Playing career.

Club career.

Much-travelled Schachner started his professional career at local outfit Alpine Donawitz at 18 in the 1975/1976 season, earning a place in the national team after only one and a half season. He was duly picked up by Vienna giants Austria Wien but moved abroad to play in Italy for seven years, from 1981 to 1988, in A.C. Cesena (58 matches, 17 goals), Torino F.C. (85 matches, 18 goals) and Avellino (48 matches 13 goals). In 1981 when Cesena was promoted to Serie A, the ultras changed their title to Weisschwarz Brigaden (meaning “Black-and-white Brigades” in German language) to honor the Austrian forward. He returned to Austria in 1988, moving from one club to another and mostly in the second division before finally hanging up his boots at 41 years of age at Eintracht Wels.

International career.

He made his debut for Austria in a December 1976 World Cup qualification match against Malta and was a participant at the 1978 and 1982 FIFA World Cups. He earned 64 caps, scoring 23 goals. His final international game was an August 1994 friendly match against Russia which was his farewell match since he was replaced by Harald Cerny early in the game and he had played his previous international over 4 years earlier.  On 21 June 1978 at the World Cup held in Argentina he was among starting 11 of the Austrian team that beat the reigning champions, West Germany 3-2 and eliminated them from the competition, a historic match named “The Miracle of Cordoba”. Conversely, he was also a member of the Austrian team that lost 1–0 to West Germany in 1982 in the "Disgrace of Gijón" but distinguished himself by making an effort to actually play a normal game.

Managerial career.

He started his career as a coach in the season 1999/2000 in FC Zeltweg and led them to promotion from 4th to 3rd division.  In seasons 2000/2001 and 2001/2002 he coached FC Kärnten in the Austrian Football First League. Under his leadership the team got promoted to the Austrian Bundesliga and won the National Cup in the first year and the National Supercup in the second.  In the season 2002/2003 Schachner trained Austria Wien in Austrian Bundesliga until he was replaced by Christoph Daum in early October despite an excellent start of the season. At the time of his dismissal the team lead the championship with seven points ahead of second place and just defeated Ukrainian Champions Shakhtar Donetsk 5:2 in the UEFA Cup. A few days after his dismissal he was hired by Grazer AK, which held the penultimate place in the Austrian Bundesliga. The team finished the season in second place behind Austria Vienna.  In the season 2003/2004 Schachner led Grazer AK to win their first and so far the only national champions title. In the same season they also won the Austrian Cup. In season 2004/2005 the Grazer AK were runners-up in the Bundesliga and faced Liverpool of Rafael Benitez, the future winners of the title, in the third qualification round of Champions League, managing to win the return leg at Anfield 1:0, after the home defeat of 0:2.  In January 2006 he was sacked by the club, officially to reduce costs, in real because he was in talks with several other clubs. He moved to TSV 1860 München who were in the 2nd Bundesliga at the time and avoided relegation only in the penultimate round. The club was going through difficult period in those years and faced economic problems. On 9 March 2007, he and TSV 1860 München agreed to terminate his contract at the end of the 2006–2007 season on 30 June. His successor was Marco Kurz. Schachner signed a new contract at SK Austria Kärnten in April 2007. He did not achieve the desired results with the newly formed team and was fired by the management in December of that year.  In August 2008, Schachner replaced the coach of VfB Admira Wacker Mödling (Austrian First League), Heinz Peischl, who was fired for acquiring only 1 point in 5 games which left the team on the bottom of the ranking. With Schachner the team finished the season in the third place. Moreover, after 13 years Admira Wacker reached the National Cup final where they were defeated by Austria Wien 1:3. He remained as a coach in VfB Admira Wacker Mödling for the season 2009/10 before being replaced by their youth team coach on 26 April 2010, leaving the team in third place with 4 points behind the leader, struggling for promotion 6 rounds before the end of the season.

Walter "Schoko" Schachner (born 1 February 1957 in Leoben, Austria) is a football manager and former player, who played as a forward for the Austrian national side.

Walter „Schoko“ Schachner (* 1. Februar 1957 in Leoben) ist ein ehemaliger österreichischer Fußballspieler auf der Position eines Stürmers und war zuletzt in der Saison 2011/2012 Fußballtrainer beim österreichischen Erstligisten LASK Linz. Derzeit ist Walter Schachner TV-Experte beim TV-Sender SKY in Österreich.


Defining tractive effort.

The term tractive effort is often qualified as starting tractive effort, continuous tractive effort and maximum tractive effort. These terms apply to different operating conditions, but are related by common mechanical factors: input torque to the driving wheels, the wheel diameter, coefficient of friction (μ) between the driving wheels and supporting surface, and the weight applied to the driving wheels (m). The product of μ and m is the factor of adhesion, which determines the maximum torque that can be applied before the onset of wheelspin or wheelslip.  Tractive effort inversely varies with speed at any given level of available power. Continuous tractive effort is often shown in graph form at a range of speeds as part of a tractive effort curve.  Vehicles having a hydrodynamic coupling, hydrodynamic torque multiplier or electric motor as part of the power transmission system may also have a maximum continuous tractive effort rating, which is the highest tractive force that can be produced for a short period of time without causing component harm. The period of time for which the maximum continuous tractive effort may be safely generated is usually limited by thermal considerations. such as temperature rise in a traction motor.

Tractive effort curves.

Specifications of locomotives often include tractive effort curves, showing the relationship between tractive effort and velocity.  The shape of the graph is shown at right. The line AB shows operation at the maximum tractive effort, the line BC shows continuous tractive effort that is inversely proportional to speed (constant power).  Tractive effort curves often have graphs of rolling resistance superimposed on them—the intersection of the rolling resistance graph and tractive effort graph gives the maximum velocity (when net tractive effort is zero).

Rail vehicles.

In order to start a train and accelerate it to a given speed, the locomotive(s) must develop sufficient tractive force to overcome the train's drag (resistance to motion), which is a combination of inertia, axle bearing friction, the friction of the wheels on the rails (which is substantially greater on curved track than on tangent track), and the force of gravity if on a grade. Once in motion, the train will develop additional drag as it accelerates due to aerodynamic forces, which increase with the square of the speed. Drag may also be produced at speed due to truck (bogie) hunting, which will increase the rolling friction between wheels and rails. If acceleration continues, the train will eventually attain a speed at which the available tractive force of the locomotive(s) will exactly offset the total drag, causing acceleration to cease. This top speed will be increased on a downgrade due to gravity assisting the motive power, and will be decreased on an upgrade due to gravity opposing the motive power.  Tractive effort can be theoretically calculated from a locomotive's mechanical characteristics (e.g., steam pressure, weight, etc.), or by actual testing with drawbar strain sensors and a dynamometer car. Power at rail is a railway term for the available power for traction, that is, the power that is available to propel the train.

Steam locomotives.

An estimate for the tractive effort of a single cylinder steam locomotive can be obtained from the cylinder pressure, cylinder bore, stroke of the piston and the diameter of the wheel. The torque developed by the linear motion of the piston depends on the angle that the driving rod makes with the tangent of the radius on the driving wheel. For a more useful value an average value over the rotation of the wheel is used. The driving force is the torque divided by the wheel radius.  As an approximation, the following formula can be used (for a two-cylinder locomotive):  where  The constant 0.85 was the Association of American Railroads (AAR) standard for such calculations, and overestimated the efficiency of some locomotives and underestimated that of others. Modern locomotives with roller bearings were probably underestimated.  European designers used a constant of 0.6 instead of 0.85, so the two cannot be compared without a conversion factor. In Britain main-line railways generally used a constant of 0.85 but builders of industrial locomotives often used a lower figure, typically 0.75.  The constant "c" also depends on the cylinder dimensions and the time at which the steam inlet valves are open; if the steam inlet valves are closed immediately after obtaining full cylinder pressure the piston force can be expected to have dropped to less than half the initial force. giving a low "c" value. If the cylinder valves are left open for longer the value of "c" will rise nearer to one.  The result should be multiplied by 1.5 for a three-cylinder locomotive and by two for a four-cylinder locomotive.  Alternatively, tractive effort of all'simple' (i.e. non-compound) locomotives can be calculated thus: formula_4  where For other numbers and combinations of cylinders, including double and triple expansion engines the tractive effort can be estimated by adding the tractive efforts due to the individual cylinders at their respective pressures and cylinder strokes.

Values and comparisons for steam locomotives.

Tractive effort is the figure often quoted when comparing the powers of steam locomotives, but is misleading because tractive effort shows the ability to start a train, not the ability to haul it. Possibly the highest tractive effort ever claimed was for the Virginian Railway's 2-8-8-8-4 Triplex locomotive, which in simple expansion mode had a calculated starting T.E. of 199,560 lbf (887.7 kN)—but the boiler could not produce enough steam to haul at speeds over 5 mph (8 km/h).  Of more successful steam locomotives, those with the highest rated starting tractive effort were the Virginian Railway AE-class 2-10-10-2s, at 176,000 lbf (783 kN) in simple-expansion mode (or 162,200 lb if calculated by the usual formula). The Union Pacific Big Boys had a starting T.E. of 135,375 lbf (602 kN); the Norfolk & Western's Y5, Y6, Y6a, and Y6b class 2-8-8-2s had a starting T.E. of 152,206 lbf (677 kN) in simple expansion mode (later modified to 170,000 lbf (756 kN), claim some enthusiasts); and the Pennsylvania Railroad's freight Duplex Q2 attained 114,860 lbf (510.9 kN, including booster)—the highest for a rigid framed locomotive. Later two-cylinder passenger locomotives were generally 40,000 to 80,000 lbf (170 to 350 kN) of T.E.

Diesel and electric locomotives.

For an electric locomotive or a diesel-electric locomotive, starting tractive effort can be calculated from the amount of weight on the driving wheels (which may be less than the total locomotive weight in some cases), combined stall torque of the traction motors, the gear ratio between the traction motors and axles, and driving wheel diameter. For a diesel-hydraulic locomotive, the starting tractive effort is affected by the stall torque of the torque converter, as well as gearing, wheel diameter and locomotive weight.  The relationship between power and tractive effort was expressed by Hay (1978) as  where  Freight locomotives are designed to produce higher maximum tractive effort than passenger units of equivalent power, necessitated by the much higher weight that is typical of a freight train. In modern locomotives, the gearing between the traction motors and axles is selected to suit the type of service in which the unit will be operated. As traction motors have a maximum speed at which they can rotate without incurring damage, gearing for higher tractive effort is at the expense of top speed. Conversely, the gearing used with passenger locomotives favors speed over maximum tractive effort.  Electric locomotives with monomotor bogies are sometimes fitted with two-speed gearing. This allows higher tractive effort for hauling freight trains but at reduced speed. Examples include the SNCF classes BB 8500 and BB 25500.

As used in mechanical engineering, the term tractive force can either refer to the total traction a vehicle exerts on a surface, or the amount of the total traction that is parallel to the direction of motion.

Die Stundenzugkraft ist diejenige Zugkraft, die während einer Stunde von einer Elektrolokomotive oder einer Diesellokomotive mit elektrischer Kraftübertragung ununterbrochen abgegeben werden kann, ohne dass Teile der Lokomotive wie zum Beispiel Transformatoren, Stromrichter, Fahrmotoren, Kabel durch den "Stundenstrom" unzulässig erhitzt werden. Da die Verlustwärme bei Lokomotiven von der erbrachten Leistung abhängig ist, kann die Angabe der Stundenzugkraft nur zusammen mit einer Geschwindigkeit erfolgen.


Foundation and history.

On 1 November 1884, a group of Irishmen gathered in the Hayes' Hotel billiard room to formulate a plan and establish an organisation to foster and preserve Ireland's unique games and athletic pastimes. And so, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) was founded. The architects and founding members were Michael Cusack of County Clare, Maurice Davin, Joseph K. Bracken, Thomas St George McCarthy, a District Inspector in the Royal Irish Constabulary, P. J. Ryan of Tipperary, John Wyse Power, and John McKay. Maurice Davin was elected President, Cusack, Wyse-Power and McKay were elected Secretaries and it was agreed that Archbishop Croke, Charles Stewart Parnell and Michael Davitt would be asked to become Patrons.  In 1922 it passed over the job of promoting athletics to the National Athletic and Cycling Association.

Cultural activities.

The association has had a long history of promoting Irish culture. Through a division of the association known as Scór (Irish for "score"), the association promotes Irish cultural activities, running competitions in music, singing, dancing and storytelling.  Rule 4 of the GAA's official guide states:  "The Association shall actively support the Irish language, traditional Irish dancing, music, song, and other aspects of Irish culture. It shall foster an awareness and love of the national ideals in the people of Ireland, and assist in promoting a community spirit through its clubs."  The group was formally founded in 1969, and is promoted through various Association clubs throughout Ireland (as well as some clubs outside Ireland).

Grounds.

The association has many stadiums scattered throughout Ireland and beyond. Every county, and nearly all clubs, have grounds on which to play their home games, with varying capacities and utilities.  The hierarchical structure of the GAA is applied to the use of grounds. Clubs play at their own grounds for the early rounds of the club championship, while the latter rounds from quarter-finals to finals are usually held at a county ground, i.e. the ground where inter-county games take place or where the county board is based.  The provincial championship finals are usually played at the same venue every year. However, there have been exceptions, such as in Ulster, where in 2004 and 2005 the Ulster Football Finals were played in Croke Park, as the anticipated attendance was likely to far exceed the capacity of the traditional venue of St Tiernach's Park, Clones.

Croke Park.

Croke Park is the association's flagship venue and is known colloquially as "Croker" or "Headquarters", since the venue doubles as the association's base. With a capacity of 82,300, it ranks among the top five stadiums in Europe by capacity, having undergone extensive renovations for most of the 1990s and early 21st century. Every September, Croke Park hosts the All-Ireland inter-county Hurling and Football Finals as the conclusion to the summer championships. Croke Park holds the All-Ireland club football and hurling finals. Croke Park is named after Archbishop Thomas Croke, who was elected as a patron of the GAA during the formation of the GAA in 1884.

Other grounds.

The next three biggest grounds are all in Munster: Semple Stadium in Thurles, County Tipperary, with a capacity of 53,000, the Gaelic Grounds in Limerick, which holds 50,000, and Páirc Uí Chaoimh, County Cork, which can accommodate 45,000.  Other grounds with capacities above 25,000 include:  Research by former Fermanagh county footballer Niall Cunningham led to the publication in 2016 by his website, gaapitchlocator.net, of a map of 1,748 GAA grounds in Ireland, ranging from 24 grounds in his own county to 171 in Cork.

Nationalism and community relations.

Community associations within Northern Ireland.

The association has, since its inception, been closely associated with Irish nationalism, and this has continued to the present, particularly in relation to Northern Ireland, where the sports are played almost predominantly by members of the mainly Catholic nationalist community, and many in the Protestant unionist population consider themselves excluded by a perceived political ethos. According to one sports historian, the GAA "is arguably the most striking example of politics shaping sport in modern history".  A perception within Northern Ireland unionist circles that the GAA is a nationalist organisation is reinforced by the naming of some GAA grounds, clubs, competitions and trophies after prominent nationalists or republicans.  Other critics point to protectionist rules such as Rule 42 which prohibits competing, chiefly British, sports (referred to by some as "garrison games" or foreign sports) from GAA grounds. As a result, the GAA became a target for loyalist paramilitaries during the Troubles when a number of GAA supporters were killed and clubhouses damaged. As the profile of Gaelic football has been raised in Ulster so too has there been an increase in the number of sectarian attacks on Gaelic clubs in Northern Ireland.  Some of the protectionist rules are as follows:

Rule 42 and other sports in GAA grounds.

Rule 42 (Rule 5.1 in the 2009 rulebook) prohibits the use of GAA property for games with interests in conflict with the interests of the GAA referred to by some as "garrison games" or foreign sports. Current rules state that GAA property may only be used for the purpose or in connection with the playing of games controlled by the association. Sports not considered 'in conflict' with the GAA have been permitted.  On 16 April 2005 the GAA's congress voted to temporarily relax Rule 42 and allow international soccer and rugby to be played in the stadium while Lansdowne Road Football Ground was closed for redevelopment. The first soccer and rugby union games permitted in Croke Park took place in early 2007, the first such fixture being Ireland's home match in the Six Nations Rugby Union Championship against France.  In addition to the opening of Croke Park to competing sports, local GAA units have sought to rent their facilities out to other sports organisations for financial reasons in violation of Rule 42. The continued existence of Rule 42 has proven to be controversial since the management of Croke Park has been allowed to earn revenue by renting the facility out to competing sports organisations, but local GAA units which own smaller facilities cannot. It is also said that it is questionable as to whether or not such rental deals would be damaging to the GAA's interests.

Defunct rules.

The GAA has had some notable rules in the past which have since been abolished. Rule 21, instituted in 1897 when it was suspected that Royal Irish Constabulary spies were trying to infiltrate the organization, prohibited members of the British forces from membership of the GAA. The rule was abolished after an overwhelming majority voted for its removal at a special congress convened in November 2001. Rule 27, sometimes referred to as "The Ban", dated from 1901 and banned GAA members from taking part in or watching non Gaelic games. During that time people such as Douglas Hyde, GAA patron and then President of Ireland, was expelled for attending a soccer international. Rule 27 was abolished in 1971.

Cross-community outreach in Ulster.

The association points out the role of members of minority religions in the membership throughout its history. For example, the Protestant Jack Boothman was president of the organisation from 1993 to 1997, while Sam Maguire was a Church of Ireland member. Nonetheless, to address concerns of unionists, the association's Ulster Council has embarked on a number of initiatives aimed at making the association and Gaelic games more accessible to northern Protestants. In November 2008, the council launched a "Community Development Unit", which is responsible for "Diversity and Community Outreach initiatives". The Cúchulainn Initiative is a cross-community program aimed at establishing teams consisting of Catholic and Protestant schoolchildren with no prior playing experience. Cross-community teams such as the Belfast Cuchulainn under-16 hurling team have been established and gone on to compete at the Continental Youth Championship in the USA. Similar hurling and Gaelic football teams have since emerged in Armagh, Fermanagh, Limavady. David Hassan, from the University of Ulster, has written about the cross community work of the association and other sporting bodies in Ulster, and highlighted the work being done in this field.  The 'Game of three-halves' cross-community coaching initiative was established in predominantly Protestant east Belfast in 2006. Organised through Knock Presbyterian Church, this scheme brings Association coaches to work alongside their soccer and rugby counterparts to involve primary school children at summer coaching camps. The Ulster Council is also establishing cross-community football and hurling teams in schools and is developing links with the Ulster-Scots Agency and the Church of Ireland. The Council has also undertaken a series of meetings with political parties and community groups who would have traditionally have had no involvement in the association.

Other community outreach.

In January 2011, the then President of Ireland, Mary McAleese, announced the launch of an island-wide project called the "GAA Social Initiative". This aims to address the problem of isolation in rural areas where older people have limited engagement with the community. The initiative was later expanded by teaming up with the Irish Farmers Association to integrate that organisation's volunteers into the initiative.

Participation outside Ireland.

Clubs outside Ireland.

Members of the Irish diaspora have set-up clubs in a number of regions and countries outside of Ireland, and there are reportedly GAA clubs in the United States, Australia, Britain, Canada, China, continental Europe, and elsewhere outside of Ireland.

Internationals.

While some units of the association outside Ireland participate in Irish competitions, the association does not hold internationals played according to the rules of either Gaelic football or hurling. Compromise rules have been reached with two "related sports".  Hurlers play an annual fixture against a national shinty team from Scotland.  International Rules Football matches have taken place between an Irish national team drawn from the ranks of Gaelic footballers, against an Australian national team drawn from the Australian Football League. The venue alternates between Ireland and Australia. In December 2006, the International series between Australia and Ireland was called off due to excessive violence in the matches, but resumed in October 2008 when Ireland won a two test series in Australia. The Irish welcomed the All Australian team at the headquarters of the GAA (Croke Park) on 21 November 2015. It was single one-off test match, which led the Irish to reclaim the Cormac McAnallen Cup by a score of 56–52.

Winter training ban.

To address concerns about player burnout, the association adopted a rule in 2007 that prohibited collective training for inter-county players for a period of two months every winter. This has proven to be controversial in that it is difficult to enforce, and in the drive to stay competitive, managers have found ways to avoid it, such as organising informal 'athletic clubs' and other activities that they can use to work on the physical fitness of players without overtly appearing to be training specifically at Gaelic games.

The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA;, ("CLG")) is an Irish international amateur sporting and cultural organisation, focused primarily on promoting indigenous Gaelic games and pastimes, which include the traditional Irish sports of hurling, camogie, Gaelic football, Gaelic handball and rounders. The association also promotes Irish music and dance, as well as the Irish language.

Die Gaelic Athletic Association (kurz GAA, ) ist ein irischer Sportverband, der gälische Sportarten wie Hurling, Gaelic Football, Gaelic Handball, Camogie und Rounders fördert und betreut.


Rules.

Handball is played in a court, or "alley". Originally, an alley measuring 60 feet by 30 feet was used with a front wall of 30 feet, off which the ball must be struck.  A smaller alley was also introduced, measuring 40 feet by 20 feet with a front wall 20 ft high. The first alley of this size was built in Ireland in 1969. This smaller size is now the standard in the international version of the game, but both alleys are still used in the Gaelic game, with two separate championships run by the GAA in the two codes.  The objective of a game is to score a set total of points before your opponent does. Points are only scored by the person serving the ball. In other words, if a player wins a rally but did not serve at the start of that rally they only win the right to serve, and thus the chance to score after a subsequent rally. The serving player has two opportunities to hit the ball, from the "service area" (between the two parallel lines), off the "front wall" and across the "short line" (which is located exactly halfway down the court from the front wall).  Players take turns at hitting the ball off the "front wall" before the ball bounces twice on the floor of the court following their opponent's previous shot. Most handball games take place in a four-walled court but there are also three-walled and one-wall versions of the game.

History.

Handball-like games have originated in several places at different times. Hieroglyphs in the temple of Osiris in Egypt portray priests taking part in a game very similar to handball. Mesoamerican civilisations in South and Central America had a form of handball-like game, which was a large part of pre-Columbian culture. Recent archaeological finds in the Callan and Mooncoin areas of Kilkenny indicate that a game similar to handball was played.  In Ireland, the earliest written record of a similar ball game is contained in the town statutes of Galway in 1527, which forbade the playing of ball games [generic] against the walls of the town. The first depiction of an Irish form of handball does not appear till 1785. On the west coast of Ireland, Galway had many trading links with Spain, especially the Basque regions, where the similar game of pelota is played. According to Dublin Handball GAA "It is highly likely that one game is derived from or influenced by the other.".  Both Scottish and Irish immigrants brought the game to many countries in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. It is still played in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Wales, Africa and England.  Father John Murphy, a leader in the 1798 rebellion was one of the best handball players of his time and he frequently held rebel meetings at his local handball alley.

Since the GAA.

The GAA wrote the first rules for the modern game of handball. Handball was included in the GAA Charter of 1884 as one of the sports to be promoted by the new Association. In 1924 the Comhairle Liathróid Láimhe na hÉireann ( the Irish Handball Council) was established to promote, develop and organise the sport. In the same year the 'Irish Amateur Handball Association' was founded. It held its inaugural meeting on 27 January 1924 in Croke Park, County Dublin Prominent Irish republicans, Eoin O'Duffy and Ned Broy were members of this association, with O'Duffy serving as its President from 1926 till 1934. The association's work can be seen in corners of rural Ireland where there are many handball alleys in villages and small towns. However many are no longer used.  Prisoners detained in Gloucester Prison during the Irish revolutionary period played handball during their stay.  Taoiseach, President of Ireland and Irish revolutionary Éamon de Valera was a fan of the sport. He played it while interned in Gloucester Prison and while interned in Arbour Hill Prison. Austin Stack records in his diary (while in Arbour Hill Prison) that on 26 April 1924 "Dev [De Valera] beat me decisively a couple of times" at handball.  In 1925 the first All-Ireland Handball Congress was held and the All-Ireland Senior Softball and Hardball Championships were established  In 1971 Comhairle Liathróid Láimhe na mBan was founded to administer the sport for female competitions. In 1998 the amalgamation of Comhairle Liathróid Láimhe na hÉireann and Comhairle Liathróid Láimhe na mBan saw a single national administration. The Irish Handball Council was rebranded as GAA Handball (Liathróid Láimhe C.L.G.) in 2009.

Types of handball.

In Ireland, there are four main types of handball. There is 40x20 (small court), the traditional 60x30 Softball & Hardball (big alley) and One-wall handball. The playing of one-wall handball has increased since early in the 21st century; it is the most popular version of international handball, played in over 74 countries including the USA, Mexico, Ecuador, Spain, the Basque Country and Wales.

Irish competitions.

There are many handball competitions that are run in Ireland, such as the Gaelic Senior Hardball Singles and the Gaelic Senior Softball Singles. In 40x20, the main competitions are County, Province, and All-Ireland Championships plus the 40x20 Irish Nationals. In 60x30 Softball and Hardball, the main competitions are County, Province, and All-Ireland Championships and the Junior B Interclub. In 2011 GAA Handball Ireland launched the 60x30 Nationals and this competition will be held in July. In One-Wall handball, the main competition in Ireland is the Irish One-Wall Nationals, and this is now held in Breaffy House, Castlebar. There are also many competitions during the year held by various handball clubs around the country.

See also.

Other modalities

Gaelic handball (known in Ireland simply as handball; ) is a sport where players hit a ball with a hand or fist against a wall in such a way as to make a shot the opposition cannot return, and that may be played with two (singles) or four players (doubles). The sport, popular in Ireland, is similar to American handball, Welsh handball, fives, Basque pelota, Valencian pilota, and more remotely to racquetball and squash. It is one of the four Gaelic games organised by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). GAA Handball is the section of the GAA that deals with the sport.

Gaelic Handball ( seltener "Irish handball", in Irland oft kurz "handball", irisch "liathróid láimhe", dt. „Handball“), gehört zu den Ballsportarten und bei diesen speziell zu den Rückschlagspielen.


Education.

Hindenburg did not attend school but was educated at home by a private tutor as arranged by his merchant father. He went to the University of Leipzig in 1757 and took courses in medicine, philosophy, Latin, Greek, physics, mathematics, and aesthetics. Hindenburg later published on philology in 1763 and 1769.  Hindenburg was mentored by Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, a popular lecturer in Leipzig who introduced Hindenburg to a student named Schönborn. Schönborn's interest in mathematics influenced Hindenburg to go into the field as well. He obtained a master's degree from the University of Leipzig in 1771.

Career.

On obtaining his master's degree at Leipzig in 1771, Hindenburg was made Privatdozent there.  In 1781, Hindenburg was appointed as professor of philosophy in the University of Leipzig. He would be appointed professor of physics in 1786 after presenting a dissertation on water pumps. Hindenburg served as academic dean at the University of Leipzig, where he was also Rector in 1792. He became a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences on 5 August 1806.

Research contributions.

Hindenberg's first published mathematical publication, "Beschreibung einer ganz neuen art, nach einem bekannten Gesetze fortgehende Zahlen durch Abzahlen oder Abmessen bequem und sicher zu finden", originated as a project to extend then-existing prime tables up to 5 million. In the book, he mechanically realizes, independent of the work done by Felkel, the sieve of Eratosthenes, which he then proceeds with rules to both optimize and organize. The book also contained results in linear diophantine analysis, decimal periods, combinations, and gave combinatorial significance to the digits of numbers written in decimal notation.  In 1778, he started publishing a series of works on combinatorics, particularly on probability, series and formulae for higher differentials. He worked on a generalization of the binomial theorem and was a major influence in Gudermann's work on the expansion of functions into power series.

Editorial work.

Hindenburg co-founded the first German mathematical journals. Between 1780 and 1800, he was involved at different times with the publishing of four different journals all relating to mathematics and its applications. Two of the journals, the Leipziger Magazin für reine und angewandte Mathematik (1786–1789) and the Archiv für reine und angewandte Mathematik (1795–1799), published Johann Heinrich Lambert's Nachlass as edited by Johann Bernoulli. In 1796, he edited the "Sammlung combinatorisch-analytischer Abhandlungen", which contained a claim that de Moivre's multinomial theorem was “the most important proposition in all of mathematical analysis”.

Students.

One of Hindenburg's best students, according to Donald Knuth, is Heinrich August Rothe. Another student, Johann Karl Burckhardt published the book "Theorie der Kettenbrüche" after being encouraged by Hindenburg to work on continued fractions. He also influenced Christian Kramp's work in combinatorics.

Carl Friedrich Hindenburg (13 July 1741 – 17 March 1808) was a German mathematician born in Dresden. His work centered mostly on combinatorics and probability.

Carl Friedrich Hindenburg (* 13. Juli 1741 in Dresden; † 17. März 1808 in Leipzig) war ein deutscher Mathematiker, Professor der Philosophie und Physik.


Child prodigy.

Reynaldo Hahn was born in Caracas, Venezuela, the youngest of twelve children. Reynaldo's father Carlos was an affluent engineer, inventor, and businessman of German-Jewish extraction; his mother, Elena María de Echenagucia, was a Venezuelan of Spanish (Basque) origin, and like most wealthy families in that country, descended from Spanish colonists. His father knew the Venezuelan President Antonio Guzmán Blanco, but the increasingly volatile political atmosphere at the end of his first term in 1877 caused his father to retire and leave Venezuela.  Hahn's family moved to Paris when he was three years old. Although he showed interest in his native music of Caracas in his youth, France would "determine and define Hahn's musical identity in later life". The city and its cultural resources: the Paris Opéra, the Paris Opéra Ballet, the Opéra-Comique, in addition to the nexus of artists and writers, proved an ideal setting for the precocious Hahn.  A child prodigy, Reynaldo made his début at the salon of the eccentric Princess Mathilde (Napoleon's niece), accompanying himself on the piano as he sang arias by Jacques Offenbach. At the age of eight, Hahn composed his first songs.  Despite the Paris Conservatoire's tradition of antipathy towards child prodigies—Franz Liszt had famously been rebuffed by the school many years before—Hahn entered the school at the age of ten. His teachers included Jules Massenet, Charles Gounod, Camille Saint-Saëns and Émile Decombes. Alfred Cortot and Maurice Ravel were fellow students.

"Si mes vers avaient des ailes".

In 1888 Reynaldo composed "Si mes vers avaient des ailes" (If my verses had wings) to a poem by Victor Hugo; it was an instant success when published by "Le Figaro". From this exposure and publicity, Hahn came into contact with many leading artists in Paris (in addition to the relationships he cultivated at the Conservatoire). The famous soprano Sybil Sanderson and the writer Alphonse Daudet invited Hahn into their social sphere. Hahn had "a special gift" of attracting "important people to his side". Like many other French song composers of the time, Hahn was attracted to Hugo's poetry. Many of the hallmarks of Hahn's music are already evident in "Si mes vers": the undulating piano accompaniment, the vocal line derived from the patterns and intimacy of speech, the surprising intervals and cadences, the cleverly placed "mezza voce", and the sophistication and depth of feeling—all the more impressive because he was only thirteen when he composed it.  Paul Verlaine, another poet whose lyrics inspired many of Reynaldo's songs, had on one occasion a chance to hear the young composer's settings of his poems (which Hahn entitled "Chansons grises", begun in 1887 when Hahn was twelve years old and finished three years later). The poet "wept to hear Hahn's songs". Stéphane Mallarmé, also present, wrote the following stanza:

Hahn and Proust.

By the age of nineteen in 1894, Hahn had written many songs about love; however, his worldly sophistication masked shyness about his own personal feelings. He had close intimate friendships with women, and they were clearly fond of the gallant and charming young composer. Cléo de Mérode, a famous beauty of "le beau monde" and three years older than Hahn, inspired him to write: "I worship her as a great and perfect work of art". Despite this tribute to her, he reportedly loved her only at a distance his whole life. The famous courtesan Liane de Pougy referred to Hahn in her diary as the "sweetness in her life." Though they were close friends, their relationship ended when de Pougy married. Hahn famously told her: "Goodbye Lianon. I hate married people." Hahn was a closeted homosexual, even though in his personal letters he was frequently critical of homosexuals and homosexuality.  In 1894, Hahn met the aspiring writer Marcel Proust at the home of artist Madeleine Lemaire. Proust and Hahn shared a love for painting, literature, and Fauré. They often travelled together and collaborated on various projects. One of those projects, "Portraits de peintres" (1896), is a work consisting of spoken text with piano accompaniment.  Hahn honed his writing skills during this period, becoming one of the best critics on music and musicians. Seldom appreciating his contemporaries, he instead admired the artists of the past (shown in his portraits of legendary figures). His writing, like Proust's, was characterised by a deft skill in depicting small details.

World wars and interwar activities.

In 1909, Hahn became a French citizen. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, he volunteered for service in the French Army. At 40, he was older than the official conscription age but was accepted and served, first as a private, finally reaching the rank of corporal. While at the front he composed a song cycle based on poems by Robert Louis Stevenson.  As a conductor Hahn specialised in Mozart, conducting the initial performances of the Salzburg Festival at the invitation of Lilli Lehmann when the festival was revived after World War I. He also served in the 1920s and 1930s as general manager of the Cannes Casino opera house. For many years he was the influential music critic of the leading Paris daily, "Le Figaro".  In 1931 appeared Hahn's operetta "Brummell", to a libretto by Rip and Robert Dieudonné  Hahn was given the score of Bizet's unperformed Symphony in C by the composer's widow. Hahn deposited the score in the library of the Paris Conservatory, where it was discovered in 1933 and given its first performance in 1935.  Forced to leave Paris in 1940 during the Nazi occupation, he returned at the end of the war in 1945 to fulfill his appointment as director of the Paris Opera. He died in 1947 of a brain tumor, without executing the reforms for which his supporters had hoped.

Selected recordings.

"Complete melodies," Tassis Christoyannis (baryton), Jeff Cohen, piano, 4 CD Palazzzetto Bru Zane 2018 - 2019. Choc Classica.

Reynaldo Hahn (; August 9, 1874 – January 28, 1947) was a Venezuelan, naturalised French, composer, conductor, music critic, diarist, theatre director, and salon singer. Best known as a composer of songs, he wrote in the French classical tradition of the "mélodie".

Klaus Friedrich Roth (* 25. Oktober 1925 in Breslau, Provinz Niederschlesien; † 10. November 2015 in Inverness, Schottland) war ein aus Deutschland stammender britischer Mathematiker, der 1958 für seine besonderen Verdienste in der Mathematik mit der Fields-Medaille ausgezeichnet wurde.


Life.

She was a daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne of Cyprus. Her maternal grandparents were Janus of Cyprus and Charlotte de Bourbon-La Marche. Her maternal grandmother, for whom she was probably named, was a daughter of John I, Count of La Marche, and Catherine de Vendôme. She was one of 19 children, 14 of whom survived infancy.

Marriage.

On 11 March 1443, when Charlotte was just over a year old, she was betrothed to Frederick of Saxony (28 August 1439- 23 December 1451), eldest son of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony. For reasons unknown, the betrothal was annulled. Less than eight years later on 14 February 1451, Charlotte married Louis, Dauphin of France (future Louis XI), eldest son of Charles VII of France and Marie of Anjou. The bride was nine years old and the groom twenty-seven. The marriage, which had taken place without the consent of the French king, was Louis' second; his first spouse, Margaret of Scotland, had died childless in 1445. Upon her marriage, Charlotte became Dauphine of France.  Louis reportedly neglected her. When the news upon his succession to the throne of France reached the couple at the Burgundian court, he immediately abandoned her in Burgundy to secure his inheritance, leaving her dependent upon Isabella of Bourbon to borrow the carts and entourage necessary to travel to France to join him.

Queen.

On 22 July 1461, Charlotte became Queen of France. The following year, she became seriously ill and was close to death by August 1462. Although she recovered, her health was weakened.  Louis XI did not keep much of a representational court life. He had Queen Charlotte and her household kept secluded at the Château of Amboise, where she spent her days with her sisters and courtiers, supervising the education of her daughters (her son was educated by the king), playing chess and marbles, listening to her lute player, doing needlework and fulfilling her religious duties. On rare occasions she was asked to fulfill ceremonial tasks as queen such as greeting foreign guests, for example in 1470, when the king took the powerful Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence from England to Amboise to visit her. Charlotte was interested in literature and praised for the taste and excellence of her personal library. She left a collection of about one hundred manuscripts, which would become the genesis of the Bibliothèque nationale of France.  Charlotte was regarded as virtuous. A contemporary noted that "while she was an excellent Princess in other respects, she was not a person in whom a man could take any great delight"; However, after the birth of her last child in 1472, Louis swore that he would no longer be unfaithful, and according to the chronicler Phillip de Commynes, he kept this vow.  Charlotte served as regent in September 1465.

Queen dowager.

Charlotte was widowed on August 30, 1483, upon which Louis XI was succeeded by their son Charles VIII, who was still a minor.  Louis XI did not make Charlotte regent if his son should succeed him while still a minor; he did in fact not formally appoint a regent at all, but he did leave instructions for a royal council to govern during such a minority, in which Charlotte, alongside Duke Jean de Bourbon II and their two sons-in-law Louis d'Orleans (married to their daughter Jeanne) and Peter II, Duke of Bourbon (married to their daughter Anne), were made members. In practice, her daughter Anne took control over France as regent during the minority of Charles.  Charlotte died on 1 December 1483 in Amboise, just a few months after her spouse's death. She is buried with him in the Notre-Dame de Cléry Basilica in Cléry-Saint-André (Loiret) in the arrondissement of Orléans.

Issue.

Charlotte became the mother of eight children, but only three survived infancy. These were Charles VIII, who became king of France, Anne, who acted as regent of France for Charles, and Joan, who became queen of France as the spouse of Louis XII.  Upon the death of her daughter, Anne, Charlotte's line became extinct; her granddaughter, Suzanne having died in 1521 without surviving issue.

Charlotte of Savoy (c. 1441/3 – 1 December 1483) was queen of France as the second spouse of Louis XI. She served as regent during the king's absence in 1465, and was a member of the royal regency council during her son's minority in 1483.

Charlotte von Savoyen (,, * 11. November 1441; † 1. Dezember 1483 auf Schloss Amboise) war durch Heirat mit Ludwig XI. von 1461 bis zu dessen Ableben im Jahr 1483 Königin von Frankreich. Bis zum Tod ihres Schwiegervaters Karl VII. teilte sie das Exil ihres Mannes in Brabant, ehe sie mit diesem nach Frankreich zurückkehren konnte. Ab Ende der 1460er Jahre lebte sie recht bescheiden und zurückgezogen im Schloss Amboise.


Odoardo Farnese, Hereditary Prince of Parma

Biography.

Odoardo was born on 21 August 1666 at the Ducal Palace of Colorno in Colorno outside the city of Parma. His father, Duke Ranuccio II Farnese, was the Duke of Parma and of Piacenza. His mother, Isabella d ́Este, was the daughter of Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena and of Maria Caterina Farnese. Thus, Odoardo's parents were first cousins to each other. He was the third child of his parents, and had two older sisters, Margherita Maria Farnese, future wife of Francesco II d'Este, Duke of Modena, and Teresa Farnese, who never married but became a benedictine nun and abbess of the Sant Alessandro monastery in Parma.  Odoardo's mother, Isabella d ́Este, died some twelve days after giving birth to him. She had been his father's second wife. Odoardo's father had been previously married to Princess Margaret Yolande of Savoy, first cousin of Louis XIV, but that marriage had not produced any surviving children (only two stillborn infants). After the death of Odoardo's mother, his father took a third wife, marrying the younger sister of his late spouse; thus, Odoardo's step-mother was his own aunt. This was Maria d'Este, and she bore the duke a further nine children, including two surviving sons. Among them was Francesco Farnese, twelve years younger than Odoardo, who would marry Odoardo's widow Dorothea Sophie, be a devoted and beloved step-father to Odoardo's daughter Elisabeth Farnese, and inherit the Dukedom of Parma upon the death of their father.

Marriage and issue.

Odoardo Farnese married Countess Palatine Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg by proxy on 3 April 1690. The couple were married publicly at the Parma Cathedral on 17 May 1690. The marriage, negotiated by earl Fabio Perletti – ambassador and counselor of Ranuccio II – was the first ever between an Italian prince and a German princess. The bride, who was well connected to the royalty of Europe, also bought a very large dowry to the Farnese family.  Dorothea Sophia was the daughter of Philipp Wilhelm, Elector Palatine. Three of her older sisters were, at that time, the Holy Roman Empress Consort, the Queen of Portugal and the Queen of Spain.  Odoardo died before his father and therefore never ruled. His young widow, Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg, then married Odoardo's half-brother Francesco Farnese on 8 December 1695. Francesco became Duke when their father died in 1694. However, that marriage remained childless, and the Dukedom passed to Odoardo's youngest half-brother Antonio. Antonio also remained childless, and therefore it was decided that the Dukedom would pass to Odoardo's grandson Philip, who was one of the younger sons of Odoardo's daughter, Elizabeth Farnese, Queen of Spain.

Odoardo Farnese (12 August 1666 – 6 September 1693) was the eldest son of Duke Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza. Odoardo was the "Hereditary Prince of Parma" from his birth till his death. He was the father of the famously domineering Elisabeth, Queen of Spain.

Odoardo Farnese (* 12. August 1666 in Colorno bei Parma, dem Sommersitz der Farnese; † 6. September 1693) war der Sohn und Erbe des Herzogs Ranuccio II. Farnese von Parma und Piacenza, der ihn aber überlebte. Seine Mutter war Isabella d’Este (1635–1666), 2. Gemahlin des Ranuccio; sie starb im Wochenbett am 21. August 1666.


Route description.

Istanbul.

The O-4 begins at the intersection with the O-1. The next interchange is in northern Ataşehir with the O-2. After the motorway crosses Necip Fazıl Boulevard, the last toll-free exit in Istanbul (K1), the O-4 becomes a toll-motorway at the Çamlıca toll booths. The first tolled exit is exit K2, which is the Samandıra-Kartal connector, that is the first of several connections to the D.100. Exit K3 connects to Fatih Boulevard in Sultanbeyi. The interchange with the O-7 is located just as the O-4 enters the district of Pendik. Exit K4 is located right on the eastern border of the Pendik district and connects to the Sabiha Gökçen Airport. After exit K4, the O-4 enters the last district in Istanbul, Tuzla. Exit K5 (Orhanlı junction) also offers a connection to the Sabiha Gökçen airport as well as the Kurtköy-Pendik connector. The O-4 continues through northern Tuzla, passing through mostly industrial parks until leaving the Istanbul Province and entering the Kocaeli Province.

Kocaeli.

After crossing into Kocaeli, exit K6 is the "Şekerpınar-Çayırova connector" in Şekerpınar. The O-4 traverses through northern Gebze until exit K7, which is a direct connection to the D-100. After crossing over the D-100, the O-4 interchanges with the northern end of the O-5 at the unnumbered Mualimköy junction. Following the junction, the motorway runs along the heavily industrialized northern shore of the Izmit Bay with exits at Diliskelisi (K8) and Hereke (K9, K10). Between Hereke and Körfez the motorway runs directly next to the D-100 and the Istanbul-Ankara railway along the shoreline until the motorway enters Körfez. Once in the city, Exit K11 connects to the D.100. Shortly after K11, an unmarked exit to a KGM employee housing facility. The exit is not open to public traffic although cars may use the overpass to make a U-turn. After passing a service area, the O-4 enters the city of İzmit. Exit K12 connects to the D.100 but only for traffic from/to Istanbul. The route then heads north and travels around the hilly northern perimeter of the city, passing through two tunnels and a viaduct. The O-4 crosses over the D.605, which can be accessed via Exit K12. After bypassing Izmit, the motorway heads southeast, crossing over the D.100 (Exit K13) in Bahçelievler. After the exit, the route enters Sakarya Province.

Sakarya.

Otoyol 4 parallels the Istanbul-Ankara railway along the southern shore of Lake Sapanca except for its short bypass around the town of Sapanca. Exit K14 connects to the town, via İzmit Avenue.

Exit List.

!width=100| Province!!width=100| District!!width=40| km!!width=40| mi!!width=30| Exit!!width=300| Destination!!width=200| Notes

Otoyol 4 (), named Anatolian Motorway () and abbreviated as O-4, is a toll motorway connecting the northwestern Marmara Region to the Central Anatolia Region in Turkey. It runs parallel to the D.100 for more than half of its length and then parallels the D750 for most of the eastern half. The O-4 is a major expressway in Turkey as it connects eastern Istanbul and the heavily urbanized northeastern shore of the Sea of Marmara to the nation's capital, Ankara. The O-4 also makes up part of the International E-road network E80 and E89 as well as the AH-1 of the Asian Highway Network.

Die Autobahn Otoyol 4 (türkisch Anadolu Otoyolu, kurz O-4) ist eine Autobahn, die die Städte Istanbul und Ankara verbindet. Die Autobahn ist beidseitig dreispurig ausgebaut. Die 1990 bis 2007 erbaute Straße schließt in Istanbul an die O-2 an und endet an der O-20. Zu den Anschlussstellen Samandira, Kurtköy, Şekerpinar, Gebze, İzmit Batı und Gerede führen Autobahnzubringer mit je zwei Spuren je Richtung.


Biography.

Early life.

Nagumo was born in the city of Yonezawa, Yamagata Prefecture in northern Japan in 1887. He graduated from the 36th class of the IJN Academy in 1908, with a ranking of 8 out of a class of 191 cadets. As a midshipman, he served in the protected cruisers and and the armored cruiser. After his promotion to ensign in 1910, he was assigned to cruiser.  After attending torpedo and naval artillery schools, he was promoted to sub-lieutenant and served in the battleship, followed by the destroyer. In 1914, he was promoted to lieutenant and was assigned to the battlecruiser, followed by the destroyer. He was assigned his first command, the destroyer, on 15 December 1917.  Nagumo graduated from the Naval War College, and was promoted to lieutenant commander in 1920. His specialty was torpedo and destroyer tactics. From 1920 to 1921, he was captain of the destroyer, but was soon sent to shore duty with various assignments by the IJN General Staff. He became a commander in 1924. From 1925 to 1926, Nagumo accompanied a Japanese mission to study naval warfare strategy, tactics, and equipment in Europe and the United States.  After his return to Japan, Nagumo was appointed captain of the river gunboat from 20 March 1926 to 15 October 1926, followed by the gunboat from 15 October 1926 to 15 November 1927. He then served as an instructor at the IJN Academy from 1927 to 1929. Nagumo was promoted to captain in November 1929 and assumed command of the light cruiser and from 1930 to 1931 was commander of the 11th Destroyer Division. After serving in administrative positions from 1931 to 1933, he assumed command of the heavy cruiser from 1933 to 1934, and the battleship from 1934 to 1935. He was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November 1935.  As a rear admiral, Nagumo commanded the 8th Cruiser Division to support Imperial Japanese Army movements in China from the Yellow Sea. As a leading officer of the militaristic Fleet Faction, he also received a boost in his career from political forces.  From 1937 to 1938, he was commandant of the Torpedo School, and from 1938 to 1939, he was commander of the 3rd Cruiser Division. Nagumo was promoted to vice admiral on 15 November 1939. From November 1940-April 1941, Nagumo was commandant of the Naval War College.

World War II.

On 10 April 1941, Nagumo was appointed commander-in-chief of the First Air Fleet, the IJN′s main carrier battle group, largely due to his seniority. Many contemporaries and historians have doubted his suitability for this command, given his lack of familiarity with naval aviation.  By this time, he had visibly aged, physically and mentally. Physically, he suffered from arthritis, perhaps from his younger days as a "kendoka". Mentally, he had become a cautious officer who carefully worked over the tactical plans of every operation he was involved in.  Admiral Nishizo Tsukahara had doubts about Nagumo's appointment, and commented, "Nagumo was an officer of the old school, a specialist of torpedo and surface maneuvers... He did not have any idea of the capability and potential of naval aviation." One son of Nagumo described him as a brooding father, obsessed with and later regretful about pressuring his sons into the IJN. In contrast, Nagumo's junior naval officers thought of him as a father figure.  Despite his limited experience, he was a strong advocate of combining sea and air power although he was opposed to Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's plan to attack the United States Navy Naval Station Pearl Harbor. While commanding the First Air Fleet, Nagumo oversaw the attack on Pearl Harbor, but he was later criticized for his failure to launch a third attack, which might have destroyed the fuel oil storage and repair facilities. This could have rendered the most important U.S. naval base in the Pacific useless, especially as the use of the submarine base and intelligence station at the installation were critical factors in Japan's defeat in the Pacific War.  Nagumo was surrounded by able lieutenants such as Minoru Genda and Mitsuo Fuchida. He also fought well in the early 1942 campaigns, obtaining success as a fleet commander at the Bombing of Darwin and at the Indian Ocean raid on the British Eastern Fleet, the latter of which sank an aircraft carrier, two cruisers, and two destroyers, and caused Admiral Sir James Somerville to retreat to East Africa.  The Battle of Midway, in June 1942, brought Nagumo's near-perfect record to an end. During the Battle of Midway, a Martin B-26 Marauder, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, flew directly towards the bridge of the aircraft carrier "Akagi". The aircraft, either attempting a suicide ramming, or out of control due to battle damage or a wounded or killed pilot, narrowly missed crashing into the carrier's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff, before it cartwheeled into the sea. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations. During the bombing of the "Akagi", Nagumo would have experienced hard knocks while being tossed about the carrier as the explosions went off around him. The buffeting he encountered during the bombing, as well as the loss of two of his carriers would have left him in no condition to exert even his remaining confidence in victory. As Nagumo began to grasp the enormity of what had happened, he appears to have gone in a state of shock. Witnesses saw Nagumo standing near the ship’s compass looking out at the flames on his flagship and two other carriers in a trance-like daze. Despite being asked to abandon ship, Nagumo didn’t move and was reluctant to leave the "Akagi", just muttering, “It's not time yet,”. Nagumo's chief of staff, Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, was able to persuade him to leave the critically damaged "Akagi". Nagumo, with a barely perceptible nod, with tears in his eyes, agreed to go. Nagumo and his staff were forced to evacuate through the forward windows of the bridge by rope. An expert in judo, Nagumo landed lightly, whereas Kusaka badly sprained both ankles and was burned during the evacuation. The First Air Fleet lost four carriers during the turning point of the Pacific War, and the massive losses of carrier aircraft maintenance personnel would prove detrimental to the performance of the IJN in later engagements. The loss of the four carriers, their aircraft, and their maintenance crews, plus the loss of 120 experienced pilots, resulted in Japan losing the strategic initiative in the Pacific. Nagumo contemplated suicide but was eventually talked out of taking his own life by Kusaka. Following the battle, Nagumo appeared to have lost his aggressiveness and effectiveness. He never recovered the loss of his carriers, and teared up when talking about the defeat to his son in 1944.  Afterwards, Nagumo was reassigned as commander-in-chief of the Third Fleet and commanded aircraft carriers in the Guadalcanal campaign, although there his actions were largely indecisive and slowly frittered away much of Japan's maritime strength.

Final days.

On 11 November 1942, Nagumo was reassigned to Japan, where he was given command of the Sasebo Naval District. He transferred to the Kure Naval District on 21 June 1943. From October 1943 to February 1944, Nagumo was again commander-in-chief of First Fleet, which was by that time largely involved in only training duties.  As Japan's military situation deteriorated, Nagumo was deployed on 4 March 1944 for the short-lived command of the 14th Air Fleet and the Central Pacific Area Fleet in the Mariana Islands.  The Battle of Saipan began on 15 June 1944. The IJN, under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, was overwhelmed within days by the U.S. 5th Fleet in the decisive Battle of the Philippine Sea, where Japan lost three fleet carriers and about 600 aircraft. Nagumo and his Army peer Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saito then were on their own to keep control of Saipan. On 6 July, Nagumo killed himself with a pistol to the temple rather than the traditional "seppuku". His remains were recovered by the U.S. Marines in the cave where he spent his last days as the Japanese commander of Saipan. He was posthumously promoted to admiral and awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Golden Kite.  Nagumo's grave is located at the Ōbai-in sub-temple of Engaku-ji in Kanagawa, next to the grave of his son, Susumu Nagumo, who was killed in battle aboard the destroyer on 2 December 1944.

Chūichi Nagumo (25 March 1887 – 6 July 1944) was a Japanese admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. Nagumo led Japan's main carrier battle group, the "Kido Butai", in the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Indian Ocean raid and the Battle of Midway. He committed suicide during the Battle of Saipan.

Nagumo Chūichi (; * 25. März 1887 in Yamagata; † 6. Juli 1944 auf Saipan, Nördliche Marianen) war ein Vizeadmiral der Kaiserlich Japanischen Marine. Er war Kommandant des erfolgreichen Angriffs auf Pearl Harbor und Luftangriffs auf Darwin, wurde aber in der Schlacht um Midway geschlagen.


Etymology.

The "Encyclopaedia of Islam", referring to Al-Damiri's writings, considers Buraq to be a derivative and adjective of "barq" "lightning/ emitted lightning" or various general meanings stemming from the verb: "to beam, flash, gleam, glimmer, glisten, glitter, radiate, shimmer, shine, sparkle, twinkle".  According to "Encyclopædia Iranica", "Boraq" is the Arabized form of "Middle Persian *"barāg" or *"bārag", 'a riding beast, mount' (New Pers. "bāra")".

Description.

Although the Hadith do not explicitly refer to the Buraq as having a human face, Near East and Persian art almost always portrays it so - a portrayal that found its way into Indian and Persian Islamic art. This may have originated from an interpretation of the creature being described with a "beautiful face" as the face being human instead of bestial.  An excerpt from a translation of Sahih al-Bukhari describes Buraq: Another excerpt describes the Buraq in greater detail: In the earlier descriptions there is no agreement as to the sex of the Buraq. It is typically male, yet Ibn Sa'd has Gabriel address the creature as a female, and it was often rendered by painters with a woman's head. The idea that "al-Buraq" is simply a divine mare is also noted in the book The Dome of the Rock, in the chapter "The Open Court", and in the title-page vignette of Georg Ebers's "Palestine in Picture and Word".

Journey to the Seventh Heaven.

According to Islamic tradition, the Night Journey took place ten years after Muhammad became a prophet, during the 7th century. Muhammad had been in Mecca, at his cousin's home (the house of Fakhitah bint Abi Talib), when he went to "al-Masjid al-Haram" (Al-Haram Mosque). While he was resting at the Kaaba, Gabriel appeared to him bringing the Buraq, which carried Muhammad in the archangel's company, to "al-Masjid al-Aqsaʼ", traditionally held to be the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.  At this location, he alighted from the Buraq, prayed on the site of the Holy Temple ("Bayt Al-Maqdis"), and then mounted it again as the creature ascended to the seven heavens where he met Adam, Jesus and his cousin John the Baptist, Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses and Abraham one by one until he reached the throne of God. God communicated with him giving him words and instructions, most importantly the commandment to Muslims to offer prayers, initially fifty times a day. At the urging of Moses, Muhammad returned to God several times before eventually reducing the number to five.

Abraham.

According to Ibn Ishaq, the Buraq transported Abraham when he visited Hagar and Ishmael. Tradition states that Abraham lived with Sarah in Palestine but the Buraq would transport him in the morning to Mecca to see his family there and take him back in the evening.

Western Wall.

Various scholars and writers, such as ibn al-Faqih, ibn Abd Rabbih, and Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi, have suggested places where Buraq was supposedly tethered in stories, mostly locations near the southwest corner of the Haram. However, for several centuries the preferred location has been the al-Buraq Mosque, just inside the wall at the south end of the Western Wall Plaza. The mosque sits above an ancient passageway that once came out through the long-sealed Barclay's Gate whose huge lintel remains visible below the Maghrebi gate. Because of the proximity to the Western Wall, the area next to the wall has been associated with Buraq at least since the 19th century.  When a British Jew asked the Egyptian authorities in 1840 for permission to re-pave the ground in front of the Western Wall, the governor of Syria wrote: Carl Sandreczki, charged with compiling a list of place names for Charles William Wilson's Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem in 1865, reported that the street leading to the Western Wall, including the part alongside the wall, belonged to the "Hosh" (court/enclosure) of "al Burâk", "not "Obrâk", nor "Obrat"". In 1866, the Prussian Consul and Orientalist Georg Rosen wrote: "The Arabs call Obrâk the entire length of the wall at the wailing place of the Jews, southwards down to the house of Abu Su'ud and northwards up to the substructure of the Mechkemeh [Shariah court]. Obrâk is not, as was formerly claimed, a corruption of the word Ibri (Hebrews), but simply the neo-Arabic pronunciation of Bōrâk,... which, whilst (Muhammad) was at prayer at the holy rock, is said to have been tethered by him inside the wall location mentioned above."  The name Hosh al Buraq appeared on the maps of Wilson's 1865 survey, its revised editions in 1876 and 1900, and other maps in the early 20th century. In 1922, the official Pro-Jerusalem Council specified it as a street name.  The association of the Western Wall area with Buraq has played an important role in disputes over the holy places since the British mandate.  For Muslims, the Wailing Wall (or Western Wall) is known as ""al-Ḥā’iṭu ’l-Burāq"" (Arabic: الْحَائِطُ ٱلْبُرَاق) - "the Buraq Wall", for on the other side (the Muslim side of the Wailing Wall on the Temple Mount) is where Muhammad tied the Buraq, the riding animal upon which he rode during the Night of Ascension (Arabic: "Mi‘rāj" - مِعْرَاج). The wall links to the structure of the Al-Buraq Mosque.  " on the proposed official seal of the province's government.

The Burāq (Arabic: الْبُرَاق "al-Burāq" or "lightning" or more generally "bright") is a creature in Islamic tradition that was said to be a transport for certain prophets.

Buraq (; wohl abgeleitet von mittelpersisch "bārak", ‚Reittier‘) ist im Islam ein weißes pferdeähnliches Reittier mit Flügeln und Menschenantlitz, auf dem nach einer legendären Überlieferung der Prophet Mohammed während einer Nacht von der Erde zum Himmel und zurück flog. Auf dem Tier soll er auch mit Erzengel Gabriel auf seiner Nachtreise von Mekka nach Jerusalem geritten sein. Das Tier findet sich auf zahlreichen Darstellungen. Im Türkischen ist das Wort in der Schreibweise "Burak" auch ein männlicher Vorname.


Education and training.

Pedro Arrupe attended school at the Santiago Apostol High School in Bilbao. In 1923 he moved to Madrid to attend the Medical School of the Universidad Complutense. There he met Severo Ochoa, who later won the Nobel Prize in Medicine. One of his teachers was Juan Negrín, a pioneer in physiology, who would become Prime Minister of the Spanish Republic during the Civil War (1936–1939). Arrupe received the top prize in the first year anatomy course.  In 1926 his beloved father died. That filled him with great sadness. In the summer of the same year he went on a pilgrimage to Lourdes with his four sisters. The experiences he gathered from Lourdes were fundamental for his future life. In the conversations with Jean-Claude Dietsch SJ he described his experiences as follows:  With regard to these gathered findings he could not continue his medical studies and on 15 January 1927 he joined the Society of Jesus.  He was unable to pursue his studies for the priesthood in Spain, since the Order had been expelled by the Spanish Republican government (1931-1939). Accordingly, the young Arrupe did his studies in the Netherlands and Belgium and at St. Louis University School of Divinity in St. Marys, Kansas, where he was ordained in 1936. Arrupe then completed a doctorate in Medical Ethics.

Japan - Hiroshima.

After his doctorate, Arrupe was sent to work as a missionary in Japan. His early years as missionary were very frustrating for him. No matter what he did, what he organised, people did not attend, and few if any converted to Christianity. When the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred in Hawaii on 7 December 1941, it was 8 December in Japan. Arrupe was celebrating the Eucharist for the Solemnity of the Immaculate Conception when he was arrested and imprisoned for a time, being suspected of espionage. On Christmas Eve, Arrupe heard people gathering outside his cell door and presumed that the time for him to be executed had arrived. However, to his utter surprise, he discovered that some fellow Catholics, ignoring all danger, had come to sing him Christmas carols. Upon this realization, Arrupe recalled that he burst into tears. His attitude of profound prayer and his lack of offensive behaviour gained him the respect of his jailers and judges, and he was set free within a month.  Arrupe was appointed Jesuit superior and novice master in Japan in 1942, and was living in suburban Hiroshima when the atomic bomb fell in August 1945. He was one of eight Jesuits who were within the blast zone of the bomb, and all eight survived the destruction, protected by a hillock which separated the novitiate from the center of Hiroshima.. Arrupe described that event as "a permanent experience outside of history, engraved on my memory." Father Arrupe used his medical skills to help those who were wounded or dying. The Jesuit novitiate was converted into a makeshift hospital where between 150 and 200 people received care. Arrupe recalled, "The chapel, half destroyed, was overflowing with the wounded, who were lying on the floor very near to one another, suffering terribly, twisted with pain." In 1958, Arrupe was appointed the first Jesuit provincial for Japan, a position he held until being elected Father General in 1965.  Prior to being elected Father General, Arrupe made a visit to Latin America and, on one occasion, was celebrating the Eucharist in a suburban slum. He was deeply moved at the devotion and respect the people had for Christ, in the midst of their abject poverty. After the service, a man invited Arrupe to his hovel, where he told him that he was so grateful for his visit and that he wanted to share the only gift he had, that of watching the setting sun together. Arrupe reflected, "He gave me his hand. As I was leaving, I thought: 'I have met very few hearts that are so kind.' "

Superior General.

At the thirty-first General Congregation of the Society of Jesus in 1965, Arrupe was elected twenty-eighth Superior General of the Jesuits, and served in that post until 1983. He was only the second Basque to be Father General, the first being the founder Saint Ignatius of Loyola himself. Jesuit Vincent O'Keefe, a friend and advisor to Arrupe, said Arrupe was "a second Ignatius of Loyola, a refounder of the Society in the light of Vatican II." At his election Moscow radio spoke of an unusual man who would bring the Society of Jesus to its powers of the past.  After the changes following Vatican II (1962–1965), there was tension within the Society as to how the life of a Jesuit was to be lived. While some religious groups in the Catholic church have limits on the works they take on, the Society of Jesus encourages its members to follow their interest and talents and the needs of the times into a whole range of ministries – as theologians, missionaries, retreat directors, teachers, artists, writers, musicians, counselors, scientists, and pastors – to bring glory to God in all areas of human endeavor. This is in line with the crowning contemplation of Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises through which Jesuits learn to find God in all things (#236). As Arrupe's biographer said of him, he "saw the hand of God in everything."  Arrupe warned of repeating the answers of yesterday for tomorrow's problems, saying: "If we speak a language no longer appropriate to the hearts of people, we speak only to ourselves because no one will listen to us or try to understand what we say." Arrupe was "hailed as a prophet of our time," not unlike Jesuit Pope Francis who was in theological studies, learning, when Arrupe became Superior General and began speaking his "prophetic" words. The Union of Superior Generals of religious, seeing Arrupe as the right man for our time, elected him five times as their president.

Faith and justice.

In an address to Jesuit alumni in 1973, Arrupe coined the phrase "men for others" which has become a theme for Jesuit education worldwide, educating students to be "men and women for others".  At the thirty-second General Congregation which convened in 1975, Arrupe's dream of working for the poor was crystallised in the document "Our Mission Today: the Service of Faith and the Promotion of Justice." It stated: "Our faith in Jesus Christ and our mission to proclaim the Gospel demand of us a commitment to promote justice and enter into solidarity with the voiceless and the powerless." Thus, the decree basically defined all the work of the Jesuits as having an essential focus on the promotion of social justice as well as the Catholic faith. Arrupe was keenly aware that in the political climate of the 1970s, the Jesuits’ commitment to working for social justice would bring great hardship and suffering, particularly in those Latin American countries ruled by military juntas.  In a speech to European educators Arrupe made it clear where he stood on matters of faith and justice, saying: "I take very seriously the words of Gandhi, 'I love Christ but I despise Christians because they do not live as Christ lived.' Without a doubt Christian love of neighbor entails a duty to care for the wounds of those that have fallen victim to robbers and are left bleeding by the wayside." In the late 1960s and into the 1980s some theologians in Latin America became increasingly involved in the political sphere, adopting Marxist rhetoric. Many Jesuits were at the forefront of the movement which was called liberation theology and concentrated on seeing Christ as the liberator not only from sin but from all forms of oppression. In its extreme manifestations, liberation theology seemed to subordinate the message of the Gospel to political revolution, with a wholesale acceptance of Marxism. But Arrupe's strong support for relieving the burden of the poor in Latin America enables one to see his "cautionary statements about liberation theology... as efforts to impose self-discipline to fend off more severe sanctions from outside the order."

A cause worth dying for.

On 20 June 1977 the White Warriors Union death squad threatened to kill all 47 Jesuits serving in El Salvador unless they abandoned their work with the poor and left the country within a month. After consulting with the Jesuit community in El Salvador, Arrupe replied "They may end up as martyrs, but my priests are not going to leave because they are with the people." A few months earlier, Jesuit Father Rutilio Grande, a proponent of liberation theology, was assassinated in El Salvador. On 16 November 1989, six Jesuits (Ignacio Ellacuría, Armando Lopez, Joaquin Lopez y Lopez, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Segundo Montes and Juan Ramon Moreno, along with their housekeeper (Julia Elba Ramos) and her daughter (Celina), would be murdered at the Jesuit University of Central America. Others also suffered martyrdom: the chief bishop in El Salvador Archbishop Saint Óscar Romero (who evolved into a progressive stance) was gunned down whilst celebrating the Eucharist on 24 March 1980. Lay missionary Jean Donovan, Ursuline sister Dorothy Kazel and Maryknoll sisters Maura Clarke and Ita Ford were beaten, raped and murdered by non-uniformed members of the Salvadoran National Guard on 2 December 1980. They joined some 75,000 Salvadorans who were killed during this troubled period. All the while, Arrupe continued to support and pray for those people who were willing to lay down their lives to help the poor initiate change.

Jesuit Refugee Service.

Touched by the plight of the "Vietnamese boat people" in 1979, Pedro Arrupe sent cable messages to some 20 Jesuit major superiors throughout the world sharing his distress at the suffering of these people. He asked them what they could do to help bring relief to refugees and displaced persons in their own regions. He received a positive response, with numerous offers of personnel, medicine, and funding. The next year in 1980 Arrupe founded the Jesuit Refugee Service to coordinate the Society's refugee work. In a speech launching the service he said "Saint Ignatius called us to go anywhere where we are most needed for the greater glory of God. The spiritual as well as the material need of more than 16 million refugees throughout the world today could scarcely be greater. God is calling us through these helpless people." In 2017 JRS listed 47 countries where its 10 regional offices were currently serving nearly 950,000 individuals. Over the years JRS had served an estimated 40 million refugees.

Later life.

On 7 August 1981, after a long and tiring trip throughout the Far East, Arrupe suffered a stroke just after his aeroplane landed at Rome's Fiumicino Airport. He was paralysed on his right side and was able to speak only a few words. This ability gradually deteriorated until he was completely mute. From that time on he lived in the infirmary at the Jesuit headquarters in Rome. He was the first Jesuit Superior-General to resign instead of remaining in office until his death. Pope John Paul II appointed Paolo Dezza as his personal delegate and interim Father General of the Society, passing over Arrupe's own choice (his vicar general). Many Jesuits saw this as an unwarranted papal interference in Jesuit affairs. For his part, Arrupe never expressed any disagreement or resentment. Jesuit disobedience to the pope that was expected by some at the Vatican Curia never came about. With new respect for the Jesuits, Pope John Paul allowed Dezza to call the thirty-third General Congregation and elect a successor to Arrupe. whose resignation was accepted on 3 September 1983 during the Congregation. It proceeded to elect Peter Hans Kolvenbach as Father General. During the opening Session of the Congregation, Arrupe was wheeled into the hall, and a prayer which he had written was read aloud: During his ten years in the infirmary, praying for and with the Society, Arrupe received many and frequent well-wishers, including Pope John Paul II. Arrupe had earlier expressed what some regard as the key to his life: "Nowadays the world does not need words but lives that cannot be explained except through faith and love for Christ's poor."

Death and burial.

Arrupe died on 5 February 1991. His funeral was held in the Church of the Gesu, Rome, and was attended by crowds that filled the piazza outside the church. Also in attendance were 10 cardinals, 20 bishops, Giulio Andreotti the Prime Minister of Italy, as well as other religious and civil dignitaries. His body, first interred in the Jesuit mausoleum at Campo Verano, was brought back into the Church of the Gesù where it lies in a side chapel.

Veneration.

On 11 July 2018, the Father General of the Society of Jesus, Arturo Sosa, announced the beginning of the process for his beatification. By 14 November 2018 a website was established with the life, testimonials, and archive on Pedro Arrupe.

Memorials.

Numerous buildings, schools and Jesuit communities have been named after Pedro Arrupe. They include:

Pedro Arrupe (14 November 1907 – 5 February 1991) was a Spanish Basque Jesuit priest who served as the twenty-eighth Superior General of the Society of Jesus (1965–83). He has been called a second founder of the Society: he led the Jesuits in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, especially with regard to a faith that does justice and preferential option for the poor.

Pedro Arrupe y Gondra SJ (* 14. November 1907 in Bilbao; † 5. Februar 1991 in Rom) war ein spanischer Ordensgeistlicher. Er war von 1965 bis 1981 der 28. Generalobere der Gesellschaft Jesu (Jesuitenorden; lat: "Societas Jesu").


Origins.

Inventors were experimenting to create amplified instruments in the days before electric amplification. The first patent for a mandolin-banjo was taken out in 1882 by Benjamin Bradbury of Brooklyn. The name banjolin was first patented by John Farris in 1885. The instrument was popularized prior to the 1920s, when the tenor banjo became more popular. In the heyday of mandolin orchestras and banjo bands (late 19th–early 20th century), all sorts of instruments were produced. The mandolin-banjo is one of the hybrids that resulted. It enabled mandolinists to produce a banjo sound without having to learn that instrument's fingerings. The instrument adds the banjo's volume to the mandolin.

Distinctions.

Banjolin versus banjo-mandolin.

The banjolin is different from the banjo-mandolin in the number of strings that it has. Banjolins today are supposed to have four strings instead of 8 strings (in courses or pairs). However, that distinction is not universal; the "banjolin" name was patented in 1885 by John Farris for an instrument with 8 strings. The Farris banjolin was offered in soprano, alto, tenor, and bass models. However, he "converted it to a four-string instrument," maintaining the mandolin and violin scale length and tuning (GDAE).  Banjo hybrids normally take their names from the Banjo- prefix, and then the second half of the other instrument's name, such as banjocello, banjo guitar, and banjolele which implies the banjolin is a sort of mandolin/banjo hybrid. In the advertisement, Farris did not mention where the name came from, but did say that it was "fingered like the violin."  Banjolins should not be confused with the banjolele, (a banjo-ukulele hybrid), due to their larger head size and shorter scale length in comparison. Another model of banjolin can be found in Brazil, but it's commonly tuned and played the same as a cavaco.

French banjoline versus mandolin-banjo.

In his 1921 book "Méthode for the Banjoline or Mandoline-Banjo", Salvador Leonardi said that naming conventions between the United States and France had applied similar names to different instruments. In France and England, the Banjoline was an open-backed instrument, and the mandoline-banjo was a closed back instrument (with a metallic back that made a "tinny" metallic sound.  The American instruments he said were open backed, "and they call Mandoline-Banjo or Bandoline what we call Banjoline."  He said that amateurs and professionals alike preferred the single string instrument to the double stringed version, because of the "nice clear sound," which he said resembled the violin pizzicato.

Zithers.

During the Hawaiian music craze of the early 20th century, instrument makers tried to capitalize on the widespread desire to learn an instrument. Makers of zithers applied the names of known instruments to their zithers as a theme. The Banjolin name was applied in this way to a type of bowed fretless zither

Companies.

Historic.

Compared to mandolins and banjos, manufacture of mandolin banjos has grown scarce at the beginning of the 21st century. Historically, mass production of mandolin-banjos have been made by several companies, most notably Gibson, but also by Vega and the English company Windsor, all who built and sold 4 and 8 string banjos in the early 20th century.

Current manufacturers.

Today mandolins-banjos are being manufactured by Vintage, GoldTone, Rogue, Cumbus, Morgan Monroe and Musikalia - Dr. Alfio Leone. GoldTone makes the "MB-850+ Mandolin-Banjo", with a removable maple resonator (converting the instrument to an open-backed instrument). The selection is not large and the instruments are not common in stores. Morgan Monroe has recently made three models, the MM-MB1 Mandolin Banjo the MM-MB2 Mandolin Banjo, and the Banjolin DLX (8 strings). The Morgan Monroe banjos look like traditional mandolin-banjos and have wooden resonators. The Cumbus model has a spun aluminum resonator. Prices currently range from around US$150 to $700. In Italy, Musikalia manufactures three models of Mandolin Banjo, always with wooden resonator (mahogany, padouk or maple root wood veneered), animal skin, but gives an alternative between simple or double aluminium ring.

Instruction books.

Most instruction books concentrate on either the mandolin or the banjo. Mandolinists need more than just mandolin method because the physical differences between the two types of instruments creates problems to a novice learning to set up and tune the instrument. One of the first books to address the mandolin-banjo was "Méthode pour Banjoline ou Mandoline-Banjo" (Method for "Banjolin and Mandolin-Banjo") by Salvador Leonardi.

The mandolin-banjo is a hybrid instrument, combining a banjo body with the neck and tuning of a mandolin or violin (depending on whether fretted or not and how many strings it has). It is a soprano banjo. It has been independently invented in more than one country, being called banjolin and banjourine in English-speaking countries, banjoline and bandoline in France, and the Cümbüş in Turkey.

Das Mandolinenbanjo (auch "Mandolinbanjo", oft auch "Banjoline") ist ein 8-saitiges Zupfinstrument. Es vereint Baumerkmale des Banjos mit der Besaitung und Korpus- und Halslänge der Mandoline.


Examples.

During the dot-com bubble, some companies that predated the bubble identified their Internet operations as high-growth divisions that would benefit from a tracking stock. The best-known example is The Walt Disney Company, which issued a tracking stock for go.com. At around the same time the bubble ended, Disney retired the tracking stock. AT&T (AWE) and Sprint Corporation (PCS) also established tracking stocks for their cellular telephone operations, but neither of these tracking stocks is still outstanding.  Liberty Media ( and and after January 23, 2017 symbol changes from LMCA, LMCB, and LMCK) had tracking stocks for Qurate Retail Group ( and after March 18, 2018 symbol changes from QVCA and QVCB), Liberty Capital—formerly LCAPA and LCAPB on Nasdaq, Liberty Starz—formerly LSTZA and LSTZB on Nasdaq, and Liberty Entertainment—formerly LMDIA and LMDIB on Nasdaq, at various times since going public. However, on September 25, 2011, Liberty Capital and Liberty Starz could no longer be traded, leaving only Liberty Media and Liberty Interactive as separate companies. Therefore, no major U.S. companies had tracking stocks until August 9, 2012, when Liberty Interactive issued tracking stock for itself using the symbols LINTA and LINTB and Liberty Ventures—formetly LVNTA and LVNTB on the Nasdaq. Currently, Liberty Media has tracking stocks for Liberty Braves Group ( and and ), Liberty Formula One Group (first three symbols), and Liberty Sirius Group (,, and ).  Among other examples, in 1999 Quantum Corp. issued tracking stock in two subsidiaries: its DLT and Storage Systems Group (DSS) and its Hard Disk Drive Group (HDD). Two years later, in 2001, Quantum sold the Hard Disk Drive business to Maxtor and redeemed the HDD tracking stock.

Tracking stock, also known as letter stock or targeted stock, is a specialized equity offering issued by a company that is based on the operations of a wholly owned subsidiary of a diversified firm. Therefore, the tracking stock will be traded at a price related to the operations of the specific division of the company being "tracked". Tracking stock typically has limited or no voting rights. Often, the reason for doing so is to separate a high-growth division from a larger parent company. The parent company and its shareholders remain in control of the subsidiary's or unit's operations.

Tracking Stocks (Geschäftsbereichsaktien, auch Targeted Stock, Mirror Stock, Letter Stock und Alphabet Stock genannt) sind Aktien, die sich nur auf einen bestimmten Geschäftsbereich eines Unternehmens beziehen. Die Inhaber dieser meist börsennotierten Aktien haben die gleichen Rechte wie die Inhaber von anderen Aktien, jedoch beziehen sich diese nur auf einen Geschäftsbereich. Während diese Art von Aktien in den USA seit Mitte der 1980er Jahre Anwendung findet, ist sie in Deutschland noch weitgehend unbekannt.


History.

Cumaná was the first settlement founded by Europeans in Venezuela in 1515 by Franciscan friars, with the name of Nueva Toledo, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people (such as the Cumanagoto people), it had to be refounded several times until Diego Hernández de Serpa's refoundation in 1569 with the name of Cumaná. Bartolomé de las Casas, attempting a peaceful colonization scheme, was pre-empted by Gonzalo de Ocampo's 1521 punitive raids against the local indigenous people, in retaliation for the destruction of the Dominican convent at Chiribichi. In 1537 New Andalusia Province was established, with Cumaná as capital (for which the Province was also known as the "Province of Cumaná").  After Amerindian attacks became less of a threat, the city was on several occasions destroyed by earthquakes. Thus the oldest part of the city is late 17th and 18th century; almost none of the 16th century architecture survived.

Attractions.

The city features a wide variety of colonial style architecture that is still in excellent condition. A large old Spanish fort, the "Castillo de San Antonio de la Eminencia" (Castle of Saint Anthony of the Eminence) can be seen from the beach, which is still open to the public. Also surviving is the "Castillo de Santa Maria de la Cabeza", which was built in 1669. The "Museo del Mar" displays marine and maritime artifacts.

Indigenous species.

The Cumana region is home of the spectacular aquarium fish, the Endler's livebearer, named after John Endler who discover this vibrantly coloured fish in a lake in the area, Laguna de Los patos. Apparently this fish is now extinct within the lake, but thrives now in home aquaria across the world with breeders producing spectacular fish.

Cumaná () is the capital of Venezuela's Sucre State. It is located east of Caracas. Cumaná was one of the first settlements founded by Europeans in mainland America and is the oldest continuously-inhabited, European-established settlement in the continent. Its early history includes several successful counters by the indigenous people of the area who were attempting to prevent Spanish incursion into their land, resulting in the city being refounded several times. The municipality of Sucre, which includes Cumaná, had a population of 358,919 at the 2011 Census; the latest estimate (as at mid 2016) is 423,546.

Cumaná ist eine Stadt im Nordosten Venezuelas. Die Einwohnerzahl beträgt 480.763 (Stand 30. Oktober 2013). Cumaná ist Sitz des Erzbistums Cumaná.


Types.

Whereas obstruents are frequently voiceless, sonorants are almost always voiced. A typical sonorant consonant inventory found in many languages comprises the following: two nasals, two semivowels, and two liquids.  In the sonority hierarchy, all sounds higher than fricatives are sonorants. They can therefore form the nucleus of a syllable in languages that place that distinction at that level of sonority; see Syllable for details.  Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, and ).  Among consonants pronounced in the back of the mouth or in the throat, the distinction between an approximant and a voiced fricative is so blurred that no language is known to contrast them. Thus, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal fricatives never contrast with approximants.

Voiceless.

Voiceless sonorants are rare; they occur as phonemes in only about 5% of the world's languages. They tend to be extremely quiet and difficult to recognise, even for those people whose language has them.  In every case of a voiceless sonorant occurring, there is a contrasting voiced sonorant. In other words, whenever a language contains a phoneme such as, it also contains a corresponding voiced phoneme such as ).  Voiceless sonorants are most common around the Pacific Ocean (in Oceania, East Asia, and North and South America) and in certain language families (such as Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dene and Eskimo–Aleut).  One European language with voiceless sonorants is Welsh. Its phonology contains a phonemic voiceless alveolar trill, along with three voiceless nasals: velar, alveolar and labial.  Another European language with voiceless sonorants is Icelandic, with [l̥ r̥ n̥ m̥ ɲ̊ ŋ̊] for the corresponding voiced sonorants [l r n m ɲ ŋ].  Voiceless and possibly are hypothesized to have occurred in various dialects of Ancient Greek. The Attic dialect of the Classical period likely had as the regular allophone of at the beginning of words and possibly when it was doubled inside words. Hence, many English words from Ancient Greek roots have "rh" initially and "rrh" medially: "rhetoric", "diarrhea".

Examples.

English has the following sonorant consonantal phonemes:.  Old Irish had one of the most complex sonorant systems recorded in linguistics, with 12 coronal sonorants alone. Coronal laterals, nasals, and rhotics had a fortis–lenis and a palatalization contrast:. There were also and, making 16 sonorant phonemes in total.

Sound changes.

Voiceless sonorants have a strong tendency to either revoice or undergo fortition, for example to form a fricative like or.  In connected, continuous speech in North American English, and are usually flapped to following sonorants, including vowels, when followed by a vowel or syllabic.

In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and : approximants, nasals, flaps or taps, and most trills.

In der Phonologie ist ein Sonorant oder "Sonorlaut" (Sonant) ein Vokal oder ein Konsonant, bei dessen Bildung keine Turbulenz im Luftstrom hinter der Verengung entsteht. Die Artikulationsart der sonorantischen Konsonanten steht damit im Gegensatz zu jener der Obstruenten. Sie stehen den Vokalen nahe und sind wie die Vokale akustisch als Klänge aufzufassen. Aufgrund ihrer Definition sind sie immer stimmhaft.