French career.

In 1780, "Lutine" was under Cambray, and called the ports of Foilleri, Smyrna and Malta, before returning to Toulon, escorting a convoy. Later than year, she was under Garnier de Saint-Antonin, conducting missions in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1781, she was under Flotte, also escorting convoys in the Eastern Mediterranean and calling Marseille, Malta, Smyrna and Foilleri. At Athens, Flotte was gifted an antique relief, that he reported to Navy Minister Castries. From 13 July 1782 to 16 July 1783, she continued the same missions under Gineste.  With the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition, "Lutine" was recommissioned as a bomb ship in 1792.

British career.

On 27 September 1793, the royalists in Toulon surrendered the city, naval dockyards, arsenal, and French Mediterranean fleet to a British fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Lord Hood. The French vessels included:  "Lutine" was one of the ships from the Old Basin. During the siege of Toulon, the British converted "Lutine" to a bomb vessel that fired mortars at the besieging French artillery batteries, which were under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte. When they abandoned Toulon on 19 December, the British took "Lutine" with them.  The ship was sent to Portsmouth in December 1793 for a refit and commissioned as HMS "Lutine".  The loss of the "Lutine" occurred during the Second Coalition of the French Revolutionary Wars, in which an Anglo-Russian army landed in the Batavian Republic (now the Netherlands), which had been occupied by the French since 1795. (The French had captured the Dutch fleet the previous year in a cavalry charge over the frozen polders.) Admiral Duncan had heavily defeated the Dutch fleet in 1797 at the Battle of Camperdown and the remainder of the Dutch fleet was captured on 30 August 1799 by the Duke of York.  During this period "Lutine" served as an escort, guiding transports in and out of the shoal waters around North Holland.  In October 1799 she was employed in carrying about £ in bullion and coin (equivalent in value to £ in ), from Yarmouth to Cuxhaven in order to provide Hamburg's banks with funds in order to prevent a stock market crash and, possibly, for paying troops in North Holland. In the evening of 9 October 1799, during a heavy northwesterly gale, the ship under Captain Lancelot Skynner, having made unexpected leeway, was drawn by the tidal stream flowing into the Waddenzee, onto a sandbank in Vlie off the island of Terschelling, in the West Frisian Islands. There, she became a total loss. All but one of her approximately 240 passengers and crew perished in the breaking seas.  Captain Portlock, commander of the British squadron at Vlieland, reported the loss, writing to the Admiralty in London on 10 October: Three officers, including Captain Skynner, were apparently buried in the Vlieland churchyard, and around two hundred others were buried in a mass grave near the Brandaris lighthouse in Terschelling. No memorials mark these graves.  Captain Lancelot Skynner came from Easton on the Hill, near Stamford, England, where his father was rector for many years. Plaques on the former rectory (known for a time as Lutine House) and in the church commemorate this and Captain Skynner.  The failure of the gold to arrive precipitated the very crisis that it had been designed to prevent.

Legacy.

Site of the wreck.

The site of the wreck, the Vlie, was notorious for its strong currents and the danger of storms forcing ships onto the shore. The area is composed of sandbanks and shoals, which the currents continuously shift, with channels through them: in 1666, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, Admiral Holmes had managed to penetrate these shoals and start Holmes's Bonfire, surprising the Dutch who had considered the shoals impassable. The depth of water also constantly changes, and this has caused much of the difficulty in salvage attempts.  "Lutine" was wrecked in a shallow channel called the IJzergat, which has now completely disappeared, between the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling. Immediately after "Lutine" sank, the wreck began silting up, forcing an end to salvage attempts by 1804. By chance, it was discovered in 1857 that the wreck was again uncovered, but covered again in 1859. The wreck was probably partially uncovered between 1915 and 1916, although no salvage was attempted because of World War I.

The gold.

The gold was insured by Lloyd's of London, which paid the claim in full. The underwriters therefore owned the gold under rights of abandonment and later authorised attempts to salvage it. However, because of the state of war, the Dutch also laid claim to it as a prize of war.  Captain Portlock was instructed by the Admiralty on 29 October 1799 to try to recover the cargo "for the benefit of the persons to whom it belongs"; Lloyd's also sent agents to look over the wreck. The Committee for the Public Properties of Holland instructed the local Receivers of Wrecks to report on the wreck, and F.P. Robbé, the Receiver on Terschelling, was authorised in December 1799 to begin salvage operations. All three parties had drawn attention to the difficulty of salvage due to the unfavourable position of the wreck and lateness of the year. At this point, the wreck was lying in approximately of water.  In 1821, Robbé's successor as Receiver at Terschelling, Pierre Eschauzier successfully petitioned King William I and by royal decree received the sole right In return, the state would receive half of all recoveries. Eschauzier and his heirs therefore became the owners of the wreck by royal decree and thus are known as the 'Decretal Salvors'.  Eschauzier's attempts spurred Lloyd's to approach the British government to defend their rights to the wreck. In 1823, King William revised by subsequent decree the original decree: everything which "had been reserved to the state from the cargo of the above-mentioned frigate" was ceded to the King of Great Britain as a token "of our friendly sentiments towards the Kingdom of Great Britain, and by no means out of a conviction of England's right to any part of the aforementioned cargo." This share was subsequently ceded back to Lloyd's.  The gold was apparently stored in flimsy casks bound with weak iron hoops and the silver in casks with wooden hoops. Within a year of the wreck, these casks had largely disintegrated, and the sea had started to scatter and cover the wreck.  Lloyd's records were destroyed by fire in 1838, and the actual amount of the gold lost is now unknown. In 1858 Lloyd's estimated the total value at £, made up of both silver and gold. Despite extended operations, over 80% remains to be salvaged. An uncorroborated newspaper report in 1869 referred to the Dutch crown jewels being on board.

Initial salvage attempts 1799-1938.

1799-1801: An 1876 account reports that fishermen-with the sanction of the Dutch government in return for two-thirds of the recovered salvage-for a year and a half prior to 1801 recovered £80,000 of Bullion consisting of 58 bars of gold; 35 bars of silver; 42,000 Spanish silver pistoles; 212 half-pistoles, 179 Spanish gold pistoles; with smaller quantities of quarter; eighth and sixteenth pistoles. A 1911 account reports that, besides the gold, silver and pistoles listed above, there was also recovered 41,697-not 42,000- Spanish Silver pistoles; 81 double Louis d'or; 138 single Louis d'or and 4 English guineas with an estimated value of £83,000 pounds sterling. The Dutch government's two-thirds share was re-minted into £56,000 worth of Dutch guilders. Sent to England was a packet of silver spoons initialled "W.S" and recognized as belonging to "Lutine"s captain; likewise, a salvaged sword was identified as belonging to Lt. Charles Gustine Aufrere.  In August 1800 Robbé recovered a cask of seven gold bars, weighing and a small chest containing 4,606 Spanish piastres. Over 4–5 September, two small casks were recovered, one with its bottom stoved in, yielding twelve gold bars. There were also other, more minor, recoveries, making this year the most successful of all the salvage attempts; however, the expenses of the salvage were still greater than the recoveries by 3,241 guilders.  In 1801, although recoveries were made, conditions were unfavourable and the wreck was already silted up. By 1804 Robbé reported: "that the part of the wreck in which one is accustomed to find the precious metals has now been covered by a large piece of the side of the ship (which had previously been found hanging more or less at an angle), thus impeding the salvage work, which was otherwise possible." Salvage attempts appear to have been given up at this point.  In 1814, Pierre Eschauzier was allocated 300 guilders for salvage by the Dutch King and recovered "8 Louis d'or and 7 Spanish piastres fished out of the wreck of the Lutine".  In 1821, Eschauzier put together a syndicate with the intention of using a diving bell manned by "amphibicque" Englishmen. However, Mr. Rennie, the engineer died that year; in 1822, the diving bell arrived at the end of June, but operations were frustrated by bad weather and silting-up of the wreck; at this stage the wreck was reckoned to be under the sand. Although salvage attempts continued until 1829, little was gained and the diving bell was sold on to the Dutch navy. In 1835, the sandbank covering "Lutine" shrank and moved southwards, with the depth of water being and desultory attempts at salvage were made. Further attempts to raise capital were largely unsuccessful.  In 1857, it was discovered by chance that "a channel had formed straight across the Goudplaat sandbank, leading over the wreck, so that the latter was not merely clear of sand but had also sunk further below the surface with the channel [...] the bows and stern, together with the decks and sides, had come completely away, leaving only the keel with the keelson above it and some ribs attached to this". Recovery work immediately recommenced, now using helmeted divers ("helmduikers") and bell divers ("klokduikers"), the latter using a bell called the "Hollandsche Duiker" ('Dutch diver'). However, a large number of unauthorised salvors also displayed an interest, which led the Dutch government to station a gunboat in the area. Over the course of the season approximately 20,000 guilders-worth of specie was recovered.  The 1858 season was hampered by poor weather but yielded 32 gold bars and 66 silver bars. This ship's bell was also discovered in this year (see below). In 1859 it became apparent that the treasure had been stored towards the stern of the ship, and that the stern was lying on its side, with the starboard side uppermost and the port side sunk into the sand. This area, however, only gave up 4 gold bars, 1 silver bar, and over 3,500 piastres. By 1860, the depth of the wreck had reached and the quantity of salvage was declining. Nonetheless, over the four years salvage worth half a million guilders had been recovered: 41 gold bars, 64 silver bars, and 15,350 various coins, and the syndicate paid a 136% return; attempts were finally ended in 1863 as the wreck again silted up.  After 1860 to 1889 attempts at salvage are reported to have recovered 11,164 coins valued at $4,600.  In 1867, an inventor, Willem Hendrik ter Meulen, proposed using a 'zandboor' ('sand drill'), "a device which forced water into the sandy sea bed in order to clear a way for a helmet diver" and signed a three-year contract, subsequently extended for another three years and then a further twenty years. The plan was that when the depth of water reached, the machine would be used to excavate the same depth of sand down onto the wreck. Ter Meulen bought a steel-hulled, paddlewheel-driven 50 h.p. steam tug, "Antagonist". The engine was modified such that it could be disconnected from the paddlewheels and used to drive the centrifugal 'whirlpool' pump. The pump was capable of pumping water at a rate of, but tests showed that was sufficient, and the 'zandboor' took only a couple of minutes to penetrate through to the wreck. It was also found that the sand did not collapse once the diver descended through the drilled hole into the cavity excavated by the machine.  Unfortunately, the wreck remained heavily silted up, with the depth of water varying between a high of (in 1873) to a low of (in 1868 and again in 1884). However, ter Meulen was responsible for re-establishing the landmarks used for taking transits of the wreck site and for establishing its position:.  In 1886 a cannon was salvaged and presented by Lloyd's to Queen Victoria: it is now on display at Windsor Castle. Another was offered to the City of London Corporation and is on display at the Guildhall, London. A final cannon was passed to the Lloyd's sports club in Essex. More are on display in Amsterdam's Stedelijk Museum, and at least four are in Terschelling. A number of coins and small relics were recovered to the value of ₤700.  In 1891 a few small coins were found  In 1896 a cannon was presented to Queen Wilhelmina.  In 1898 two hundred weight of timber was recovered from which a chair was made for Lloyd's of London.  In 1911 a Salvage Company was organized to salvage the reported treasure. In 1912 this effort is reported to have recovered silver coins, cannon, cannonballs, grapeshot and an anchor but no treasure.  In 1913 the two bower anchors, carried at the ship's bow, each weighing were recovered and put on display in Amsterdam. Consideration was given by Lloyd's to setting the anchors up as a monument behind the Royal Exchange in place of a statue to Sir Robert Peel, but this was not carried out and only the wooden stocks, marked "Lutine" were forwarded to Lloyd's.  Reportedly the outbreak of World War I prevented another salvage attempt.  In 1933 an attempt was made to salvage the reported treasure, but was stopped when the salvage bell was wrecked by a World War I sea mine.  In 1934 an attempt was made to salvage the reported treasure.  In 1938 an attempt was made to salvage the reported treasure. Only one gold bar was found.

The Lloyd's Act 1871.

A brief history of the loss and salvage attempts is given in the preamble to the Lloyd's Act 1871:  The ownership of the remaining, unsalved, gold is vested in half shares between the 'decretal salvors' and the Society of Lloyd's, Lloyd's ownership being governed under the terms of the Lloyd's Act 1871, §35:

The Lutine Bell.

The ship's bell (engraved "ST. JEAN - 1779") was recovered on 17 July 1858. The bell was found entangled in the chains originally running from the ship's wheel to the rudder, and was originally left in this state before being separated and re-hung from the rostrum of the Underwriting Room at Lloyd's. It weighs and is in diameter. It remains a mystery why the name on the bell does not correspond with that of the ship. The bell was traditionally struck when news of an overdue ship arrived - once for the loss of a ship (i.e. bad news), and twice for her return (i.e. good news). The bell was sounded to stop the transaction of business while all brokers and underwriters were made aware of the news simultaneously. This was because reinsurance on an overdue vessel was often placed (so that an underwriter could close their books on a block of older business), so making the latest information on a ship highly material to a partly placed reinsurance contract. The bell has developed a crack and the traditional practice of ringing news has ended: the last time it was rung to tell of a lost ship was in 1979 and the last time it was rung to herald the return of an overdue ship was in 1989.  During World War II, the Nazi radio propagandist Lord Haw-Haw asserted that the bell was being rung continuously because of Allied shipping losses during the Battle of the Atlantic. In fact, the bell was rung once, with one ring, during the war, when the was sunk.  It tolls when a member of the Royal Family dies and was heard after the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. It is now rung for ceremonial purposes to commemorate disasters such as the 9/11 disaster, the Asian tsunami, and the London Bombings, and is always rung at the start and end of the two minutes silence on Armistice Day.  The bell has hung in four successive Lloyd's Underwriting Rooms:  There is also a chair and table at Lloyd's made from the frigate's rudder. The rudder was salvaged on 18 September 1858. This furniture was previously in the Lloyd's writing room and was used by the Chairman of Lloyd's at the annual general meeting of members, but is now kept in the Old Library of the Lloyd's building.

Notes, citations, and references.

Notes  Citations  References  External links

Lutine was a frigate which served in both the French Navy and the Royal Navy. She was launched by the French in 1779. The ship passed to British control in 1793 and was taken into service as HMS "Lutine". She sank among the West Frisian Islands during a storm in 1799.

Die HMS "Lutine" war eine französische Fregatte, die 1793 von der Royal Navy erbeutet wurde und 1799 sank. Bekannt ist sie bis heute vor allem durch ihre Schiffsglocke, die 1858 geborgen wurde und bis heute im Hauptsitz von Lloyd’s of London aufgehängt ist.


Early years.

Ian Holm Cuthbert was born on 12 September 1931 in Goodmayes, in Essex, to Scottish parents, James Harvey Cuthbert and his wife Jean Wilson (née Holm). His father was a psychiatrist who worked as the superintendent of the West Ham Corporation Mental Hospital and was one of the pioneers of electric shock therapy; his mother was a nurse. He had an older brother, who died when Ian was 12 years old. Holm was educated at the independent Chigwell School in Essex. His parents retired to Mortehoe in Devon and then to Worthing, where he joined an amateur dramatic society.  A chance encounter with Henry Baynton, a well-known provincial Shakespearean actor, helped Holm train for admission to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, where he secured a place from 1950. His studies there were interrupted a year later when he was called up for National Service in the British Army, during which he was posted to Klagenfurt, Austria, and attained the rank of Lance Corporal. They were then interrupted a second time when he volunteered to go on an acting tour of the United States in 1952. Holm graduated from Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1953. He made his stage debut in 1954, at Stratford-upon-Avon, playing a spear-carrier in a staging of "Othello". Two years later, he made his London stage debut in "Love Affair".

Career.

Holm was an established star of the Royal Shakespeare Company before making an impact on television and film. In 1965, he played Richard III in the BBC serialisation of "The Wars of The Roses", based on the RSC production of the plays. In 1969, he appeared in "Moonlight on the Highway". He appeared in minor roles in films such as "Oh! What a Lovely War" (1969), "Nicholas and Alexandra" (1971), "Mary, Queen of Scots" (1972) and "Young Winston" (1972).  In 1967, Holm won a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play as Lenny in "The Homecoming" by Harold Pinter. In 1977, Holm appeared in the television mini-series "Jesus of Nazareth" as the Sadducee Zerah, and a villainous Moroccan in "March or Die". The following year he played J. M. Barrie in the award-winning BBC mini-series "The Lost Boys", In 1981, he played Frodo Baggins in the BBC radio adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings".  Holm's first film role to have a major impact was that of Ash, the "calm, technocratic" science officer in Ridley Scott's science-fiction film "Alien" (1979). His portrayal of Sam Mussabini in "Chariots of Fire" (1981) earned him a special award at the Cannes Film Festival, a BAFTA award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. In the 1980s, he had memorable roles in "Time Bandits" (1981), "" (1984) and Terry Gilliam's "Brazil" (1985). He played Lewis Carroll, the author of "Alice in Wonderland", in "Dreamchild" (1985).  In 1989, Holm was nominated for a BAFTA award for the television series "Game, Set and Match". Based on the novels by Len Deighton, this tells the story of an intelligence officer (Holm) who discovers that his own wife is an enemy spy. He continued to perform Shakespeare, and appeared with Kenneth Branagh in "Henry V" (1989) and as Polonius to Mel Gibson's "Hamlet" (1990). Holm was reunited with Kenneth Branagh in "Mary Shelley's Frankenstein" (1994), playing the father of Branagh's Victor Frankenstein.  Holm raised his profile in 1997 with two prominent roles, as the stressed but gentle priest Vito Cornelius in "The Fifth Element" and lawyer Mitchell Stephens in "The Sweet Hereafter". In 2001 he starred in "From Hell" as the physician Sir William Withey Gull. The same year, he appeared as Bilbo Baggins in the blockbuster film "", having previously played Bilbo's nephew Frodo Baggins in the 1981 BBC Radio adaptation of "The Lord of the Rings". He returned for "" (2003), for which he shared a SAG award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. He later reprised his role as the elderly Bilbo Baggins in the movie "" and "". Martin Freeman portrayed the young Bilbo Baggins in those films.  Holm was nominated for an Emmy Award twice, for a PBS broadcast of a National Theatre production of "King Lear", in 1999; and for a supporting role in the HBO film "The Last of the Blonde Bombshells" opposite Judi Dench, in 2001.  Holm appeared in two David Cronenberg films: "Naked Lunch" (1991) and "eXistenZ" (1999). He was Harold Pinter's favourite actor, the playwright once stating: "He puts on my shoe, and it fits!" Holm played Lenny in both the London and New York City premieres of Pinter's "The Homecoming".  Holm played Napoleon Bonaparte three times: in the television mini-series "Napoleon and Love" (1974), Terry Gilliam's "Time Bandits" (1981), and "The Emperor's New Clothes".

Personal life and death.

Holm was married four times: to Lynn Mary Shaw in 1955 (dissolved 1965); to Sophie Baker in 1982 (dissolved 1986); to actress Penelope Wilton, in Wiltshire, in 1991 (dissolved 2002); and to the artist Sophie de Stempel in 2003. He had two daughters, Jessica Holm and Sarah-Jane Holm, from his first marriage; a son, Harry Holm, from his second marriage; and a daughter, Melissa (Lissy) Holm, and son, Barnaby Holm, from his 15-year relationship with the photographer Bee Gilbert.  Holm and Wilton appeared together in the BBC miniseries "The Borrowers" (1993). His last wife, Sophie de Stempel, is a protégée and was a life model of Lucian Freud, as well as an artist in her own right. He was treated for prostate cancer in 2001 and had Parkinson's disease for some years.  Holm died in hospital in London on 19 June 2020 at the age of 88.

Honours and awards.

Nominations and awards for films and TV roles are listed in filmography.

Sir Ian Holm Cuthbert (12 September 193119 June 2020), known as Ian Holm, was an English actor. He received the 1967 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor for his performance as Lenny in "The Homecoming" and the 1998 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor for his performance in the title role of "King Lear". He won the 1981 BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his role as athletics trainer Sam Mussabini in "Chariots of Fire", for which he was also nominated for an Academy Award.

Sir Ian Holm Cuthbert, CBE (* 12. September 1931 in Goodmayes, Essex, England; † 19. Juni 2020 in London), war ein britischer Schauspieler, der zunächst als Theaterdarsteller große Anerkennung gewann. Später wurde er auch durch Charakterrollen in Filmen wie "Alien", "Die Stunde des Siegers", "Brazil" und "Das süße Jenseits" bekannt. In den "Herr-der-Ringe"- und "Hobbit"-Filmtrilogien übernahm er jeweils die Rolle des Bilbo Beutlin.


Early life.

Her name Zulfiya originates from the Persian word "zulf" meaning 'a curl of hair' and '(in a mystic sense) the divine mysteries forming the delight of the devotee'.  Zulfiya was born in Mahallah Dergez, near Tashkent to a family of craftsmen. Her parents were very interested in culture and literature. Her mother used to sing her popular songs and tales.

Career.

Her first poem was published 17 July 1931 in the Uzbek newspaper "Ishchi" (The Worker). Her first collection of poetry ("Hayot varaqlari", "Pages of Life") was published in 1932. In the following decades she wrote patriotic works as well as propaganda, pacifist works, and works on nature and women's topics.  From 1938 on, Zulfiya worked for various publishers and was a member of several national and interrepublican organizations. She repeatedly was a leader or chief editor for various media. After the death of her husband Hamid Olimjon in an accident in 1944, she dedicated to him several works. In 1953 she joined the Communist Party and also became the editor of "Saodat" magazine. In 1956, she was part of a delegation of Soviet writers led by Konstantin Simonov to the Asian Writers' Conference in Delhi. In 1957 she participated in the Asian-African Solidarity Conference in Cairo.

Personal life.

Zulfiya was married to the renowned Uzbek poet Hamid Olimjon. He died in a car accident on July 3, 1944, in Tashkent. He was 34 years old at the time of his death.

Death.

Zulfiya died at 81 years, on 23 August 1996 in Tashkent.

Legacy.

In 1999, the Uzbek National Award for Women was created and named after her. On March 1, 2008, a statue in her memory was unveiled in Tashkent.

Zulfiya Isroilova, known by her pen name Zulfiya (in Cyrillic "") (born 14 March 1915 in Tashkent then part of the Russian Empire – died 23 August 1996 in Tashkent, Uzbekistan) was an Uzbek writer.

Zulfiya (in kyrillischer Schrift ', mit vollem Namen Zulfiya Isroilova"', "Sulfija Israilowa"; * in Taschkent; † 1996 ebenda) war eine usbekische Schriftstellerin.


Inscriptions and shrines.

About a dozen inscriptions in honour of Mars Loucetius have been recovered, mainly from eastern Gaul, with a particular concentration among the Vangiones and Aresaces (two Rhenish tribes). Inscriptions to him have also been found at Bath and Angers; the altar at Bath specifies that it was dedicated by a citizen of the Treveri.  Inscriptions often invoke Mars Loucetius together with Victoria or Nemetona (or both, in the case of the Eisenberg inscription). Edith Mary Wightman considers this pair “closely similar to if not identical with, Lenus and Ancamna”, who are known chiefly from the territory of the Treveri adjacent to those of the Aresaces and Vangiones.  Four of the inscriptions to Mars Loucetius are also dedicated "IN H(onorem) D(omūs) D(ivinae)", ‘in honour of the divine house’ (i.e. the imperial family).  Wightman further suggests that the shrine of Mars Loucetius at Klein-Winternheim, south of Mainz, was “a central one for the Aresaces”, the ancient inhabitants of the Mainz-Bingen area.

Name and etymology.

The name "Loucetios" may be derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *"leuk-" ‘shine’; Xavier Delamarre glosses the theonym as "“Eclair”" (‘lightning-flash’). It is presumably analogous to Oscan "Loucetius" ‘light-bringer’, an epithet of Jupiter. The Gaulish and Brythonic forms likely derive from Proto-Celtic "*louk(k)et-", ‘bright, shining, flashing’, hence also ‘lightning’, in reference to either a Celtic common metaphor for battles as thunderstorms (Old Irish "torannchless", the "thunder feat"), or else the divine aura of the hero (the "lúan" of Cú Chulainn). Loucetios was also considered as Sulis Minerva's consort.

Modern literature.

In Neil Gaiman's "American Gods", Leucotios appears in chapter three, during Shadow's (the main character) dream of forgotten gods. Gaiman's Leucotios is described as a “man with... white hair, with a necklace of teeth about his neck, holding a drum”.

In Gallo-Roman religion, Loucetios (Latinized as Leucetius) was a Gallic god known from the Rhine-Moselle region, where he was invariably identified with the Roman Mars. Scholars have interpreted his name to mean ‘lightning’. Mars Loucetius was worshipped alongside the goddess Nemetona.

Leucetius oder (jünger) Loucetius (gall. "Loucetios, Leucetios") war ein keltischer (Heil- und/oder Kriegs-)Gott, der nach der Interpretatio Romana mit dem römischen Kriegsgott Mars gleichgesetzt wurde. Der Name ist vom keltischen Wort für „leuchten, glänzen“ abgeleitet; der Wechsel zwischen /eu/ und /ou/ kommt recht häufig vor. Eine weitere Verbindung wäre auch zum altirischen "lóchet" (poetisch für „Blitz“) möglich; ebenso käme eine Übertragung des italischen Iupiter-Epithetons "Lucetius" in Frage.


Raw interface.

BPF provides pseudo-devices that can be bound to a network interface; reads from the device will read buffers full of packets received on the network interface, and writes to the device will inject packets on the network interface.  In 2007, Robert Watson and Christian Peron added zero-copy buffer extensions to the BPF implementation in the FreeBSD operating system, allowing kernel packet capture in the device driver interrupt handler to write directly to user process memory in order to avoid the requirement for two copies for all packet data received via the BPF device. While one copy remains in the receipt path for user processes, this preserves the independence of different BPF device consumers, as well as allowing the packing of headers into the BPF buffer rather than copying complete packet data.

Filtering.

BPF's filtering capabilities are implemented as an interpreter for a machine language for the BPF virtual machine. Programs in that language can fetch data from the packet, perform arithmetic operations on data from the packet, and compare the results against constants or against data in the packet or test bits in the results, accepting or rejecting the packet based on the results of those tests.  Traditional Unix-like BPF implementations can be used in userspace, despite being written for kernel-space. This is accomplished using preprocessor conditions.

Extensions and optimizations.

Some projects use BPF instruction sets or execution techniques different from the originals.  Some platforms, including FreeBSD, NetBSD, and WinPcap, use a just-in-time (JIT) compiler to convert BPF instructions into native code in order to improve performance. Linux includes a BPF JIT compiler which is disabled by default.  Kernel-mode interpreters for that same virtual machine language are used in raw data link layer mechanisms in other operating systems, such as Tru64 Unix, and for socket filters in the Linux kernel and in the WinPcap and Npcap packet capture mechanism. Since version 3.18, the Linux kernel includes an extended BPF virtual machine, termed extended BPF (eBPF). It can be used for non-networking purposes, such as for attaching eBPF programs to various tracepoints. Since kernel version 3.19, eBPF filters can be attached to sockets, and, since kernel version 4.1, to traffic control classifiers for the ingress and egress networking data path. The original and obsolete version has been retroactively renamed to classic BPF (cBPF). Nowadays, the Linux kernel runs eBPF only and loaded cBPF bytecode is transparently translated into an eBPF representation in the kernel before program execution.  A user-mode interpreter for BPF is provided with the libpcap/WinPcap/Npcap implementation of the pcap API, so that, when capturing packets on systems without kernel-mode support for that filtering mechanism, packets can be filtered in user mode; code using the pcap API will work on both types of systems, although, on systems where the filtering is done in user mode, all packets, including those that will be filtered out, are copied from the kernel to user space. That interpreter can also be used when reading a file containing packets captured using pcap.

History.

The original paper was written by Steven McCanne and Van Jacobson in 1992 while at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory  In August 2003, SCO Group publicly claimed that the Linux kernel was infringing Unix code which they owned. Programmers quickly discovered that one example they gave was the Berkeley Packet Filter, which in fact SCO never owned. SCO has not explained or acknowledged the mistake but the ongoing legal action may eventually force an answer.

Security concerns.

Spectre attack may leverage Linux kernel eBPF JIT compiler to extract data from other kernel processes and allow user-space to read it.

The Berkeley Packet Filter (BPF) is a technology used in certain computer operating systems for programs that need to, among other things, analyze network traffic. It provides a raw interface to data link layers, permitting raw link-layer packets to be sent and received. It is available on most Unix-like operating systems. In addition, if the driver for the network interface supports promiscuous mode, it allows the interface to be put into that mode so that all packets on the network can be received, even those destined to other hosts.

Das Berkeley Packet Filter (BPF), auch Berkeley-Filter, bietet auf unixähnlichen Betriebssystemen eine Schnittstelle zur Sicherungsschicht an, die es erlaubt, Datenpakete der Sicherungsschicht zu senden und zu empfangen. Falls der Treiber der Netzwerkschnittstelle den Promiscuous Mode unterstützt, kann die Schnittstelle in diesen Modus geschaltet werden, damit alle Pakete des Netzwerkes, auch jene, die für andere Netzwerkadapter bestimmt sind, empfangen werden können.


Education.

Ivan Petrella holds a bachelor's degree from Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service, a Masters of Theological Studies from Harvard Divinity School and a Ph.D. in Religion and Law from Harvard University's Committee on the Study of Religion in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

Theological views.

As an Argentine liberation theologian that is also agnostic, Petrella's scholarship cuts across religious studies departments and divinity schools, the United States and Latin America, and theology and the social sciences. He is difficult to categorize. Historian Mario Aguilar notes that “for an Argentinean newspaper, he is a theologian, while for others in the United States he is a scholar of religion, two hats in one.” His work “marks the appearance of something new and something different within the discourse of liberation theology as a world phenomenon.”  Petrella is particularly interested in bridging the divide between different liberation theologies including black theology, Latin American liberation theology, Womanist theology and Hispanic/Latino(a) theology. He also argues that disciplines like economics, political science, and law need to be transformed in light of liberation theology's preferential option for the poor and envision undercover liberation theologians posing as social scientists to engage that task: “Here the liberation theologian need not carry the label ‘theologian’ and works best under a different disciplinary guise. Could the future of liberation call for the dissolution of liberation theology as an identifiable field of production?” He challenges those academic disciplines, which may operate in favour of the wealthy.

Public services.

He is the Secretary of Culture in Argentina's Ministry of Culture. Previously he was an elected representative in the City of Buenos Aires state legislature.

Ivan Petrella (born November 8, 1969) is an Argentine social theorist and liberation theologian. He is the Secretary of Culture in Argentina's Ministry of Culture and currently teaches at Universidad Torcuato Di Tella in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He was an associate professor in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida and co-executive editor of the “Reclaiming Liberation Theology” book series with SCM Press.

Ivan Petrella (* 8. November 1969), auch Iván Petrella, ist ein argentinischer Theologe und politischer Publizist. Er ist Professor am "Department of Religious Studies" der University of Miami.


Plot.

The film takes influence from Eminem's life before fame. In 1995 Detroit Jimmy "B-Rabbit" Smith Jr. is a young, unhappy blue-collar worker from a poor family. Jimmy has moved back north of 8 Mile Road to the run-down trailer home in Warren, Michigan of his alcoholic mother Stephanie, his younger sister Lily, and Stephanie's abusive live-in boyfriend Greg. Although encouraged by his friends, Jimmy worries about his potential as a rapper. One night, Jimmy freezes during a rap battle at a local venue, the Shelter, and he leaves the stage humiliated.  During the day, Jimmy works at a car factory. When he asks for extra shifts, his supervisor bluntly dismisses his request on account of his habitual tardiness. Later on, Jimmy befriends a woman named Alex. Jimmy begins to take more responsibility for the direction of his life. When he exhibits an improved attitude and performance at work, his supervisor grants him the extra shifts that he requested.  At some point, Stephanie receives an eviction notice as she can't pay rent. Despite her best attempts to keep the eviction notice a secret, Greg finds out about it and confronts Stephanie. When Jimmy attacks Greg for threatening his mother, they fight and Greg leaves Stephanie for good.  Jimmy's friendship with Wink, a radio DJ with ties to a record label promoter, becomes strained after he discovers that Wink does promotional work for Jimmy's rivals, a rap group known as the "Leaders of the Free World". At one point, Jimmy and his friends get into a violent brawl with the Leaders, which is disrupted when Jimmy's friend Cheddar Bob pulls out a gun and accidentally shoots himself in the leg; he survives but is confined to crutches.  At work one day when on lunch break, Jimmy witnesses a rap battle in which an employee insults a gay co-worker, Paul. Jimmy joins the battle and defends Paul. Alex is impressed by Jimmy's actions and they have sex. Wink arranges for Jimmy to meet with producers at a recording studio, but Jimmy finds Wink and Alex having sex. Enraged, Jimmy attacks Wink as Alex tries to break up their altercation.  In retaliation, Wink and the Leaders of the Free World assault Jimmy outside his trailer. The leader of the gang, Papa Doc, holds Jimmy at gunpoint - threatening to kill him until Wink dissuades him. Once the group has left Jimmy alone, his mother returns with enough money to pay to avoid eviction - having won $3,200 at a bingo tournament.  Jimmy's best friend and battle host, Future, pushes him to get revenge by competing against the Leaders of the Free World at the next rap battle. However, Jimmy's late-night shift conflicts with the timing of the next battle tournament. A goodbye visit from Alex, who is moving to New York, changes his mind about competing, and Paul agrees to cover his shift at work as a favor while Jimmy goes to the battle.  In all rounds of the rap battle, Jimmy has to compete against one member of "The Free World". After winning the first two rounds, he faces off against Papa Doc and ultimately wins by preemptively pointing out his own "white trash" roots and difficult life and then exposing Papa Doc's comparatively privileged and stable upbringing while posing as a thug. With nothing to say in rebuttal, Papa Doc hands the microphone back to Future, embarrassed. After being congratulated by Alex and his friends, Jimmy is offered a position by Future - hosting battles at The Shelter. Jimmy declines, saying he has to go his own way, and walks back to work.

Production.

The film had been in production since 2000. The film began shooting in September 2001 in Highland Park, MI.

Music.

"Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture 8 Mile" is the soundtrack to "8 Mile". Eminem features on five tracks from the album. It was released under the Shady/Interscope label and spawned Eminem's first number 1 US single "Lose Yourself". The album debuted at number one on the U.S. "Billboard" 200 Albums Chart that year with over 702,000 copies sold and 507,000 sold in the second week also finishing the year as the fifth best-selling album of 2002 with US sales of 3.2 million, despite only two months.

Reception.

Box office.

"8 Mile" opened at with $51,240,555 in its opening weekend, the then second highest opening for an R-rated movie in the U.S. The film would go on to gross $116,750,901 domestically and $126,124,177 overseas for a total of $242,875,078 worldwide. The film's final domestic gross would hold the film at in Box Office Mojo's "Pop Star Debuts" list, behind "Austin Powers in Goldmember" (Beyoncé) and "The Bodyguard" (Whitney Houston).  The "8 Mile" DVD, which was released on March 18, 2003, generated $75 million in sales and rentals in its first week, making it the biggest DVD debut ever for an R-rated movie and putting it in the all-time Top 10 for first week home video sales for a movie. A VHS version was also released on the same date.

Critical reception.

"8 Mile" received positive reviews, with critics praising the music and Eminem's performance. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports the film is "Certified Fresh", with 75% of 213 professional critics giving the film a positive review and a rating average of 6.71/10. The site's consensus is that "Even though the story is overly familiar, there's enough here for an engaging ride." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 77 based on 38 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave "8 Mile" was B+ on an A+ to F scale, with the core under-21 demographics giving it an A.  Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars. He said that we "are hardly started in "8 Mile", and already we see that this movie stands aside from routine debut films by pop stars" and that it is "a faithful reflection of his myth". He said that Eminem, as an actor, is "convincing without being too electric" and "survives the X-ray truth-telling of the movie camera" In the "At the Movies with Ebert and Roeper" review, both Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film a thumbs up; Roeper said that Eminem has a "winning screen presence" and "raw magic" to him. He was happy with Rabbit's "tender side" presented through his relationship with the "adorable" Greenfield as his sister, but felt that Basinger was "really miscast". Roeper said: "8 Mile probably won't win converts to rap, but it should thrill Eminem fans."  Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars. He said that "8 Mile" "is a real movie, not a fast-buck package to exploit the fan base of a rap nonentity" that "qualifies as a cinematic event by tapping into the roots of Eminem and the fury and feeling that inform his rap." He praised Hanson's directing and the performances, and compared the final battle with Papa Doc to the fight between Rocky Balboa and Apollo Creed in "Rocky".

Top lists.

"8 Mile" has been named in various year-end and all-time top lists:

Awards and honors.

In 2003, Eminem won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 75th Academy Awards, for his single "Lose Yourself" from the soundtrack of "8 Mile", becoming the first hip hop artist ever to win an Academy Award. He was not present at the ceremony, but co-writer Luis Resto accepted the award. The film has been nominated for 32 awards, winning 11. 17 years later, Eminem performed the song in a surprise appearance at the 2020 Academy Awards.  The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Home media.

"8 Mile" was first released on VHS and DVD on March 18, 2003. It was later released on Blu-ray.

8 Mile is a 2002 American drama film written by Scott Silver and directed by Curtis Hanson. It stars Eminem in his film debut, alongside Mekhi Phifer, Brittany Murphy, Michael Shannon, Anthony Mackie, and Kim Basinger. The film, which contains autobiographical elements from Eminem's life, follows white rapper B-Rabbit (Eminem) and his attempt to launch a career in a genre dominated by African-Americans, hip hop. The title is derived from 8 Mile Road, the highway between the predominantly black city of Detroit and the largely white suburban communities to the north.

8 Mile, auch bekannt als "8 Mile – Jeder Augenblick ist eine neue Chance", ist ein US-amerikanischer, Oscar-prämierter Spielfilm aus dem Jahr 2002. Er entstand unter der Regie von Curtis Hanson. In der Hauptrolle spielt der Rapper Eminem in seiner ersten Kino-Rolle den jungen Rapper Jimmy Smith Jr. alias „Rabbit“.


Topography.

The topography of the park mainly comprises undulating hilly terrain with altitude ranging between 177 and 599 metres above the sea level.

Flora.

The vegetation of the Indravati National Park is mainly of the tropical moist and dry deciduous type with predominance of bamboo, sal and teak. There are also rich patches of luxuriant grassland providing plenty of food to large herbivores such as wild water buffalos, chital, barking deer, nilgai, and gaurs. The most common tree in the park are teak, lendia, salai, mahua, tendu, semal, haldu, ber and jamun.

Wildlife.

Indravati National Park has one of the last populations of the endangered wild Asian buffalo. The national park is also home to a variety of other ungulate species. Reported from the area are gaur (Indian bison), nilgai, blackbuck, chausingha (four-horned antelope), sambar, chital, Indian muntjac, Indian spotted chevrotain and wild boar. Large predators are represented by tigers, leopards, sloth bears, dholes (wild dog) and striped hyenas. Smaller mammals include flying squirrel, porcupine, pangolins, rhesus monkeys and langurs among many others. The commonly found reptiles in the park are freshwater crocodile, monitor lizard, Indian chameleon, common krait, Indian rock python, cobra and Russell's viper to name a few. The park also gives shelter to the large variety of birds of which the hill myna is the most important species.

Transport.

Indravati National Park is easily approachable from Jagdalpur, the district headquarters of Bastar. The village Kutrue, the main entry point of the park, is situated at the distance of 22.4 km north of Jagdalpur-Bhopalpattanam road. The Kutrue link road is at the distance of 145.6 km from Jagdalpur. Raipur (486 km) has the nearest airport and Jagdalpur (168 km) is the nearest railhead from the Indravati National Park.

Visiting.

The best season to visit the park is from 15 December to 15 June.

Indravati National Park is a national park located in Bijapur district of Chhattisgarh state of India. It derives its name from the nearby Indravati River. It is home to one of the last populations of rare wild buffalo.

Der Indravati-Nationalpark ist ein Nationalpark im indischen Bundesstaat Chhattisgarh. Er liegt 168 Kilometer westlich von Jagdalpur am Fluss Indravati im Distrikt Dantewara und hat eine Fläche von 1.258,37 km2. Die Höhen in der hügeligen Region variieren zwischen 177 und 599 m über dem Meeresspiegel. Er beherbergt ein reichhaltiges Wildtierleben, darunter Tiger, Leoparden, Hirsche, Antilopen und eine der beiden letzten Populationen des Wilden Wasserbüffels in Zentral-Indien.


General remarks.

According to Article 108(2) of the EEA Agreement of 2 May 1992, the EFTA States taking part in the EEA Agreement shall establish a court of justice. That obligation was complied with by the conclusion of the "Surveillance and Court Agreement" (SCA), cf. Art. 27. The EFTA Court was originally designed for the then seven EFTA States Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. On 1 January 1994, upon the entry into force of the EEA Agreement, the EFTA Court took up its functions with five judges nominated by Austria, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Switzerland was unable to ratify the EEA Agreement due to a negative referendum. Liechtenstein postponed membership until 1 May 1995. In 1995, Austria, Finland and Sweden left EFTA and joined the EU. Since September 1995, the EFTA Court has consisted of three judges and six "ad hoc" judges nominated by the three actual EEA/EFTA States Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway and appointed by their Governments through common accord.  When the EEA Agreement entered into force on 1 January 1994, the seat of the Court was the old EFTA capital Geneva. After the accession of Austria, Finland and Sweden to the European Union, it was decided to move the Court's seat to Luxembourg, where the European Court of Justice and the General Court are located. On 1 September 1996, the EFTA Court moved to Luxembourg.

Organization.

The EFTA Court is an independent judicial body, established under the “Surveillance and Court Agreement” (SCA) to ensure judicial oversight of the EEA Agreement in the EEA/EFTA States. It came into operation following the entry into force of the EEA Agreement on 1 January 1994, and it has essentially been modelled on a 1994 version of the European Court of Justice. The main difference is that it has no Advocates General.

Judges.

The EFTA Court consists of 3 permanent judges. Each EEA/EFTA State has the right to nominate one candidate for the position. The Judges are appointed by common accord of the governments of the EEA/EFTA States for a renewable term of six years. In 2016, Norway tried to re-elect Per Christiansen for a term of only three years, officially in conformity with the Norwegian age limit of 70. However, following criticism that this was really to punish him for ruling against Oslo in a series of controversial cases, Norway reversed its position and the Norwegian was re-appointed for the usual term of six years. The judges are chosen from persons whose independence is beyond doubt and who possess the qualifications required for appointment to the highest judicial offices in their respective countries or who are jurisconsults of recognized competence. A further six "ad hoc" judges are also chosen, pursuant to Article 30 SCA. One of the six "ad hoc" judge is called upon to sit if a regular judge is prevented from participating in a case due to bias or illness. Each judge has his or her cabinet which consists of the judge and at least one legal secretary and an administrative assistant. The following is a list of current and former EFTA Court Judges:

President.

The judges elect, by secret ballot, one of their colleagues to be President of the Court for a term of three years. The President may be re-elected. He or she directs the judicial business and the administration of the Court. The President assigns the cases to a judge to act as a rapporteur. He or she sets the dates and timetable for the sessions of the Court, presides at hearings and deliberations. The President is competent to take decisions on requests for the application of interim measures. Presidents of the EFTA Court include:

Registry.

The Court appoints a Registrar for a period of three years, after which he or she may be reappointed. The Registrar assists the Court in procedural matters, and is the head of personnel. He or she is responsible for the Registry as well as for the receipt, transmission and custody of documents and pleadings. The Registrar is also responsible for the Court's archives and publications, for the administration of the Court, its financial management and its accounts. The Registrar supports the judges in their official and representative functions. The operation of the Court is in the hands of officials and other servants who are responsible to the Registrar under the authority of the President. The Court administers its own infrastructure and its own budget.  Registrars of the Court:

Jurisdiction.

The EFTA Court's Statute and its Rules of Procedure are modelled on those of the European Court of Justice. Individuals and economic operators have broad access to the Court. The EFTA Court is in particular competent to decide on:

Expedited Procedure and Accelerated Procedure cases.

In direct action cases, on application by the applicant or the defendant, the President may exceptionally decide that a case is to be determined pursuant to an expedited procedure derogating from the Rules of Procedure where the particular urgency of the case requires the Court to give its ruling with the minimum of delay. This ensures that the case is prioritised so that the Court's judgment can be given as soon as possible in the best interests of justice.  In preliminary reference cases, at the request of the national court, the President may exceptionally decide to apply an accelerated procedure derogating from the Rules of Procedure. Just like expedited direct action cases, the accelerated preliminary reference procedure ensures that the case is prioritised so that the Court's judgment can be given to the referring national court as soon as possible in the best interests of justice.

The homogeneity goal.

The EEA is based in a two pillar structure, the EU constituting one pillar and the three participating EFTA States the other. In substance, the EEA Agreement has extended the EU single market to the participating EFTA States. EEA law is therefore largely identical to EU law. In order to secure a level playing field for individuals and economic operators in both pillars, special homogeneity provisions have been laid down in the EEA Agreement and in the Surveillance and Court Agreement. Under these rules, the EFTA Court shall follow the relevant case law of the ECJ on provisions of Union law that are identical in substance to provisions of EEA law rendered prior to the date of signature of the EEA Agreement (2 May 1992) and shall pay due account to the principles laid down by the European Court of Justice's relevant case law rendered after that date. The EFTA Court's jurisprudence is in fact based on the case law of the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The politically important distinction between old and new ECJ case law has largely been qualified in practice. The EFTA Court also refers to the case law of the General Court of the European Union (EGC). All three EEA courts (ECJ, EGC, EFTA Court) have not only emphasized the need for a uniform interpretation of EU and EEA law, but have actively seen to it that homogeneity is preserved.  The EFTA Court has in the majority of its cases been faced with legal issues that have not (or at least not fully) been decided by the ECJ. The EEA Agreement does not contain a written rule that would oblige the ECJ to take into account the case law of the EFTA Court when interpreting EU or EEA law. In practice, both Union Courts (the ECJ and the EGC), have, however, made reference to EFTA Court jurisprudence. As to the interpretation of EEA law, the Union courts have referred to judgments by the EFTA Court concerning the legal nature of the EEA Agreement, the principle of State liability in EEA law, the free movement of goods and the freedom of establishment.  When interpreting EU law, the Union Courts found support in the jurisprudence of the EFTA Court in cases concerning the Directive on Television without Frontiers, the Directive on Transfer of Undertakings, the precautionary principle in foodstuff law (see "Pedicel" case "infra"), and the selectivity criterion in State aid law. Advocates General of the European Court of Justice have also entered a judicial dialogue with the EFTA Court. Conversely, the EFTA Court regularly refers to Opinions of Advocates General.

Methods of interpretation.

Like the ECJ, the EFTA Court does not follow the rules laid down in Articles 31 and 32 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties when interpreting EEA law, but rather the methodological rules usually applied by national supreme and constitutional courts. Teleological (or purposive) interpretation is particularly important, but also dynamic interpretation is not uncommon. Finally, the EFTA Court's case law also displays some comparative US-EU law analysis, as seen in Case E-07/13 "Creditinfo Lánstraust", where conditions for the re-use of public sector information are compared to those of the 1966 US Freedom of Information Act.

Notable cases.

Effect, supremacy and state liability.

The EFTA Court has consistently held that the provisions of the EEA Agreement are intended for the benefit of individuals and economic operators throughout the European Economic Area and that the proper functioning of the EEA Agreement is dependent on those individuals and economic operators being able to rely on the rights before the national courts of EEA/EFTA States.

The Court of Justice of the European Free Trade Association States (more commonly known as the EFTA Court) is a supranational judicial body responsible for the three EFTA members who are also members of the European Economic Area (EEA): Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.

Der EFTA-Gerichtshof ist ein supranationaler Gerichtshof für die EFTA-Staaten. Er wurde von der Europäischen Union nach dem Beitritt der drei EFTA-Mitgliedstaaten Norwegen, Island und Liechtenstein zum Europäischen Wirtschaftsraum (EWR) errichtet, um die einheitliche Anwendung des EU-Rechts in diesen drei Staaten zu sichern. Er hat ebenso wie der Europäische Gerichtshof (EuGH) seinen Sitz in Luxemburg. Gegründet wurde er 1994 auf der Grundlage des Abkommens über den EWR.


History.

In 1669 Frederik III decided that the wood of "Boveskov" ("Beech wood") should be fenced in and wild deer from the surrounding areas driven into the newly created park. Boveskov was already well known as the former property of Valdemar the Victorious as it had been recorded in his census (the "Liber Census Daniæ") of 1231. The forest lay in the westerly and southerly part of the present Dyrehaven and encompassed land used by the farmers from the village of Stokkerup, which lay to the north. Fencing work consisted of excavating a ditch, the earth from which was built up in a bank on the outside walls of the ditch, on the opposite side to the centre of the park. On the top of the bank posts were driven into the ground and fences installed. This made it more difficult for the deer to leap the fence, as the rise between the ditch and the bank effectively increased the level of the fence. The ditch and bank can still be seen for a long stretch in the south-easterly part of the current park. The work was never finished, as Frederik III died in 1670. The design, however, is still on record, and the area for the scheme worked out at around 3 square kilometres. When Frederik's son, Christian V, became king, he laid out new and more ambitious plans for Dyrehaven.  During his education Christian V had spent time at the court of Louis XIV in France. Here he had seen another type of hunting practice, parforce (hunting with dogs), that he wished to adopt. This style of hunting required a greater area of land for its practice, so Christian V increased the boundaries to include the fields up to the village of Stokkerup (the area known today as Eremitagesletten), as well as taking in the land that today is Jægersborg Hegn. The additional enclosure increased the size of the park to. The inhabitants of Stokkerup, whose village pond still lies within Eremitagesletten area, were ordered to tear down their houses and make use of the materials to rebuild the farms in the area that had stood empty since the Northern Wars. They were compensated for this by having a period of three years during which they were exempt from taxation.

Areas in Dyrehaven.

Eremitagesletten.

Eremitagesletten is an area in the north of the park. Originally this area was the fields of the village of Stokkerup, but was enclosed when Christian needed it for hunting with dogs. Evidence of this can be clearly seen from the roads which are laid out in the classic star form that was typical for areas used in this form of hunting. In the middle of Eremitagesletten is the Hermitage, built during the reign of Christian VI.  Eremitagesletten is encircled by forest. From Hjortekær to the north and the east there is a row of chestnut trees that make up the boundaries of the plain. This row of trees marked the northern extent of Dyrehaven until 1913, when the boundaries were extended north of Mølleåen.

Mølleåen.

This is an area north of Eremitagesletten near Rådvad along the banks of the Millstream.

Fortunens Indelukke.

Fortunens Indelukke is an area in the west of Dyrehaven. It is fenced in and is the only part of the forest that the deer do not have access to. There are a few other areas also fenced in, but only smaller and temporary to save the young trees.

Ulvedalene.

Ulvedalene has Dyrehaven's hilliest terrain, which was created during the last ice age. Djævlebakken, a popular sledging run is found in this part of the park. Ulvedalsteateret (Ulvedal theatre) gave performances for 39 years in Ulvedalene. The first time was in the summer of 1910 with Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger's "Hagbart and Signe". The idea originated from the actor Adam Poulsen and producer Henrik Cavling. The architect Jens Ferdinand Willumsen created spaces for about 4,000 sitting and 2,000 standing spectators, which made it possible to lower the ticket price to an accessible level. The theatre survived up to 1949, and after a break of almost 50 years, the tradition was revived by Birgitte Price with an arrangement of Johan Ludvig Heiberg's "Elverhøj" in 1996 in a production supported by the Royal Danish Theatre, Lyngby-Taarbæk Kommune and Kulturby'96. Since then there have been further performances, the latest, "Røde Orm", in 2018.

Von Langens Plantage.

This is the southernmost part of Dyrehaven and the most visited.

Dyrehavsbakken.

Dyrehavsbakken (colloquially Bakken and literally in English "The Deer Park's Hill") is the world's oldest existing amusement park.

Kirsten Piils Kilde.

Kirsten Piils Kilde (Kirsten Piil's Spring) was discovered in 1583 by Kirsten Piil about whom little is known. Legend states Kirsten was a pious woman, who, through her devotion, gave the spring curative powers, which made it a place of pilgrimage for the sick who would come to drink the water.

Peter Lieps Hus.

Peter Lieps Hus (Peter Liep's House) is now a well-known restaurant. It is named after Dyrehaven's first sharpshooter, Peter Liep. The house was originally called "Kildehuset" ("Spring house") and is thought to have been to be built towards the end of the 18th century. In the 1860s a two-storey extension was added that gave the house a clumsy appearance. Peter Liep took over the building in 1888. In September 1915 the house burned to the ground, but it was reconstructed by 1916. In 1928 the house burned down again. It was rebuilt to a different design, basically as it can be seen today. After some years a pavilion and toilets were added. Visitor numbers consistently rose (the house had already achieved a good reputation as a restaurant by the end of the 19th century). In 1952 a fire again broke out in the house. The fire was extinguished before it did any major damage: a hole was burned in the thatched roof, but later the same day the extensions caught fire and burned down, and only the main farmhouse was able to be saved. The extensions were rebuilt in 1954 and a new pavilion added in 1960. All these buildings are today known under the collective name "Peter Lieps Hus", though the house is very different from the house Peter Liep lived in on the same spot.

Fortunen.

Fortunen (The Fortune) is a former ranger station on the King's hunting road to Dyrehaven, named after the Roman goddess of luck Fortuna. It is now home to a hotel and restaurant.

Annual events.

Hubertus Hunt.

The Hubertus Hunt is a cross country horse race which takes place every year on the first Sunday in November, marking the end of the hunting season. First held in 1900, the event attracts about 160 riders and up to 40,000 spectators. The race always begins at Peter Liep's House and involves a break at the Hermitage Lodge. The race route is 13 km long and involves a total of 35 obstacles. The winner receives the Hubertus chain.

Open air theatre.

The Royal Danish Theatre produces an annual theatre production at Ulvedalene in Jægersborg Dyrehave.

Dyrehaven (Danish 'The Deer Park'), officially Jægersborg Dyrehave, is a forest park north of Copenhagen. It covers around. Dyrehaven is noted for its mixture of huge, ancient oak trees and large populations of red and fallow deer. In July 2015, it was one of the three forests included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site inscribed as Par force hunting landscape in North Zealand.

Jægersborg Dyrehave (dt. "Jægersborg Hirschpark") ist ein Park im Norden von Kopenhagen und seit Juli 2015 ein Teil des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes Parforce-Jagdlandschaft Nordseeland.


Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Finanzen (Italien)

Story.

Already in 1947 the De Gasperi III Cabinet tried to merge the pre-existing Ministries of Treasure and Finance but it found a political opposition due to the great power concentrated in the hands of minister Pietro Campilli, and the project was abandoned for over fifty years.  MEF was created with the Bassanini reform which unified the economical ministers with the legislative decree n. 300 of 1999. In 2001 the Berlusconi II Cabinet applied the reform and the MEF was created with the merger of former ministries: the Ministry of Treasure, Budget and Economic Programming and the Ministry of Finances.  Four fiscal agencies were connected to the Ministry: "Agenzia delle entrate" ('Revenue Agency'), "Agenzia del territorio" ('Agency of the territory'), "Agenzia del demanio" ('Agency of State properties) and "Agenzia delle dogane e dei monopoli" ('Agency of customs and monopolies'). These entities are completely autonomous but they work closely with the MEF. In 2012, "Agenzia del territorio" had been merged with the Revenue Agency, while the "Agenzia delle dogane" absorbed the "Amministrazione Autonoma dei Monopoli di Stato" ('Autonomous administration of State monopolies').

Functions.

According to the legislative decree n. 300/1999, MEF carries out functions and purposes of the State about economic policies, public finance and budget in relation to the programming of public funding, coordination of public expenditure and its control, fiscal policies and the tributary system, properties of the State, cadastre and customs, planning, coordination and control of interventions for the economic, territorial and sectorial development and policies of cohesion.  MEF organizes and manages the State budget, including the fulfilments of treasury and verifies the related trends and cash flows, ensuring the operating connection with the accomplishments in the field of the coverage of financial requirement. The Ministry verifies the quantification of the resulting charges of measures and changing of laws and it monitors the public expenditure, coordinating and verifying its trends and doing the controls required by law.  The economical and financial planning is made by MEF, which coordinates and verifies the interventions for the economical development in territorial and sectorial fields and for the cohesion policies, with the help of the Chambers of Commerce. According to art. 56 of the legislative decree 300/1999, MEF analyses the fiscal system and the choices on the tributary and treasury entries at the national, community and international level, as well as on the coordination activities.  Its activity is coordinated with the four fiscal agencies, regulated by a dedicated agreement, to which the Ministry gives the goals to fulfil and appoints the directors.  MEF undergoes supervisory tasks on entities, activities and functions related to the relationship with the authorities of supervision and control required by law, according to the art. 23, paragraph 2 of the legislative decree 300/1999.  The minister of economy is a member of the Supreme Council of Defence.

Organization.

The Ministry has a complex central structure derived from the merging of former ministries and from various modifications: main variations have been made with the legislative decree n. 173 of 3 July 2003, and the decree of the President of Republic n. 227 of 3 July 2003. The Ministry was reorganized with the Presidential Decree n. 43 of 30 January 2008 which established offices in direct collaboration of the minister and proper departments of the MEF.

Territorial departments.

At peripheral level, MEF is organized in "Ragionerie Territoriali dello Stato" (RTS, 'Territorial State Accounts') which depend organically and functionally on the "Dipartimento della Ragioneria Generale dello Stato" ('Department of the General State Accounting').  Until 28 February 2011, there were also the "Direzioni territoriali dell'economia e delle finanze" (DTEF, 'Territorial Directions of Economy and Finance') depending on the "Dipartimento dell'Amministrazione Generale, del Personale e dei Servizi" ('Department of General Administration, Personnel and Services') but the Ministerial Decree of 23 December 2010 established the interruption of its activities.  The functions of DTEFs have been adsorbed mostly by the RTS but not all its personnel, because a part of it has passed in the Agency for Monopolies.

Fiscal agencies.

Fiscal agencies are completely autonomous but they work closely to the Minister. The main entities are:  Agencies have own headquarters in Rome and peripheral offices in all the national territory.

Tributary justice.

Within the Ministry there is the "Consiglio di presidenza della giustizia tributaria" ('Presidential Council of Tributary Justice'), a body of self-government of tax judges with similar purposes to the High Council of the Judiciary. Tax judges operate in the tax commissions and have the status of honorary magistrates, and they are appointed by the Minister of Economy and Finances on designation of the Presidency Council of Tax Justice.

Guardia di Finanza.

The Guardia di Finanza is a militarized police force with tasks regarding investigation, prevention and repression of administrative and penal violations in the field of taxation, customs, currency and fiscal as well as judiciary police. It directly depends on the MEF and hierarchically on the General Command of Guardia di Finanza headquartered in Rome.

Shareholdings.

MEF holds shares in strategic companies and public entities. Main shareholdings are the followings:

Overseen institutions.

MEF oversees the following institutions:

The Ministry of Economy and Finance (, also known by the acronym MEF), is a ministry of the Italian government. Its responsibilities include overseeing economic policy, public investments and spending. The Ministry's headquarters are located in the historic "Palazzo delle Finanze". The current minister is Roberto Gualtieri of Conte II Cabinet.

Das Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Finanzen (ital. "Ministero dell'Economia e delle Finanze", abgekürzt "MEF") ist eines der Ministerien der italienischen Regierung. Zuständig ist es vor allem für die Finanzpolitik Italiens. Das Ministerium hat seinen Sitz im "Palazzo delle Finanze" an der "Via XX Settembre" in Rom. Amtierender Wirtschafts- und Finanzminister ist Roberto Gualtieri.


History and predecessors.

1848–1918.

The development of the Czech constitutional tradition went initially hand in hand with that in Austria-Hungary, to which the Czech Crown lands belonged between 1806–1918. The first attempts to establish a system based on constitution were connected with the 1848 Revolution. A number of constitutions were enacted during the Austrian period (April 1848, March 1849, February 1861 all enacted by the king, December 1867 enacted by the Parliament), however these were far from being democratic and did not include the possibility of judicial review of the acts of the Parliament nor the Habsburg sovereigns. Although the attempt to democratize the Habsburg monarchy failed at the time, it marked the beginning of Czech political activization which ultimately brought about personalities such as Karel Kramář or Tomáš Masaryk, who later took part in the establishment of the First Czechoslovak Republic and its constitutional tradition.

1918–1948.

Following the establishment of Czechoslovakia, the Interim Constitution was passed in November 1918 (Act No. 37/1918 Coll.), which did not yet establish the Constitutional court.  Meanwhile, the works on the Czechoslovak constitution were at full pace. The new constitution was influenced by the following models: The new constitution was further influenced by the Czech humanist tradition (Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický, Jan Amos Komenský, František Palacký, František Rieger, Tomáš Masaryk) as well as the peace conferences which took place after the first world war.  The new constitution was accepted on 2 February 1920 as Act No. 121/1920 Coll. With this constitution Czechoslovakia became the first country in the world to adopt a system where a review of acts of the national parliament's constitutionality was possible by a special court - the Constitutional Court (while in USA and Australia this power was vested in the hands of their Supreme Courts already before and the Austrian Constitutional Court already had the power to examine laws of the States of Austria in 1919). Later, a similar system of judicial review on national level was adopted by Austria (1920) which came into force before the Czechoslovak Constitutional Court took up its duties. It later became generally known as the "Austrian System", being taken over by many other countries e.g. Liechtenstein (1925), Greece (1927), Spain (1931), Ireland (1937) etc. The Constitutional Court of Czechoslovakia itself came into existence in the assembly hall of the presidium of the Council of Ministers at Prague Castle on 17 November 1921.  The Constitutional Court had the jurisdiction to decide about constitutionality of the enactments of the Republic, of Assembly of the Carpathian Ruthenia (this was only theoretical, as the presumption of its autonomy was not reached until 1938) and of legal measures of Permanent Committee (which consisted of 16 members of the Chamber of the Deputies and 8 Senators and took action in urgent cases when the Parliament was not in session). The motions for review of enactments could be brought by the Supreme Court, Supreme Administrative Court, Chamber of Deputies, Senate and the Assembly of the Carpathian Ruthenia, while the legal measures of the Permanent Committee were subject to automatic review immediately after being passed. Unlike today, the Court did not have the jurisdiction to hear citizens' individual petitions.  The Court was active in the period of 1921–1931, when it reviewed a number of legal measures of the Permanent Committee, however no motions for review of enactments were ever brought before it. Although the legal basis for the Court and its jurisdiction remained unchanged, it was vacant and inactive between 1932–1937. The Chief Justice for the period of 1938-1939 was Jaroslav Krejčí.  Although the Constitution remained in force during the German Nazi occupation and after the war, the rights it was providing for became only theoretical and the Constitutional Court had not convened during and after the second world war.

1948–1989.

Due to extermination of a large number of Czechoslovakian elites by the Nazi Germans, disillusion with the Western countries following the Munich Agreement and high influence of the Soviet Union, which liberated almost whole of the country, the post-war era may be characterized by the growing influence of the communists, which culminated in February 1948 Communist coup. A new constitution was adopted in May 1948. It was essentially a 1920 constitution modified by socialist ideas in order to serve the ideology of the communist party. For example, the list of fundamental rights was extended to cover also social and cultural rights, but on the other hand the right of a private ownership was limited. Formally, the constitution was democratic and influenced by the idea of "People's Democracy". In reality, however, democracy was curbed with the communist party controlling the state and the fundamental rights not being observed by the authorities.  The 1948 constitution did not adopt the Constitutional Court.  Another constitution was adopted in 1960, being influenced mostly by the Soviet constitution of 1936. It legally established the "leading role" of the communist party, declared Marxism-Leninism as the state's leading ideology, removed the division of power. This constitution was to a large degree modified in 1968, establishing Czech and Slovak Socialist Republics within the Czechoslovakia as a federative socialist state. The 1968 constitution re-introduced the Constitutional Court, or in fact three of them - one for the Federation and two for the Republics. The Federal Constitutional Court was to have a jurisdiction over constitutionality of federal enactments and disputes over competencies between the Federation and the Republics. The Constitution anticipated adoption of an enactment dealing in detail with Constitutional Court, but that did not happen until 1991, precluding the factual establishment of the Court. Officially the need for the Court had not arisen as the presumed disputes over competencies between the Federation and the Republics never took place.

1989–1992.

The first changes to the Constitution took place already during the Velvet Revolution. On 30 November 1989, the leading role of the communist party was abolished as well as mentioning of the Marxism-Leninism. A number of other novelizations led to democratization of the constitution. In 1991 the Charter of Fundamental Rights was adopted as a part of the Constitutional order, which was followed by an implementing enactment dealing with the Constitutional Court, as presumed by the 1968 constitution.  The Constitutional Court of Czechoslovakia was thus re-established, although only for a brief period of time in 1992 before the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The dissolution itself was actually carried out by a constitutional act (No. 542/1992 Coll.).

Since 1992.

On 16 December 1992 a new Constitution (Act No. 1/1993 Coll.) and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms (Act No. 2/1993 Coll.) were adopted. Article 83-89 of the Constitution established the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic, the processes of which are further elaborated in Act No. 182/1993 Coll..

Jurisdiction.

The major part of the court's workload consists of individual petitions of citizen's alleged violations of their constitutional rights after all other remedies were exhausted (including appeals to the Supreme Court or the Supreme Administrative Court).  According to Article 87 of the Constitution, the Constitutional Court shall rule on:  Also, in cases when an already abolished law contrary to the constitutional order should be applied by a general court, it shall submit the issue to the Constitutional Court (Art. 95 par. 2).

Composition.

The Court is composed of 15 justices who are named for a renewable period of 10 years by the President subject to the Senate's approval. The justices enjoy criminal immunity and may be prosecuted only subject to the approval of the Senate.  The plenum of the court is quorate when at least 10 justices are present. A majority of at least 9 justices must be reached in order to repeal a law, to impeach the President or to adopt a legal opinion differentiating from one previously held. Other matters are decided by senates consisting of three justices.

The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic () is a specialized type of court which primarily works to protect the people in the Czech Republic against violations of the Constitution by either the legislature, government or by any other subject that violates people's constitutional rights and freedoms. In this respect, it is similar in functionality to the Supreme Court of the United States, but is distinct from the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic. Of all the various levels of the Czech Judiciary it is the one created with the greatest specificity in the constitution.

Das Verfassungsgericht der Tschechischen Republik "(Ústavní soud České republiky)" ist ein unabhängiges Verfassungsorgan Tschechiens und ein spezielles Gericht auf dem Gebiet des Verfassungsrechts. Es ist nicht Teil des "Systems der allgemeinen Gerichte" in Tschechien. Seine grundlegende Aufgabe ist die Verfassungsmäßigkeit der Rechtsordnung der Republik zu garantieren und den Schutz der Grundrechte zu gewähren. Das Gericht hat seinen Sitz in Brünn (Brno) im Gebäude des früheren Mährischen Landtages, wo sich seit 1991 bereits die vorhergehende Institution, das Verfassungsgericht der ČSFR, befand. Der Umkreis von 100 Metern um das Gebäude bzw. den Tagungsort wurde zur Bannmeile erklärt.


Company background.

The three main partners in the 1902 incorporation of the Jackson Automobile Company were Byron J. Carter, George A. Matthews and Charles Lewis. Carter had previously been a steam-driven press printer who later started a bicycle shop with his father, Squire B. Carter, in 1894. He built his first experimental, gasoline-powered car in 1899, and then used his steam experience to build a steam-powered car which became the Carter in 1901. Matthews owned the local Fuller Buggy Company and later built the Fuller automobile, also in Jackson, before it was absorbed by the Jackson Automobile Company. Both Matthews and Lewis were directors of Jackson banks, Matthews of Jackson City Bank and Lewis of Union Bank of Jackson. Carter convinced the two bankers to support him in forming a company to produce both gasoline- and steam-powered cars.

Jackson.

Full production started in 1903 with a single-cylinder engine car that closely resembled the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. The cylinder count in the engines doubled the next year, and doubled again in 1906. Not long after full production started, Carter left the firm to create the Cartercar. He left due to a disagreement with his partners, who did not wish to use the friction drive transmission he had developed. After Carter left, Jackson automobiles lacked any distinct feature, but they were well-built and long-lasting. In 1910, Matthews bought out Lewis, leaving him as the sole remaining partner. Lewis left to start the Hollier car. Matthews installed his sons in the president, secretary and treasurer positions within the company.  The engines used by the company continued to grow, with a Northway six-cylinder engine becoming available in 1913, and a Ferro V8 available in 1916. Later cars resembled the contemporary Rolls-Royce. Indeed, the company used the phrase "The Car with the Keystone Radiator" in advertisements.  During World War I, car production at the firm declined by more than half, since the company was producing materiel for the war effort. For 1919, all production was geared to military supplies. Many Jackson dealers at this time converted to Jordan dealerships. When car production resumed in 1920, the cars apparently were not as good as previously. One assembly line worker said that the company engineer "should have raised chickens instead".  The 1921 Princess Coupe was a hit at the Chicago Auto Show, but obtaining credit was difficult during that year's recession. In 1923, Jackson, Dixie Flyer and National merged into Associated Motor Industries. The Dixie Flyer and Jackson were transformed into the National 4-H and 6-51, respectively. These models lasted just a year and, by the end of 1924, Associated Motors was no more, taking all three marques with it.

Jaxon.

Carter further developed his automobile, eventually patenting a 3-cylinder steam engine of 6 horsepower. This became the basis of the 1903 Jaxon automobile. All Jaxons were steam-powered, with the Jackson name reserved for the gasoline-powered cars. There were two models on offer: the $975 Model A riding on a 72" wheelbase, and the $800 Model B on a 7" shorter wheelbase. Advertisements proclaimed that "steam is reliable and easily understood".

Orlo.

The Orlo was built only in 1904. The Orlo was a five-seat side-entrance model that was equipped with a 16/17 hp two-cylinder engine. The engine was located under the front seat and the drive was through a chain drive. The engine was water-cooled by a finned-coil mounted beneath the front of the bonnet. The Orlo cost $1,125.

Duck.

There is some debate over whether this is actually a different marque of automobile produced by the company or just a Jackson model. It was also referred to as the Jackson Back Seat Steer. This gives new meaning to the term "back seat driver" because this is the actual location of the steering controls. The company probably introduced the car to see if having a car with the passengers seated in the front seat would be a winning sales proposition. Since this car only was around in 1913, it is not likely that there were many purchasers for such an unusual car.

The Jackson Automobile Company was an American Brass Era automobile manufacturer located in and named for Jackson, Michigan. The company produced the Jackson from 1903 to 1923, as well as the 1903 Jaxon steam car and the 1904 Orlo.

Die Jackson Automobile Company war ein US-amerikanischer Automobilhersteller, der von 1902 bis 1923 in Jackson (Michigan) ansässig war. Er stellte 1903–1923 Automobile der Marke Jackson her und zusätzlich nur im Jahre 1903 den Dampfwagen Jaxon und nur im Jahre 1904 den Orlo.


History.

Early Meiji period.

After the Meiji Restoration, the leaders of the new Meiji government envisioned a highly centralized state to replace the old feudal order. Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient "ritsuryō" structure from the late Heian period was revived in a modified form with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within a new "Daijō-kan" system. Having just returned from the Iwakura Mission in 1873, Ōkubo Toshimichi pushed forward a plan for the creation of an “Interior ministry” within the "Daijō-kan" modeled after similar ministries in European nations, headed by himself. The Home Ministry was established as government department in November 1873, initially as an internal security agency to deal with possible threats to the government from increasingly disgruntled ex"-samurai," and political unrest spawned by the "Seikanron" debate. In addition to controlling the police administration, the new department was also responsible for the Family register, civil engineering, topographic surveys, censorship, and promotion of agriculture. In 1874, administration of the post office was added to its responsibilities. In 1877, overview of religious institutes was added. The head of the Home Ministry was referred to as the "Home Lord" and effectively functioned as the Head of Government.  The Home Ministry also initially had the responsibility for promoting local industry, but this duty was taken over by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce in 1881.

Under the Meiji Constitution.

In 1885, with the establishment of the cabinet system, the Home Ministry was reorganized by Yamagata Aritomo, who became the first Home Minister. Bureaus were created with responsibilities for general administration, local administration, police, public works, public health, postal administration, topographic surveys, religious institutions and the national census. The administration of Hokkaidō and Karafuto Prefectures also fell under the direct jurisdiction of the Home Ministry, and all prefectural governors (who were appointed by the central government) came under the jurisdiction of the Home Ministry. In 1890, the Railroad Ministry and in 1892, the Communications Ministry were created, removing the postal administration functions from the Home Ministry.  On the other hand, with the establishment of State Shinto, a Department of Religious Affairs was added to the Home Ministry in 1900. Following the High Treason Incident, the "Tokko" special police force was also created in 1911. The Department of Religious Affairs was transferred to the Ministry of Education in 1913.  From the 1920s period, faced with the growing issues of agrarian unrest and Bolshvik-inspired labor unrest, the attention of the Home Ministry was increasingly focused on internal security issues. Through passage of the Peace Preservation Law#Public Security Preservation Law of 1925, the Home Ministry was able to use its security apparatus to suppress political dissent and the curtail the activities of the socialists, communists and the labor movement. The power of the "Tokkō" was expanded tremendously, and it expanded to include branches in every Japanese prefecture, major city, and overseas locations with a large Japanese population. In the late 1920s and 1930s, the "Tokkō" launched a sustained campaign to destroy the Japanese Communist Party with several waves of mass arrests of known members, sympathizers and suspected sympathizers (March 15 incident).  In 1936, an Information and Propaganda Committee was created within the Home Ministry, which issued all official press statements, and which worked together with the Publications Monitoring Department on censorship issues. In 1937, jointly with the Ministry of Education, the Home Ministry administered the National Spiritual Mobilization Movement, and the Home Ministry assisted in implementation of the National Mobilization Law in 1938 to place Japan on a total war footing. The public health functions of the Ministry were separated into the Ministry of Health in 1938.  In 1940, the was elevated to the, which consolidated the previously separate information departments from the Imperial Japanese Army, Imperial Japanese Navy and Foreign Ministry under the aegis of the Home Ministry. The new "Jōhōkyoku" had complete control over all news, advertising and public events. In February 1941 it distributed among editors a black list of writers whose articles they were advised not to print anymore.  Also in 1940, with the formation of the "Taisei Yokusankai" political party, the Home Ministry strengthened its efforts to monitor and control political dissent, also through enforcement of the "tonarigumi" system, which was also used to coordinate civil defense activities through World War II. In 1942, the Ministry of Colonial Affairs was abolished, and the Home Ministry extended its influence to Japanese external territories.

Post-war Home Ministry and dissolution.

After the surrender of Japan, the Home Ministry coordinated closely with the Allied occupation forces to maintain public order in occupied Japan.  One of the first actions of the post-war Home Ministry was the creation of an officially sanctioned brothel system under the aegis of the “Recreation and Amusement Association”, which was created on August 28, 1945. The intention was officially to contain the sexual urges of the occupation forces, protect the main Japanese populace from rape and preserve the "purity" of the "Japanese race". However, by October 1945, the scope of activities of the Home Ministry was increasingly limited, with the disestablishment of State Shinto and the abolishment of the "Tokkō", and with censorship and monitoring of labor union activities taken under direct American supervision. Many of the employees of the Home Ministry were purged from office.  The American authorities felt that the concentration of power into a single ministry was both a cause and a symptom of Japan's pre-war totalitarian mentality, and also felt that the centralization of police authority into a massive centrally controlled ministry was dangerous for the democratic development of post-war Japan.  The Home Ministry was formally abolished on 31 December 1947, and its functions dispersed to the Ministry of Home Affairs (自治省 "Jiji-shō"), now the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Ministry of Health and Welfare (厚生省 "Kōsei-shō"), now the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, National Public Safety Commission (国家公安委員会 "Kokka-kōan-iinkai"), Ministry of Construction (建設省 "Kensetsu-shō"), now the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.

The was a Cabinet-level ministry established under the Meiji Constitution that managed the internal affairs of Empire of Japan from 1873 to 1947. Its duties included local administration, police, public works and elections, and monitoring people. This Ministry changed its name to Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications after Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers restoration in 1945.

Das Naimu-shō (jap., „Ministerium für Innere Angelegenheiten“, engl. "Home Ministry", manchmal auch "Ministry of Internal Affairs", "Interior Ministry" u. ä.) war eines der mächtigsten Ministerien der Zentralregierung im Japanischen Kaiserreich.


People.

Famed Chaldean Catholic Bishop Francis Daoud (Dawood) of Araden was known for bravery and leadership during the Assyrian genocide for helping to save many Assyrians living in Northern Iraqi villages from death through bartering with the Turks and Kurds. He was confirmed a bishop of the Chaldean Catholic Church on February 24, 1910, and served until his death on October 1, 1939, and is buried and memorialized in an ancient church in the Dohuk region.

Destruction and attacks.

The village of Araden was burned to the ground by 700 government soldiers during the 1960s. The villagers were attacked by irregular Kurds under the leadership of Zabir Muhammad Zebari which resulted in several deaths. Dinkha Eshaya, who was the mayor of Araden, was assassinated in 1981. In 1987, the village was once again destroyed by the Ba'ath regime.

Wildlife.

Flora.

Most of the village is covered by fruit and nut bearing trees. To the north, higher up on the mountain towards a region of the land called "Gozaneh", large walnut trees grow around one of the springs that comes from the mountain. Loquat trees grow on the land below Gozaneh, along with quince, citron, orange, apple, and lemon trees. Around the residential lands, mulberry, blackberry, raspberry, and plum trees grow towards the lower edge of the village. Down in the valley towards the church Sultana Mahdokht, grows an abundance of pecan trees. However the entire region of Araden is covered in almond trees. The non fruit bearing trees include Cyprus, Cedar, Pine, Oak and spruce. In recent years, the Kurdistan Regional Government has banned the cutting of trees without a license, so these trees are beginning to grow in abundance all over the region.

Araden () is an Assyrian village in the Sapna valley. It is located approximately 20-30 kilometers (12–19 miles) east of the city of Zakho The village of Inishk lies a few miles to the east, and the village of Bamerne is to the west, while Sarsing can be seen to the south. The name "Araden" means "Land of Eden" in Aramaic. The village is vast, spanning over 18 kilometers and containing more than 150 homes, 3 churches and a cemetery.

Aradin () ist der chaldäische Bischofssitz der Diözese, die früher ihren Sitz in Amediye hatte und liegt im kurdischen Nord-Irak.


Name.

Shell initially named all of its UK oil fields after waterbirds in alphabetical order by discovery – Auk, Brent, Cormorant, Dunlin, Eider, Fulmar and so on. Brent refers to the brent goose, and in turn gave its initials to the geologic subdivisions of the Jurassic-age Brent Group that make up the field: Broom, Rannoch, Etive, Ness and Tarbert formations, with each name representing a loch in the Scottish Highlands).

Geology.

Situated in the East Shetland Basin, the Brent is the archetype for many of the fields in the area, consisting of a tilted fault block exposing the eponymous Brent formation, next to bounding faults which allowed migration from deeper adjacent "kitchen" areas where the Kimmeridge Clay Formation becomes fully mature and releases hydrocarbons. Unusually on a worldwide scale (but common in this basin), the seal or cap rock for the reservoir (which stops the hydrocarbons from migrating further towards the surface) is also the Kimmeridge Clay, or technically the Heather Formation immediately below.  The reservoir depth is.

Production.

Production started-up on 11 November 1976, and on 13 December 1976 the first tanker was loaded. The Brent field oil is extracted by four platforms in an irregular SSW-NNE line. The first in place was the concrete-legged "Condeep" Brent Bravo in 1975, followed by the concrete-legged Brent Delta, Brent Charlie, and steel-jacket Brent Alpha. As of 2004, the platform was still producing oil through a manifold (all Brent Alpha fluids are produced across to Brent Bravo). A fifth installation, the floating Brent Spar, served as a storage- and tanker-loading buoy and was installed early in the field's construction. The "spar" design of this installation led to the name by which it became the best known of the Brent installations (outside the oil industry). The field also included a remote flare, the "Brent Flare", which was used to flare off excess gas before gas handling and export facilities were installed in the field. This unit was decommissioned and removed using a heavy lifting barge in 2005.  The topsides for Brent Charlie were designed by Matthew Hall Engineering which was awarded the contract in January 1974. Initially there were facilities for 19 oil production wells, nine water injection wells, six gas injection wells and three spare slots. The production capacity was per day and 8.5 million standard cubic metres of gas per day. There were three production trains each with four stages of separation with the first stage separators operating at a pressure of 9.6 bar. The 14 subsea storage cells had a capacity of. Electricity generation was powered by three 12 MW Rolls Royce Avon gas turbines. The topside accommodation was for 120 people. There were 14 topsides modules and the topsides weight was 34,000 tonnes.  The field supplies oil via the Brent System pipeline to the terminal at Sullom Voe, while gas is piped through the FLAGS pipeline ashore at St Fergus on the north-east coast of Scotland.  The field underwent a £1.3 billion upgrade project in the mid 1990s, which involved depressurising the entire reservoir and making extensive modifications to three of the four Brent platforms. This converted them to low-pressure operation, which unlocked significant quantities of natural gas from the reservoir and extended the field life beyond 2010.

The Brent field is an oil and gas field located in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea, north-east of Lerwick, Shetland Islands, Scotland, at the water depth of. The field operated by Shell UK Limited was once one of the most productive parts of the UK's offshore assets but has reached the stage where production is no longer economically viable. Decommissioning of the Brent field is ongoing and will be completed in the early 2020s.

Brent ist ein Ölfeld, das ca. 180 km nordöstlich der Shetlandinseln im britischen Sektor der Nordsee liegt. Die Ölförderung in diesem Feld begann 1975. Bekannt ist das Feld für die als Preisreferenz verwendete Ölsorte Brent Crude sowie für den schwimmfähigen Öltank Brent Spar, der 1995 vor seiner geplanten Versenkung medienwirksam durch Greenpeace-Aktivisten besetzt wurde.