventually made, but the production of the Ež3/Em508T subseries continued, also due to lower costs of manufacture.

The base model.

By the early 1970s, the Metrovagonmash factory already designed a trailer car type, based on the never-built Ež2 subseries. The control cars were also based on the Ež2, but the front end was modified, along with the drivers controls. These two types of cars later became 81-714 and 81-717, respectively. With more lessons learnt from the electrical propulsion system of the I-series, in the first half of 1976, the Mytishchi factories made the first cars of the 81-series. These were 5846, 5854, 5855 (control cars) and 5837, 5867, 5868 (trailer cars).  The design of the new cars was similar, but at the same time, different from the newest E-series cars. The carbodies were roughly similar to them, having same dimensions. Certain equipment (doors, motor-compressors, batteries, other pneumatic equipment) were also carried over from the Ež3 subseries. However the most noticeable external change was in the front ends of the train: the driver car was moved in the middle of the train, no longer being placed on the right side of the train. Additionally, the emergency exit doors were removed, because of this. Traction motors from the I-series, the DK-117B, now producing 110 kWh, were installed. Compared to the older trains an Auxiliary Power Supply Unit (Блок Питания Собственных Нужд) was installed to power the batteries. Lightning in the passenger area was now made with fluorescent lamps. This led to an increase in the tare weight of the cars, so it was decided to use a springs-based suspension.  The 81-series cars never got a lettered classification, because these were an experimental alternative to the complex I-series cars. But the complexity of the I-series cars, which meant endless adjustments regarding aluminium production, pulse regulation, at the time when newly-opened Soviet metro networks (such as in Tashkent, Kharkov, etc) were in dire need of new cars, led to the selection of the 81-series to become the new standard metro trainset of the Soviet Union. The production of prototypes of the I-series continued in the 1980s, but they were the last to receive a lettered classification, which meant that metro sets produced from the 81-717/714 onwards never received a lettered classification. With the appearance of newer sets (such as the Yauza, Rusich, Oka, Neva, Moskva), the 81-series then became known as the "Numbered Train" (Номерной Поезд; "Nomernoy Poezd"). It should also be noted that "nomernoy" also stands for vehicle registration plates, so this can be a widely interpreted name in the English language.  The demand for the cars was very high at the beginning, so high, that production at the I. E. Yegorov factory in Leningrad (now known as Vagonmash Saint Petersburg) began in January 1980, later on, the Tver (then known as Kalinin) Railcar Factory began production of these cars in mid-1980 of 81-717 cars, and in 1985 of 81-714 cars.

Operation.

Since its start of production, the sets began to be delivered to all metro networks in the Soviet Union, but it was also available to the Warsaw Pact countries.

Within the USSR.

In the former USSR, all trains use the Russian broad gauge of 1520 mm.

Moscow.

Moscow was the first customer of the 81-717/714 train in the Soviet Union, where it initially tested the prototypes between 1976 and 1977. By late 1977 it had placed its order for the new train, and the first trains arrived in 1978 on the Koltsevaya line, replacing the G-series metro trains that had operating since the opening of the line in 1950. This was followed with the newly-opened Kalininskaya line and the Zamoskvoretskaya line in 1979. Since then they have become representative of the network, being used on almost all lines (except the ones that kept using E-series trainsets and that were replaced with Rusich, Oka and Moskva trainsets).  Beginning with 1993, the Moscow Metro began purchasing 81-717.5M/714.5M sets, after in 1988 the production of the base model ended, leaving a 5-year break in purchases of new cars (during this time, the ill-fated Yauza trains were in planning stage). Deliveries further continued between 1997 and 2010.  Over the years, the 81-717/714 sets received improvements, especially from the late 1990s onwards, replacing the traditional leather bench-type seats with vandal-proof plastic seats. Externally, the difference between the base model and newer sets is the presence of 4 headlights in the centre instead of 2 headlights above the drivers' cab.  Some of the 81-717/714 sets have special liveries, most notably the "Red Arrow" train, which is painted in a red-golden livery instead of the traditional blue-white livery. More recently, refurbished sets feature the new Moscow Metro livery, with blue corrugated sides and grey window bands. Another special example is the 81-717.A/714.A set, used exclusively on the Sokolnicheskaya line. It was based on the A-series sets of the Moscow metro, following an old-school theme - the exterior is similar to the A-series sets in a cream-chocolate livery, whilst the interior is based on 1950s carriages.  Their current allocation is as it follows:  It is expected that at some point, the trains will be withdrawn due to the incoming "Moskva" trainsets, which have been introduced gradually since 2017 on multiple lines where the 81-717/714s are operating.

Saint Petersburg.

In service on the second line, fourth line and the fifth line since the 1980's.

Tashkent.

The trains were delivered to Tashkent from 1980 to 1993 in order to replace the Ezh3/Em-508T cars on Chilonzor line and enter service on the Uzbekiston line. There are 168 carriages operational today on the metro.

Outside the USSR.

Outside the USSR, the trainsets were delivered initially to Prague and Budapest, and later on to Warsaw and Sofia. As such, they have 1435mm axles.

Prague.

507 vehicles of type 81-717.1/714.1 (204 motor cars and 303 trailers) were delivered to Prague between 1978 and 1990, the aim being to run 101 5-car sets with two motors kept as spares. Three cars were lost: one was scrapped after a derailment at Leninova (Dejvická) station in 1986, while two were lost in a fire at Kosmonautů (Háje) station in 1987. Full overhauls had been scheduled for the oldest cars in the early 1990s, but it was eventually decided that a more complete rebuild was required, and between 1994 and 2010 most but not all of the 81-71 cars were rebuilt as 81-71M stock by Škoda and ČKD.

Budapest.

Cars of type 81-717.2/714.2 were delivered to Hungary between 1979 and 1990, where they have been in service on lines M2 and M3. In 2015 a contract was signed on the modernization of the existing older subway cars on the metro. In 2016 the first subway train left Budapest and was delivered back to Metrovagonmash in Russia to be overhauled into type 81-717.2K/714.2K. The first train entered service in March 2017, and all the rest of the trains were delivered by August 2018. The metros on metro line 2 were replaced by modern Alstom Metropolis vehicles.

Warsaw.

Subway cars of type 81-717.3/714.3 were delivered to Poland between 1989 and 1995. The train sets are formed of six cars. By 1994, the metro has received metro cars of type 81-572/573. Additional Russian built cars of type 81-572.2/573.2 were also delivered between 2007 and 2009.

Sofia.

Metro cars of type 81-717.4/714.4 were delivered to Bulgaria in 1990 some 8 years prior to the opening of the capital's metro. The trains are all formed of four carriages, but in 2005 and 2013 the Bulgarian metro system has been receiving trains of type 81-740.2/741.2 or 81-740.2B/741.2B, and currently there are only 12 four carriage train sets of type 81-717.4/714.4 and 40 three car train sets of type 81-740.2/741.2. A contract was signed in 2018 in modernization of the existing 81-717.4/714.4 cars, the first refurbished trains were delivered in 2020. The refurbished trains look very similar to type 81-717.2k/714.2k of Budapest metro line M3.

Technicalities.

The 81-717/714 cars in the former Soviet Union operate on metro networks with 1520+4 mm track gauges. The Sofia, Budapest, Warsaw and Prague metro networks use standard gauge (1435 mm) and receive power from the 3rd rail via a bottom-contact shoe, except in Budapest, which uses top-contact shoes. The trains usually have a flexible formation, of 2 control cars at each end, and a variable number of trailer cars in the middle. Thus, a train can have only 1 car in the middle, or up to 6, making 3 to 8 car formations. However, a notable exception is on the Yerevan metro, where trains there can operate even with no trailer cars. In addition to this, the 81-717M type has 2 cabs at both ends, as opposed to 1 cab at opposing ends, also used in Yerevan.

Interior fittings.

Like all metro trains of the former Soviet Union, the 81-717/714 trains feature longitudinal bench seating, which is placed to the walls of the cars between the doors and an empty central aisle. The passenger area is ventilated with the help of air vents on the roof of the car, along with small sliding windows.  Originally, bench seats with hard leather trim were fitted on these cars, but they were subject to vandalism in the 1990s and 2000s. Due to this, refurbished and later models feature vandal-proof seating with a plastic base and leatherette linings, separate for each passenger. Sometimes, metal partitions can be added too. Overall, the bench seats can accommodate as many as 6 people (or 3 at the end sections), which means that seating space in all cars varies from 40 to 48, while seated.  While there are access doors between each car, passing from one car to the other while the train is moving is very dangerous, and due to this only staff permits such tasks usually. The doors can be used in an emergency, but they are sometimes used by zatsepers (Russian trainsurfers) to climb on the roof of the train on over-ground sections.

Replacement.

As the wear and aging of these trains began to be replaced with newer ones, but in different subways this happened differently, in the Moscow metro as a replacement first were the trains «Rusich», later «Oka» and «Moscow». In Saint Petersburg, «81-556 Neva» trains are used as replacements, in Novosibirsk, several of these trains are replaced with «81-540» trains, which are a further development of the 81-717. In Minsk, the 81-717 train started to run on new < < Stadler> > cars manufactured in the Fanipol (suburb of Minsk). In Baku, as well as in Moscow, 81-765 trains will be used to replace the 81-740 cars, but these trains will be called «Baku».

81-717/714 is a metro car designed in the Soviet Union in the mid-1970s. The cars were made from 1976 to 2010 by Metrovagonmash and the I. E. Yegorov Vagonmash factories of Mytishchi and Saint Petersburg, respectively. Production is still ongoing for specific models and/or modernizations.

Die Baureihe 81-717/714 ist gegenwärtig die am häufigsten verwendete Baureihe der U-Bahn-Fahrzeuge in Russland und mehreren anderen Staaten des ehemaligen Ostblocks. Die aus der Produktion des "Metrowagonmasch"-Werkes in Mytischtschi bei Moskau sowie der Jegorow-Werke (auch "Wagonmasch"-Fabrik genannt) in Sankt Petersburg stammenden Züge sind unter anderem in der Metro Moskau, der Metro Sankt Petersburg, aber auch in Kiew, Budapest, Prag, Tbilissi und in Warschau im täglichen Einsatz.


Uses.

Medical.

Procainamide is used for treating ventricular arrhythmias: ventricular ectopy and tachycardia and supraventricular arrhythmias: atrial fibrillation, and re-entrant and automatic supraventricular tachycardia. For example, it can be used to convert new-onset atrial fibrillation, though it is suboptimal for this purpose.  It is administered by mouth, by intramuscular injection, or intravenously.

Others.

It has been also been used as a chromatography resin because it somewhat binds protein.

Side effects.

There are many side effects following the induction of procainamide. These adverse effects are ventricular dysrhythmia, bradycardia, hypotension and shock. The adverse effects occur even more often if the daily doses are increased. Procainamide may also lead to drug fever and other allergic responses. There is also a chance that drug-induced lupus erythematosus occurs, which at the same time leads to arthralgia, myalgia and pleurisy. Most of these side effects may occur due to the acetylation of procainamide.

Toxicity.

There is a close line between the plasma concentrations of the therapeutic and toxic effect, therefore a high risk for toxicity. Many symptoms resemble systemic lupus erythematosus because procainamide reactivates hydroxylamine and nitroso metabolites, which bind to histone proteins and are toxic to lymphocytes. The hydroxylamine and nitroso metabolites are also toxic to bone marrow cells and can cause agranulocytosis. These metabolites are formed due to the activation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. These leukocytes release myeloperoxidase and hydrogen peroxide, which oxidize the primary aromatic amine of procainamide to form procainamide hydroxylamine. The release of hydrogen peroxide is also called a respiratory burst, which occurs for procainamide in monocytes but not in lymphocytes. Furthermore, the metabolites can be formed by activated neutrophils. These metabolites could then bind to their cell membranes and cause a release of autoantibodies which would react with the neutrophils. Procainamide hydroxylamine has more cytotoxicity by hindering the response of lymphocytes to T-cell and B-cell mitogens. Hydroxylamine can also generate methemoglobin, a protein that could hinder further oxygen exchange.  It was also detected that the antiarrhythmic drug procainamide interferes with pacemakers. A toxic level of procainamide leads to decrease in ventricular conduction velocity and increase of the ventricular refractory period. This results in a disturbance in the artificial membrane potential and leads to a supraventricular tachycardia which induces failure of the pacemaker and death. Thus, it prolongs QT interval of action potential and increases the risk of torsade de pointes.  Procainamide could initiate leukopenia and/or agranulocytosis, which are serious hematologic disorders, and is also known for causing gastrointestinal disturbances and aggravating pre-existing abnormalities in impulse initiation and propagation.

Pharmacology.

Mechanism of action.

Procainamide works as an anti-arrhythmic agent and is used to treat cardiac arrhythmia. It induces rapid block of the batrachotoxin (BTX)-activated sodium channels of the heart muscle and acts as antagonist to long-gating closures. The block is voltage-dependent and can occur from both sides; either from the intracellular or the extracellular side. Blocking from the extracellular side is weaker than from the intracellular side because it occurs via the hydrophobic pathway. Procainamide is present in charged form and probably requires a direct hydrophobic access to the binding site for blocking of the channel. Furthermore, blocking of the channel shows a decreased voltage sensitivity, which may result from the loss of voltage dependence of the blocking rate. Due to its charged and hydrophilic form, procainamide has its effect from the internal side, where it causes blockage of voltage-dependent, open channels. With increasing concentration of procainamide, the frequency of long blockage becomes less without the duration of blockage being affected. The rate of fast blocking is determined by the membrane depolarization. Membrane depolarization leads to increased blocking and decreased unblocking of the channels. Procainamide slows the conduction velocity and increases the refractory period, such that the maximal rate of depolarization is reduced.

Metabolism.

Procainamide is metabolized via different pathways. The most common one is the acetylation of procainamide to the less-toxic N-acetylprocainamide. The rate of acetylation is genetically determined. There are two phenotypes that result from the acetylation process, namely the slow and rapid acetylator. Procainamide can also be oxidized by the cytochrome P-450 to a reactive oxide metabolite. But it seems that acetylation of the nitrogen group of procainamide decrease the amount of the chemical that would be available for the oxidative route. Other metabolites of procainamide include desethyl-N-acetylprocainamide, desethylprocainamide, p-aminobenzoic acid, which are excreted via the urine. N-acetyl-4-aminobenzoic acid as well as N-acetyl-3-hydroxyprocainamide, N-acetylprocainamide-N-oxide and N-acetyl-4-aminohippuric acid are also metabolites of procainamide.

Chemistry.

4-amino-N-2-(diethylamino)ethyl-benzamide (also known as para-amino-N-2-(diethylamino)ethyl-benzamide because the amino substituent is attached to the para-position, Arene substitution patterns of the benzene ring) is a synthetic organic compound with the chemical formula C13-H21-N3-O.  Procainamide is structurally similar to procaine, but in place of an ester group, procainamide contains an amide group. This substitution is the reason why procainamide exhibits a longer half-life time than procaine.  Procainamide belongs to the aminobenzamides. These are aromatic carboxylic acid derivatives consisting of an amide with a benzamide moiety and a triethylamine attached to the amide nitrogen.  In certain lines, the "para"-amino group might become a target site to attach further paraphernalia, e.g. "ref." Ex18 in.

History.

Procainamide was approved by the US FDA on June 2, 1950, under the brand name "Pronestyl". It was launched by Bristol-Myers Squibb in 1951. Due to the loss of Indonesia in World War II, the source for cinchona alkaloids, a precursor of quinidine, was reduced. This led to research for a new antiarrhythmic drug. As a result, procaine was discovered, which has similar cardiac effects as quinidine. In 1936 it was found by Mautz that by applying it directly on the myocardium, the ventricular threshold for electrical stimulation was elevated. This mechanism is responsible for the antiarrhythmic effect. However, due to the short duration of action, caused by rapid enzymatic hydrolysis, its therapeutic applications were limited. In addition, procaine also caused tremors and respiratory depression. All these adverse features stimulated the search for an alternative to procaine. Studies were done on various congeners and metabolites and this ultimately led to the discovery of procainamide by Mark "et al". It was found that procainamide was effective for treating ventricular arrhythmias, but it had the same toxicity profile as quinidine, and it could cause systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome. These negative characteristics slowed the search for new antiarrhythmics based on the chemical structure of procainamide. In 1970 only five drugs were reported. These were the cardiac glycosides, quinidine, propranolol, lidocaine and diphenylhydantoin. In January 1996, extended release procainamide hydrochloride (Procanbid extended-release tablets) was approved by the FDA.

Procainamide is a medication of the antiarrhythmic class used for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias. It is classified by the Vaughan Williams classification system as class Ia; thus it is a sodium channel blocker of cardiomyocytes. In addition to blocking the "I" current, it inhibits the "I" rectifier K+ current. Procainamide is also known to induce a voltage-dependent open channel block on the batrachotoxin (BTX)-activated sodium channels in cardiomyocytes.

Procainamid ist strukturell mit Procain verwandt. Es ist ein Antiarrhythmikum der Gruppe der Natriumkanalblocker. Damit gehört es zu den Klasse Ia-Antiarrhythmika nach der Vaughan/Williams Klassifikation. Procainamid wird als Reserveantiarrhythmikum bei therapieresistenten ventrikulären Arrhythmien und bei supraventrikulären Arrhythmien bei Präexzitation eingesetzt.