Function.

Photolyases bind complementary DNA strands and break certain types of pyrimidine dimers that arise when a pair of thymine or cytosine bases on the same strand of DNA become covalently linked. The bond length of this dimerization is shorter than the bond length of normal B-DNA structure which produces an incorrect template for replication and transcription. The more common covalent linkage involves the formation of a cyclobutane bridge. Photolyases have a high affinity for these lesions and reversibly bind and convert them back to the original bases.

Evolution.

Photolyase is a phylogenetically old enzyme which is present and functional in many species, from the bacteria to the fungi to plants and to the animals. Photolyase is particularly important in repairing UV induced damage in plants. The photolyase mechanism is no longer working in humans and other placental mammals who instead rely on the less efficient nucleotide excision repair mechanism, although they do retain many cryptochromes.  Photolyases are flavoproteins and contain two light-harvesting cofactors. Many photolyases have an N-terminal domain that binds a second cofactor. All photolyases contain the two-electron-reduced FADH; they are divided into two main classes based on the second cofactor, which may be either the pterin methenyltetrahydrofolate (MTHF) in "folate photolyases" or the deazaflavin 8-hydroxy-7,8-didemethyl-5-deazariboflavin (8-HDF) in "deazaflavin photolyases". Although only FAD is required for catalytic activity, the second cofactor significantly accelerates reaction rate in low-light conditions. The enzyme acts by electron transfer in which the reduced flavin FADH is activated by light energy and acts as an electron donor to break the pyrimidine dimer.  On the basis of sequence similarities DNA photolyases can be grouped into a few classes:  The non-class 2 branch of CPDs tend to be grouped into class 1 in some systems such as PRINTS (PR00147). Although the members of the smaller groups are agreed upon, the phylogeny can vary greatly among authors due to differences in methodology, leading to some confusion with authors who try to fit everything (sparing FeS-BCP) into a two-class classification. The cryptochromes form a polyphyletic group including photolyases that have lost their DNA repair activity and instead control circadian rhythms.

Application.

Adding photolyase from a blue-green algae "Anacystis nidulans", to HeLa cells partially reduced DNA damage from UVB exposure.

Human proteins containing this domain.

CRY1; CRY2;

Nomenclature.

The systematic name of this enzyme class is deoxyribocyclobutadipyrimidine pyrimidine-lyase. Other names in common use include photoreactivating enzyme, DNA photolyase, DNA-photoreactivating enzyme, DNA cyclobutane dipyrimidine photolyase, DNA photolyase, deoxyribonucleic photolyase, deoxyribodipyrimidine photolyase, photolyase, PRE, PhrB photolyase, deoxyribonucleic cyclobutane dipyrimidine photolyase, phr A photolyase, dipyrimidine photolyase (photosensitive), and deoxyribonucleate pyrimidine dimer lyase (photosensitive). This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically in the "catch-all" class of carbon-carbon lyases.

Photolyases (EC 4.1.99.3) are DNA repair enzymes that repair damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet light. These enzymes require visible light (from the violet/blue end of the spectrum) both for their own activation and for the actual DNA repair. The DNA repair mechanism involving photolyases is called photoreactivation. They mainly convert pyrimidine dimers into a normal pair of pyrimidine bases.

Photolyasen sind Enzyme, die an der Reparatur der DNA beteiligt sind. Sie bewerkstelligen die Auflösung von Cyclobutan-Pyrimidin-Dimeren (CPD) und (6-4)-Photoprodukten, welche bei Belichtung der DNA mit ultravioletter Strahlung entstehen.


Early life.

Gabriela Silang was born in Barangay Caniogan, Santa, Ilocos Sur to a Spanish Ilocano father named Anselmo Cariño, a trader who ferried his wares from Vigan to Abra along the Abra River and a descendant of Ignacio Cariño, the first Galician from Spain to arrive in Candon, Ilocos Sur the in late 17th century. Her mother was a Tinguian who was from a Tinguian barrio in San Quintin, Abra (now Pidigan).  She received a Christian upbringing from the town's parish priest, and attained elementary level education at the town's convent school. After being separated from her parents early in her childhood, she was raised by a priest, who eventually arranged a marriage between her and the wealthy businessman. They married in 1751, and he died three years later.

Revolutionary involvement.

Relationship with Diego Silang.

After being widowed by her first husband, Gabriela met future insurgent leader Diego Silang and married him in 1757. In 1762, as part of what would later be known as the Seven Years' War, Britain declared war on Spain, and captured Manila, resulting in the British occupying the city. After the capture of Manila, an emboldened Diego sought to initiate an armed struggle to overthrow the Spanish functionaries in Ilocos and replace them with native-born officials. He joined forces with the British, who appointed him governor of the Ilocos region on their behalf. During this revolt, Gabriela became one of Diego's closest advisors and his unofficial aide-de-camp during skirmishes with Spanish troops. She was also a major figure in her husband's co-operation with the British. Spanish authorities retaliated by offering a reward for Diego’s assassination. Consequently, his two former allies Miguel Vicos and Pedro Becbec killed him in Vigan on May 28, 1763.

Revolutionary leadership in Abra.

After Diego's assassination, Gabriela fled to Tayum, Abra to seek refuge in the house of her paternal uncle, Nicolas Cariño. There, she appointed her first two generals, Miguel Flores and Tagabuen Infiel. She later assumed her husband's role as commander of the rebel troops and achieved a "priestess" status amongst her community and followers. Her popular image as the bolo-wielding "La Generala" on horseback stems from this period.

Assault on Vigan and Execution.

On September 10, 1763, Silang tried to besiege Vigan but the Spanish retaliated, forcing her into hiding. She retreated once more to Abra, where the Spanish later captured her. On September 20, 1763, Silang and her troops were executed by hanging in Vigan's central plaza.

Descendants.

A list of the closest-living relatives of Gabriela Cariño Silang through her paternal uncle, Nicolas Cariño:  Some of Silang's living relations still reside in the ancestral house at the Cariño family seat of Tayum. The house, now a museum and art gallery called the "Casa Museo Cariño", is maintained by H. E. Ambassador Rosario Cariño. Among the rooms on display is the bedroom of Gabriela Cariño Silang while she used the house of her uncle, Nicolas Cariño, as her headquarters when she fled after Diego's murder in 1763.

María Josefa Gabriela Cariño de Silang (19 March 1731 – 20 September 1763) was a Filipina revolutionary leader best known as the first female leader of an Ilocano movement for independence from Spain. She took over the reins of her husband Diego Silang's revolutionary movement after his assassination in 1763, leading the Ilocano rebel movement for four months before she was captured and executed by the colonial government of the Spanish East Indies.

María Josefa Gabriela Cariño Silang (* 19. März 1731 in Santa, Provinz Ilocos Sur; † 20. September 1763 in Vigan) war die erste philippinische Frau, die während der spanische Kolonisation der Philippinen eine Revolte anführte. Als aktives Mitglied der Aufständischen unter Diego Silang, ihrem Ehemann, übernahm sie nach dessen Tod vier Monate lang die Führung der Gruppe, bis man sie gefangen nahm und exekutierte.


Life.

Hilary Koprowski was born in Warsaw to an educated, assimilated Jewish family. His parents met in 1906 when Paweł Koprowski (1882-1957) was serving in the Imperial Russian Army, and moved to Warsaw soon after their marriage in 1912. His mother Sonia (née Berland; 1883-1967), was a dentist from Berdichev. Hilary Koprowski attended Warsaw's Mikołaj Rej Secondary School, and from age twelve he took piano lessons at the Warsaw Conservatory. He received a medical degree from Warsaw University in 1939. He also received music degrees from the Warsaw Conservatory and, in 1940, from the Santa Cecilia Conservatory in Rome. He adopted scientific research as his life's work, but never gave up music and composed several musical works. In July 1938, while in medical school, Koprowski married Irena Grasberg.  In 1939, after Germany's invasion of Poland, Koprowski and his wife, likewise a physician, fled the country, using Koprowski family business connections in Manchester, England. Hilary went to Rome, where he spent a year studying piano at the Santa Cecilia Conservatory; while Irena went to France, where she gave birth to their first child, Claude Koprowski, and worked as an attending physician at a psychiatric hospital.  As the invasion of France loomed in 1940, Irena and the infant escaped from France via Spain and Portugal —where the Koprowski family reunited — to Brazil, where Koprowski worked in Rio de Janeiro for the Rockefeller Foundation. His field of research for several years was finding a live-virus vaccine against yellow fever. After World War II the Koprowskis settled in Pearl River, New York, where Hilary was hired as a researcher for Lederle Laboratories, the pharmaceutical division of American Cyanamid. Here he began his polio experiments, which ultimately led to the creation of the first oral polio vaccine. Koprowski served as director of the Wistar Institute, 1957–91, during which period Wistar achieved international recognition for its vaccine research and became a National Cancer Institute Cancer Center.  Koprowski died on April 11, 2013, aged 96, in Wynnewood, near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of pneumonia. He and his wife are buried at West Laurel Hill Cemetery, Southlawn Section, Lot 782, Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.  Hilary Koprowski and his late wife are survived by two sons, Claude (born in Paris, 1940) and Christopher (born 1951). Claude Koprowski is a retired physician. Christopher Koprowski is a physician certified in two specialties, neurology and radio-oncology; he is chair of the department of radiation oncology at Christiana Hospital in Delaware.

Polio vaccine.

While at Lederle Laboratories, Koprowski created the world's first polio vaccine, based on an orally administered attenuated polio virus. In researching a potential polio vaccine, he had focused on live viruses that were attenuated (rendered non-virulent) rather than on killed viruses (the latter became the basis for the injected vaccine subsequently developed by Jonas Salk).  Koprowski viewed the live vaccine as more powerful, since it entered the intestinal tract directly and could provide lifelong immunity, whereas the Salk vaccine required booster shots. Also, administering a vaccine by mouth is easy, whereas an injection requires medical facilities and is more expensive.  Koprowski developed his polio vaccine by attenuating the virus in brain cells of a cotton rat, "Sigmodon hispidus", a New World species that is susceptible to polio. He administered the vaccine to himself in January 1948 and, on 27 February 1950, to 20 children at Letchworth Village, a home for disabled persons in Rockland County, New York. Seventeen of the 20 children developed antibodies to polio virus — the other three apparently already had antibodies — and none of the children developed complications. Within 10 years, the vaccine was being used on four continents.  Albert Sabin's early work with attenuated-live-virus polio vaccine was developed from attenuated polio virus that Sabin had received from Koprowski.

Rabies Vaccine.

In addition to his work on the Polio vaccine, Koprowski (along with Stanley Plotkin and Tadeusz Wiktor) did significant work on an improved vaccine against rabies. The group developed the HDCV rabies vaccine in the 1960s at the Wistar Institute. It was licensed for use in the United States in 1980.

Affiliations.

Koprowski was President of Biotechnology Foundation Laboratories, Inc, and Head of the Center for Neurovirology at Thomas Jefferson University. In 2006 he was awarded a record 50th grant from the National Institutes of Health. He authored or co-authored over 875 scientific papers and co-edited several scientific journals. He served as a consultant to the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organization.

Honors/Legacy.

Koprowski received many honorary degrees, academic honors, and national decorations, including the Order of the Lion from the King of Belgium, the French Order of Merit for Research and Invention, a Fulbright Scholarship, and appointment as Alexander von Humboldt Professor at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry in Munich. In 1989 he received the San Marino Award for Medicine and the Nicolaus Copernicus Medal of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw.  Koprowski received numerous honors in Philadelphia, including the Philadelphia Cancer Research Award, the John Scott Award and, in May 1990, the most prestigious honor of his home city, the Philadelphia Award. He was a Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, which in 1959 presented him with its Alvarenga Prize.  Koprowski was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the New York Academy of Sciences, and the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. He held foreign membership in the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Polish Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, and the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters.  On June 3, 1983 Koprowski received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Medicine at Uppsala University, Sweden.  On 22 March 1995, Koprowski was made a Commander of Finland's Order of the Lion by Finland's president. On 13 March 1997 he received the Legion d'Honneur from the French government. On 29 September 1998 he was presented by Poland's president with the Grand Cross of Poland's Order of Merit.  On 25 February 2000 Koprowski was honored with a reception at Philadelphia's Thomas Jefferson University celebrating the 50th anniversary of the first administration of his oral polio vaccine. At the reception, he received commendations from the United States Senate, the Pennsylvania Senate, and Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge.  On 13 September 2004, Koprowski was presented with the Pioneer in NeuroVirology Award by the International Society for NeuroVirology at the 6th International Symposium on NeuroVirology held in Sardinia. On 1 May 2007, Koprowski was awarded the Albert Sabin Gold Medal by the Sabin Vaccine Institute in Baltimore, Maryland.  In 2014 Drexel University established the Hilary Koprowski Prize in Neurovirology in honor of Dr. Koprowski's contributions to the field of neurovirology. The prize is awarded annually in conjunction with the International Symposium on Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, which is sponsored by the Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease (IMMID) within the Drexel University College of Medicine. During the Symposium, the prize recipient is asked to deliver an honorary lecture.

AIDS accusation.

British journalist Edward Hooper publicized a hypothesis that AIDS might have been caused in the late 1950s in the Belgian Congo by Koprowski's research into a polio vaccine.  The OPV AIDS hypothesis has, however, been rejected within much of the medical community and is contradicted by at least one article in the journal "Nature", which claims the HIV-1 group M virus originated in Africa 30 years before the OPV trials were conducted. However, the field work within the study was limited to just 34 samples all taken within the immediate vicinity of Kisangani. Despite this the journal "Science" refuted Hooper's claims, writing: "[I]t can be stated with almost complete certainty that the large polio vaccine trial... was not the origin of AIDS."  Koprowski rejected the claim, based on his own analysis. In a separate court case, he won a regretful clarification, and a symbolic award of $1 in damages, in a defamation suit against "Rolling Stone", which had published an article repeating similar false allegations. A concurrent defamation lawsuit that Koprowski brought against the Associated Press was settled several years later; the settlement's terms were not publicly disclosed.  Koprowski's original reports from 1960–61 detailing part of his vaccination campaign in the Belgian Congo are available on-line from the World Health Organization.

Hilary Koprowski (5 December 191611 April 2013) was a Polish virologist and immunologist active in the United States of America who demonstrated the world's first effective live polio vaccine. He authored or co-authored over 875 scientific papers and co-edited several scientific journals.

Hilary Koprowski (* 5. Dezember 1916 in Warschau, Polen; † 11. April 2013 in Philadelphia) war ein polnisch-amerikanischer Virologe und Immunologe. Er war der Entdecker der ersten Polioschutzimpfung mit lebenden Viren.


Life and career.

Early life and education.

Noble was born in Fort Dix, a United States Army post south-east of Trenton, New Jersey, to an African-American father and a German mother. He was raised in nearby Jobstown, where his father worked as a janitor after serving as a master sergeant in the army. Noble attended Northern Burlington County Regional High School before graduating from the University of New Hampshire in 1979 with a bachelor's degree in economics and business administration. He later attended Stanford Law School, serving as an editor on the "Stanford Law Review" and graduating "cum laude" in 1982.

Beginnings and public service.

Noble began his career as a law clerk for A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., a judge at the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, who persuaded him to enter public service. In 1984, he became an assistant U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania under Edward S. G. Dennis, where he prosecuted several high-profile drug and corruption cases in Philadelphia. He then moved to the Department of Justice in Washington, D.C. in 1988 to work as a deputy assistant Attorney General and chief of staff for Dennis, who had been appointed the assistant Attorney General for the Criminal Division.  In 1993, Noble was appointed the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement, being placed in charge of the Secret Service, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), the Customs Service Office of Enforcement, the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the Office of Foreign Assets Control and the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network. He was head of the department's "Waco Administrative Review Team", which produced a report on the ATF's actions against the Branch Davidians, leading to the Waco siege.  In 1994, following a plane crash on the south lawn of the White House carried out by Frank Eugene Corder, Secretary of the Treasury Lloyd Bentsen directed Under Secretary Noble and Secret Service director Eljay B. Bowron to conduct an investigation into the circumstances leading to the crash. In 1995, a public report of the White House Security Review was published; President Bill Clinton accepted all of its recommendations and announced the closure of the portion of Pennsylvania Avenue in front of the White House on May 21, 1995, restricting movement to pedestrian traffic to eliminate the threat of car bomb or truck bomb attacks.  In 1996, Noble returned to New York University School of Law to continue working as a tenured professor. In 1998, he participated as a witness for the defense during the trial for the impeachment of Clinton.

Interpol.

In 1998, with the support of Attorney General Janet Reno and FBI director Louis Freeh, Noble applied to become the secretary-general of Interpol and succeed incumbent Raymond Kendall. On November 3, 2000, at the age of 44, Noble was elected to the position, becoming the first non-European, the first non-white person, the first American and the youngest secretary-general in the organization's history. Noble was nominated for the post by the organization's Executive Committee the previous year, and on September 20, 2005, during Interpol's 74th General Assembly in Berlin, he was re-elected for a second five-year term. On November 9, 2010, Noble was re-elected for a third term as secretary-general during the organization's 79th General Assembly in Doha, Qatar. On November 7, 2014, he resigned from the role and was succeeded by Jürgen Stock, who was unanimously elected during Interpol's 83rd General Assembly in Monaco.  Noble's endorsement of the Belorussian state investigation into the April 2011 bomb explosion in the Minsk Metro was questioned in 2012 by BBC journalist John Sweeney. In a May 2011 press conference in Minsk, Noble praised the "high professionalism" of the police, Ministry of Internal Affairs officials, and other government officials for quickly completing the investigation. According to Sweeney, Noble endorsed the CCTV footage used in the investigation, the credibility of which was later questioned. Interpol said the BBC documentary was based on "biased speculation".  In December 2017, an Argentine judge alleged that while at Interpol, Noble along with former Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner had been involved in a cover-up of Argentina's alleged attempt to cancel INTERPOL Red Notices that had been issued against former Iranian government officials for the July 1994 terrorist attack of the AMIA Jewish center in Buenos Aires. The influential NGO Human Rights Watch stated "Relatives of victims of the AMIA terrorist attack deserve justice for this heinous crime... but, instead of promoting accountability, this far-fetched indictment further tarnishes the credibility of the Argentine judiciary over the AMIA attack investigations.” Noble refuted the claim of cover-up, calling the judge's report "false, misleading and incomplete".

Security consultancy.

After leaving Interpol, Noble founded a multinational security consultancy firm called RKN Global DWC LLC, which is headquartered in Dubai, UAE. In February 2016, the firm announced plans to build a security printing plant in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia, a project that would cost €89 million and employ 1,200 people. On June 24, 2016, however, the firm rejected an investment subsidy of €18 million from the Government of Slovakia and withdrew the plans following political opposition to the project in the country and uncertainty created by the UK's decision to leave the EU.

Personal life.

Noble is married and has one son. As well as English, he speaks French, Spanish and German.

Ronald Kenneth "Ron" Noble (born September 24, 1956) is an American law enforcement officer who served as the secretary-general of the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol) from 2000 to 2014. He was the organization's first American and youngest secretary-general at the time of his appointment. Noble previously worked as a public servant in various U.S. government agencies, including the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, the Department of Justice and the Treasury.

Ronald Kenneth Noble (* 1957 in Fort Dix, New Jersey) ist ein US-amerikanischer Staatsanwalt und ehemaliger Generalsekretär der Internationalen kriminalpolizeilichen Organisation (Interpol). Sein Nachfolger ist Jürgen Stock.


Definition.

Let K denote the field either of real or complex numbers. Denote by K the set of all sequences of scalars This can be turned into a vector space by defining vector addition as and the scalar multiplication as A sequence space is any linear subspace of K.

l spaces.

For 0 < "p" < ∞, l is the subspace of K consisting of all sequences "x" = (x) satisfying If "p" ≥ 1, then the real-valued operation formula_5 defined by defines a norm on l. In fact, l is a complete metric space with respect to this norm, and therefore is a Banach space.  If 0 < "p" < 1, then l does not carry a norm, but rather a metric defined by  If "p" = ∞, then l is defined to be the space of all bounded sequences. With respect to the norm l is also a Banach space.

"c", "c" and "c".

The space of convergent sequences "c" is a sequence space. This consists of all "x" ∈ K such that lim"x" exists. Since every convergent sequence is bounded, "c" is a linear subspace of l. It is, moreover, a closed subspace with respect to the infinity norm, and so a Banach space in its own right.  The subspace of null sequences "c" consists of all sequences whose limit is zero. This is a closed subspace of "c", and so again a Banach space.  The subspace of eventually zero sequences "c" consists of all sequences which have only finitely many nonzero elements. This is not a closed subspace and therefore is not a Banach space with respect to the infinity norm. For example, the sequence ("x") where "x" has 1/"n" for the first "n" entries and is zero everywhere else (i.e. "x" = (1, 1/2,..., 1/"n", 0,...)) is Cauchy w.r.t. infinity norm but not convergent (to a sequence in "c").

Other sequence spaces.

The space of bounded series, denote by bs, is the space of sequences "x" for which This space, when equipped with the norm is a Banach space isometrically isomorphic to l, via the linear mapping The subspace "cs" consisting of all convergent series is a subspace that goes over to the space "c" under this isomorphism.  The space Φ or formula_12 is defined to be the space of all infinite sequences with only a finite number of non-zero terms (sequences with finite support). This set is dense in many sequence spaces.

Properties of l spaces and the space "c".

The space l is the only l space that is a Hilbert space, since any norm that is induced by an inner product should satisfy the parallelogram law  Substituting two distinct unit vectors for "x" and "y" directly shows that the identity is not true unless "p" = 2.  Each l is distinct, in that l is a strict subset of l whenever "p" < "s"; furthermore, l is not linearly isomorphic to l when "p" ≠ "s". In fact, by Pitt's theorem, every bounded linear operator from l to l is compact when "p" < "s". No such operator can be an isomorphism; and further, it cannot be an isomorphism on any infinite-dimensional subspace of l, and is thus said to be strictly singular.  If 1 < "p" < ∞, then the (continuous) dual space of l is isometrically isomorphic to l, where "q" is the Hölder conjugate of "p": 1/"p" + 1/"q" = 1. The specific isomorphism associates to an element "x" of l the functional for "y" in l. Hölder's inequality implies that "L" is a bounded linear functional on l, and in fact so that the operator norm satisfies In fact, taking "y" to be the element of l with gives "L"("y") = ||"x"||, so that in fact Conversely, given a bounded linear functional "L" on l, the sequence defined by "x" = "L"("e") lies in l. Thus the mapping formula_19 gives an isometry  The map obtained by composing κ with the inverse of its transpose coincides with the canonical injection of l into its double dual. As a consequence l is a reflexive space. By abuse of notation, it is typical to identify l with the dual of l: (l) = l. Then reflexivity is understood by the sequence of identifications (l) = (l) = l.  The space "c" is defined as the space of all sequences converging to zero, with norm identical to ||"x"||. It is a closed subspace of l, hence a Banach space. The dual of "c" is l; the dual of l is l. For the case of natural numbers index set, the l and "c" are separable, with the sole exception of l. The dual of l is the ba space.  The spaces "c" and l (for 1 ≤ "p" < ∞) have a canonical unconditional Schauder basis {"e" | "i" = 1, 2...}, where "e" is the sequence which is zero but for a 1 in the "i" entry.  The space l has the Schur property: In l, any sequence that is weakly convergent is also strongly convergent. However, since the weak topology on infinite-dimensional spaces is strictly weaker than the strong topology, there are nets in l that are weak convergent but not strong convergent.  The l spaces can be embedded into many Banach spaces. The question of whether every infinite-dimensional Banach space contains an isomorph of some l or of "c", was answered negatively by B. S. Tsirelson's construction of Tsirelson space in 1974. The dual statement, that every separable Banach space is linearly isometric to a quotient space of l, was answered in the affirmative by. That is, for every separable Banach space "X", there exists a quotient map formula_22, so that "X" is isomorphic to formula_23. In general, ker "Q" is not complemented in l, that is, there does not exist a subspace "Y" of l such that formula_24. In fact, l has uncountably many uncomplemented subspaces that are not isomorphic to one another (for example, take formula_25; since there are uncountably many such "X"'s, and since no l is isomorphic to any other, there are thus uncountably many ker "Q"'s).  Except for the trivial finite-dimensional case, an unusual feature of l is that it is not polynomially reflexive.

l spaces are increasing in "p".

For formula_26, the spaces formula_27 are increasing in formula_28, with the inclusion operator being continuous: for formula_29, one has formula_30.  This follows from defining formula_31 for formula_32, and noting that formula_33 for all formula_34, which can be shown to imply formula_35.

Properties of l spaces.

A sequence of elements in l converges in the space of complex sequences l if and only if it converges weakly in this space. If "K" is a subset of this space, then the following are equivalent: Here "K" being equismall at infinity means that for every formula_36, there exists an integer formula_37 such that formula_38 for all formula_39.

In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, a sequence space is a vector space whose elements are infinite sequences of real or complex numbers. Equivalently, it is a function space whose elements are functions from the natural numbers to the field K of real or complex numbers. The set of all such functions is naturally identified with the set of all possible infinite sequences with elements in K, and can be turned into a vector space under the operations of pointwise addition of functions and pointwise scalar multiplication. All sequence spaces are linear subspaces of this space. Sequence spaces are typically equipped with a norm, or at least the structure of a topological vector space.

Ein Folgenraum ist ein in der Mathematik betrachteter Vektorraum, dessen Elemente Zahlenfolgen sind. Viele in der Funktionalanalysis auftretende Vektorräume sind Folgenräume oder können durch solche repräsentiert werden. Zu den Beispielen zählen u. a. die wichtigen Räume wie formula_1 aller beschränkten Folgen oder formula_2 aller gegen 0 konvergenten Folgen. Die Folgenräume bieten vielfältige Möglichkeiten zur Konstruktion von Beispielen und können daher auch als eine "Spielwiese" für Funktionalanalytiker betrachtet werden.


Life.

Antiochus was born a prince of the royal family of Commagene. His parents King Antiochus III of Commagene and Queen Iotapa were full-blooded siblings who had married each other. The younger Antiochus himself would marry his full-blooded sister Iotapa. Antiochus was of Armenian, Greek and Median descent. Through his ancestor from Commagene, Queen Laodice VII Thea, who was the mother of King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene, he was a direct descendant of the Greek Seleucid kings.  Antiochus appears to have been very young when his father died in 17. The Roman emperor Tiberius agreed with the citizens of Commagene to make their kingdom a part of the Roman province of Syria. Between 17 and 38, Antiochus seems to have gained Roman citizenship. He lived and was raised in Rome, along with his sister. While he and his sister were growing up in Rome, they were part of the remarkable court of Antonia Minor, a niece of the first Roman emperor Augustus and the youngest daughter of the triumvir Mark Antony. Antonia Minor was a very influential woman and supervised her circle of various princes and princesses. Her circle assisted in the political preservation of the Roman Empire's borders and affairs of the client states.  In 38, Antiochus received his paternal dominion from Antonia's grandson, the Roman emperor Caligula. In addition, the emperor enlarged Antiochus' territory with a part of Cilicia bordering on the seacoast. Caligula also gave him the whole amount of the revenues of Commagene during the twenty years that it had been a Roman province. The reasons for providing a client king with such vast resources remain unclear; it was perhaps a stroke of Caligula's well-attested eccentricity. Antiochus was on most intimate terms with Caligula, and he and King Agrippa I are spoken of as the instructors of the emperor in the art of tyranny. This friendship, however, did not last very long, for he was subsequently deposed by Caligula.  Antiochus did not regain his kingdom till the accession of Roman Emperor Claudius in 41. In 43 his first son, C. Julius Archelaus Antiochus Epiphanes, was betrothed to Drusilla, a daughter of Agrippa I. Apart from Epiphanes, Antiochus had another two children with Iotapa: Callinicus and a younger Iotapa. In 53, Antiochus put down an insurrection of some barbarous tribes in Cilicia, called Clitae. In 55 he received orders from the Roman emperor Nero to levy troops to make war against the Parthians, and in the year 59 he served under General Cn. Domitius Corbulo against King Tiridates I of Armenia, brother of the Parthian King Vologases I of Parthia. In consequence of his services in this war, in the year 61 he obtained parts of Armenia.  He took the side of Vespasian when the latter was proclaimed Roman emperor in 70; and he is then spoken of as the richest of the tributary kings. In the same year he sent forces, commanded by his son Epiphanes, to assist prince Titus in the siege of Jerusalem. During his reign as king, he founded the following cities: Germanicopolis, Iotapa and Neronias.  Antiochus' downfall came only two years afterwards, in 72, when he was accused by L. Caesennius Paetus, the governor of Syria, of conspiring with the Parthians against the Romans. He was therefore deprived of his kingdom, after a reign of thirty-four years from his first appointment by Caligula. Antiochus' sons, the princes Epiphanes and Callinicus, fled to Parthia after a brief encounter with Roman troops. Antiochus himself retired first to Sparta and then to Rome, where he passed the remainder of his life with his sons Epiphanes and Callinicus and was treated with great respect. Among the grandchildren of Antiochus and Iotapa was the prominent Athenian citizen Philopappos who lived in Greece between the 1st and 2nd centuries.

Coinage.

There are several coins of this king extant, and their die-marks prove he did rule large parts of Cappadocia and Cilicia as well as Commagene proper. In one of those coins he is called ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΜΕΓΑΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΣ ("Great King Antiochus"), a testament to his political ambitions. On the reverse of that coin a scorpion is represented, surrounded with the foliage of the laurel, and inscribed ΚΟΜΜΑΓΗΝΩΝ ("of the Commagenians"). From his coins we also learn the name of his wife, Iotapa.

Gaius Julius Antiochus IV Epiphanes (, before 17 AD – after 72 AD), the last king of Commagene, reigned between 38–72 as a client king to the Roman Empire. The epithet "Epiphanes" means "the Glorious".

Gaius Julius Antiochos IV. Epiphanes, auch als Antiochos IV. Epiphanes bekannt oder Antiochos IV. von Kommagene, () war der letzte König von Kommagene, der zwischen 38 und 72 regierte. Antiochos war ein Vasallenkönig des Römischen Reiches.


Name.

The name "Pawtucket" comes from the Algonquian word for "river fall."

History.

The Pawtucket region was said to have been one of the most populous places in New England prior to the arrival of European settlers. Native Americans would gather here to take advantage of the salmon and smaller fish which gathered at the falls. The first European settler here was Joseph Jenks, who came to the region from Lynn, Massachusetts. He purchased about 60 acres near Pawtucket Falls in 1671. He established a sawmill and forge. These, along with the entire town, were later destroyed during King Philip's War.  Other settlers followed Jenks, and by 1775 the area was home to manufacturers of muskets, linseed oil, potash, and ship building. Also around this time Oziel Wilkinson and his family set up an iron forge making anchors, nails, screws, farm implements, and even cannons. Pawtucket was an early and important center of cotton textiles during the American Industrial Revolution. Slater Mill, built in 1793 by Samuel Slater on the Blackstone River falls in downtown Pawtucket, was the first fully mechanized cotton-spinning mill in America. Slater Mill is known for developing a commercially successful production process not reliant on earlier horse-drawn processes developed in America. Slater constructed and operated machines for producing yarn. Other manufacturers continued, transforming Pawtucket into a center for textiles, iron working, and other products.  By the 1920s, Pawtucket was a prosperous mill town. The city had over a half-dozen movie theaters, two dozen hotels, and an impressive collection of fine commercial and residential architecture. Perhaps the most impressive public building in Pawtucket was the Leroy Theatre, an ornate movie palace that was called "Pawtucket's Million Dollar Theater". Many wealthy mill owners such as Darius Goff built their mansions in the area.  The textile business in New England declined during the Great Depression with many manufacturers closing or moving their facilities South where operations and labor were cheaper. Later in the 20th Century, Pawtucket began to lose some of its architectural heritage to the wrecking ball, including the Leroy Theatre.  But unlike numerous older mill towns in the region, Pawtucket retained much of its industrial base. Today, goods produced in the city include lace, non-woven and elastic woven materials, jewelry, silverware, metals, and textiles. Hasbro, one of the world's largest manufacturers of toys and games, is headquartered in Pawtucket.

A Tale of Two States.

Originally, the land west of the Blackstone River was part of nearby North Providence. East of the Blackstone River was originally settled as part of the Massachusetts town of Rehoboth. The first Pawtucket to be incorporated was in 1828 when Rehoboth gave up their land and Pawtucket became a new town in Massachusetts. In 1862 the eastern portion was absorbed into Providence County, Rhode Island. On March 1, 1862, after a nearly 225-year border dispute between Rhode Island and Plymouth/Massachusetts, the area of Pawtucket and East Providence was shifted into Rhode Island, and the new border remains to this day. In 1874, the land west of the river was taken from North Providence and added to the town of Pawtucket, but acted as two different towns. Finally in 1886, West and East Pawtucket were merged and the city was incorporated.

Geography.

Pawtucket is located at.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, of it is land and of it (2.89%) is water. Pawtucket lies within three drainage basins. These include the Blackstone River (including the Seekonk River), the Moshassuck River and the Ten Mile River.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 71,141 people, 32,055 households, and 18,508 families residing in the city. Pawtucket was the fourth most populous of Rhode Island's 39 cities and towns. The population density was 8,351.2 people per square mile (3,223.0/km). There were 32,055 housing units at an average density of 3,642.2 per square mile (1,405.7/km). The racial makeup of the city was 50.4% Non-Hispanic white, 18.9% Non-Hispanic African American, 0.60% Native American, 1.6% Non-Hispanic Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, mixed race 3.9%, 4.7% other. About 25% of residents are Latino (i.e. Puerto Ricans).  There were 32,055 households, out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.7% were married couples living together, 16.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.4% were non-families. 32.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.07.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.9% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 31.3% from 25 to 44, 19.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $28,124, and the median income for a family was $40,578. Males had a median income of $31,129 versus $23,391 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,008. About 14.9% of families and 16.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.5% of those under age 18 and 15.2% of those age 65 or over.  According to the 2000 census, 20.6% of Pawtucket residents are French or French-Canadian. Like nearby cities Providence, R.I., Fall River, Mass., and New Bedford, Mass., Pawtucket hosts a significant population from across the former Portuguese Empire (11.6%) plus an extremely significant Cape Verdean population. The segment from Cape Verde Islands was featured in this Zip Code USA article from "National Geographic" magazine.  Pawtucket is also one of the few areas of the United States with a significant Liberian population, mostly refugees from Charles Taylor's regime. Rhode Island has the highest per capita Liberian population in the country. Pawtucket has a high concentration of West Africans.

Arts and culture.

The City of Pawtucket has been supportive of the Arts Community since 1975. On September 2, 1977, The Beach Boys performed a concert at Narragansett Park attended by 40,000 people, the largest concert audience in Rhode Island history. In 2017, music historians Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise were successful in getting the street where the concert stage stood (the corner of 455 Narragansett Park Drive) officially renamed as "Beach Boys Way". The American-French Genealogical Society was founded in Pawtucket in 1978.  In 1998, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a law creating a 307-acre Arts and Entertainment District in the City's historic downtown. Over the past decades various organizations have been active in continuing that support of the local arts community and beyond.  In January, 1999, Herb Weiss, of the Planning Department, was hired to oversee the City's newly created Arts District. Through the support of then Mayor James E. Doyle and Planning Department Michael Cassidy, Weiss brought significant recognition for Pawtucket-Arts oriented development strategy. Mayor Doyle and Arts Czar Weiss hired researcher Ann Galligan, of Northeastern University, to create an arts and cultural plan. Over the years Pawtucket has become known as a center for arts and culture.  Several experimental/indie rock bands have recorded albums at Machines with Magnets, a recording studio and art gallery in Downtown Pawtucket. Bands that have performed or recorded here include Battles, Lightning Bolt, Brown Bird, and Fang Island.  The success of the works was seen in nationwide publicity in publications such as New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Christian Scientist Monitor. Pawtucket even found itself named in Art Calendar's "Ten Great Towns for Working Arts."Pawtucket’s transformation into an arts community is chronicled in a 53 minute documentary in 2008, "Pawtucket Rising", produced by Jason Caminiti, a Fall River film maker, documenting the City’s successful efforts in bringing artist and cultural activities to blighted areas Pawtucket Rising.  One hub for arts and culture in the city is Lorraine Mills, a repurposed mill building on the eastern side of the city, which houses institutions including Mixed Magic Theatre, Wage House (comedy club), Pawtucket Arts Collaborative, and Crooked Current Brewery.  Each September, the city, in conjunction with the Pawtucket Arts Festival Board of Directors, members chosen from the community, produce an annual citywide Arts Festival. Former Mayor Doyle created the City’s month-long event. Much of the work implementing the vision of Mayor Doyle and growing this month-long Arts Festival was done by Herb Weiss. Weiss, among other awards, was honored as the inaugural winner of the "PAF Excellence Award" for his work as the "foremost ambassador for the arts and culture". James Doyle was the Pawtucket Foundation Heritage Award Winner for 2011

Sports.

Pawtucket is home to McCoy Stadium, where the Pawtucket Red Sox, the AAA affiliate/Minor League team of the Boston Red Sox, currently play. The team was owned by Ben Mondor until his death and was recently sold by his estate. The longest professional baseball game in history, 33 innings, was played at McCoy Stadium in 1981. Pawtucket has a history of professional baseball dating back to 1892, including the Pawtucket Indians. This rich and popular tradition will come to an end in 2021 when the Red Sox AAA affiliate is relocated to Worcester, Massachusetts  In 1934 the Narragansett Park opened for Thoroughbred horse racing. Until its closure in 1978, the track hosted several important races that drew some of the top horses from around the United States including Hall of Fame members; Seabiscuit, War Admiral and Gun Bow.

Education.

Public schools.

Public education in Pawtucket is directed by the Pawtucket School Department and contains these schools:

Catholic schools.

The Quality Hill section of Pawtucket is home to St. Raphael Academy. It is a private college preparatory school founded on the basis of St. John the Baptist de la Salle. "Saints" is a small school consisting of roughly 500 students with a student to teacher ratio of about 15:2. The "Saints and Lady Saints" are very successful in sports including baseball, football, basketball, and softball. St. Raphael Academy is a rival of William E. Tolman. They took part in a Thanksgiving Day football game that was played in McCoy Stadium for over 70 years. This game is no longer played, as William E. Tolman now competes annually against its fellow Pawtucket public high school Charles E. Shea, rather than against St. Raphael Academy, a private Catholic high school.  Pawtucket was home to Bishop Keough High School, a small all-girls catholic high school in the Fairlawn neighborhood.  The city also has three Catholic elementary schools: St. Cecilia School, St. Teresa School and Woodlawn Catholic Regional School.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Amtrak's Northeast Corridor and the MBTA's Providence/Stoughton Line run through Pawtucket, though there is no stop for either in the city. Train service at the Pawtucket/Central Falls train station terminated in 1959. Recently there have been discussions to have the "T" stop in Pawtucket at the old train station (which would be substantially refurbished) or at a platform elsewhere on the line. Federal funding has been provided for preliminary planning of a MBTA station in the city, with a request for proposals expected in early 2011. Commuters can board MBTA trains at the South Attleboro stop, off Newport Avenue just over the state line. The MBTA operates a layover facility in Pawtucket for trains on the Providence/Stoughton Line where the trains are kept overnight. The closest Amtrak station to Pawtucket is Providence Station.  Public bus transportation is available in the city. RIPTA operates a hub in downtown Pawtucket with routes to various parts of the city and to parts of nearby towns. Riders can also access RIPTA buses to Providence at the downtown hub on the Smithfield Avenue (#53) and Beverage Hill (#78) routes; as well as on either the R-Line (Broad-North Main) Rapid Service route or #1 (Hope/Eddy) Key Corridor route. The # 1 (Hope/Eddy) Key Corridor route provides service from the Downtown Pawtucket hub north to the MBTA Station at South Attleboro, Mass. and south to T.F. Green Airport in Warwick. At Kennedy Plaza, Providence's hub, riders can access routes to most parts of the state.

Highways and roads.

Interstate 95 and U.S. 1 also traverse the western part of Pawtucket. Some of the slowest posted speeds on I-95 are in the city due to the "S-curves" near downtown. To preserve certain buildings in the city, planners snaked I-95, creating sharp bends in the highway.

Downtown Circulator.

Pawtucket's Downtown Circulator was a one-way loop through downtown; it is similar to British concepts of ring roads. A similar concept was also tried in Providence.  The circulator used East Avenue, High Street, Summer Street, Goff Avenue, Dexter Street and Park Place West. Each half of the Circulator carried one direction of U.S. 1; sections also carried westbound RI 15 and northbound RI 114. It was signed with a big "C" on overhead signs.  The circulator is no longer signed, though the road configuration remains. Providence's Downtown Ring Roads have suffered a similar fate.

Economy.

Hasbro, a Fortune 1000 toy and game making company, is headquartered in Pawtucket.  Many Healthcare, Retail and Insurance companies are headquartered in Pawtucket. Fox Point Pickles, a pickling company, is headquartered in Pawtucket.

Pawtucket is a city in Providence County, Rhode Island, United States. The population was 71,148 at the 2010 census. It is the fourth largest city in the state.

Pawtucket ist eine Stadt im Providence County, Rhode Island, Vereinigte Staaten. Es ist die viertgrößte Stadt im Bundesstaat. Sie gehört mit Warwick, Cranston, North Providence und East Providence zur Providence Metropolitan Area, einem Ballungsraum mit mehr als 1,5 Millionen Einwohnern an der Atlantikküste etwa 40 km südwestlich von Boston und 200 km nordöstlich von New York.


History.

Background.

The interaction of the Rogue River Indians and the first European-American settlers traveling through the area was relatively peaceful. However, the situation changed drastically with the opening of the Oregon Trail and the gold rushes in northern California and later in eastern Oregon. Larger groups of settlers and miners entered the area, consuming without restrictions the natural resources on which the Indians relied for survival, competing for game and fish, and chopping down entire forests of oak trees.  The first recorded hostilities were caused by the American Ewing Young's travel to Oregon in 1834. His party murdered several natives and buried their bodies on the island where the party was camped. These bodies were later discovered by the local tribe. They retaliated the next year, attacking an American fur trapping party that passed through. Four of the eight European-Americans were killed; William J. Bailey and George Gay were two survivors.  In 1837, as part of the Willamette Cattle Company, Bailey, Gay and others were herding cattle north to the Willamette Valley when Gay shot and killed a native boy. He was shot in revenge for earlier attacks against whites. The local Indians raided the cattle drive, but killed or drove off only a few cattle.

Cultural conflict.

The first known contact between these groups of Indians and Europeans occurred when British explorer George Vancouver anchored off Cape Blanco, about north of the mouth of the Rogue River, and Indians visited the ship in canoes. In 1826, Alexander Roderick McLeod of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) led an overland expedition from HBC's regional headquarters in Fort Vancouver to as far south as the Rogue.  In 1827, an HBC expedition led by Peter Skene Ogden made the first direct contact between whites and the inland Rogue River natives when he crossed the Siskiyou Mountains to look for beaver for the fur trade. Friction between Indians and whites was relatively minor during these early encounters. in 1834, however, an HBC expedition led by Michel Laframboise was reported to have killed 11 Rogue River natives, and shortly thereafter a party led by an American trapper, Ewing Young, shot and killed at least two more.  The name "Rogue River" was apparently derived from French fur trappers, who called the river "La Riviere aux Coquins," because they regarded the natives as rogues ("coquins").  The number of whites entering the Rogue River watershed greatly increased after 1846, when a party of 15 men led by Jesse Applegate developed a southern alternative to the Oregon Trail; the new trail was used by emigrants headed for the Willamette Valley. Later called the Applegate Trail, it passed through the Rogue and Bear Creek valleys and crossed the Cascade Range between present-day Ashland and south of Upper Klamath Lake. From 90 to 100 wagons and 450 to 500 emigrants used the new trail later in 1846, passing through Rogue Indian homelands between the headwaters of Bear Creek and the future site of Grants Pass and crossing the Rogue about downstream of it. Despite fears on both sides, violence in the watershed in the 1830s and 1840s was limited; "Indians seemed interested in speeding whites on their way, and whites were happy to get through the region without being attacked."  In 1847, the Whitman massacre and the Cayuse War in what became southeastern Washington raised fears among white settlers throughout the region. They formed large volunteer militias to fight Indians. Tensions intensified among whites passing through the Rogue River Valley in 1848 at the start of the California Gold Rush, when hundreds of men from the Oregon Territory passed through the Rogue Valley on their way to the Sacramento River basin. After Indians attacked a group of miners returning along the Rogue in 1850, former territorial governor Joseph Lane negotiated a peace treaty with Apserkahar, a leader of the Takelma. It promised protection of Indian rights and safe passage through the Rogue Valley for white miners and settlers. ("see also: Battle of Evans Creek")

Mining in the Rogue River valley.

Miners began prospecting for gold in the watershed, including a Bear Creek tributary called Jackson Creek, where they established a mining camp in 1851 at the site of what later became Jacksonville. Indian attacks on miners that year led to U.S. Army intervention and fighting near Table Rock between Indians and the combined forces of professional soldiers and volunteer miner militias. John P. Gaines, the new territorial governor, negotiated a new treaty with some but not all of the Indian bands, removing them from Bear Creek and other tributaries on the south side of the main stem. At about the same time, more white emigrants, including families with women and children, were settling in the region. By 1852, about 28 donation land claims had been filed in the Rogue Valley.  Further clashes in 1853 led to the Treaty with the Rogue River that established the Table Rock Indian Reservation across the river from the federal Fort Lane. As the white population increased and Indian losses of land, food sources, and personal safety mounted, bouts of violence upstream and down continued through 1854–1855.

War.

In 1855, this friction culminated in open conflict, which lasted into 1856, and is now called the Rogue River War. The "Guide to the Cayuse, Yakima, and Rogue River Wars Papers 1847–1858" at the University of Oregon summarizes the war as follows: Throughout the 1850s, Governor Stevens of the Washington Territory clashed with the U.S. Army over Indian policy: Stevens wanted to displace Indians and take their land, but the army opposed land grabs. White settlers in the Rogue River area began to attack Indian villages, and Captain Smith, commandant of Fort Lane, often interposed his men between the Indians and the settlers. In October 1855, he took Indian women and children into the fort for their own safety; but a mob of settlers raided their village, killing 27 Indians. The Indians killed 27 settlers expecting to settle the score, but the settlers continued to attack Indian camps through the winter. On May 27, 1856, Captain Smith arranged the surrender of the Indians to the US Army, but the Indians attacked the soldiers instead. The commander fought the Indians until reinforcements arrived the next day; the Indians retreated. A month later, they surrendered and were sent to reservations.  Suffering from cold, hunger, and disease on the Table Rock Reservation, a group of Takelma returned to their old village at the mouth of Little Butte Creek in October 1855. After a volunteer militia attacked them, killing 23 men, women, and children, they fled downriver, attacking whites from Gold Hill to Galice Creek. Confronted by volunteers and regular army troops, the Indians at first repulsed them; however, after nearly 200 volunteers launched an all-day assault on the remaining natives, the war ended at Big Bend (at RM 35 or RK 56) on the lower river. By then, fighting had also ended near the coast, where, before retreating upstream, a separate group of natives had killed about 30 whites and burned their cabins near what later became Gold Beach.  Most of the Rogue River Indians were removed in 1856 to reservations further north. About 1,400 were sent to the Coast Reservation in central Oregon, later renamed the Siletz Reservation. They were placed with other Indians who were from Coastal Salish tribes, such as the Tillamook, the Siletz, and the Clatsop. To protect 400 natives still in danger of attack at Table Rock, Joel Palmer, the Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs, ordered their removal to the newly established Grande Ronde Reservation in Yamhill County, Oregon.

Battle of Hungry Hill.

See Battle of Hungry Hill for full article  The Battle of Hungry Hill, also known as the Battle of Grave Creek Hills or Battle of Bloody Springs, was the largest battle of the Rogue River Wars. It occurred on October 31, 1855. The Native Americans were camped with their women and children on the top of a hill, with the soldiers located across a narrow ravine about 1,500 feet deep. Two hundred of the Native Americans were in the mountains southwest of present-day Roseburg armed with muzzleloaders, bows, and arrows and managed to hold off a group of "more than 300... dragoons, militiamen and volunteers".

The Rogue River Wars were an armed conflict in 1855–1856 between the U.S. Army, local militias and volunteers, and the Native American tribes commonly grouped under the designation of Rogue River Indians, in the Rogue River Valley area of what today is southern Oregon. The conflict designation usually includes only the hostilities that took place during 1855–1856, but there had been numerous previous skirmishes, as early as the 1830s, between European-American settlers and the Native Americans, over territory and resources.

Die Rogue-River-Kriege zählen zu den Kriegen, in denen Siedler und Indianer sich in Oregon bekämpften. Der letzte von ihnen begann im Oktober 1855, als ein Mob aus Jacksonville im Rogue-River-Tal im südwestlichen Oregon mindestens 28 Indianer ermordete, die nahe der "Table Rock Reservation" kampierten. Weitere solcher Übergriffe folgten, ähnlich wie im nahe gelegenen Kalifornien.


Geography.

Bellevue is located at (41.275808, -82.842099).  According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of, of which (or 98.24%) is land and (or 1.92%) is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 8,202 people, 3,296 households, and 2,148 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 3,662 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.3% White, 0.6% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.2% of the population.  There were 3,296 households, of which 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.8% were non-families. 29.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.01.  The median age in the city was 36.5 years. 26% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.3% were from 45 to 64; and 14.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.9% male and 52.1% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 8,193 people, 3,332 households, and 2,242 families living in the city. The population density was 1,619.8 people per square mile (625.2/km). There were 3,559 housing units at an average density of 703.6 per square mile (271.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 97.77% White, 0.27% African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.27% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 0.73% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.56% of the population.  There were 3,332 households, out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.7% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.01.  In the city the population was spread out, with 26.5% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 14.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $88,100, and the median income for a family was $98,173. Males had a median income of $76,601 versus $44,189 for females. The per capita income for the city was $58,932. About 1.3% of families and 2.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.5% of those under age 18 and 1% of those age 65 or over.

Media.

Bellevue and the surrounding area was served by a daily newspaper, "The Bellevue Gazette". The Gazette closed in June 2016, and is no longer in operation.

Transportation.

Roads.

Bellevue is located on U.S. Route 20, which forms East and West Main Street. State Routes 18, 269, and 113 also run through the city. There is no public transportation, such as passenger buses or taxis. Bellevue is also served by the Ohio Turnpike via U.S. Route 20 and State Route 4.

Railroad.

During the first half of the 20th century, Bellevue was a busy railroad hub of the Nickel Plate Road, and it remains today as a hub for the Norfolk Southern Railway, which operates a massive railroad yard in Bellevue. From Bellevue, Norfolk Southern Lines extend northeast to Cleveland, north to Sandusky, northwest to Toledo, west to Fort Wayne, Indiana and south to Columbus. Also, the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway operates a line from Bellevue that extends east to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

National Register of Historic Places.

Bellevue and the surrounding countryside are home to three sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places: the Heter Farm, the John Wright Mansion, and the Tremont House.

Bellevue () is a city in Erie, Huron, Seneca, and Sandusky counties in the U.S. state of Ohio, located 61 miles southwest of Cleveland and 45 miles southeast of Toledo. The population was 8,202 at the 2010 census. The National Arbor Day Foundation has designated Bellevue as a Tree City USA.

Bellevue ist eine Stadt im Erie County, im Huron County, im Seneca County und im Sandusky County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Ohio. Die Anzahl der Bevölkerung betrug 8193 bei der 2000er Volkszählung. Es ist ein Teil des Sandusky-Metropolgebiets. Bellevue war die Heimat von Henry Morrison Flagler, als er sich mit John D. Rockefeller vereinigte, um Standard Oil Company zu gründen. Das Eigentum seines ehemaligen Bellevuer Wohnsitzes auf der Südweststraße ist die gegenwärtige Position des "Mad River and Nickel Plate Railroad Museum". Lokale Schüler besuchen die Bellevue High School.


Early life.

Walton was born in 1834, near Halifax. His father James Walton was a successful inventor and business owner from Haughton Dale near Manchester, where he owned the Haughton Dale Mill, which supplied wire for James's successful carding business. Frederick was educated at Horton School, in Bradford and at the Wakefield Proprietary School.

Waltons and Sons.

In 1855, Frederick joined his father James and brother William in the family wire card-making business of Walton and Sons, in Haughton Dale. He spent much of his time working on new techniques for the business. In 1856, he was granted his first patent for wire brushes with ornamental backings. In 1857, he discovered how to solidify linseed oil, which was to lead to his most famous invention. However he also disagreed with his father about, the value of his experimentation. later in 1857, they dissolved the partnership and Frederick moved to Hammersmith, where he set up his own company to continue his work.

Invention of Linoleum.

In 1860, he established an experimental factory in Chiswick where he worked on oxidisation of linseed oil, for which he was granted a patent in 1860. He experimented with the oxidized oil as a replacement for rubber. He discovered that combining the oil with cork and colouring agents produced a useful material for floor covering, and in 1863 patented this new material. Walton called this new cloth "linoleum". He moved his factory for Staines, and in 1864, formed the Linoleum Manufacturing Company and by 1869 the factory in Staines was exporting to Europe and the United States.

Expansion to America.

In the 1870s, Walton partnered with carpet manufacturer John Crossley to form the American Linoleum Company. They set up a factory at Linoleumville, New York to manufacture linoleum. Walton spent two years in America setting up the factory and starting the business, before returning to the United Kingdom. The America company was highly successful and profitable.

Patents.

Walton obtained further patents for processes related to the production of linoleum. In 1863, he patented a method of passing sheets of coloured linoleum through rollers to emboss a pattern on them. In 1882, he patented machinery to make inlaid mosaic floor coverings. He also invented a number of related products, most notably Lincrusta, an embossed wall-covering base on linoleum, launched in 1877. In all he obtained over 100 patents.

Death.

Walton died in 1928, aged 94.

Personal life.

In 1867, Walton married Alice Scruby. They had four children:  Walton was an avid collector of art, and also painted himself. His son-in-law Herbert Vivian said that Walton "bought many expensive paintings and painted many excellent ones himself".

Frederick Edward Walton (13 March 183416 May 1928), was an English manufacturer and inventor whose invention of Linoleum in Chiswick was patented in 1863. He also invented Lincrusta in 1877.

Frederick Edward Walton (getauft 19. Mai 1834 in Sowerby Bridge bei Halifax, Yorkshire; † 16. Mai 1928 in Nizza) war ein englischer Unternehmer und Erfinder des Linoleums sowie des Linkrusta. Auf der Basis seiner Erfindung baute er die erste Linoleumfabrik auf und begründete damit den Erfolg als Bodenbelag, den Linoleum bis weit in das 20. Jahrhundert hinein hatte. Insgesamt meldete Walton 88 britische Patente an, von denen zwei Drittel in direktem Zusammenhang mit Linoleum standen.


Life.

Born in Jonesboro, Georgia, he graduated from Emory College in 1909 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. Immediately following graduation, Rivers was admitted to the Johns Hopkins Medical School. His plans of becoming a physician could not be realized at first as he was diagnosed with a neuromuscular degeneration which forced him to leave medical school and work as a laboratory assistant at a hospital in the Panama Canal Zone. When by 1912 the illness had not become worse he returned to Johns Hopkins and graduated in 1915. He stayed at Johns Hopkins until 1919.  In March 1922 he headed the infectious disease ward at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research and became the institute's director in June 1937. After retiring in 1956, he remained active with the Rockefeller Foundation. His work in the 1930s and 1940s contributed to making the institute a leader in viral research. In 1934 Rivers was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in section 10 (pathology and microbiology). As chairman of committees on research and vaccine advisory for the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, he oversaw the clinical trials of Jonas Salk's vaccine. He served in the armed forces medical corps during both World Wars. During the Second World War, Rivers led the Naval Medical Research Unit Two (NAMRU-2) in the South Pacific, rising to the rank of rear admiral.  In 1948 Rivers edited a standard book on viral and Rickettsial infections.  In 1958 he was inducted into the Polio Hall of Fame at Warm Springs, Georgia.  Rivers was married to Teresa Jacobina Riefle of Baltimore. Rivers died at Forest Hills, New York in 1962 and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery on account of his military rank.

Thomas Milton Rivers (September 3, 1888 – May 12, 1962) was an American bacteriologist and virologist. The "father of modern virology."

Thomas Milton Rivers (* 3. September 1888 in Jonesboro, Georgia; † 12. Mai 1962 in Forest Hills, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Bakteriologe und Virologe, der „Vater der modernen Virologie“.


Early life.

Siskel was born in Chicago, Illinois, and was the son of Ida (née Kalis) and Nathan William Siskel. His parents were Russian Jewish immigrants. Siskel lost both of his parents as a child and as a result was raised by his aunt and uncle, moving with them when he was nine years old. He attended Culver Academies and graduated from Yale University with a degree in philosophy in 1967, where he studied writing under Pulitzer Prize-winning author John Hersey. Hersey's reference assisted him in gaining a job at the "Chicago Tribune" in 1969.

Career.

His first print review was for the film "Rascal", which was written one month before he became the "Tribune"'s film critic. Siskel served in the US Army Reserve, graduating from basic officers training in early 1968 and serving as a military journalist and public affairs officer for the Defense Information School.

Siskel & Ebert.

In 1975, Siskel teamed up with Roger Ebert, film reviewer for the "Chicago Sun-Times", to host a show on local Chicago PBS station WTTW which eventually became "Sneak Previews". Their "thumbs-up, thumbs-down" system soon became an easily recognizable trademark, popular enough to be parodied on comedy shows such as "Second City Television", "In Living Color", "Bizarre", and in movies such as "Hollywood Shuffle" and "Godzilla". "Sneak Previews" gained a nationwide audience in 1977 when WTTW offered it as a series to the PBS program system.  Siskel and Ebert left WTTW and PBS in 1982 for syndication. Their new show, "At the Movies", was produced and distributed by Tribune Broadcasting, the parent company of the "Chicago Tribune" and WGN-TV. "Sneak Previews" continued on PBS for 14 more years with other hosts. In 1986, Siskel and Ebert left Tribune Broadcasting to have their show produced by the syndication arm of The Walt Disney Company. The new incarnation of the show was originally titled "Siskel & Ebert & the Movies", but later shortened to "Siskel & Ebert". "At the Movies" also continued a few more years with other hosts.  A very early appearance of Siskel, taken from "Coming Soon to a Theatre Near You", the predecessor to "Sneak Previews", is included in "". In this 2009 documentary film, he is seen debating with Ebert over the merits of the film version of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest".  Normally, Siskel and Ebert would refuse to guest-star in movies or television series, except for talk shows, as they felt it would undermine their "responsibility to the public". However, they both "could not resist" appearing on an episode of the animated television series "The Critic", the title character of which was a film critic who hosted a television show. In the episode, Siskel and Ebert split and each wants Jay Sherman, the eponymous critic, as his new partner. They also once appeared in an episode of the children's television series "Sesame Street". Siskel also appeared as himself on an episode of "The Larry Sanders Show".

Outlook on films and film criticism.

Gene Siskel was often known for his abrasive review style, but he claimed that it was part of his outlook on film criticism which he felt was an individual exercise that should not be swayed by public taste. In an interview for The Academy of Television and Radio, his TV co-host Roger Ebert said of him, “I think Gene felt that he had to like the whole picture to give it a thumbs up.”  In particular, he often gave negative reviews to movies that became box office champs and went on to be considered mainstream classics: "Poltergeist", "Beverly Hills Cop", "The Terminator", "Predator", "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", "", and "Independence Day". This even extended to several films that went on to win the Oscar for Best Picture: "Chariots of Fire", "The Silence of the Lambs" and "Unforgiven".  Yet, Ebert also noted in a memoriam episode of "Siskel and Ebert" that when Siskel found a movie that he truly treasured, he embraced it as something special. Stating directly to his late colleague, Ebert said: “I know for sure that seeing a truly great movie made you so happy that you’d tell me a week later your spirits were still high.” Some of Siskel’s most treasured movies included "My Dinner With Andre", "Shoah", "Fargo", and the documentary "Hoop Dreams".

Personal life.

Prior to marrying Siskel, his wife, Marlene Iglitzen, was a producer for CBS in New York. They had two daughters, Kate and Callie, and a son, Will. Their daughters are both graduates from Siskel's alma mater, Yale University.

Death.

Siskel was diagnosed with a cancerous brain tumor on May 8, 1998. He underwent brain surgery three days later. He announced on February 3, 1999 that he was taking a leave of absence but that he expected to be back by fall, stating: "I'm in a hurry to get well because I don't want Roger to get more screen time than I."  Siskel died from complications of another surgery on February 20, at the age of 53. The last film that Siskel reviewed on television with cohost Ebert was "The Theory of Flight" on January 23, 1999. The final film that he reviewed in print was the Freddie Prinze Jr. romantic comedy "She's All That", which he gave a favorable review.  Following his death, his long-time partner Ebert wrote:

Legacy.

Siskel was a diehard Chicago sports fan, especially of his hometown basketball team, the Chicago Bulls, and would cover locker-room celebrations for WBBM-TV news broadcasts following Bulls championships in the 1990s.  Siskel was also a member of the advisory committee of the Film Center at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, and a strong supporter of the Film Center mission. He wrote hundreds of articles applauding the Film Center's distinctive programming and lent the power of his position as a well-known film critic to urge public funding and audience support. In 2000, the Film Center was renamed The Gene Siskel Film Center in his honor.  One of his favorite films was "Saturday Night Fever"; he even bought the famous white disco suit that John Travolta wore in the film from a charity auction. Another all-time favorite was "Dr. Strangelove". A favorite from childhood was "Dumbo", which he often mentioned as the first film that had an influence on him. On the other hand, Siskel said that he walked out on three films during his professional career: the 1971 comedy "The Million Dollar Duck" starring Dean Jones, the 1980 horror film "Maniac", and the 1996 Penelope Spheeris film "Black Sheep".  Siskel compiled "best of the year" film lists from 1969 to 1998, which helped to provide an overview of his critical preferences. His top choices were:  From 1969 until his death in early 1999, he and Ebert were in agreement on nine top selections: "Z", "The Godfather", "Nashville", "The Right Stuff", "Do the Right Thing", "GoodFellas", "Schindler's List", "Hoop Dreams", and "Fargo". There would have been a tenth, but Ebert declined to rank the documentary "Shoah" as 1985's best film because he felt it was inappropriate to compare it to the rest of the year's candidates. Six times, Siskel's #1 choice did not appear on Ebert's top ten list at all: "Straight Time", "Ragtime", "Once Upon a Time in America", "The Last Temptation of Christ", "Hearts of Darkness", and "The Ice Storm". Six times, Ebert's top selection did not appear on Siskel's; these films were "3 Women", "An Unmarried Woman", "Apocalypse Now", "Sophie's Choice", "Mississippi Burning", and "Dark City".  Only once during his long association with Ebert did Siskel ever change his vote on a movie during the review. The film "Broken Arrow" had initially been given a "thumbs up" but after hearing Ebert's criticism, Siskel changed his mind to "thumbs down" to make it unanimous. However, he had changed his opinions on films years after his initial review, such as "Tremors", which he gave a negative review to in 1990 but later gave the film a glowing positive review in 1994, stating "I wasn't sure what I missed the first time around, but it just didn't click."  Both critics had specific sensitivities and feelings that would often vary in extremes to certain kinds of bad films. Ebert was very sensitive to films about race and ethnicity, and Siskel was sensitive to films about families and family relationships and had a special hatred for films like "House Arrest" (1996) and "Like Father Like Son" (1987), both of which were about parents and their children.  Ebert once said of his relationship with Siskel:  When asked what he thought was the biggest difference between him and Ebert, Siskel unhesitatingly replied: "I'm a better reviewer than he is", but a few moments later, he said that anyone who read an Ebert review would read "an extremely well-written review".  At the 1999 Academy Awards ceremony, after its "In Memoriam" montage of deceased stars and film contributors (which did not include Siskel, as he was not an Academy member) host Whoopi Goldberg gave a brief, impromptu tribute to Siskel in which she said:  She included the iconic "thumbs-up" gesture; it received a great round of audience applause.

Eugene Kal Siskel (January 26, 1946 – February 20, 1999) was an American film critic and journalist for the "Chicago Tribune". Along with colleague Roger Ebert, he hosted a series of popular movie review programs on television from 1975 to 1999.

Eugene „Gene“ Kal Siskel (* 26. Januar 1946 in Chicago; † 20. Februar 1999 in Evanston, Illinois) war ein US-amerikanischer Journalist, Filmkritiker und Fernsehmoderator.


"Marxism and the Philosophy of Language".

Written in the late 1920s in the USSR, Voloshinov's "Marxism and the Philosophy of Language" (tr.: "Marksizm i Filosofiya Yazyka") attempts to incorporate the field of linguistics into Marxism. The book's main inspiration does not come from previous Marxists, whom Voloshinov saw as largely indifferent towards the study of language. Voloshinov's theories are instead built on critical engagement with Wilhelm von Humboldt's concept of language as a continuous creative or "generative" process, and with the view of language as a sign-system posited by Ferdinand de Saussure. To some extent, Voloshinov's linguistic thought is also mediated by the analyses of his Soviet contemporary Nicholas Marr.  For Voloshinov, language is the medium of ideology, and cannot be separated from ideology. Ideology, however, is not to be understood in the classical Marxist sense as an illusory mental phenomenon that arises as a reflex of a "real" material economic substructure. Language, as a socially constructed sign-system, is what allows consciousness to arise, and is in itself a material reality. Because of this belief that language and human consciousness are closely related, Voloshinov holds that the study of verbal interaction is key to understanding social psychology. Voloshinov further argues for understanding psychological mechanisms within a framework of ideological function in his book "Freudianism: A Marxist critique".  Voloshinov argues that it is a mistake to study language abstractly and synchronically (i.e. in an unhistorical manner), as Saussure does. For Voloshinov, words are dynamic social signs, which take different meanings for different social classes in different historical contexts. The meaning of words is not subject to passive understanding, but includes the active participation of both the speaker (or writer) and hearer (or reader). While every word is a sign taken from an inventory of available signs, the manipulation of the word contained in each speech act or individual utterance is regulated by social relations. In Voloshinov's view, the meaning of verbal signs is the arena of continuous class struggle: a ruling class will try to narrow the meaning of social signs, making them "uni-accentual", but the clash of various class-interests in times of social unrest will make clear the "multi-accentuality" of words.  By virtue of his belief that the "struggle for meaning" coincides with class struggle, Voloshinov's theories have much in common with those of Italian Communist Antonio Gramsci, who shared an interest in linguistics. Voloshinov's work can also be seen to prefigure many of the concerns of poststructuralism.  Voloshinov devotes the last portion of Marxism and the Philosophy of Language to a treatment of reported speech in order to show social and temporal relations between utterances to be integral properties of language. This was taken up by Roman Jakobson in an essay entitled: "Shifters and Verbal Categories," and influenced the development of the Prague School of functional linguistics as well as linguistic anthropology.  Through an entirely parallel evolution, Volosinov's model of dialogism, of meaning being functionally contextual and of cognition/consciousness emerging from verbal behaviour, prefigured the empirically derived poststructuralist model of language and cognition Relational Frame Theory which emerged in the 1990s, and upon which CBT and ACT therapies are based.  Some scholars believe that works bearing Voloshinov's name were actually authored by his colleague Mikhail Bakhtin, although the topic is still the subject of debate; a few of these works have been added to reprinted editions of Bakhtin's collected works.

Valentin Nikolaevich Voloshinov (; June 18, 1895, St. Petersburg – June 13, 1936, Leningrad) was a Soviet/Russian linguist, whose work has been influential in the field of literary theory and Marxist theory of ideology.

Walentin Nikolajewitsch Woloschinow (, wiss. Transliteration ""; * 18. Juni 1895 in Sankt Petersburg; † 13. Juni 1936 in Leningrad) war ein russischer Literaturwissenschaftler. Er gilt heute als einer der einflussreichen Vordenker der russischen Literaturtheorie, Sprachtheorie und Semiotik.