Morphology.

"Palaeoisopus" is a large sea spider, with a body length (excluding proboscis and chelifores) of at least 12.5 cm and leg spans of about 32 cm, comparable to those of a modern "Colossendeis" (giant sea spider). The margins of each of its body parts were covered by tubercles, the cephalon (head section that bore eyes, proboscis, chelifores, palps, ovigers and 1st leg pair) and 3 trunk somites (section that bore the remaining leg pairs) are well-defined by ring-like segmentation. The abdomen apparently compose of 4 abdominal somites and a styliform telson, but based on the medial position of anus (which, in telson-bearing chelicerates, always located at the ventral boundary of abdomen and telson), the latter was also suggest to be a fusion of 5th abdominal somite and the original telson.  Medial to the anterodorsal margin of cephalon was an eye-bearing ocular tubercle. Unlike the paired 4-eyed arrangement of most pycnogonids, it compose of a pair of large eyes and 2 smaller eyes that arranged anteroposteriorly in a midline. The anteriormost appendages were a pair of robust, pincer-like chelifores, which compose of 5 podomeres (3 for scape and 2 for pincer) instead of 3 or 4 (1 or 2 for scape and 2 for pincer) like those of the other pycnogonids. Below the chelifores was a cylinderal proboscis that always tucked underneath the cephalon, making it almost invisible in dorsal view. The palps and ovigers have similar morphology, the former terminated with a subchelate structures and the latter was apparently absent in some specimens, which may represent sexual dimorphism as seen in some modern pycnogonid taxa such as Pycnogonidae and Phoxichilidiidae (female lacking ovigers). Each of the leg base was surrounded by flexible, ring-like structure. Among the 4 leg pairs the first one is significantly elongated, and its detail morphology slightly differ from the posterior counterparts as well (e.g. shorter basal segments, different setae arrangement, 4 flatten distal podomeres instead of 5).

Paleoecology.

The large eyes, robust chelifores and oar-like legs suggest that "Paleoisopus" was a nektonic (swimming) visual predators, with associated stalked crinoid (sea lily) as a possible prey item.

Phylogeny.

While some analysis placing "Palaeoisopus" within a derived position, most studies suggest that "Paleosiopus" is a basal sea spider, as the well-developed abdomen most likely represent a plesiomorphic condition of total-group Pycnogonida.

Palaeoisopus is a monotypic genus of fossil pycnogonid (sea spider), known only by one species, Palaeoisopus problematicus, discovered from the Lower Devonian Hunsrück Slate of Germany. It have several characters unusual for a pycnogonid, such as swimming legs with alternating size, medially-arranged eyes, and most significantly, a long, segmented abdomen, which were highly reduced in modern counterparts.

Palaeoisopus problematicus ist eine ausgestorbene Asselspinne, die mit einigen Dutzend Exemplaren im Bundenbacher Hunsrückschiefer nachgewiesen wurde. Es war mit bis zu 25 cm Länge und maximal circa 40 cm Durchmesser bei abgespreizten Beinen einer der größten Räuber dieser Fauna.


Early life.

Butterfield was born in Islington, London, and is the son of Jacqueline Farr, a psychologist, and Sam Butterfield, an advertising copywriter.

Career.

Butterfield first started acting at the age of 7 at the Young Actors Theatre Islington. Later, he secured minor roles in the 2006 television drama "After Thomas" and the 2007 film, "Son of Rambow". In 2008, he had a guest role playing Donny in the television series "Ashes to Ashes".  In that same year, aged 10, he played the lead role in "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas". Director Mark Herman said that they came across Butterfield early on in the audition process. He was on the first audition tape he received and he was the third hopeful he met in person. Herman thought Butterfield's performance was outstanding, but only decided to cast him after auditioning hundreds of other boys, "so no stone was left unturned".  Producer David Heyman and director Mark Herman were looking for someone who was able to portray the main character's innocence, so they asked each of the children what they knew about the Holocaust. Butterfield's knowledge was slim and it was purposely kept that way throughout filming so it would be easier for him to convey his character's innocence. The final scenes of the film were shot at the end of the production period to prepare both him and Jack Scanlon for the dramatic ending of the film. He beat hundreds of boys to the role and also successfully passed the auditions for a role in "Mr. Nobody" for which he auditioned at the same time. He elected not to pursue the latter role.  In 2008, Butterfield appeared in the "Merlin" episode "The Beginning of the End"; he played a young druid boy sentenced to death by Uther Pendragon because he feels threatened by the boy's magic. Butterfield appeared as Mordred in a number of subsequent episodes.  In 2010, he had a small part in "The Wolfman". He starred as Norman Green in "Nanny McPhee and the Big Bang" (2010). The film, and his performance, both received positive reviews. At the age of 13 he played the main and title character in Martin Scorsese's "Hugo", adapted from the novel "The Invention of Hugo Cabret". "Hugo" was released on 23 November 2011, and achieved critical success.  Butterfield played the title role of Andrew "Ender" Wiggin in the film adaptation of the Orson Scott Card novel "Ender's Game". The film was released in 2013. After the shooting of "Ender's Game", Butterfield was immediately cast in coming of age British drama "X+Y" as Nathan Ellis, a mathematical savant on the autism spectrum selected to compete with other gifted children on a United Kingdom team in an internationally renowned mathematics competition. The film premiered on 5 September 2014 at the Toronto International Film Festival and was released in UK cinemas on 13 March 2015. Butterfield's performance received widespread critical acclaim and saw him nominated for the BIFA Award for Best Actor.  Later in 2013, Butterfield was reported to be in talks for a role in "King of Kastle" and in May, he was cast in "The White Circus". In early 2014, Butterfield was cast in a film adaptation of "Ten Thousand Saints," which was released on 14 August 2015. In November 2015, he joined the ensemble cast of Shane Carruth's third film, "The Modern Ocean".  In 2016, he starred as Jacob "Jake" Portman in "Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children." He also starred as Gardner Elliot in the film "The Space Between Us" and as Sebastian in "The House of Tomorrow" in 2017.  In 2018, Butterfield was cast in the main role of Otis Milburn on the Netflix comedy-drama series, "Sex Education". The series was released on 11 January 2019 to critical acclaim.

Other work.

Butterfield enjoys making and producing music, and released a mashup of the songs "Teenage Dirtbag" by Wheatus and "Making Plans for Nigel" by XTC. Along with his brother, he is part of a music group called Mambo Fresh. In late 2012, Butterfield co-designed a turn-based video game for iPad with his father and brother called "Racing Blind". The game was released to the App Store on 7 April 2013.  Butterfield is involved in competitive Nintendo gaming. In 2017, he competed in the Nintendo World Championships, where he was eliminated early in the invitational. He is an enthusiastic player of competitive "Super Smash Bros." and has signed with eSports team Panda Global under the tag "Stimpy". His first appearance with the organisation was at Genesis 6.  Since 2017 Butterfield has taught an annual acting masterclass at The Reel Scene acting school in London. The three-day Asa Butterfield Masterclass course covers improvisation techniques and students work on scenes from Butterfield's films, which are then filmed on the last day. In 2018, students appeared as extras in the film "Greed" in which Butterfield appeared.

Asa Maxwell Thornton Farr Butterfield (; born 1 April 1997) is a British actor. He became known for playing the main character Bruno in the Holocaust film "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas" (2008), for which he received nominations for the British Independent Film Award and the London Film Critics Circle Award for Young British Performer of the Year at the age of 11.

Asa Maxwell Thornton Farr Butterfield (* 1. April 1997 in Islington, London) ist ein britischer Schauspieler. Bekanntheit erlangte er für seine Rollen als Bruno in dem Holocaust-Filmdrama "Der Junge im gestreiften Pyjama" und als "Hugo Cabret" in dem gleichnamigen Fantasyfilm von Martin Scorsese.


Amateur career.

Yafai is the son of Yemeni parents. He currently lives in the Moseley area of Birmingham. Yafai has two brothers who are also boxers. Gamal Yafai is a professional boxer and Galal Yafai has represented Great Britain at the Olympic Games.  In June 2005, he won a silver medal in the European Cadet Championships in Hungary, recording 4 wins before losing in the final to Russian Farid Aleshkin. He received the BBC Midlands 2005 "Junior Sportsman of the Year" award, after he became England's first ever U17 World Boxing Champion, when he won the World Cadet title winning the junior flyweight title against Luis Yáñez of the United States.  Fighting for Birmingham City ABC, he became one of the youngest British (ABA) champions in December 2006 while still 17, at the World Junior Championships 2006 in Agadir, Morocco. He lost in the quarter final to the eventual Cuban winner Alexei Collado.  At the 2007 European Junior Championships, he lost in the 51K final to Russian Misha Aloyan. As Britain's youngest team member at the 2007 Seniors World Championship, the 18-year-old beat his Armenian opponent Derenik Gizhlaryan, but later lost to Violito Payla of the Philippines.  He then qualified for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the 1st Olympic qualifying event in Pescara, Italy, where he stopped teammate Mo Nasir of Wales and then went on to beat the 2004 Olympian Igor Samolencko of Moldova to qualify. He then pulled out of the final due to injury.  After qualifying for the 2008 Olympic Games he participated in the 2008 European union championships in Poland where he won a silver medal beating former olympic boxer Redouane asloum of France (RSCO2) in the semi-finals but then losing a controversial 13–10 decision to home favourite and Beijing Olympian Rafal Kaczor.  At the Olympic Games, Khalid was beaten in the round of 16 by Cuban veteran Andry Laffita who went on to claim the silver medal. Khalid was absent at the 2008 European Amateur Boxing Championships in Liverpool, England but made a return in the GeeBee Championship in April 2009 in the 54 kg class (bantamweight) and claimed gold beating European silver medalist Salomo N'tuve of Sweden.  Yafai lost to Andrew Selby 26:12 on 11 November 2011 to deny him qualification for the 2012 Olympic Games after the pair both reached the last eight of the 2011 GB Amateur Boxing Championships in Baku. Yafai and Selby were scheduled to face each other three times to decide the winner, but Yafai pulled out of the second fight, thus handing a shot of the Olympics to the Welshman.  In 2012, Yafai was named "Young Boxer of the Year" by the British website BoxRec.

Professional career.

Early career.

On 7 July 2012 Yafai made his professional debut, aged 23, in the bantamweight, at the Sheffield Arena in Sheffield on the undercard of Kell Brook vs. Carson Jones. His opponent was veteran 43 year old Delroy Spencer (14-139-3, 1 KO). The fight was stopped after Spencer refused to come out for round 3. In his second fight, Yafai defeated Hungarian boxer Richard Voros via first-round TKO. Two weeks later, Yafai was against Mexican Victor Koh at the Odyssey Arena, Belfast. This was on the undercard off Frampton-Molitor. The fight went the full 6 rounds, as referee Paul McCullagh scored it 60-54 in favour of Yafai. On 20 October, Yafai knocked down Scott Gladwin (5-1) three times in round 1 and once in round 2 as the referee waved the fight off, giving Yafai the victory via TKO. A month later on the undercard of Froch vs. Mack at the Nottingham Arena in Nottingham, Yafai knocked out Italian boxer Pio Antonio Nettuno in round 1 in a super bantamweight bout, after a body shot. Nettuno could not make the count.  In December 2012, Yafai fought Spanish boxer Jorge Perez (11-5, 6 KOs) at the Olympia in Kensington, London. Yafai won the fight via 3rd-round TKO. In January 2013, Yafai defeated Mexican boxer Gonzalo Garcia, after Garcia did not come out of his corner for round 5. In March, Yafai fought in an 8-round super bantamweight bout against Michael Ramabeletsa (8-9, 4 KOs) at the Echo Arena in Liverpool. It went the full 8 rounds as referee Alvin Finch scored it 79-73 in favour of Yafai. After a 7-month lay off, on the undercard of Brook vs. Senchenko at the Sheffield Arena in October 2013, Yafai defeateds Spanish boxer Santiago Bustos via points (59-55) after 6 rounds. Two months later in December, although being docked a point for a low blow, Yafai defeated British boxer Ashley Lane (4-3-2, 1 KO) via fourth-round TKO.

Super Flyweight.

On 21 May 2014 Yafai fought at the First Direct Arena in Leeds for the vacant Commonwealth super flyweight title against Nigerian contender and former titleholder Yaqub Kareem (13-3-1, 8 KOs). With 30 seconds remaining in round 3, Yafai knocked down Kareem with a body shot to claim the vacant title. For the first time in his career, in September 2014, Yafai fought at the Wembley Arena in London live on Sky Sports. His opponent was 34 year old Nicaragua Herald Molina (17-8-3, 7 KOs) for the vacant IBF Inter-Continental super flyweight title. Yafai knocked Molina down once in round 1, before finishing the fight off in round 2 via KO.  Yafai defended the title two months later at 3Arena in Dublin, Ireland against 38 year old Everth Briceno (35-9-2, 26 KOs). Briceno was knocked down in round five and twice in round eight. Briceno also lost one point in round six for low blows. The fight went the full 12 rounds as Yafai retained the title via unanimous decision (119-106, 118-105,120-104). This was Yafai's 13th straight win since turning professional in 2012.  In March 2015, Yafai went the 8 round distance with 20 year old Cristofer Rosales in a non-title bout at the Sheffield Arena. Two months later, he knocked out 35 year old veteran Isaac Quaye (27-10-1, 18 KOs) in just one round following a left hook. In September 2015, Yafai fought 20 year old Nicaraguan boxer Aron Juarez (6-2-1) at the First Direct Arena. Yafai knocked Juarez down twice in round one following two left hooks to the body.  It was announced that Yafai would have a chance to claim the vacant BBBofC British super flyweight title on 17 October 2015 against Jason Cunningham (17-2, 6 KOs) at the Barclaycard Arena in Birmingham, live on Sky Sports 1. Despite a height disadvantage, Yafai outclassed Cunningham from the opening bell winning a clear unanimous decision (119-108, 120-107, 120-107). The highlights of the fight came in round 5 when Yafai connected with a double left hook, staggering Cunningham and then knocked him down in round 6. After the fight Yafai targeted the WBA super-flyweight champion Kohei Kono as a potential next opponent.  Yafai's next opponent was former world title challenger from Nicaragua Dixon Flores (12-3-2, 4 KOs) on 5 March 2016 at the Genting Arena for the vacant WBA Inter-Continental super flyweight title, with the winner due a shot at WBA champion Kohei Kono in the summer. This was Yafai's fifth opponent from Nicaragua in less than two years. The fight lasted less than two minutes as Yafai floored Flores twice in the first round to secure a world title shot and the vacant title.  On 25 June, Yafai fought 19 year old Hungarian Jozsef Ajtai (15-3, 10 KOs) in a scheduled 8 round bantamweight bout at the O2 Arena in London on the undercard of heavyweight title fight between Anthony Joshua and Dominic Breazeale. Yafai floored Ajtai twice in round 1, with the fight stopping just under 2 minutes. Yafai winning via TKO.  Yafai was added to the Eggington vs. Gavin card on 22 October 2016 at the Barclaycard Arena in a scheduled 8 round fight after his brother Gamal was forced to pull out of his title defence. Yafai secured his world title fight after a left body shot floored Johnson Tellez in round 3.

Yafai vs. Concepción.

Yafai secured a fight with WBA super flyweight champion Luis Concepción (35-4, 24 KOs) after knocking out previous opponent Tellez. Eddie Hearn confirmed it would take place on the undercard of Anthony Joshua vs. Éric Molina on 10 December at the Manchester Arena. With a win, Yafai looked to become the first boxer from Birmingham to win a world title in over 100 years. At the official weigh in, Yafai weighed in at 8st 2lbs and Concepción weighed 8st 5lbs, which was above the limit. He was given an hour to drop the extra weight or risk not having the title at stake. Two hours after the initial weigh in, Concepción only managed to lose 0.3lbs, thus losing his WBA title on the scales. The title was only at stake for Yafai. Yafai put in a dominant performance and outscored Concepción in nearly every round to win the WBA super-flyweight title. The judges scored the bout 120-108, 117-110 and 119-108 all in favour of Yafai after 12 rounds. Yafai also became the first boxer from Birmingham to win a world title in over 100 years.

Yafai vs. Muranaka.

On 25 January 2017, it was announced that Yafai, as wished, would make his first world title defence in his home city of Birmingham on 13 May, live on Sky Sports. On 15 March 2017, promoter Eddie Hearn announced that Yafai would be fighting 31 year old former Japanese flyweight champion Suguru Muranaka (25-2-1, 8 KOs) at the Barclaycard Arena in Birmingham. After the fight was confirmed, Yafai said that he wanted the tough fights as it would help him when it comes to unification fights. In his 13-years as a professional, it was the first time Muranaka fought outside of Tokyo, where all his previous 28 bouts took place at the Korakuen Hall. Yafai retained his world title, in what was seen as a 'touger than expected' fight. The fight went the 12 round distance, with scores reading 118-108, 119-107 and 119-107, all in favour of Yafai. Muranaka was dropped in round 2, the same round that Yafai claimed to have hurt his hand in the post fight. Referee Steve Gray warned Yafai early in the fight for low blows, before docking a point in round 8. The bout was fast-paced throughout, which caused Yafai to look tired in the later rounds, due to him landed constant power shots in the earlier rounds and Muranaka connecting with his own body shots to wear down. After the fight, promoter Eddie Hearn said that he would have one more defence before taking part in a unification fight.

Yafai vs. Ishida.

On 8 June 2017 the WBA's championship committee ordered Yafai to start negotiations with mandatory challenger Sho Ishida (24-0, 13 KOs), who was ranked at number 1 by the organisation. Both parties had 30 days to come to an agreement. On 12 July, Hearn confirmed that terms had been agreed for the fight. On 6 September it was confirmed that the fight would take place on the undercard of Anthony Joshua defending his world titles against Kubrat Pulev on 28 October 2017 at the Millennium Stadium on Sky Sports Box Office. Much like Yafai's previous opponent Muranaka, it would also mark the first time Ishida would be fighting outside of Japan. Towards the end of September, WBA ranked former WBC champion Roman González as their number 2. Teiken Promotions, who promote González was said to be looking to arrange a fight against Yafai. Upon hearing this, Yafai was excited at the possibility of fighting González as had made it know public that he was interested. Yafai said, "Happy days, I’ve wanted González for a long time", although he said wouldn't look past his mandatory fight first. Speaking on Ishida, Yafai said, "I’m a huge favorite to win and a lot of people think Ishida has no chance, but I’m always on the ball. I look at every opponent like they’re Mike Tyson. If everything goes well, I can talk to (promoter) Eddie (Hearn) and we can look to make the González fight." González stated he would next look to fight in February 2018.  On fight night, Yafai went the 12 round distance for the third consecutive time, winning a unanimous decision, successfully retaining his WBA title and increasing his chances of fighting in the United States in 2018. All three judges' scored the fight comfortably 118-110, 116-112 and 116-112 in favour of Yafai. Yafai showed off his speed and landed good combinations. Due to Ishida's size advantage, he also landed some clean shots on Yafai. Ishida did not letting his hands go until the final two rounds. By this point, it was looking like a clear win for Yafai and Ishida was lacking the punching power to get himself back in the fight and score a knockdown. Ishida worked hard in round 11, however Yafai connected with the harder punches. In the post-fight, Yafai said, "I wasn't too impressed [with my performance]. A bit sluggish, but I got the win against an awkward opponent." He also stated that he would like to fight again in the Spring of 2018.

Yafai vs. Carmona.

On 20 May 2018 it was announced by Top Rank's Carl Moretti that Yafai would make his US debut on 26 May against 26 year old Mexican boxer David Carmona (21-5-5, 9 KOs) on the same card as IBF belt-holder Jerwin Ancajas, who would be making a mandatory defence against Jonas Sultan. With both bouts streaming live on ESPN's new subscription app, the plan going forward was for both Yafai and Ancajas to come out of their respective bouts victorious and meet later in the year for a unification fight. Carmona was best known for going the distance but failing to capture the WBO title against Naoya Inoue in May 2016, becoming one of only two boxers to date to take Inoue the distance. Save Mart Center in Fresno, California was announced as the venue. Carmona was unable to challenge for the WBA title after coming in 1181⁄2 pounds at the weigh in. Yafai weighed 1141⁄2 pounds. Yafai had an official purse of $40,000 which did not include the extra amount he would receive for TV rights in the UK. Carmona had to pay a 20% fine from his $10,000 purse and from that fine, $1,000 was added to Yafai's purse and the remaining $1,000 was paid to the California Commission.  Yafai dropped Carmona four times in the fight en route to winning the fight after round 7 when Carmona decided to stay on his stool The first round was fast-paced with Yafai scoring an early knockdown with a left hook to the head. Carmona beat the count and later in the round managed to hurt Yafai. Yafai also hit the canvas in round 1, however it was ruled a slip. Yafai regained his composure and returned to his quick jabs in round 2. Carmona started connecting to the body. Yafai landed quick jabs in round 3 snapping Carmona's head back each time. In round 4, Yafai landed a borderline shot which floored Carmona once again. Carmona was knocked down twice in round 5. One knockdown, which again appeared to be borderline, was counted. Referee Raul Caiz Sr. ruled it a knockdown but also took a point away from Yafai for hitting Carmona when he was already down. The point was deducted after many warnings. By rounds 6 and 7, Carmona looked fatigued and Yafai dominated both rounds. Promoter Hearn stated a fight with former world champion Roman González could be next. He told Sky Sports, "He is ready for the challenge of unification but we also really like the Chocolatito fight and have already opened talks with his team." Hearn, who has promoted Yafai since he debuted highly praised him on his performance.

Yafai vs. Gonzalez.

Matchroom Boxing announced a third annual Monte-Carlo Boxing Bonanza show to take place at the Casino de Monte Carlo Salle Medecin on 24 November 2018. Yafai along with former cruiserweight world champion Denis Lebedev were chosen to co-headline the event. Yafai's fourth title defense was set to take place on the event against Mexican boxer, former world title challenger Israel Gonzalez (23-2, 10 KOs). Gonzalez failed in an attempt to capture the IBF title against Jerwin Ancajas. After appearing on the same card in May 2018, there was discussion that Yafai and Ancajas would unify, however that did not materialise. On his first attempt, Yafai weighed slightly over the 8st 3lb limit. He was given two hours to lose the small amount, however weighed again immediately without his pants, making weight the second time. Yafai retained his WBA title via a contrversial 12 round unanimous decision.The three judges scored the fight 117-111, 116-112 and 116-112 in favour of Yafai. Many media outlets believed Gonzalez has done just enough to snatch the world title. Yafai started the fight slow, targeting Gonzalez's body while Gonzalez was off the mark quicker with his high tempo, throwing at a higher output. Yafai struggled to find the right distance and began missing his target. Gonzalez was cut due to a clash of heads in round 5, however was still throwing. From round 9, although Gonzalez was still throwing, it was Yafai who was timing his shots, landing accurately on the body and what looked like the harder shots. After each shot landed from Yafai, Gonzalez replied with a flurry of combinations. Gonzalez eventually slowed down his output in the final two rounds as Yafai's body shots started taking its toll. Yafai stated it was not his best performance and believed the scorecards were wide, but believed he did enough to retain his belt. Gonzalez walked out of the ring after the scorecards were read.

Khalid "Kal" Yafai (; born 11 June 1989) is a British professional boxer who held the WBA super-flyweight title from 2016 to 2020. As an amateur, he represented Great Britain at the 2008 Summer Olympics and won a silver medal at the 2010 European Championships as a flyweight. As of October 2019, he is ranked as the world's fourth best active super-flyweight by "The Ring" magazine, and fifth by BoxRec and the Transnational Boxing Rankings Board.

Khalid Saeed Yafai (* 11. Juni 1989 in Birmingham) ist ein englischer Profiboxer und ehemaliger Weltmeister der WBA im Superfliegengewicht.


History.

The Wild Coast from the Great Kei River to the Mtamvuna River was part of the former homeland of the Transkei during the Apartheid era.  In 1986, a bombing occurred at Wild Coast Casino in Mbizana Local Municipality

Geography.

Many rivers empty into the sea along the Wild Coast. In the southern-most parts of the region, where the hills are lower, the rivers tend to be mature and are characterized by wide floodplains. But in the rugged north, where young rivers find their path to the sea blocked by massive cliffs, many, like Waterfall Bluff, leap over the rocky crags into the surf below.  Small sandy bays and long stretches of open beaches are often found near the mouths of large rivers, such as the Kei, Mthatha, Mbashe and Mzimvuba. There are also many smaller rivers which, owing to their protected sources in the coastal forests, have much less siltation than the larger rivers, which drain vast tracts of land where poor farming practices are in place. Estuaries, bays and headlands are plentiful, whilst rocky shores predominate, be they smooth wave-cut platforms with jagged and un-even surfaces or precipitous cliffs that plunge into the sea.  About half the coastline comprises indigenous forest and many forest species that were previously unknown to science have been discovered in places such as Umtamvuna and Mkambati. About 900 forest and grassland species from the Wild Coast region have been identified as having commercial, traditional or homeopathic value.

Climate.

The average daily temperatures along the coast vary from 17 °C to 28 °C in January and 9 °C to 21 °C in July.

Tourism.

The scenic beauty of the Wild Coast, coupled with its rich cultural heritage, make the region ideal for the development of a strong tourism industry. In fact, tourism has been identified as one of the cornerstones of the proposed Wild Coast Spatial Development Initiative. But the virtual collapse of local administrations and environmental threats like the proposed Xolobeni mine dune mining project and the proposed N2 Wild Coast Toll Road are some of the major issues that will have to be tackled by this initiative. The challenge will be to bring about much-needed investment and development that will benefit local communities and the region as a whole without compromising the rich natural resource base.  The controversy over the titanium mine project, one opposed by many of the area's indigenous tribal people, is explored in the prize-winning 2014 documentary "The Shore Break" by South African filmmaker Ryley Grunenwald.  The Wild Coast Jikeleza Route near East London is host to the 100 km2 Inkwenkwezi Private Game Reserve. The nearby coastal village of Cintsa is also a popular tourist destination.  Other popular tourist towns and villages along the Wild Coast include Port St Johns, Coffee Bay, Hole-in-the-Wall, Qolora Mouth, Kei Mouth, Morgan Bay, and Haga Haga.

The Wild Coast is a section of the coast of the Eastern Cape, a province of South Africa. The region stretches from East London in the south to the border of KwaZulu-Natal in the north. It is the traditional home of the Xhosa people, and the birthplace of many prominent South Africans, including Nelson Mandela and Thabo Mbeki.

Die Wild Coast (; früher "Caffir Coast" bzw. "Kaffernküste") ist ein Küstenabschnitt Südafrikas am Indischen Ozean. Die Region gehört zur Provinz Ostkap.


Definition.

As named divisions of Māori (tribes), hapū have membership determined by genealogical descent; a hapū comprises a number of (extended family) groups.  In the 1870 census the Whakatōhea iwi of the Bay of Plenty had five named hapū ranging in size from 51 to 165 people. Some of their hapū were apparently overlooked as an iwi register from 1874 showed two more hapū but these had small numbers: 22 and 44. The hapū of this iwi ranged in size from 22 to 188. In 1874, hapū still had a small male to female imbalance overall with six of the seven iwi having far more males than females. In the four-year period between the census and the register all the hapū had grown significantly at a time when popular opinion was Maori population was in decline. Ngāti Rua gained 8, Ngāti Patu gained 28, Ngāti Tama gained 63, Ngāti Ira lost 4, Ngāti Ngahere gained 17. These population gains were at a time when the iwi had land confiscated by the government for their support of various anti-government movements. Some hapū in other iwi were larger. A Māori person can belong to or have links to many different hapū.

Pre-history and history.

Before the arrival of Europeans in New Zealand the normal day-to-day operating group in Māori society seems to have been the smaller whānau. By the 1820s Māori had learnt the economic benefit of working in larger groups - especially when it came to trading with ships. The larger hapū could work more effectively to produce surplus flax, potatoes, smoked heads and pigs in exchange for blankets, tobacco, axes and trade muskets. In warfare the hapū operated as the standard grouping for warriors during the period of the Musket Wars (1807-1842). Hapū would unite politically under their own chief, to form much larger armies of up to several thousand warriors, although it was common for hapū to retain independence within the larger group.  Each hapū had its own chief and normally operated independently of the tribe (iwi) group.  Te Maire Tau noted in his study of Ngāi Tahu migrations that hapū size and names were volatile, with hapū splitting into sister groups when they grew in size or when migrating. New hapū often adopted names from events associated with the migration. Likewise the same group of people would change their name according to different circumstances. Name changes primarily asserted rights to resources given to a named hapū, or emphasised a link to an ancestor with mana in a particular area. Tau states that hapū names and locations have become more stable in more recent times.  Missionaries such Henry Williams (1792-1867) noted that even in times of war against another iwi, hapū usually operated independently. In the period of the Musket Wars (1807-1842) many of the battles involved fighting between competing hapū rather than different iwi. It was not uncommon for two hapū from the same iwi to clash.  Hapū frequently were the political unit that sold land to the Europeans. In the 20 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, according to Native Affairs Minister Chris Richmond, different hapū or comparatively small groups of individuals sold half of all the blocks sold under the Treaty of Waitangi. Richmond said that hapū or small groups sold all the land sold north of Auckland, some in Hawke's Bay, in the Wairarapa valley, in the Waikato at Raglan, and sales by Te Āti Awa in Wellington and Taranaki.

Etymology.

The word "hapū" literally means "pregnant"; the usage in a socio-political context expresses a metaphor for the genealogical connection that unites the members of the hapū. (Similarly, the Māori word for land, "whenua", can also mean "placenta", metaphorically indicating the connection between the people and the land, and the word iwi, for a Māori tribal group, can also mean "bones", indicating a link to ancient ancestors.)

In Māori and New Zealand English, a hapū ("subtribe", or "clan") functions as "the basic political unit within Māori society".

Das war die wichtigste politische Einheit in der voreuropäischen Gesellschaft der. Ein konnte zwischen hundert und mehreren hundert Personen groß sein und mehrere (Großfamilien) umfassen. Die Mitglieder eines kontrollierten ein fest definierten Teil des Stammesgebietes und hatten idealerweise Zugang zum Meer oder Seen, zu Flüssen und zu Wäldern.


Executive branch.

The Prime Minister proposes, the President appoints, and the "Sejm" approves the Council of Ministers. The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the Prime minister and Deputy Prime Ministers (if any) are appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Prime Minister and the "Sejm".

Head of state.

The President is elected by terms; as head of state, supreme commander of the Armed Forces, and supreme representative of the Republic of Poland. The President has the right to veto legislation, although veto may be overridden by the assembly with a three-fifths majority vote. The President, as representative of the state in foreign affairs, shall ratify and renounce international agreements, appoint and recall the plenipotentiary representatives of the Republic of Poland and shall cooperate with the Prime Minister and the appropriate minister in respect of foreign policy. As Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, the President shall appoint the Chief of the General Staff and commanders of branches of the Armed Forces.  The President may, regarding particular matters, convene the Cabinet Council, although it does not possess the competence of the Council of Ministers. Official acts of the President shall require, for their validity, the signature of the Prime Minister, nevertheless this does not apply to:

Legislative branch.

The Polish Parliament has two chambers. The lower chamber ("Sejm") has 460 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies using the d'Hondt method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems, with a 5% threshold (8% for coalitions, threshold waived for national minorities). The Senate ("Senat") has 100 members elected for a four-year term under the single member, one-round first-past-the-post voting method. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senate form the National Assembly, (Polish "Zgromadzenie Narodowe"). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: Taking the oath of office by a new president, bringing an indictment against the President of the Republic to the Tribunal of State, and declaration of a President's permanent incapacity to exercise their duties due to the state of their health. Only the first kind has occurred to date. Since 1991 elections are supervised by the National Electoral Commission ("Państwowa Komisja Wyborcza"), whose administrative division is called the National Electoral Office ("Krajowe Biuro Wyborcze").

National security.

Poland's top national security goal is to further integrate with NATO and other west European defense, economic, and political institutions via a modernization and reorganization of its military. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defense nature as its NATO partners.  The combined Polish army consists of 100,300 active duty personnel and in addition 234,000 reserves. In 2009 the Armed Forces transformed into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. Personnel levels and organization in the different branches are as follows (2004):  The Polish military continues to restructure and to modernize its equipment. The Polish Defense Ministry General Staff and the Land Forces staff have recently reorganized the latter into a NATO-compatible J/G-1 through J/G-6 structure. Budget constraints hamper such priority defense acquisitions as a multi-role fighter, improved communications systems, and an attack helicopter.  Poland continues to be a regional leader in support and participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace Program and has actively engaged most of its neighbors and other regional actors to build stable foundations for future European security arrangements. Poland continues its long record of strong support for United Nations peacekeeping operations; it maintaining a unit in Southern Lebanon (part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, a battalion in NATO's Kosovo Force (KFOR), and providing and actually deploying the KFOR strategic reserve to Kosovo. Poland is a strong ally of the US in Europe, and it led the Multinational Division Central-South in Iraq in the 2000s.

Government Protection Bureau.

The State Protection Service (Polish: Służba Ochrony Państwa, SOP) is Poland's equivalent of the Secret Service in the United States, providing antiterrorism and VIP security detail services for the government.

Administrative divisions.

Poland is divided in 16 provinces or Voivodeships ("województwa", singular – "województwo"): Lower Silesia, Kuyavia-Pomerania, Łódź, Lubelskie, Lubusz, Lesser Poland, Masovia, Opole, Subcarpathia, Podlaskie, Pomerania, Silesia, Świętokrzyskie, Warmia-Masuria, Greater Poland and West Pomerania.

The Government of Poland takes place in the framework of a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

Das politische System Polens basiert auf der Verfassung der Republik Polen vom 2. April 1997. Die Republik Polen ist als semi-präsidentielles Regierungssystem einzuordnen.


Human activity.

The Maya Biosphere Reserve is divided into several zones, each with a different protected status. The core zones are formed by several national parks and biotopes (wildlife preserves), in which no human settlement, logging, or extraction of resources are allowed. These include Laguna del Tigre National Park, Sierra del Lacandón National Park, Mirador-Río Azul National Park, Tikal National Park, El Zotz Biotope, Naachtún-Dos Lagunas Biotope, Cerro Cahuí Biotope, Laguna del Tigre Biotope, and El Pilar Natural Monument. The core zones cover an area of 7670 km, which is 36% of the Maya Biosphere Reserve.  In multiple-use zones (8484.40 km; 40%) and the buffer zone (4975 km; 24%), which comprises the southern portion of the Reserve, certain regulated economic activities are allowed. These include the sustainable harvesting of wood and traditional forest products which include "chicle", a sap used in the manufacture of chewing gum, "xate", an ornamental palm plant used in floral arrangements, and "pimenta" or allspice. The Guatemalan government has granted forest concessions to local communities, giving them the right to practice sustainable forestry in delineated areas for 25 years. International monitoring groups such as the Forest Stewardship Council certify logging activities as sustainable. In 2005, were certified. In other parts of the multiple-use zone, farming communities have been granted the right to continue farming in so-called agricultural polygons.

Archaeology.

The Maya Biosphere Reserve is home to a large concentration of ancient Maya cities, many of which are under excavation. Tikal is the most famous of these, attracting about 120,000 to 180,000 visitors per year.  The Mirador Basin, in the northern part of the Reserve, contains numerous interconnected Maya cities. The project is directed by Richard Hansen, an archaeologist at El Mirador, the largest of the sites, dating from the preclassic Maya period. Other cities in the region include El Tintal, Nakbe, and Wakna.  In 2018, 60.000 uncharted structures were revealed by archaeologists with help of the revolutionary technology lasers called 'lidar' in the northern Guatemala. The project was mapped near the Maya Biosphere Reserve. Unlike previous assumptions, thanks to the new findings, archaeologists believe that 7-11 million Maya people inhabited in the northern Guatemala during the late classical period from 650 to 800 A.D. Lidar technology digitally removed the tree canopy to reveal ancient remains and showed that Maya cities like Tikal were bigger than previously thought. Houses, palaces, elevated highways, and defensive fortifications were unearthed because of the Lidar. According to the archaeologist Stephen Houston, it is overwhelming finding in over 150 years of Maya archaeology.

Environmental threats.

Ecosystems in Maya Biosphere Reserve face numerous threats from human activities, including illegal logging, farming, and ranching in protected areas, as well as drug trafficking, poaching, and looting of Maya artifacts. The forest area of the Reserve has shrunk by 13 percent over the last 21 years according to the non-profit organization Rainforest Alliance, which has several community development projects in the region. Since 2000, illegal cattle ranches have cleared about 8 percent of the reserve. Some of the most extreme deforestation has occurred in the Laguna del Tigre and Sierra del Lancandon National Parks.

The Maya Biosphere Reserve () is a nature reserve in Guatemala managed by Guatemala's National Council of Protected Areas (CONAP). The Maya Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 21,602 km.

Das Maya-Biosphärenreservat (sp. "Reserva de la Biósfera Maya") ist das größte Naturschutzgebiet in Guatemala. Es umfasst den tropischen Norden des Departamentos Petén und erstreckt sich auf einer Fläche von 21.602 km2. Das Reservat wurde 1990 gegründet und untersteht dem „Nationalen Rat für Naturschutzgebiete“ ("Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas", CONAP). Benannt ist es nach dem mesoamerikanischen Volk der Maya, das im nördlichen Petén seine historischen Wurzeln hat.


Biography.

Born at Culcheth, Lancashire, Adamson was brought up on his family's farm at Lymm, Cheshire where his mother's Booth family were resident for over 500 years; his maternal uncle, and godfather, was Gerald Loxley. His father's family was of Scottish extraction, and a distant cousin was Mgr Thomas Adamson.  From 1949 to 1956 he attended Manchester Grammar School where he was taught, amongst others, by Eric James ("later" Lord James of Rusholme). He became a scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford, and was tutored by Austin Gill and Sir Malcolm Pasley, graduating BA in 1959, proceeding MA in 1963. He won the Zaharoff Travelling Scholar Prize of the University of Oxford for 1959–60, thereafter studying at the Paris-Sorbonne University, being tutored by Pierre-Georges Castex. In 1962 he took the degree of BLitt, proceeding Master of Letters (MLitt); his thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil), entitled "Balzac and the Visual Arts", was supervised by Jean Seznec of All Souls College, Oxford.  Adamson spent much of his teaching career at university level, although he taught at Manchester Grammar School from 1962 to 1964 and then at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand from 1964 to 1965. In 1969 he joined Goldsmiths' College and his teaching did much to enhance the University of London's standing throughout French academic circles. In 1971 he was appointed a Recognised Teacher in the Faculty of Arts of the University of London and, in 1972, a member of its Faculty of Education, holding both appointments until 1989. He served as Chairman of the Board of Examiners at London University from 1983 until 1986, attracting candidates for undergraduate degrees including external students from the UK and Europe as well as from Asian countries such as Singapore and Hong Kong.  In 1989 he was elected a Visiting Fellow of Wolfson College, Cambridge, having been active in the fields of public policy on the arts, libraries and museums. By speaking, writing and, through the Bow Group, submitting (with Sir John Hannam MP) written and oral evidence to a Parliamentary select committee, he helped to establish the National Heritage Memorial Fund. Adamson was a member of the judging committee of the Museum of the Year Awards from 1979 to 1983, and has donated to the National Library of Wales.  He served the Order of St John of Jerusalem from 1981 to 2008, becoming Deputy Director of Ceremonies of the Priory of England and the Islands (the Isle of Wight, the Isles of Scilly, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man).  From 19 October 2012 until 11 October 2013 Adamson served as Master (and from 2015, Senior Court Assistant) of the Worshipful Company of Curriers of the City of London and during his term of office he launched "The Curriers' Company London History Essay Prize", which is competed for annually by young graduates of British universities. As Master of the Curriers' Company, he established sixteen annual prizes in mathematics and history for pupils aged 14 to 15 at four London academies. In 1976 he became a liveryman of the Haberdashers' Company.  His personal interests include the history of religion and genealogy. He is also an enthusiastic art collector, mainly of English, French and Italian paintings, including a work of Eugène Isabey, and drawings of the 18th and 19th centuries.  Adamson and his wife divide their time between homes in Kent and Polperro, Cornwall and continues to contribute much on the history of Cornwall.

Scope of his writing.

"The Genesis of Le Cousin Pons", substantially the text of Adamson's (BLitt) thesis, is a detailed study of the manuscript and proof-sheets of this very late work. Tracing the progress of the novel through its various editions, it reveals the full extent of Balzac's improvisation from novella to full-length masterpiece.  "Illusions Perdues", a critical study of what is Balzac's most mature work, outlines its strong autobiographical element, analysing contrasts of Paris and the provinces, the purity of the artist's life and the corruptions of journalism, and the ambiguity of Balzac's narrative outlook. Major themes of the book are that in "fiction" is truth and in "truth" fiction, and that "Illusions Perdues" is the first novel by any writer to highlight the shaping of public opinion by the media, usually done in the pursuit of power or money.  "Blaise Pascal" considers its subject from biographical, theological, religious and mathematical points of view, including the standpoint of physics. There is a chapter on the argument of the Wager. The analysis is slightly inclined in a secular direction, giving greater emphasis to Pascal's concern with the contradictions of human nature, and rather less to his deep and traditional preoccupation with Original Sin. Since writing this book, Adamson has produced further work on Pascal's mathematical comprehension of God.  His historical writings fall into three categories: a monograph on Spanish art and French Romanticism, illuminating the opening-up of Spain and Spanish art to travellers from France and other parts of Western Europe, and to enthusiasts in those countries; articles on manorial and banking history; and, the modern workings of a City livery company. Adamson has also written on travel in England and Wales in the 18th century.  His study of one year in the life of the celebrated artist Oskar Kokoschka has been published to critical acclaim, as have his recollections of Sir William Golding.

Philosophy of literature.

According to Adamson, literature does not necessarily need to fulfil any social mission or purpose; yet, as with Émile Zola or D. H. Lawrence, there is no reason why it should not highlight social evils. A novel or novella – or a biography – is not merely an absorbing story: in Matthew Arnold's words, the best prose is, like poetry, "a criticism of life". This means that they convey some sort of philosophy of the world (in Arnold's words, "How to live"), though some writers, such as Adalbert Stifter and Jane Austen (to whom, incidentally, he is related through his mother) do this less than most others, whilst on the other hand Samuel Beckett conveys a profoundly negative philosophy of life.  All too often, in Adamson's view, people go through their lives without living or seeking any belief which, for him, is the supreme attractiveness of Blaise Pascal, whose philosophy was of a unique kind: grounded in the vagaries of human nature; not essentially seeking to convince by mathematics; and foreshadowing Søren Kierkegaard and 20th-century existentialism in its appeal to human experience.

Bibliography.

Within a study of the art of autobiography he is writing an account of his own life (including his friendship with A.L. Rowse). He has written eleven books as well as numerous articles.

Dr Donald Adamson, (born 30 March 1939), is a British literary scholar, author and historian. Books which he has written include "Blaise Pascal: Mathematician, Physicist, and Thinker about God" and "The Curriers' Company: A Modern History". His works are regarded as a gateway to European literature.

Donald Adamson (* 30. März 1939 in Culcheth, Cheshire, GB) ist ein britischer Historiker, Kritiker und Übersetzer französischer Literatur (Honoré de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant).


Biography.

At the age of 13 Haffer found a dead bird with a ring and had taken it to the Berlin Museum where he met Erwin Stresemann who took time to explain to him the purpose of ringing. This made a big impression on him and it marked the beginning of his ornithological interest.  He was the fourth child of Oskar Haffer and Margarete. His father was a high school teacher with a training in biology who encouraged an interest in natural history. After schooling, Haffer worked during the summer of 1951 under Stresemann before going to university. Knowing that ornithology did not offer a career, he studied geology and paleontology. He obtained a Diploma in 1956 and continued on for a doctoral degree in 1957 at the University of Göttingen - working on "Early heterodont Lamellibranchs of the Rhineland Devonian".  He obtained employment with Mobil Oil as a field geologist and went to remote places like lowland Colombia and lived in South and North America, Iran, Egypt, and Norway. During his stay in Colombia he met Maria Kluge, a teacher in Bogotá with an interest in Amazonia, marrying her in 1959. During this time he studied the bird faunas of Amazonia and Iran. In close communication with evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr since the early 1960s, Haffer formulated his ideas on the diversification of birds and the effects of barriers. In 1978 Beryl B. Simpson and Haffer published their analysis of speciation patterns in Amazonia.  From his studies on the Amazonian avifauna, Haffer authored several papers on Neotropical ornithology and devised his Amazonian refugia theory to explain the rapid diversification of the Neotropical fauna in Pleistocene times. He used the toucanet of the genus "Selenidera" to explain speciation using the idea of refugia. Haffer's scientific output was substantial, with some 200 scientific publications.  Haffer wrote the first book-length biography of Ernst Mayr and co-authored a biography of Erwin Stresemann, Mayr's teacher and friend. Haffer's foreword on species concepts is included in volume 4 of the Handbook of the Birds of the World. He also wrote extensively on the history and development of ornithology. In 1975, he was awarded the William Brewster Memorial Award.  In 2013, Haffer was commemorated with the newly described Campina jay, "Cyanocorax hafferi".

Jürgen Haffer (9 December 1932 in Berlin – 26 April 2010 in Essen) was a German ornithologist, biogeographer, and geologist. He is most remembered for his theory of Amazonian forest refugia during the Pleistocene that would have contributed to speciation and the diversification of the biota.

Jürgen Haffer (* 9. Dezember 1932 in Berlin; † 26. April 2010 in Essen) war ein deutscher Geologe, Paläontologe, Ornithologe und Biograph.


Early life.

Archibald Hill Carmichael was born in Dale County, Alabama, near the community of Sylvan Grove. His father, Jesse Malcolm Carmichael, who fought in the Civil War and lost a hand at the Battle of Antietam, served as Alabama Secretary of State. The younger Carmichael received his education in public schools and studied at the University of Alabama School of Law, graduating in 1886. He was admitted to the bar that same year and moved to north Alabama to practice law in Tuscumbia. Carmichael married Annie Sugg in 1890.

Political life.

Carmichael served four years (1890–1894) as solicitor for the 8th judicial district of Alabama. In 1901 he was a delegate to the Alabama state constitutional convention. It was this convention which drafted the Alabama constitution presently in use in Alabama today and which is one of the longest such documents in the world. Carmichael served in the Alabama House of Representatives from 1907 until 1911 and then again from 1915 until 1919. During those tenure's he served as the Speaker of the House in 1907 and 1911. Active in partisan politics Carmichael was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1916, 1928 and 1932.

School boards.

Carmichael was active in both state and local education issues. In fact, he held three elected positions at the same time. He was elected to the Alabama State Senate from 1919 to 1923; the Alabama State Board of Education from 1919 to 1947 and the local Tuscumbia Board of Education from 1920 to 1947. During that same period, he was appointed as a trustee of the University of Alabama from 1924 to 1947.

U.S. Congress.

Carmichael's first election to the U.S. House of Representatives came on November 7, 1933 when he was elected to fill the unexpired term of Edward B. Almon who had died while in office. Carmichael was elected to a full term in the 74th Congress serving from 1935 to 1937. During this session, the Social Security Act became law. He did not seek re-election, returning, instead, to Alabama, where he continued to practice law until his death.  Archibald Hill Carmichael died in Tuscumbia at the age of 83.

Archibald Hill Carmichael (June 17, 1864 – July 15, 1947) was an American Democratic politician who represented Alabama's 8th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from November 1933 to January 1937.

Archibald Hill Carmichael (* 17. Juni 1864 bei Sylvan Grove, Dale County, Alabama; † 15. Juli 1947 in Tuscumbia, Alabama) war ein US-amerikanischer Rechtsanwalt und Politiker (Demokratische Partei).


Professional wrestling career.

World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE.

Ohio Valley Wrestling (2006–2007).

In 2006, Crawford signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), WWE's then-developmental territory. She debuted on July 1, 2006, as a special guest referee, under her real name, in a match between Shelly Martinez and ODB. On September 6, Crawford made her in-ring debut, under the new ring name Tori, in an OVW women's battle royal, in which she was eliminated by ODB. She spent the following month competing regularly in both singles and tag team matches, against opponents including Mickie James, ODB, and Katie Lea. In late September, she began managing Elijah Burke, accompanying him to the ring for matches against Chet The Jet. At the OVW television tapings on October 18, having reverted to her real name, Crawford challenged Beth Phoenix for the OVW Women's Championship, but lost following interference from Serena Deeb. Two days later, on October 20, Crawford won a gauntlet match at an OVW house show to win the OVW Women's Championship. The following night, however, Crawford lost the championship back to Phoenix, who won an eight-woman elimination match. Crawford's championship win is unrecognized by OVW, and the promotion considers Phoenix's two reigns as champion as a single, uninterrupted reign. Crawford continued to feud with Phoenix in early 2007, facing her in several tag team matches, in which Phoenix teamed with ODB and Crawford teamed with Lea or Deeb. Simultaneously, Crawford participated in the "Miss OVW" contest, which was won by ODB. Crawford had a series of matches with Milena Roucka in April, before moving onto a feud with Maryse Ouellet. Her final appearance in OVW was on July 21, when she participated in a three-way match for the OVW Women's Championship, which was won by ODB.

Florida Championship Wrestling (2007–2008).

Crawford debuted for WWE's new developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) on September 2, 2007, participating in a body contest. Her FCW in-ring debut came on September 25, where she and Nattie Neidhart defeated The Bella Twins (Brianna and Nicole) in a tag team match. She quickly began feuding with The Bella Twins, while allying herself with Neidhart. The Bella Twins defeated Crawford and Neidhart on two consecutive occasions, and on October 23, Crawford lost to Nicole in a singles match. A week later, she and Sheamus O'Shaunessy were defeated by Brianna and Kofi Kingston in a mixed tag team match. In December, Crawford teamed with Tommy Taylor in a loss to Brianna and Robert Anthony. The feud continued into 2008, with the Bellas defeating Crawford and Maryse Ouellet on January 8, and Crawford and Neidhart on January 19 and 29. Following the completion of the feud, Crawford began competing regularly against her former tag team partner, Neidhart. Neidhart won their first singles encounter on February 5 and was on the winning side of a tag team match on February 23, before Crawford won a singles match against her on February 26. Following her debut on "SmackDown", Crawford changed her ring name to Alicia Fox. She began managing Jack Gabriel in September, and teamed with Gabriel in mixed tag team matches against Mike Kruel and Wesley Holiday and Gabe Tuft and Melina, while continuing to compete in singles competition as well. Fox competed in the Queen of FCW tournament between December 2008 and February 2009, defeating Jenny Quinn and Tiffany en route to the final, where she lost to Angela Fong.

Main roster debut and brand switches (2008–2010).

Crawford debuted on WWE's main roster on the June 13, 2008 episode of "SmackDown", as Alicia Fox, in a backstage segment with Vickie Guerrero, which saw her portraying Guerrero and Edge's wedding planner. During their wedding reception the following month, Triple H revealed Edge kissing Fox the day before the wedding on camera. Fox involved herself in the WWE Championship match at The Great American Bash when she attempted to help Edge, but she was stopped by Guerrero. The confusion surrounding her interference caused Edge to accidentally spear Guerrero. After a three-month hiatus from television, Fox resurfaced on the November 18 episode of "ECW", managing English wrestler DJ Gabriel, in a fan favorite role. Their on-screen association was explained by WWE claiming that Fox had moved her wedding planning business to England during her hiatus from WWE television, where she had met Gabriel. Gabriel and Fox began feuding with the Burchill siblings (Paul and Katie Lea) in late December 2008. Fox made her ECW in-ring debut on January 6, 2009, in a loss to Katie Lea. The following week, Gabriel and Fox defeated the Burchill siblings in a mixed tag team match, giving Fox her first win as part of the brand. In March, Fox and Gabriel feuded with Tyson Kidd and Natalya, with Natalya defeating Fox on March 3 episode of "ECW". Fox competed in the 25 Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV on April 5, which was ultimately won by Santina Marella.  Fox was drafted to the SmackDown brand as a part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft on April 15. She made her in-ring debut as a villainess on the April 30 episode of "WWE Superstars", teaming with Michelle McCool to defeat Maria and Gail Kim. After winning her debut match, Fox aligned herself with Michelle McCool, with the pair teaming together in tag team matches as well as accompanying each other to the ring for singles matches. Fox was in the corner of McCool when McCool won the WWE Women's Championship at The Bash. On June 29 it was announced that Fox had been traded to the Raw brand. The following week, she made her "Raw" debut in a tag team match, teaming with Maryse against Gail Kim and Mickie James in a losing effort. She gained her first victory on "Raw" on July 13, when Fox, Maryse, and Rosa Mendes won a six-Diva tag team match. Fox picked up her first pinfall victory by defeating Kelly Kelly during a tag team match on the July 20 episode of "Raw". On the August 10 episode of "Raw", Fox was involved in a fatal four-way match to determine the number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship, but was unsuccessful. The following month, on September 14, she defeated Gail Kim to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship. She received a match for the championship at Hell in a Cell against Mickie James on October 4, but was unsuccessful. Fox became the number one contender to the Divas Championship again on the November 2 episode of "Raw", by winning a battle royal which involved The Bella Twins, Eve Torres, Gail Kim, and Kelly Kelly. She challenged Melina two weeks later for the championship, but was unsuccessful. Melina then vacated the Divas Championship due to injury, and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion in early January 2010. Fox defeated Kelly Kelly in the first round of the tournament, but later lost to Gail Kim in the semi-finals. Fox was on the winning team in a 10-Diva tag team match at WrestleMania XXVI, but on the losing side the following night in a rematch on "Raw". On the April 5 episode of "Raw", Fox was involved in a "Dress to Impress" battle royal to determine the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship, but was unsuccessful, and the match was won by Eve Torres.  In May 2010, Fox began a storyline with Zack Ryder, after he requested that she and Gail Kim be ringside on several occasions to watch his matches, so he could impress them and find a new valet. During his match with Evan Bourne on May 10, Fox interfered on Ryder's behalf, but was stopped by Gail Kim. The following week, Bourne and Kim defeated Ryder and Fox in a mixed tag team match. After the match, the evil Fox attacked Ryder in order to collect a "bounty" from the Raw guest host, Ashton Kutcher.

Divas Champion and NXT (2010–2011).

On June 20, 2010, at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view, Fox competed in a fatal four-way match for the WWE Divas Championship, which also involved Gail Kim, Eve Torres, and Maryse. Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship for the first time, and as a result became the first and only African American Diva to win the title. In her first title defence, on the July 5 episode of "Raw", Fox successfully defended the championship against Eve after feigning an ankle injury and as a result, Eve was granted a rematch at Money in the Bank by Raw's anonymous General Manager, where Fox was again able to retain the championship. In August, Melina returned from an injury and attacked Fox, after the latter declared herself to be undefeatable and the greatest champion in history. After defeating Fox in a non-title match on "Raw", Melina was granted a title shot, on August 15, at SummerSlam, which she won, ending Fox's reign at 56 days.  On August 31, Fox was announced as the mentor of Maxine for the all-female third season of "NXT" but Maxine failed to win the competition, and was the second rookie Diva to be eliminated. Fox received a rematch for the Divas Championship against Melina on the September 6 episode of "Raw", which she lost. In December, Fox competed in a battle royal to determine the winner of the "Diva of the Year" Slammy Award, but was eliminated by Natalya and also took part of a triple-threat number one contender's match, which was won by Melina.

Various feuds (2011–2013).

On April 26, 2011, Fox was drafted back to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft and in her first match back for the brand, acting as a villainess, she was defeated by Layla and suffered a shoulder injury. On the May 27 episode of "SmackDown", in her return, Fox and Tamina Snuka defeated the team of Kaitlyn and AJ Lee, which later transitioned into a feud between the two sets of Divas, with Fox and Tamina regularly winning tag team matches and allying with Rosa Mendes. The alliance between Fox and Tamina ended on the August 11 episode of "WWE Superstars", when Fox defeated Tamina in a singles match.  After a tag team match, which they lost, on the August 19 episode of "SmackDown", Fox was attacked by Natalya, which provoked a feud between the two. She began acting as a face while wrestling alongside several different Divas to face Natalya and Beth Phoenix, collectively known as The Divas of Doom, in tag team matches, and also regularly competing against them in singles matches. As part of the storyline, Fox also prevented Natalya and Phoenix from attacking other Divas, including Kelly Kelly and AJ. The storyline continued sporadically throughout the first half of 2012, with Fox losing tag team and singles matches to Phoenix and Natalya. Fox spent the remainder of 2012 and early 2013 competing in sporadic matches, usually on the losing side. In mid–2013, Fox appeared on the rebooted "NXT", entering a tournament to determine the inaugural NXT Women's Champion, where she defeated Bayley in the first round, but lost to Paige in the semi-finals.

"Total Divas" storylines (2013–2015).

In September, Fox took part of the WWE Divas Champion AJ Lee's team which feuded with the cast of the "Total Divas" reality television show, which led to a traditional seven-on-seven Survivor Series match, in which Fox was the first to be eliminated, courtesy of Naomi. Since January 2014, Fox formed a tag team with Aksana, later dubbed "Foxsana". On April 6, Fox competed at WrestleMania XXX in the 14-Diva "Vickie Guerrero Invitational match" for the WWE Divas Championship, which was won by the defending champion AJ Lee. After that, Fox started a feud with the newly crowned WWE Divas Champion Paige, losing to her in a series of matches on "Raw", "Main Event", and "WWE Superstars". Her losses provoked a storyline, in which she lost her temper after matches, taunting the ring announcers, ringside crew, and crowd and defacing the ringside area. Fox was eventually able to defeat Paige on "Raw" on May 19 in a non-title match and celebrated by taking Jerry Lawler's crown afterwards. Her victory set up a title match between the two at Payback, on June 1, which Fox lost. Following a further loss to Paige on June 9, Fox attacked tag team partner Aksana, before defeating her in a match on "SmackDown", officially disbanding Foxsana.  After a hiatus, Fox returned to WWE television, on the September 29 episode of "Raw", where she defeated AJ Lee, with the help of her former rival Paige and subsequently, formed an alliance with her, and went on to pick up another win over AJ on October 20. However, when Fox inadvertently cost Paige a title match at Hell in a Cell, Paige dissolved the alliance by attacking her the following night on "Raw". This prompted a traditional four-on-four elimination tag team match, with each captaining a side, at the Survivor Series pay-per-view in November, where Fox's team won the match with a clean sweep. In January 2015, Fox developed a rivalry with Naomi, during which she formed a brief alliance with The Miz and Damien Mizdow, and the trio went on to defeat Naomi and The Usos in a series of mixed tag team matches. On the April 13 episode of "Raw", Fox competed in a number one contender's battle royal for Nikki Bella's WWE Divas Championship, which would be won by Paige.

Women's revolution (2015–2017).

On June 15, 2015, Fox was a part of the Divas that Paige tried to rally on "Raw" in an attempt to take a stand against The Bella Twins and join her, but no one accepted the offer. Three days later on "SmackDown", Fox assisted Brie Bella in her match against Paige, and thus aligning herself with The Bella Twins and formed "Team Bella". After weeks of Team Bella outnumbering Paige, Naomi, and Tamina, Stephanie McMahon called for a "revolution" in the WWE Divas Division by introducing the debuting Charlotte and Becky Lynch as Paige's allies, and NXT Women's Champion Sasha Banks aligning with Naomi and Tamina, leading to a brawl between the three teams. The three teams would ultimately face off, on August 23, at SummerSlam in a three team elimination match. Team Bella would first eliminate Team B.A.D. when Brie Bella pinned Tamina, however Team PCB would win the match after Brie was pinned by Becky Lynch. On the August 25 episode of "Tough Enough", Fox make a special appearance on the finale of the sixth season, wrestling finalists Amanda and eventual winner Sara Lee. While Nikki Bella was off television with an injury, Fox spent the remainder of 2015 competing occasionally in singles matches and tag team matches with Brie Bella. On the March 14, 2016 episode of "Raw", Fox and Brie were defeated by Team B.A.D. following a distraction provided by Lana. After this match, Team Bella quietly disbanded and both Fox and Brie transitioned into fan favorites. On the March 22 episode of "Main Event", she and Natalya accompanied Paige to her match against Naomi, where Paige was defeated following a distraction provided by Summer Rae and a returning Emma.<ref name="Main Event 22/3/16"></ref> The following week, Fox, Brie, and Natalya accompanied Paige to her rematch against Emma on the March 28 episode of "Raw". After the match, she along her allies were attacked by Team B.A.D., before they were saved by a returning Eva Marie.<ref name="Raw 28/03/16"></ref> As a result, a 10-Diva tag team match between Team Total Divas (Bella, Fox, Natalya, Eva Marie and Paige) and the newly dubbed Team B.A.D. and Blonde (Naomi, Tamina, Lana, Emma, and Summer Rae) was announced for the WrestleMania 32 pre-show. On April 3, Fox's team emerged victorious at the event after Naomi submitted to Bella.  After being drafted to "Raw" as part of the 2016 WWE draft which took place on July 19, Fox made her first appearance for the brand on August 15, where she was defeated by Charlotte Flair. On the September 5 episode of "Raw", Fox was involved in a backstage confrontation with Nia Jax, resulting in a match between the two on the September 12 episode of "Raw", which would end in a no contest after Jax speared Fox through the ringside barricade. On September 25, a rematch took place at Clash of Champions, where Fox was defeated. After suffering a streak of losses, Fox scored a victory over Dana Brooke on the November 4 episode of "Superstars".<ref name="Superstars08/11/16"></ref> On the November 7 episode of "Raw", Fox was announced as one of the participants in the 5-on-5 Traditional Survivor Series Women's Elimination match at Survivor Series from her brand's team, before winning a six-woman tag team match along with her fellow team partners. At the event on November 20, Fox's team emerged victorious after Bayley pinned Becky Lynch.

Managerial run and singles competition (2017–2018).

On the December 6 episode of "205 Live", Fox started an on-screen relationship with Cedric Alexander by kissing him before his match against Noam Dar, in which Alexander was defeated. Dar dedicated his victory to Fox. Two weeks later on "Raw", Fox accompanied Alexander in a rematch against Dar, where he was victorious. Dar attempted to seduce her again afterwards.<ref name="Raw19/12/16"></ref> On January 10, 2017, Alexander severed ties with Fox on "205 Live" after she interfered during his match with Dar, costing him the match and turning into a villainess. Subsequently, Fox became Dar's new valet. On June 4, Fox and Dar were defeated by Rich Swann and Sasha Banks in a mixed tag team match at Extreme Rules. On the July 11 episode of "205 Live", Dar broke up with Fox after he lost to Alexander in an "I Quit" match.  Throughout the summer, Fox competed in different matches in all of which she ended up being on the losing side. In October, Fox reignited her feud with Sasha Banks, after she lost to Banks on "Raw" and attacked her backstage afterwards. This led to a rematch between the two, that took place at the kickoff show, in which Banks once again defeated Fox via submission. The following night on "Raw", Fox defeated Banks and Bayley to become the team captain of the Raw women's team for Survivor Series. During the five-on-five elimination tag team match, Fox was eliminated by Naomi, however, her team was victorious. In December, Fox faced off with the recently debuted Asuka whom she was unsuccessful in defeating.  Fox was scheduled to participate on the first women's royal rumble match at Royal Rumble on January 28, 2018, but was pulled off the event following an injury. She was replaced by Mandy Rose in the Mixed Match Challenge.

Final feuds (2018–2019).

Six months after being off television, on the June 25, 2018, episode of "Raw", Fox appeared in a backstage segment being welcomed back by Bayley. Two weeks later, in her first match back, Fox teamed with Dana Brooke in a match against Sasha Banks and Bayley, however, the match ended in a no contest after a brawl started outside the ring between the two duos. In July, Fox started an alliance with Alexa Bliss, who helped her defeat Natalya. After a post-match attack on Ronda Rousey, who was at ringside for Natalya, Fox was announced to be Rousey's first singles opponent. A week later, Fox competed against Rousey in a losing effort, which served as the main event of "Raw", marking Fox's first main event match of her career.  In October, while Alexa Bliss and Mickie James started a feud with WWE Hall of Famers Trish Stratus and Lita, Fox began teaming up with Jinder Mahal as they were announced as participants in the upcoming season 2 of Mixed Match Challenge. James and Bliss were supposed to face Stratus and Lita at WWE Evolution, the first ever all women's pay-per-view, however, just three days before the event, on October 25, it was announced that Bliss was pulled off the match due to a concussion she suffered beforehand and Fox will replace her, in what Fox claimed would be the most important match of her entire career. At the event, Fox and James lost to Stratus and Lita after Stratus pinned James. In December, Fox and Jinder Mahal defeated Ember Moon and Curt Hawkins in the quarterfinals and Bayley and Apollo Crews in the semi-finals to qualify to the finals of the tournament. At the pay-per-view, Fox and Mahal lost to Carmella and R-Truth in the finals of the Mixed Match Challenge after Carmella submitted Fox. Throughout the rest of 2018, with Bliss out of in-ring competition, Fox was paired with Mickie James as the two continued to team up in various matches.  On January 27, 2019, at the Royal Rumble, Fox competed in her first women's Royal Rumble match, where she entered at number 18 and lasted over 6 minutes and eliminated Maria Kanellis, before she was eliminated by Ruby Riott. It was reported that on February 10, 2019, Fox showed up to a live event intoxicated. The producer for the match, Arn Anderson, was blamed for allowing her to perform in her condition. Due to this, Anderson was released from his contract after having worked for WWE since 2001. Her first appearance since was at WrestleMania 35's WrestleMania Axxess in April. In her return to in-ring action, Fox competed against Becky Lynch on the April 22 episode of "Raw" and alongside Tamina against Billie Kay and Peyton Royce the following week on "Main Event", respectively, both resulting in losses. The two would end up being Fox's last matches in WWE. After months of inactivity, her WWE.com profile was moved to the alumni section on October 17.

Other media.

Fox made guest appearances for the reality television show "Total Divas" produced by WWE and E! during the first two seasons, which began airing in July 2013. In October 2014, she joined the main cast of the program for the second half of the third season, which began airing in January 2015. In 2013, she made an appearance on the television series "Cupcake Wars", as a guest judge along with Layla. The following year, Fox and The Miz presented an award at Cartoon Network's Hall of Game Awards. Fox made her acting debut by guest starring in two episodes of Syfy series "Dominion" that aired in July 2015.  Fox has appeared in eight WWE video games. She made her in-game debut in "WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2011" and appears in "WWE '12" (DLC), "WWE 13", "WWE 2K16", "WWE 2K17,""WWE 2K18", "WWE 2K19", and WWE 2K20.  In July 2017, it was revealed that Fox would feature in the debut line of WWE fashion dolls by toy brand Mattel.

Personal life.

Crawford has a younger sister named Christina, who was also a professional wrestler and is now a Tampa Bay Buccaneers cheerleader. Prior to becoming a professional wrestler, Crawford was a model and signed with WWE after being seen in a fashion catalogue by John Laurinaitis. Fox revealed in 2019 that she has been battling alcoholism and that she had gone into recovery months prior.

Victoria Crawford (born June 30, 1986) is an American professional wrestler, former model, and occasional actress, best known for her time in WWE under the ring name Alicia Fox.

Victoria Elizabeth Crawford (* 30. Juni 1986 in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida), besser bekannt unter ihren Ringnamen Alicia Fox, ist ein US-amerikanisches Model und Wrestlerin. Sie steht momentan bei der WWE unter Vertrag und tritt dort regelmäßig in der Wrestlingshows auf.


Format.

The championships began with preliminary rounds and ended in the finals, where the best six men and women would see who could sit in the sauna the longest. The starting temperature in the men's competition was 110 °C (230 °F). Half a litre of water was poured on the stove every 30 seconds. The winner was the last person to stay in the sauna and walk out without outside help. The host country usually dominated the event, as only one foreign competitor ever made it into the finals in the men's competition. The first non-Finnish winner in the women's competition was Natallia Tryfanava from Belarus in 2003.

TV broadcasting and other media.

In 2004, Nippon Television filmed a documentary about the World Sauna Championships. The program had an audience of about 40 million in Japan. The network did a similar documentary again in 2007, when they filmed a whole week in Heinola and in Lahti. This time Kazumi Morohoshi (former singer in a popular boy band Hikaru Genji) was with them and also took part in the competition. He ended in the first round, with a time 5:41. Also in 2007, American sportswriter Rick Reilly (who described it as "quite possibly the world's dumbest sport") was also in Heinola. His time in the first round was 3:10 and was eliminated from the second round.

2010 incident.

On 7 August 2010, Russian finalist and former third-place finisher Vladimir Ladyzhensky and Finnish five-time champion Timo Kaukonen passed out after six minutes of heat, both suffering from terrible burns and trauma. According to a spectator who asked not to be identified, Kaukonen was able to leave the sauna with assistance, but Ladyzhensky had to be dragged out, and almost immediately went into cramps and convulsions. Ladyzhensky died despite resuscitation and Kaukonen was rushed to the hospital. He was reported to suffer from extreme burn injuries, and his condition was described as critical, but stable. Just a few minutes before the finals, Kaukonen told the Norwegian newspaper "Verdens Gang" that the saunas used for the 2010 championship were a lot more extreme than the saunas used for previous competitions. As Kaukonen and Ladyzhensky were disqualified for not leaving the sauna unaided, Ilkka Pöyhiä became the winner.  The organizer, Ossi Arvela, said that there will probably never be another sauna competition. Two days later the City of Heinola noted that there are no official decisions about the future of the event, and the decisions would be made after the incident has been examined. Arvela later reported that Finnish police had decided not to file charges in connection with the tragedy, but were continuing to investigate. Kaukonen woke up from a medically induced coma six weeks after the event. His respiratory system was scorched, 70% of his skin was burnt and eventually his kidneys failed as well. In late October, Kaukonen was reported to be recovering quickly. He did not blame the organizers for his injuries.  Ladyzhensky's autopsy concluded that he had died of third-degree burns. His death was aided by his use of strong painkillers and local anesthetic grease on his skin. Kaukonen was competing according to the rules.  On April 20, 2011, the City of Heinola announced that they would no longer organize the event, noting that "If the city was to organize the World Sauna Championships in the future, the original playful and joyous characteristics of the event should be reintroduced. No ways to achieve this have been found."

The World Sauna Championships were an annual endurance contest held in Heinola, Finland, from 1999 to 2010. They originated from unofficial sauna-sitting competitions that resulted in a ban from a swimming hall in Heinola. The Championships were first held in 1999 and grew to feature contestants from over 20 countries. Sauna bathing at extreme conditions is a severe health risk: all competitors competed at their own risk, and had to sign a form agreeing not to take legal action against the organizers. Notably, the Finnish Sauna Society strongly opposed the event.

Die Sauna-Weltmeisterschaft (finnisch "saunomisen maailmanmestaruuskilpailut") war eine von 1999 bis 2010 jährlich in der südfinnischen Stadt Heinola ausgetragene Veranstaltung. Der Wettkampf hatte Volksfest-Charakter. Der über zwei Tage dauernde Wettkampf im Sommertheater von Heinola, der im August ausgetragen wurde, lockte jährlich rund 2000 Zuschauer. Nach dem Tod eines Finalteilnehmers beim Wettbewerb 2010 beschloss der Gemeinderat der Kommune Heinola im April 2011, keine weiteren Sauna-Weltmeisterschaften mehr zu veranstalten.


Origins.

Today's observatory was initiated by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1961 as the ARPA Midcourse Optical Station (AMOS). It was first proposed by R. Zirkind of ARPA's staff for imaging ballistic missile payloads and decoys during their midcourse phase, and other space objects including satellites, in the infrared spectrum, as well as for performing astronomical research. Its location on Mount Haleakala was nearly ideal for its altitude high above much obscuration by water vapor, for its midcourse location between the missile launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base and its main reentry location at Kwajalein Atoll, and for its low-latitude location which was advantageous for observing satellites.  The AMOS effort formally began with an amendment to an existing ARPA order with the University of Michigan's Institute for Science and Technology, which was to design, construct, and operate the facility. This amendment defined the AMOS goals as follows: "(1) Identification and signature of space objects; (2) an active program to advance the state of the art in infrared technology and high-resolution imagery; (3) a research program in geophysics and astrophysics including the astronomical community." Design was completed in 1963, and physical plant construction begun by the Army Corps of Engineers. Construction was complete by 1967, after which the telescopes and control systems were evaluated, calibrated, and tested until mid 1969.  In 1969, AMOS potential had been demonstrated, and the Air Force took charge as ARPA's agent. The University of Michigan was replaced by industrial contractors, and numerous system improvements and additions then took place over subsequent years.

Maui Space Surveillance System (MSSS).

The accessibility and capability of the Maui Space Surveillance System provides an unequaled opportunity to the scientific community by combining state-of-the-art satellite tracking with a facility supporting research and development.  The Maui Space Surveillance System, is routinely involved in numerous observing programs and has the capability of projecting lasers into the atmosphere. Situated at the crest of the dormant volcano Haleakala (IAU code 608), the observatory stands at an altitude of 3058 metres, latitude 20.7 degrees N, and longitude 156.3 degrees W. It is essentially co-located with IAU code 566, Haleakala-NEAT/GEODSS. Virtually year-round viewing conditions are possible due to the relatively stable climate. Dry, clean air and minimal scattered light from surface sources enable visibility exceeding 150 km. Based on double star observations, seeing is typically on the order of one second of arc.  Spanning over 30 years, the evolution of the Maui Space Surveillance System has demonstrated several stages in the history of space object tracking telescopes. Currently, through its primary mission for Air Force Space Command, the Maui Space Surveillance System combines large-aperture tracking optics with visible and infrared sensors to collect data on near Earth and deep-space objects. In the process of accomplishing its mission, the observatory has discovered a number of asteroids "(see )"

Advanced Electro-Optical System (AEOS).

The 3.67-meter telescope, known as the Advanced Electro-Optical System (AEOS), owned by the Department of Defense, is the United States' largest optical telescope designed for tracking satellites. The 75-ton AEOS telescope points and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and ballistic missiles. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system, radiometer, spectrograph, and long-wave infrared imager, the telescope tracks man-made objects in deep space and performs space object identification data collection.  AEOS is equipped with an adaptive optics system, the heart of which is a 941-actuator deformable mirror that can change its shape to remove the atmosphere's distorting effects. Scientists are expected to get near diffraction-limited images of space objects.

Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility (MOTIF).

The Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility (MOTIF) is also hosted at the MSSS site. The system consists of two 1.2-meter telescopes on a common mount. MOTIF is used primarily for Long Wave infrared (LWIR) and photometric data collection.  Other equipment at MSSS includes a 1.6-meter telescope that performs day and night tracking and imaging, a 0.8-meter beam director/tracker, and a 0.6-meter laser beam director. The telescopes accommodate a wide variety of sensor systems, including imaging systems, conventional and contrast mode photometers, infrared radiometers, low light level video systems, and acquisition telescopes.

Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS).

The MSSS site, also hosts assets for the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) system.  In addition to these assets, the site has a machine shop, optics laboratories, and electronics laboratories. A Remote Maui Experimental (RME) site at sea level houses additional optics and electronics laboratories. This secondary observation station at Kihei bears IAU code 625 and is located at.

The Maui High Performance Computing Center (MHPCC) is an Air Force Research Laboratory center currently managed by the University of Hawaii and is located in the Maui Research and Technology Park in Kihei. The MHPCC is a leading computing resource of the Department of Defense research and development community and operates numerous computer clusters, including a 5,120 processor Dell Poweredge cluster named "Jaws" which, as of November 2006, was the 11th most powerful computing systems in the world. The Center also has a 12,096 core IBM iDataplex Cluster, named "Riptide" which as November 2013 attained a peak performance Linpack performance of 212 Teraflops and ranked #192 on the Top500 in November 2013.

The Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory is an Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) operating location at Haleakala Observatory on Maui, Hawaii, with a twofold mission (). First, it conducts the research and development mission on the Maui Space Surveillance System (MSSS) at the "Maui Space Surveillance Complex" (MSSC). Second, it oversees operation of the Maui High Performance Computing Center (MHPCC). AFRL's research and development mission on Maui was formally called Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS); the use of the term AMOS has been widespread throughout the technical community for over thirty years and is still used today at many technical conferences. The main-belt asteroid 8721 AMOS is named after the project.

Das Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing (AMOS) observatory ist eine auf Maui gelegene Einrichtung des "Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)" mit zweifachem Auftrag. Zum einen führt es die Forschungs- und Entwicklungstätigkeiten im Rahmen des "Maui Space Surveillance System (MSSS)" am "Maui Space Surveillance Complex (MSSC)" durch, zum anderen überwacht es die Einrichtungen des "Maui High Performance Computing Centers (MHPCC)". Die Aktivitäten des AFRL auf Maui wurden offiziell als "AMOS" bezeichnet; der Begriff hat sich über 30 Jahre hinweg in der technischen Begriffswelt verbreitet und wird immer noch auf technischen Konferenzen benutzt.