Definition and terminology.

In the view of the World Council of Churches, an inter-church organization that includes "most of the world's Orthodox churches, scores of Anglican, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist and Reformed churches, as well as many United and Independent churches", "the goal of the search for full communion is realized when all the churches are able to recognize in one another the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church in its fullness", a communion "given and expressed in the common confession of the apostolic faith; a common sacramental life entered by the one baptism and celebrated together in one eucharistic fellowship; a common life in which members and ministries are mutually recognized and reconciled; and a common mission witnessing to all people to the gospel of God's grace and serving the whole of creation".  Several Protestant denominations base their idea of full communion on the Augsburg Confession which says that "the true unity of the church" is present where "the gospel is rightly preached and sacraments rightly administered." They believe that full communion between two denominations is not a merger, they respect each other's differences, but rather it's when two denominations develop a relationship based on a mutual understanding and recognition of Baptism and sharing of the Lord's Supper. They may worship together, exchange clergy, and share commitments to evangelism and service. Groups recognized as being in full communion with each other on this basis include the Presbyterian Church (USA), Reformed Church in America, United Church of Christ, The Episcopal Church (United States), the Moravian Church, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, and the United Methodist Church.

United Church of Christ.

The United Church of Christ (UCC) defines full communion as meaning that "divided churches recognize each others' sacraments and provide for the orderly transfer of ministers from one denomination to another." Some of these go back to the 17th century Pilgrims in Holland; other relationships are recent. The UCC is in full communion alliance with the members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, the Union of Evangelical Churches in Germany, the Presbyterian Church (USA), and several others in North America and elsewhere.

Anglican Communion.

The Anglican Communion distinguishes between full communion and intercommunion. It applies the first term to situations "where between two Churches, not of the same denominational or confessional family, there is unrestricted "communio in sacris" including mutual recognition and acceptance of ministries", and the second term to situations "where varying degrees of relation other than full communion are established by agreement between two such Churches". This distinction differs from the distinction that the Catholic Church makes between full and partial communion in that the Anglican concept of intercommunion implies a formal agreement entered into by the churches concerned. As with other Protestant traditions, the Anglican understanding of full communion differs from that of the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy, which consider that full communion between churches involves them becoming a single church, as in the case of the particular churches "in which and formed out of which the one and unique Catholic Church exists",  In addition the Anglican Communion recognizes the possibility of full communion between some of its member provinces or churches and other churches, without having the entire Anglican Communion share that relationship. An example is the Porvoo Communion, which is largely composed of Evangelical Lutheran Churches.  The Anglican Communion established full communion with the Old Catholic Churches on the basis of the 1931 Bonn Agreement, which established three principles:  The Anglicans Online website provides a list of non-Anglican churches "in full communion with the See of Canterbury" and also indicates some important ecumenical agreements of local character (i.e., not involving the whole of the Anglican Communion) with other non-Anglican churches. It also lists churches that, in spite of bearing names (such as "Anglican" or "Episcopal") that might suggest a relationship with the Anglican Communion, are not in communion with it.

Catholic Church.

Full and partial communion.

The Catholic Church makes a distinction between full and partial communion: where full communion exists, there is but one church; partial communion, on the other hand, exists where some elements of Christian faith are held in common, but complete unity on essentials is lacking. Accordingly, it sees itself as in partial communion with Protestants and in much closer, but still incomplete, communion with the Orthodox churches. It has expressed this distinction in documents such as "Unitatis redintegratio", the Second Vatican Council's decree on ecumenism, which states: "... quite large communities came to be separated from "full communion" with the Catholic Church... men who believe in Christ and have been truly baptized are in communion with the Catholic Church even though this "communion is imperfect"".  The "Catechism of the Catholic Church", citing the Second Vatican Council and Pope Paul VI, states: Full communion involves completeness of "those bonds of communion – faith, sacraments and pastoral governance – that permit the Faithful to receive the life of grace within the Church."

Universal and particular Churches.

In Catholicism, the "universal Church" means Catholicism itself, from the Greek adjective καθολικός (katholikos), meaning "universal". The term particular church denotes an ecclesiastical community headed by a bishop or equivalent, and this can include both local dioceses as well as autonomous (or "sui juris") particular churches, which include other rites such as the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches.  The particular Churches that form the Catholic Church are each seen, not as a separate body that has entered into practical arrangements concerning its relations with the others, but as the embodiment in a particular region or culture of the one Catholic Church.  A 1992 Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF) letter to Catholic bishops expressed this idea as: ""the universal Church cannot be conceived as the sum of the particular Churches, or as a federation of particular Churches". It is not the result of the communion of the Churches, but, in its essential mystery, it is a reality "ontologically" and "temporally" prior to every "individual" particular Church."

List of Catholic churches in full communion.

The autonomous Catholic churches in full communion with the Holy See are:

Churches in partial communion.

The Catholic Church sees itself as in partial, not full, communion with other Christian groups. "With the Orthodox Churches, this communion is so profound 'that it lacks little to attain the fullness that would permit a common celebration of the Lord's Eucharist.

Sharing in the Eucharist.

As a practical matter for most Catholics, full communion means that a member of one Church may partake of the Eucharist celebrated in another, and for priests, that they are accepted as celebrants of the Eucharist in the other Church.  Restrictions in this matter were already in force in the second century as witnessed to by Justin Martyr in his "First Apology": "No one is allowed to partake (of the Eucharist) but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined."  For acceptance into full communion with the Catholic Church a specific profession of the faith of the Catholic Church is required even of those who have been members of a separate church whose sacraments the Catholic Church considers to be valid. Being "in full communion with the Catholic Church" requires that they "firmly accept" its teaching on faith and morals.  Intercommunion usually means an agreement between churches by which all members of each church (clergy with clergy, or laity with laity, respectively) may participate in the other's Eucharistic celebrations or may hold joint celebrations. The Catholic Church has entered into no such agreement: it allows no Eucharistic concelebration by its clergy with clergy of churches not in full communion with it.  The Directory for the Application of Principles and Norms on Ecumenism, indicates the limited circumstances in which Catholics may receive the Eucharist from clergy of churches not in full communion (never if those churches are judged not to have valid apostolic succession and thus valid Eucharist), and in which Catholic clergy may administer the sacraments to members of other churches.  The norms there indicated for the giving of the Eucharist to other Christians ("communicatio in sacris") are summarized in canon 844 of the Latin Church's 1983 Code of Canon Law. The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO) indicates that the norms of the Directory apply also to the clergy and laity of the Eastern Catholic Churches.

Eastern Orthodox and Church of the East.

Eastern Orthodox have an understanding of what full communion means that is very similar to that of the Catholic Church. Though they have no figure corresponding to that of the Roman Catholic Pope, performing a function like that of the Pope's Petrine Office for the whole of their respective communions, they see each of their autocephalous churches as embodiments of, respectively, the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. They too consider full communion an essential condition for common sharing in the Eucharist. The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, as first among equals among the Eastern Orthodox autocephalous churches, though not having authority similar to that of the Roman Catholic Pope, serves as their spokesman.  For the autocephalous churches that form the Eastern Orthodox Church, see Eastern Orthodox Church organization. Their number is somewhat in dispute.  The Church of the East is currently divided into churches that are not in full communion with one another. The Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East divided in the 20th century over the former's limitation of the post of patriarch to members of a single family and due to the adoption of the New Calendar by the former. There is movement towards reunity, but they are not in full communion with one another at present. The Chaldean Catholic Church shares a similar history with both, but is currently in full communion with neither. The Catholic Church, of which the Chaldean Church is part, allows its ministers to give the Eucharist to members of Eastern churches who seek it on their own accord and are properly disposed, and it allows its faithful who cannot approach a Catholic minister to receive the Eucharist, when necessary or spiritually advantageous, from ministers of non-Catholic churches that have a recognised Eucharist.  The "Guidelines for Admission to the Eucharist between the Chaldean Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" explicitly apply these rules, which hold also for the Ancient Church of the East and all Eastern Orthodox churches, to the Assyrian Church of the East. "When necessity requires, Assyrian faithful are permitted to participate and to receive Holy Communion in a Chaldean celebration of the Holy Eucharist; in the same way, Chaldean faithful for whom it is physically or morally impossible to approach a Catholic minister, are permitted to participate and to receive Holy Communion in an Assyrian celebration of the Holy Eucharist".

Oriental Orthodox churches.

The Oriental Orthodox churches have a similar understanding of communion as the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church. There is no leader of all the Oriental Orthodox Churches. All churches within the Oriental Orthodox Churches are autocephalous and operate and function on their own. All Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other. They can take part in all the 7 sacraments from each others churches.  The Oriental Orthodox churches are:  The Oriental Orthodox Churches have a relationship with the Roman Catholic Church, and is working on a relationship with the Eastern Orthodox Church and other Christian Churches.  The Oriental Orthodox Churches believe in Apostolic Succession, the concept that Jesus Christ gave spiritual authority to the 12 Apostles and 72 Disciples, and that authority has been passed on till this day.  For example, the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch is considered the Successor of St. Peter, the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria is considered the Successor of St. Mark, the Armenian Apostolic Catholicos of Armenia is considered the Successor of St. Bartholomew and St. Thaddeus.  Likewise, the Oriental Orthodox Church acknowledges the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Constantiople as the Successor of St. Andrew and Roman Catholic Pope of Rome as the Successor of St. Peter and St. Paul. However due to the schisms at the Synod of Chalcedon, the tensions between the churches have been high, but is recent years, the leaders of all churches have acknowledged each other, and is working on a relationship with each other.

Other churches.

Churches or denominations holding to open communion allow all persons who consider themselves "Christian believers" to participate, even without any arrangement of full communion with the other church or denomination involved, and still less requiring an arrangement involving interchangeability of ordained ministers.  It is in the stronger sense of becoming a single church that in 2007 the Traditional Anglican Communion sought "full communion" with the Roman Catholic Church as a "sui iuris" (particular Church) jurisdiction, but in 2012 declined the possibility offered by Pope Benedict XVI to join a personal ordinariate for former Anglicans in full communion with the see of Rome.

Agreements between churches.

The following groupings of churches have arrangements for or are working on arrangements for:

Full communion is a communion or relationship of full understanding among different Christian denominations that share certain essential principles of Christian theology. Views vary among denominations on exactly what constitutes full communion, but typically when two or more denominations are in full communion it enables services and celebrations, such as the Eucharist, to be shared among congregants or clergy of any of them with the full approval of each.

Eine Kirchengemeinschaft, manchmal auch als "Gemeinschaft" oder "Communio" bezeichnet, ist die durch eine Kirche gegebene Gemeinschaft oder die gegenseitige Anerkennung zwischen Kirchen oder Konfessionen, dass die Partnerkirchen das Wesentliche des christlichen Glaubens umfassen. Nach biblischem Verständnis ist es Jesu Wille, dass die Gläubigen eins sind, so wie er und der Vater eins sind. Im Urchristentum begannen Kirchenspaltungen zur Zeit Paulus’, indem einzelne Denominationen gegründet wurden. Weitergehend als die Kirchengemeinschaft sind die katholische Kirchenunion und die protestantische Union in Verwaltung oder auch Bekenntnis.


Equipment.

Preferred bike type is a robust mountain bike meant for cross-country cycling, but any type of bike can be used. Depending on terrain type either hard tailed or full suspension mountain bikes are more appropriate. Clipless pedals with a special cycling shoe are mostly used by serious cyclists to enable maximum power output, and to keep feet secure on the pedals. Bicycle helmets are usually a requirement in competitions.

Special equipment.

A map holder attached to the handlebar of the bike is an essential piece of equipment in mountain bike orienteering, and most holders allow the map to be rotated. Known brands for map holders are Orifix, Mapdec, Miry, Devotech, Nordenmark, Autopilot and Windchill. Compasses may be used but electronic navigational aids (such as GPS-based watches) are not permitted. Competitors may carry repair tools and spare parts during races.

Map.

Maps are usually smaller scale (1:10 000 – 1:30 000) and less detailed than standard orienteering maps. Trails and tracks are marked on mountain bike orienteering maps based on their riding difficulty, with four classifications: easy, slow, difficult and impossible to ride. Also, obstacles that require a dismount are usually marked on the map.

Organization and events.

MTB-O is one of four orienteering sports governed by the International Orienteering Federation. The first World Championship event was held in 2002 in Fontainebleau, France. Since 2004 the World Championships have been held annually. European Championships have been held annually since 2006. Mountain bike orienteering is most popular in European countries and Australia.

Mountain bike orienteers.

The most successful mountain bike orienteer is Mika Tervala, Finland who has taken ten World Championship and five European Championship medals. Other successful mountain bike orienteers are Michaela Gigon, Ruslan Gritsan, Adrian Jackson, Christine Schaffner and Päivi Tommola.

Mountain bike orienteering (MTB-O or MTBO) is an orienteering endurance racing sport on a mountain bike where navigation is done along trails and tracks. Compared with foot orienteering, competitors usually are not permitted to leave the trail and track network. Navigation tactics are similar to ski-orienteering, where the major focus is route choice while navigating. The main difference compared to ski-orienteering is that navigation is done at a higher pace, because the bike can reach higher speeds. As the biker reaches higher speeds, map reading becomes more challenging.

Mountainbike-Orienteering, kurz MBO, MTBO oder Bike-O, stellt eine Kombination aus Mountainbiking (Radbeherrschung) und dem Orientieren (Orientierungslauf) in unbekannten Gelände dar.


Digital alternatives.

The TETRA trunked radio standard was developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), as a digital alternative to analogue trunked systems. However, TETRA, with its enhanced encryption capability, has developed into a higher tier (public safety) product, currently mainly used by governments, some larger airports and government-owned utilities.  DMR (digital mobile radio), and dPMR (digital private mobile radio) are more recent ETSI-standards for digital mobile radio using two-slot TDMA and FDMA respectively. The Tier 3 standard for these systems defines a trunking protocol very similar to MPT1327 and is intended as a potential migration path for existing and perhaps future trunking customers. Tier 3 equipment is (late 2011) now becoming available, so the impact on TETRA and MPT 1327 is yet to be seen, but may well be significant. However, it is unlikely that in terms of cost that the complicated new DMR/dPMR equipment will be able to compete with the simpler MPT1327 equipment for some time, if ever.  It is worth noting that whilst many comparisons are made between Digital and Analog radio technologies, when it comes to applying these arguments to MPT1327, many of the distinctions become blurred, since MPT1327 with its digital control channel, already offers most of the features being offered by the DMR/dPMR/TETRA counterparts.  Furthermore, most MPT1327 systems are engineered to a far higher standard than conventional FM systems, partially due to the lack of CTCSS within the standard. As such arguments with regards to "noisy FM audio quality", can become misleading, since the squelch levels tend to be set rather high on MPT1327 systems, such that weak/noisy signals do not generally open the mute.

MPT1327 advantages and features.

The advantage of MPT 1327 over TETRA is the increased availability, lower cost of equipment, the ease of installation, the familiarity with the equipment, and many believe that MPT 1327 is superior to TETRA, due to its uncompressed FM audio, and greater receiver sensitivity. MPT1327 control channel signalling is more resilient, since the TETRA protocol uses a complex modulation scheme that requires a far higher Signal to Noise ratio to function than 1,200 bit/s FFSK signalling.  Systems based on MPT 1327 only require one, but usually use two or more radio channels per site. Channels can be 12.5 or 25 kHz bandwidth, and can be any variety of channel spacings, with 6.25 kHz or 12.5 kHz being typical. At least one of these channels is defined as the control channel (CCH) and all other channels are traffic channels (TCs) used for speech calls.  A typical installation will have around 6–10 channels. A 7-channel trunk, correctly engineered, is capable of handling in excess of 3,000 mobile units. The capacity of the system increases dramatically with the number of traffic channels. For example, 1 traffic channel with queuing can not handle many customers, perhaps 2 minicabs with 20 mobiles. In effect this would be a CBS with queuing. However, a 7 channel trunked system can handle 40 minicabs with 20 mobiles with ease. The Erlang formulas are typically used for calculating system capacity.

Spectrum efficiency.

Whilst MPT 1327 systems, unlike DMR or dPMR, do not employ digital speech compression to gain any Spectral Efficiency (voice channels per 6.25 kHz), there are several methods used that increase the Spectrum Efficiency (Erlangs per square kilometre, per 6.25 kHz).  A spectrum efficiency advantage over a 4-slot TDMA system like TETRA is in areas where a low-traffic network is required. The absolute minimum TETRA installation would require one carrier, carrying one CCH and three traffic channels, using up 25 kHz of bandwidth. The absolute minimum MPT1327 assignment is a single non-dedicated control channel, utilising 12.5 kHz, in most cases.  A non-dedicated control channel can be used as a traffic channel when all the other traffic channels are busy. This can be useful if the site is part of a multi-site network and has a very low traffic profile as the site could have a single channel rather than at least two freeing up one channel for use elsewhere. The disadvantage is loss of queuing, and data cannot be sent on the control channel whilst it is in traffic mode. A non-dedicated CCH should not be used as a "reserve tank" for a busy site as the lack of signalling will seriously affect the operation of the site.

Time-shared control channels and channel pooling.

Some MPT 1327 networks can also time-share control channels, which can be useful if the network has limited frequency availability, as it frees up channels for use as traffic channels, which can also be pooled across sites so the network capacity follows the traffic. This is another advantage of MPT 1327 (and dPMR) over TDMA-based systems such as TETRA and DMR, which cannot pool traffic channels so efficiently (if at all). The disadvantage of using a time-shared CCH is that it slows down registration and calls and requires some customization of the registration process, so is only useful if the network has a patient user community!

Control channel cycling.

The control channel can also be set to cycle, so each channel in turn becomes a control channel, say every ten minutes it will change. The advantage of this is that the base does not have to be rated at 100% duty cycle and does not get so hot. However, this can cause problems with queuing, affects registration and control channel acquisition times. Most base stations have a 100% duty-cycle rating, but this function can be useful if local Regulatory rules do not permit Continuous CCH operation. In countries where dedicated channels for trunked systems are not possible or availability is limited it is also possible to actively manage the use of traffic channels based on co-channel use, i.e. to avoid interfering with other users by using "friendly" channel acquisition protocols.

Speech and data.

Speech is sent as narrowband frequency modulation. Data messages between mobiles and the network are exchanged on the control channel at 1,200 bits per second using FFSK signalling, or a specific "modem call", known as "non-prescribed data" can be established, whereby free-form 1,200 baud data can be exchanged on a traffic channel without tying up the control channel. With the use of special modems, the speed can be 19,200 bit/s. This, along with Short Data Messaging and Status Messaging via the control channel makes an MPT1327 network ideal for managing AVL for asset management, meter reading and SCADA networks, the advantage being that the network can be used for this sort of application whilst still carrying voice traffic.

Numbering.

Each subscriber in an MPT-1327 trunked radio network has a unique call number. This call number (address) is a compound number consisting of a prefix (three digits), the fleet number and the subscriber's call number within the fleet. Different numbering schemes work differently, for example Zetron uses the first two digits of the Ident as the fleet number, and the last two digits as the unit number. Idents in the 6,000–6,999 range are typically used to establish group calls. After it has been entered the call number will be converted in the mobile to a 20-bit address. The numbering rules are clarified and expanded by supplementary standards such as MPT-1343.  For the duration of his call a subscriber is exclusively allocated a traffic channel from the available pool. If all channels are occupied, the call will be queued. If the control channel has become a traffic channel, like in the case of a non-dedicated control channel, the call will be queued in the radio, although radio queuing loses the first come, first served effect, so if there are seven units queuing, the last unit to queue may get a traffic channel first.

The different types of communications on an MPT-1327 network and their definitions.

Calls.

Broadcast calls can be used to make announcements to the entire customer base on a trunked system. For example, if work is to be carried out on the trunked system, the owner of the system can initiate a Broadcast Call which calls every mobile on the system. However, the mobiles may not have talk entitlement, so the PTT may not work. By this means the owner can announce to all customers a short period of inoperation due to maintenance.

MPT 1327 is an industry standard for trunked radio communications networks. First published in January 1988 by the British Radiocommunications Agency, and is primarily used in the United Kingdom, Europe, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and even China. Many countries had their own version of numbering/user interface, including MPT1343 in the UK, Chekker (Regionet 43) in Germany, 3RP (CNET2424) in France, Multiax in Australia, and Gong An in China.

MPT 1327 ist ein analoger Bündelfunk-Netzstandard, der 1988 in Großbritannien von der British Radiocommunications Agency für die Verwendung im Sprechfunk entwickelt wurde.


Evolution.

The sea otter is the heaviest (the giant otter is longer, but significantly slimmer) member of the family Mustelidae, a diverse group that includes the 13 otter species and terrestrial animals such as weasels, badgers, and minks. It is unique among the mustelids in not making or burrows, in having no functional anal scent glands, and in being able to live its entire life without leaving the water. The only member of the genus "Enhydra", the sea otter is so different from other mustelid species that, as recently as 1982, some scientists believed it was more closely related to the earless seals. Genetic analysis indicates the sea otter and its closest extant relatives, which include the African speckle-throated otter, European otter, African clawless otter and oriental small-clawed otter, shared an ancestor approximately 5 million years ago.  Fossil evidence indicates the "Enhydra" lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately 2 million years ago, giving rise to the now-extinct "Enhydra macrodonta" and the modern sea otter, "Enhydra lutris". One related species has been described, "Enhydra reevei", from the Pleistocene of East Anglia. The modern sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia, and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, and down the North American coast. In comparison to cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds, which entered the water approximately 50, 40, and 20 million years ago, respectively, the sea otter is a relative newcomer to a marine existence. In some respects, though, the sea otter is more fully adapted to water than pinnipeds, which must haul out on land or ice to give birth. The full genome of the northern sea otter ("Enhydra lutris kenyoni") was sequenced in 2017 and may allow for examination of the sea otter's evolutionary divergence from terrestrial mustelids.

Taxonomy.

The first scientific description of the sea otter is contained in the field notes of Georg Steller from 1751, and the species was described by Linnaeus in his "Systema Naturae" of 1758. Originally named "Lutra marina", it underwent numerous name changes before being accepted as "Enhydra lutris" in 1922. The generic name "Enhydra", derives from the Ancient Greek "en"/εν "in" and "hydra"/ύδρα "water", meaning "in the water", and the Latin

Subspecies.

Three subspecies of the sea otter are recognized with distinct geographical distributions. "Enhydra lutris lutris" (nominate), the Asian sea otter, ranges from the Kuril Islands north of Japan to Russia's Commander Islands in the western Pacific Ocean. In the eastern Pacific Ocean, "E. l. kenyoni",

Description.

The sea otter is one of the smallest marine mammal species, but it is the heaviest mustelid. Male sea otters usually weigh and are in length, though specimens up to have been recorded. Females are smaller, weighing and measuring in length. For its size, the male otter's baculum is very large, massive and bent upwards, measuring in length and at the base.  Unlike most other marine mammals, the sea otter has no blubber and relies on its exceptionally thick fur to keep warm. With up to 150,000 strands of hair per square centimetre (nearly one million per sq in), its fur is the densest of any animal. The fur consists of long, waterproof guard hairs and short underfur; the guard hairs keep the dense underfur layer dry. Cold water is kept completely away from the skin and heat loss is limited. The fur is thick year-round, as it is shed and replaced gradually rather than in a distinct molting season. As the ability of the guard hairs to repel water depends on utmost cleanliness, the sea otter has the ability to reach and groom the fur on any part of its body, taking advantage of its loose skin and an unusually supple skeleton. The coloration of the pelage is usually deep brown with silver-gray speckles, but it can range from yellowish or grayish brown to almost black. In adults, the head, throat, and chest are lighter in color than the rest of the body.  The sea otter displays numerous adaptations to its marine environment. The nostrils and small ears can close. The hind feet, which provide most of its propulsion in swimming, are long, broadly flattened, and fully webbed. The fifth digit on each hind foot is longest, facilitating swimming while on its back, but making walking difficult.

Behavior.

The sea otter is diurnal. It has a period of foraging and eating in the morning, starting about an hour before sunrise, then rests or sleeps in mid-day. Foraging resumes for a few hours in the afternoon and subsides before sunset, and a third foraging period may occur around midnight. Females with pups appear to be more inclined to feed at night. Observations of the amount of time a sea otter must spend each day foraging range from 24 to 60%, apparently depending on the availability of food in the area.  Sea otters spend much of their time grooming, which consists of cleaning the fur, untangling knots, removing loose fur, rubbing the fur to squeeze out water and introduce air, and blowing air into the fur. To casual observers, it appears as if the animals are scratching, but they are not known to have lice or other parasites in the fur. When eating, sea otters roll in the water frequently, apparently to wash food scraps from their fur.

Foraging.

The sea otter hunts in short dives, often to the sea floor. Although it can hold its breath for up to five minutes, its dives typically last about one minute and not more than four. It is the only marine animal capable of lifting and turning over rocks, which it often does with its front paws when searching for prey. The sea otter may also pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams. It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth.  Under each foreleg, the sea otter has a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest. In this pouch (preferentially the left one), the animal stores collected food to bring to

Social structure.

Although each adult and independent juvenile forages alone, sea otters tend to rest together in single-sex groups called rafts. A raft typically contains 10 to 100 animals, with male rafts being larger than female ones. The largest raft ever seen contained over 2000 sea otters. To keep from drifting out to sea when resting and eating, sea otters may wrap themselves in kelp.  A male sea otter is most likely to mate if he maintains a breeding territory in an area that is also favored by females. As autumn is the peak breeding season in most areas, males typically

Reproduction and lifecycle.

Sea otters are polygynous: males have multiple female partners. However, temporary pair-bonding occurs for a few days between a female in estrus and her mate. Mating takes place in the water and can be rough, the male biting the female on the muzzle – which often leaves scars on the nose – and sometimes holding her head under water.  Births occur year-round, with peaks between May and June in northern populations and between January and March in southern populations. Gestation appears to vary from four to twelve months, as the species is capable of delayed implantation followed by four months of

Population and distribution.

Sea otters live in coastal waters 15 to 23 metres (50 to 75 ft) deep, and usually stay within a kilometre (2⁄3 mi) of the shore. They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs. Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt. Their northern range is limited by ice, as sea otters can survive amidst drift ice but not land-fast ice. Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometres long, and remain there year-round.  The sea otter population is thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000, stretching in an arc across the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. The fur trade that began in the 1740s reduced the sea otter's numbers to an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 members in 13 colonies. Hunting records researched by historian Adele Ogden place the westernmost limit of the hunting grounds off the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido and the easternmost limit off Punta Morro Hermosa about south of Punta Eugenia, Baja California's westernmost headland in Mexico.  In about two-thirds of its former range, the species is at varying levels of recovery, with high population densities in some areas and threatened populations in others. Sea otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, with reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 sea otters.

Japan.

Adele Ogden wrote in "The California Sea Otter Trade" that sea otter were hunted "from

Russia.

Currently, the most stable and secure part of the sea otter's range is Russia. Before the 19th century, around 20,000 to 25,000 sea otters lived near the Kuril Islands, with more near Kamchatka and the Commander Islands. After the years of the Great Hunt,

Alaska.

Alaska is the heartland of the sea otter's range. In 1973, the population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 animals. By 2006, though, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals. A

British Columbia.

Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the sea otter's range is discontinuous. A remnant population survived off Vancouver Island into the 20th century, but it died out despite the 1911 international protection treaty, with the last sea otter taken near Kyuquot in 1929. From 1969 to 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island. This population increased to over 5,600 in 2013 with an estimated annual

Washington.

In 1969 and 1970, 59 sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington, and released near La Push and Point Grenville. The translocated population is estimated to have declined to between 10 and 43 individuals before increasing, reaching 208 individuals in 1989. As of 2017, the population was estimated at over 2,000 individuals, and their range extends from Point Grenville in

Oregon.

The last native sea otter in Oregon was probably shot and killed in 1906. In 1970 and 1971, a total of 95 sea otters were transplanted from Amchitka Island, Alaska to the Southern Oregon coast. However, this translocation effort failed and otters soon again disappeared from

California.

The historic population of California sea otters was estimated at 16,000 before the fur trade decimated the population, leading to their assumed extinction. Today's population of California sea otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 sea otters located near Bixby Creek Bridge in March 1938 by Howard G. Sharpe, owner of the nearby Rainbow Lodge on Bixby Bridge in Big Sur. Their principal range has gradually expanded and extends from Pigeon Point in San Mateo County to Santa Barbara County.  Sea otters were once numerous in San Francisco Bay. Historical records revealed the Russian-American Company sneaked Aleuts into San Francisco Bay multiple times, despite the Spanish capturing or shooting them while hunting sea otters in the estuaries of San Jose, San Mateo, San Bruno and around Angel Island. The founder of Fort Ross, Ivan Kuskov, finding otters scarce on his second voyage to Bodega Bay in 1812, sent a party of Aleuts to San Francisco Bay, where they met another Russian party and an American party, and caught 1,160 sea

Mexico.

Historian Adele Ogden described sea otters are particularly abundant in "Lower California", now the Baja California Peninsula, where "seven bays...were main centers". The southernmost limit was Punta Morro Hermoso about south of Punta Eugenia, in turn a headland at the southwestern end of Sebastián Vizcaíno Bay, on the west coast of the Baja Peninsula. Otter were also taken from San Benito Island, Cedros Island, and Isla Natividad in the Bay. By the early 1900s, Baja's sea otters

Ecology.

Diet.

Sea otters consume over 100 prey species. In most of its range, the sea otter's diet consists almost exclusively of marine benthic invertebrates, including sea urchins, fat innkeeper worms, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other mollusks, crustaceans, and snails. Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets and crabs to giant octopuses. Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, sea otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type. In California, they have been noted to ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across.  In a few northern areas, fish are also eaten. In studies performed at Amchitka Island in the 1960s, where the sea otter population was at carrying capacity, 50% of food

As a keystone species.

Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest. They keep the population of certain benthic (sea floor) herbivores, particularly sea urchins, in check. Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp, causing the kelp to drift away and die. Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem. North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens, with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest. Kelp forests are

Predators.

Leading mammalian predators of this species include orcas and sea lions, and bald eagles may grab pups from the surface of the water. Young predators may kill an otter and not eat it. On land, young sea otters may face attack from bears and coyotes. In California, great white sharks are their

Relationship with humans.

Fur trade.

Sea otters have the thickest fur of any mammal. Their beautiful fur is a main target for many hunters. Archaeological evidence indicates that for thousands of years, indigenous peoples have hunted sea otters for food and fur. Large-scale hunting, part of the Maritime Fur Trade, which would eventually kill approximately one million sea otters, began in the 18th century when hunters and traders began to arrive from all over the world to meet foreign demand for otter pelts, which were one of the world's most valuable types of fur.  In the early 18th century, Russians began to hunt sea otters in the Kuril Islands and sold them to the Chinese at Kyakhta. Russia was also exploring the far northern Pacific at this time, and sent Vitus Bering to map the Arctic coast and find routes from Siberia to North America. In 1741, on his second North Pacific voyage, Bering was shipwrecked off Bering Island in the Commander Islands, where he and many of his crew died. The surviving crew members, which included naturalist Georg Steller, discovered sea otters on the beaches of the island and spent the winter hunting sea otters and gambling with otter pelts. They returned to Siberia, having killed nearly 1,000 sea otters, and were able to command high prices for the pelts. Thus began what is sometimes called the "Great Hunt", which would continue for another hundred years. The Russians found the sea otter far more valuable than the sable skins that had driven and paid for most of their expansion across Siberia. If the sea otter pelts brought back by Bering's survivors had been sold at Kyakhta prices they would have paid for one tenth the cost of Bering's expedition. In 1775 at Okhotsk, sea otter pelts were worth 50–80 rubles as opposed to 2.5 rubles for sable. Russian fur-hunting expeditions soon depleted the sea otter populations in the Commander Islands, and by 1745, they began to move on to the Aleutian

Recovery and conservation.

During the 20th century, sea otter numbers rebounded in about two-thirds of their historic range, a recovery considered one of the greatest successes in marine conservation. However, the IUCN still lists the sea otter as an endangered species, and describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution, predation by orcas, poaching, and conflicts with fisheries – sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear. The hunting of sea otters is no longer legal except for limited harvests by indigenous peoples in the United States. Poaching was a serious concern in the Russian Far East immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991; however, it has declined significantly with stricter law enforcement and better economic conditions.  The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills, to which they are particularly vulnerable, since they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animals can quickly die from hypothermia. The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming. The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in Prince William Sound, and as of 2006, the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population. Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote:  The small geographic ranges of the sea otter populations in California, Washington, and British Columbia mean a single major

Economic impact.

Some of the sea otter's preferred prey species, particularly abalone, clams, and crabs, are also food sources for humans. In some areas, massive declines in shellfish harvests have been blamed on the sea otter, and intense public debate has taken place over how to manage the competition between sea otters and humans for seafood.  The debate is complicated because sea otters have sometimes been held responsible for declines of shellfish stocks that were more likely caused by overfishing, disease, pollution, and seismic activity. Shellfish declines have also occurred in many parts of the North American Pacific coast that do not have sea otters, and conservationists sometimes note the existence of large concentrations of shellfish on the coast is a recent

Roles in human cultures.

For many maritime indigenous cultures throughout the North Pacific, especially the Ainu in the Kuril Islands, the Koryaks and Itelmen of Kamchatka, the Aleut in the Aleutian Islands, the Haida of Haida Gwaii and a host of tribes on the Pacific coast of North America, the sea otter has played an important role as a cultural, as well as material, resource. In these cultures, many of which have strongly animist traditions full of legends and stories in which many aspects of the natural world are associated with spirits, the sea otter was considered particularly kin to humans. The Nuu-chah-nulth, Haida, and other First Nations of coastal British Columbia used the warm and luxurious pelts as chiefs' regalia. Sea otter pelts were given in potlatches to mark coming-of-age ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. The Aleuts carved sea otter bones for use as ornaments and

Aquariums and zoos.

Sea otters can do well in captivity, and are featured in over 40 public aquariums and zoos. The Seattle Aquarium became the first institution to raise sea otters from conception to adulthood with the birth of Tichuk in 1979, followed by three more pups in the early 1980s. In 2007, a YouTube video

The sea otter ("Enhydra lutris") is a marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Adult sea otters typically weigh between, making them the heaviest members of the weasel family, but among the smallest marine mammals. Unlike most marine mammals, the sea otter's primary form of insulation is an exceptionally thick coat of fur, the densest in the animal kingdom. Although it can walk on land, the sea otter is capable of living exclusively in the ocean.

Der Seeotter, Kalan oder Meerotter ("Enhydra lutris") ist eine Raubtierart aus der Unterfamilie der Otter (Lutrinae). Er ist neben dem Küstenotter des Südpazifiks die einzige Otterart, die nur im Meer lebt. Seeotter gelten als intelligent und lernfähig, bekannt sind sie vor allem wegen des regelmäßigen Gebrauchs von Werkzeugen. Die Art war bis Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts wegen ihres Fells fast ausgerottet; nach dem Jagdverbot im Jahr 1911 erholten sich die Bestände wieder. Seeotter gelten heute als eine Schlüsselart.


Early life and personality.

Reconstructing the life and doctrine of Arius has proven to be a difficult task, as none of his original writings survive. Emperor Constantine ordered their burning while Arius was still living, and any that survived this purge were later destroyed by his Orthodox opponents. Those works which have survived are quoted in the works of churchmen who denounced him as a heretic. This leads some — but not all — scholars to question their reliability.  Arius was of Berber descent. His father's name is given as Ammonius. Arius is believed to have been a student at the exegetical school in Antioch, where he studied under Saint Lucian. Having returned to Alexandria, Arius, according to a single source, sided with Meletius of Lycopolis in his dispute over the re-admission of those who had denied Christianity under fear of Roman torture, and was ordained a deacon under the latter's auspices. He was excommunicated by Bishop Peter of Alexandria in 311 for supporting Meletius, but under Peter's successor Achillas, Arius was re-admitted to Christian communion and in 313 made presbyter of the Baucalis district in Alexandria.  Although his character has been severely assailed by his opponents, Arius appears to have been a man of personal ascetic achievement, pure morals, and decided convictions. Paraphrasing Epiphanius of Salamis, an opponent of Arius, Catholic historian Warren H. Carroll describes him as ""tall and lean, of distinguished appearance and polished address. Women doted on him, charmed by his beautiful manners, touched by his appearance of asceticism. Men were impressed by his aura of intellectual superiority.""  Though Arius was also accused by his opponents of being too liberal, and too loose in his theology, engaging in heresy (as defined by his opponents), some historians argue that Arius was actually quite conservative, and that he deplored how, in his view, Christian theology was being too freely mixed with Greek paganism.

The Arian controversy.

Arius is notable primarily because of his role in the Arian controversy, a great fourth-century theological conflict that led to the calling of the first ecumenical council of the Church. This controversy centered upon the nature of the Son of God, and his precise relationship to God the Father. Before the council of Nicaea, the Christian world knew several competing Christological ideas. Church authorities condemned some of these ideas but did not put forth a uniform formula. The Nicaean formula was a rapidly concluded solution to the general Christological debate.

Beginnings.

The Trinitarian historian Socrates of Constantinople reports that Arius sparked the controversy that bears his name when Alexander of Alexandria, who had succeeded Achillas as the Bishop of Alexandria, gave a sermon stating the similarity of the Son to the Father. Arius interpreted Alexander's speech as being a revival of Sabellianism, condemned it, and then argued that ""if the Father begat the Son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence: and from this it is evident, that there was a time when the Son was not. It therefore necessarily follows, that he" [the Son] "had his substance from nothing."" This quote describes the essence of Arius's doctrine.  Socrates of Constantinople believed that Arius was influenced in his thinking by the teachings of Lucian of Antioch, a celebrated Christian teacher and martyr. In a letter to Patriarch Alexander of Constantinople Arius' bishop, Alexander of Alexandria, wrote that Arius derived his theology from Lucian. The express purpose of Alexander's letter was to complain of the doctrines that Arius was spreading, but his charge of heresy against Arius is vague and unsupported by other authorities. Furthermore, Alexander's language, like that of most controversialists in those days, is quite bitter and abusive. Moreover, even Alexander never accused Lucian of having taught Arianism; rather, he accused Lucian "ad invidiam" of heretical tendencies—which apparently, according to him, were transferred to his pupil, Arius. The noted Russian historian Alexander Vasiliev refers to Lucian as "the Arius before Arius".

Origen and Arius.

Like many third-century Christian scholars, Arius was influenced by the writings of Origen, widely regarded as the first great theologian of Christianity. However, while both agreed on the subordination of the Son to the Father, and Arius drew support from Origen's theories on the "Logos", the two did not agree on everything. Arius clearly argued that the "Logos" had a beginning and that the Son, therefore, was not eternal, the Logos being the highest of the Created Order. This idea is summarized in the statement "there was a time when the Son was not." By way of contrast, Origen believed the relation of the Son to the Father had no beginning, and that the Son was "eternally generated".  Arius objected to Origen's doctrine, complaining about it in his letter to the Nicomedian Eusebius, who had also studied under Lucian. Nevertheless, despite disagreeing with Origen on this point, Arius found solace in his writings, which used expressions that favored Arius's contention that the "Logos" was of a different substance than the Father, and owed his existence to his Father's will. However, because Origen's theological speculations were often proffered to stimulate further inquiry rather than to put an end to any given dispute, both Arius and his opponents were able to invoke the authority of this revered (at the time) theologian during their debate.  Arius emphasized the supremacy and uniqueness of God the Father, meaning that the Father alone is infinite and eternal and almighty, and that therefore the Father's divinity must be greater than the Son's. Arius taught that the Son had a beginning, contrary to Origen, who taught that the Son was less than the Father only in power, but not in time. Arius maintained that the Son possessed neither the eternity nor the true divinity of the Father, but was rather made "God" only by the Father's permission and power, and that the Logos was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's productions, before ages.

Initial responses.

The Bishop of Alexandria exiled the presbyter following a council of local priests. Arius's supporters vehemently protested. Numerous bishops and Christian leaders of the era supported his cause, among them Eusebius of Nicomedia.

First Council of Nicaea.

The Christological debate could no longer be contained within the Alexandrian diocese. By the time Bishop Alexander finally acted against Arius, Arius's doctrine had spread far beyond his own see; it had become a topic of discussion—and disturbance—for the entire Church. The Church was now a powerful force in the Roman world, with Emperors Licinius and Constantine I having legalized it in 313 through the Edict of Milan. Emperor Constantine had taken a personal interest in several ecumenical issues, including the Donatist controversy in 316, and he wanted to bring an end to the Christological dispute. To this end, the emperor sent Hosius, bishop of Córdoba to investigate and, if possible, resolve the controversy. Hosius was armed with an open letter from the Emperor: ""Wherefore let each one of you, showing consideration for the other, listen to the impartial exhortation of your fellow-servant."" But as the debate continued to rage despite Hosius' efforts, Constantine in AD 325 took an unprecedented step: he called a council to be composed of church prelates from all parts of the empire to resolve this issue, possibly at Hosius' recommendation.  All secular dioceses of the empire sent one or more representatives to the council, save for Roman Britain; the majority of the bishops came from the East. Pope Sylvester I, himself too aged to attend, sent two priests as his delegates. Arius himself attended the council, as did his bishop, Alexander. Also there were Eusebius of Caesarea, Eusebius of Nicomedia and the young deacon Athanasius, who would become the champion of the Trinitarian view ultimately adopted by the council and spend most of his life battling Arianism. Before the main conclave convened, Hosius initially met with Alexander and his supporters at Nicomedia. The council would be presided over by the emperor himself, who participated in and even led some of its discussions.  At this First Council of Nicaea twenty-two bishops, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius. But when some of Arius's writings were read aloud, they are reported to have been denounced as blasphemous by most participants. Those who upheld the notion that Christ was co-eternal and con-substantial with the Father were led by the bishop Alexander. Athanasius was not allowed to sit in on the Council since he was only an arch-deacon. But Athanasius is seen as doing the legwork and concluded (as Bishop Alexander conveyed in the Athanasian Trinitarian defense and also according to the Nicene Creed adopted at this Council and,) that the Son was of the same essence (homoousios) with the Father (or one in essence with the Father), and was eternally generated from that essence of the Father. Those who instead insisted that the Son of God came after God the Father in time and substance, were led by Arius the presbyter. For about two months, the two sides argued and debated, with each appealing to Scripture to justify their respective positions. Arius argued for the supremacy of God the Father, and maintained that the Son of God was simply the oldest and most beloved Creature of God, made from nothing, because of being the direct offspring. Arius taught that the pre-existent Son was God's First Production (the very first thing that God actually ever "did" in His entire eternal existence up to that point), before all ages. Thus he insisted that only God the Father had no beginning, and that the Father alone was infinite and eternal. Arius maintained that the Son had a beginning. Thus, said Arius, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; furthermore, there was a time that He had no existence. He was capable of His own free will, said Arius, and thus "were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after the Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being." Arius appealed to Scripture, quoting verses such as : "the Father is greater than I". And also : "the firstborn of all creation." Thus, Arius insisted that the Father's Divinity was greater than the Son's, and that the Son was under God the Father, and not co-equal or co-eternal with Him.  According to some accounts in the hagiography of Nicholas of Myra, debate at the council became so heated that at one point, Nicholas struck Arius across the face. The majority of the bishops ultimately agreed upon a creed, known thereafter as the Nicene creed. It included the word "homoousios", meaning "consubstantial", or "one in essence", which was incompatible with Arius' beliefs. On June 19, 325, council and emperor issued a circular to the churches in and around Alexandria: Arius and two of his unyielding partisans (Theonas and Secundus) were deposed and exiled to Illyricum, while three other supporters—Theognis of Nicaea, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Maris of Chalcedon—affixed their signatures solely out of deference to the emperor. The following is part of the ruling made by the emperor denouncing Arius's teachings with fervor.

Exile, return, and death.

The Homoousian party's victory at Nicaea was short-lived, however. Despite Arius's exile and the alleged finality of the Council's decrees, the Arian controversy recommenced at once. When Bishop Alexander died in 327, Athanasius succeeded him, despite not meeting the age requirements for a hierarch. Still committed to pacifying the conflict between Arians and Trinitarians, Constantine gradually became more lenient toward those whom the Council of Nicaea had exiled. Though he never repudiated the council or its decrees, the emperor ultimately permitted Arius (who had taken refuge in Palestine) and many of his adherents to return to their homes, once Arius had reformulated his Christology to mute the ideas found most objectionable by his critics. Athanasius was exiled following his condemnation by the First Synod of Tyre in 335 (though he was later recalled), and the Synod of Jerusalem the following year restored Arius to communion. The emperor directed Alexander of Constantinople to receive Arius, despite the bishop's objections; Bishop Alexander responded by earnestly praying that Arius might perish before this could happen.  Modern scholars consider that the subsequent death of Arius may have been the result of poisoning by his opponents. In contrast, some contemporaries of Arius asserted that the circumstances of his death were miraculous – consequence of Arius's heretical views. The latter view was evident in the account of Arius's death by a bitter enemy, Socrates Scholasticus.  The death of Arius did not end the Arian controversy, and would not be settled for centuries, in some parts of the Christian world.

Arianism after Arius.

Immediate aftermath.

Historians report that Constantine, who had not been baptized for most of his lifetime, was baptized on his deathbed by the Arian bishop, Eusebius of Nicomedia.  Constantius II, who succeeded Constantine, was an Arian sympathizer. Under him, Arianism reached its high point at The Third Council of Sirmium in 357. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both "homoousios" (of one substance) and "homoiousios" (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later dubbed the Blasphemy of Sirmium.) But since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin "substantia", but in Greek "ousia", that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential', or what is called, 'like-in-essence', there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding.  Following the abortive effort by Julian the Apostate to restore paganism in the empire, the emperor Valens — himself an Arian — renewed the persecution of Nicene bishops. However, Valens's successor Theodosius I ended Arianism once and for all among the elites of the Eastern Empire through a combination of imperial decree, persecution, and the calling of the Second Ecumenical Council in 381, which condemned Arius anew while reaffirming and expanding the Nicene Creed. This generally ended the influence of Arianism among the non-Germanic peoples of the Roman Empire.

Arianism in the West.

Things went differently in the Western Empire. During the reign of Constantius II, the Arian Gothic convert Ulfilas was consecrated a bishop by Eusebius of Nicomedia and sent to missionize his people. His success ensured the survival of Arianism among the Goths and Vandals until the beginning of the eighth century, when these kingdoms succumbed to their Nicean neighbors or accepted Nicean Christianity. Arians also continued to exist in North Africa, Spain and portions of Italy, until finally suppressed during the sixth and seventh centuries.  In the 12th century, Peter the Venerable saw the Prophet Muhammad as "the successor of Arius and the precursor to the Anti-Christ".  During the Protestant Reformation, a Polish sect known as the Polish Brethren were often referred to as Arians, due to their rejection of the Trinity.

Arianism today.

There are several contemporary Christian and Post-Christian denominations today that echo Arian thinking.  Jehovah's Witnesses are often referred to as "modern-day Arians" or sometimes "Semi-Arians", usually by their opponents. While there are some significant similarities in theology and doctrine, the Witnesses differ from Arians by saying that the Son can fully know the Father (something Arius himself denied), and by their denial of literal personality to the Holy Spirit. Arius considered the Holy Spirit to be a person or a high-ranking angel, which had a beginning as a creature, whereas the Witnesses consider the Holy Spirit to be God's "active force" or divine "energy", which had no beginning, and is not an actual person. The original Arians also generally prayed directly to Jesus, whereas the Witnesses pray to God, through Jesus as a mediator.  Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) are sometimes accused of being Arians by their detractors. However, the Christology of the Latter-day Saints differs in several significant aspects from Arian theology.  Some Christians in the Unitarian Universalist movement are influenced by Arian ideas. Contemporary Unitarian Universalist Christians often are either Arian or Socian in their Christology, seeing Jesus as a distinctive moral figure, but not God the Father, or follow Origen's logic of Universal Salvation, and thus potentially affirm the Trinity, but assert that all are already saved.

Arius's doctrine.

Introduction.

In explaining his actions against Arius, Alexander of Alexandria wrote a letter to Alexander of Constantinople and Eusebius of Nicomedia (where the emperor was then residing), detailing the errors into which he believed Arius had fallen. According to Alexander, Arius taught:  Alexander also refers to Arius's poetical "Thalia":

The Logos.

This question of the exact relationship between the Father and the Son (a part of the theological science of Christology) had been raised some fifty years before Arius, when Paul of Samosata was deposed in 269 for agreeing with those who used the word homoousios (Greek for same substance) to express the relation between the Father and the Son. This term was thought at that time to have a Sabellian tendency, though—as events showed—this was on account of its scope not having been satisfactorily defined. In the discussion which followed Paul's deposition, Dionysius, the Bishop of Alexandria, used much the same language as Arius did later, and correspondence survives in which Pope Dionysius blames him for using such terminology. Dionysius responded with an explanation widely interpreted as vacillating. The Synod of Antioch, which condemned Paul of Samosata, had expressed its disapproval of the word "homoousios" in one sense, while Bishop Alexander undertook its defense in another. Although the controversy seemed to be leaning toward the opinions later championed by Arius, no firm decision had been made on the subject; in an atmosphere so intellectual as that of Alexandria, the debate seemed bound to resurface—and even intensify—at some point in the future.  Arius endorsed the following doctrines about The Son or The Word ("Logos", referring to Jesus; see the ):

Extant writings.

Three surviving letters attributed to Arius are his letter to Alexander of Alexandria, his letter to Eusebius of Nicomedia, and his confession to Constantine. In addition, several letters addressed by others to Arius survive, together with brief quotations contained within the polemical works of his opponents. These quotations are often short and taken out of context, and it is difficult to tell how accurately they quote him or represent his true thinking.

The Thalia.

Arius' "Thalia" (literally, "Festivity", "banquet"), a popularized work combining prose and verse and summarizing his views on the Logos, survives in quoted fragmentary form. In the Thalia, Arius says that God's first thought was the creation of the Son, before all ages, therefore time started with the creation of the "Logos" or Word in Heaven (lines 1-9, 30-32); explains how the Son could still be God, even if he did not exist eternally (lines 20-23); and endeavors to explain the ultimate incomprehensibility of the Father to the Son (lines 33-39). The two available references from this work are recorded by his opponent Athanasius: the first is a report of Arius's teaching in "Orations Against the Arians", 1:5-6. This paraphrase has negative comments interspersed throughout, so it is difficult to consider it as being completely reliable.  The second quotation is found in the document "On the Councils of Arminum and Seleucia", also known as "De Synodis", pg. 15. This second passage is entirely in irregular verse, and seems to be a direct quotation or a compilation of quotations; it may have been written by someone other than Athanasius, perhaps even a person sympathetic to Arius. This second quotation does not contain several statements usually attributed to Arius by his opponents, is in metrical form, and resembles other passages that have been attributed to Arius. It also contains some positive statements about the Son. But although these quotations seem reasonably accurate, their proper context is lost, thus their place in Arius' larger system of thought is impossible to reconstruct.  The part of Arius' Thalia quoted in Athanasius' "De Synodis" is the longest extant fragment. The most commonly cited edition of "De Synodis" is by Hans-Georg Opitz. A translation of this fragment has been made by Aaron J. West, but based not on Opitz' text but on a previous edition: "When compared to Opitz' more recent edition of the text, we found that our text varies only in punctuation, capitalization, and one variant reading (χρόνῳ for χρόνοις, line 5)." Here is the Opitz edition with the West translation:  A slightly different edition of the fragment of the Thalia from "De Synodis" is given by G.C. Stead, and served as the basis for a translation by R.P.C. Hanson. Stead argued that the Thalia was written in anapestic meter, and edited the fragment to show what it would look like in anapests with different line breaks. Hanson based his translation of this fragment directly on Stead's text. Here is Stead's edition with Hanson's translation.

Arius (;, ""; 250 or 256–336) was a Libyan presbyter and ascetic, and priest in Baucalis in Alexandria, Egypt. His teachings about the nature of the Godhead in Christianity, which emphasized God the Father's uniqueness and Christ's subordination under the Father, and his opposition to what would become the dominant Christology, Homoousian Christology, made him a primary topic of the First Council of Nicaea, which was convened by Emperor Constantine the Great in 325.

Arius (, deutsche Aussprache []; * um 260; † nach 327; vermutlich in Konstantinopel) war ein christlicher Presbyter aus Alexandria. Nach ihm ist die Lehre des Arianismus benannt.


Early years (1133–1149).

Henry was born in France at Le Mans on 5 March 1133, the eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. The French county of Anjou was formed in the 10th century and the Angevin rulers attempted for several centuries to extend their influence and power across France through careful marriages and political alliances. In theory, the county answered to the French king, but royal power over Anjou weakened during the 11th century and the county became largely autonomous.  Henry's mother was the eldest daughter of Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy. She was born into a powerful ruling class of Normans, who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy, and her first husband had been the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. After her father's death in 1135, Matilda hoped to claim the English throne, but instead her cousin Stephen of Blois was crowned king and recognised as the Duke of Normandy, resulting in civil war between their rival supporters. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no direct role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her half-brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester. The war, termed the Anarchy by Victorian historians, dragged on and degenerated into stalemate.  Henry probably spent some of his earliest years in his mother's household, and accompanied Matilda to Normandy in the late 1130s. Henry's later childhood, probably from the age of seven, was spent

Appearance and personality.

Henry was said by chroniclers to be good-looking, red-haired, freckled, with a large head; he had a short, stocky body and was bow-legged from riding. Often he was scruffily dressed. Not as reserved as his mother, nor as charming as his father, Henry was famous for his energy and drive. He was also infamous for his piercing stare, bullying, bursts of temper and, on occasion, his sullen refusal to speak at all. Some of these outbursts may have been theatrical and for effect. Henry was said to have understood a wide range of languages, including English, but spoke only Latin and French.

Early reign (1150–1162).

Acquisition of Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine.

By the late 1140s the active phase of the civil war was over, barring the occasional outbreak of fighting. Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with each other to secure their war gains and it increasingly appeared as though the English Church was considering promoting a peace treaty. On Louis VII's return from the Second Crusade in 1149, he became concerned about the growth of Geoffrey's power and the potential threat to his own possessions, especially if Henry could acquire the English crown.

Taking the English throne.

In response to Stephen's siege, Henry returned to England again at the start of 1153, braving winter storms. Bringing only a small army of mercenaries, probably paid for with borrowed money, Henry was supported in the north and east of England by the forces of Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod, and had hopes of a military victory. A delegation of senior English clergy met with Henry and his advisers at Stockbridge, Hampshire, shortly before Easter in April. Details of their discussions are unclear, but it appears that the churchmen emphasised that while they supported Stephen as king, they sought a negotiated peace;

Reconstruction of royal government.

On landing in England on 8 December 1154, Henry quickly took oaths of loyalty from some of the barons and was then crowned alongside Eleanor at Westminster Abbey on 19 December. The royal court was gathered in April 1155, where the barons swore fealty to the King and his sons. Several potential rivals still existed, including Stephen's son William and Henry's brothers Geoffrey and William, but they all died in the next few years, leaving Henry's position remarkably secure. Nonetheless, Henry inherited a difficult situation in England, as the kingdom had suffered extensively during the civil war. In many parts of the country the fighting had caused serious devastation, although some other areas remained largely unaffected. Numerous "adulterine", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords. The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country. The King's income had declined seriously and royal control over the coin mints remained limited.  Henry presented himself as the legitimate heir to Henry I

Campaigns in Brittany, Toulouse and the Vexin.

Henry had a problematic relationship with Louis VII of France throughout the 1150s. The two men had already clashed over Henry's succession to Normandy and the remarriage of Eleanor, and the relationship was not repaired. Louis invariably attempted to take the moral high ground in respect to Henry, capitalising on his reputation as a crusader and circulating rumours about his rival's behaviour and character. Henry had greater resources than Louis, particularly after taking England, and Louis was far less dynamic in resisting Angevin power than he had been earlier in his reign. The disputes between the two drew in other powers across the region, including Thierry, Count of Flanders, who signed a military alliance with Henry, albeit with a clause that prevented the count from being forced to fight against Louis, his feudal lord. Further south, Theobald V, Count of Blois, an enemy of Louis, became another early ally of Henry. The resulting military tensions and the frequent face-to-face meetings to attempt to

Government, family and household.

Empire and nature of government.

Henry controlled more of France than any ruler since the Carolingians; these lands, combined with his possessions in England, Wales, Scotland and much of Ireland, produced a vast domain often referred to by historians as the Angevin Empire. The empire lacked a coherent structure or central control; instead, it consisted of a loose, flexible network of family connections and lands. Different local customs applied within each of Henry's different territories, although common principles underpinned some of these local variations. Henry travelled constantly across the empire, producing what the historian John Jolliffe describes as a "government of the

Court and family.

Henry's wealth allowed him to maintain what was probably the largest "curia regis", or royal court, in Europe. His court attracted huge attention from contemporary chroniclers, and typically comprised several major nobles and bishops, along with knights, domestic servants, prostitutes, clerks, horses and hunting dogs. Within the court were his officials, "ministeriales", his friends, "amici", and the "familiares regis", the King's informal inner circle of confidants and trusted servants. Henry's "familiares" were particularly important to the operation of his household and government, driving

Law.

Henry's reign saw significant legal changes, particularly in England and Normandy. By the middle of the 12th century, England had many different ecclesiastical and civil law courts, with overlapping jurisdictions resulting from the interaction of diverse legal traditions. Henry greatly expanded the role of royal justice in England, producing a more coherent legal system, summarised at the end of his reign in the treatise of Glanvill, an early legal handbook. Despite these reforms it is uncertain if Henry had a grand vision for his new legal system and the reforms seem to have proceeded in a steady, pragmatic fashion. Indeed, in most cases he was

Relations with the Church.

Henry's relationship with the Church varied considerably across his lands and over time: as with other aspects of his rule, there was no attempt to form a common ecclesiastical policy. Insofar as he had a policy, it was to generally resist papal influence, increasing his own local authority. The 12th century saw a reforming movement within the Church, advocating greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy and more influence for the papacy. This trend had already caused tensions in England, for example when King Stephen forced Theobald of Bec, the Archbishop of Canterbury, into exile in 1152. There were also long-running concerns over the legal treatment of members of the clergy.  By contrast with the tensions in England, in Normandy Henry had occasional disagreements with the Church but generally enjoyed very good relations with the Norman bishops. In Brittany, he had the support of

Economy and finance.

Henry restored many of the old financial institutions of his grandfather Henry I and undertook further, long-lasting reforms of the way that the English currency was managed; one result was a long-term increase in the supply of money within the economy, leading to a growth both in trade and inflation. Medieval rulers such as Henry enjoyed various sources of income during the 12th century. Some of their income came from their private estates, called "demesne"; other income came from imposing legal fines and arbitrary amercements, and from taxes,

Later reign (1162–1175).

Developments in France.

Long-running tensions between Henry and Louis VII continued during the 1160s, the French king slowly becoming more vigorous in opposing Henry's increasing power in Europe. In 1160 Louis strengthened his alliances in central France with the Count of Champagne and Odo II, Duke of Burgundy. Three years later the new Count of Flanders, Philip, concerned about Henry's growing power, openly allied himself with the French King. Louis's wife Adèle gave birth to a male heir, Philip Augustus, in 1165, and Louis was more confident of his own position than for many years previously. As a

Thomas Becket controversy.

One of the major international events surrounding Henry during the 1160s was the Becket controversy. When the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, died in 1161 Henry saw an opportunity to reassert his rights over the church in England. Henry appointed Thomas Becket, his English Chancellor, as archbishop in 1162, probably believing that Becket, in addition to being an old friend, would be politically weakened within the Church because of his former role as Chancellor, and would therefore have to rely on Henry's support. Both Henry's mother and wife appear to have had doubts about the appointment, but he continued regardless. His plan did not have the desired result, as Becket promptly changed

Invasion of Ireland.

In the mid-12th century Ireland was ruled by local kings, although their authority was more limited than their counterparts in the rest of western Europe. Mainstream Europeans regarded the Irish as relatively barbarous and backward. In the 1160s the King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, was deposed by the High King of Ireland, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair. Diarmait turned to Henry for assistance in 1167, and the English King agreed to allow Diarmait to recruit mercenaries within his empire. Diarmait put together a force of Anglo-Norman and Flemish mercenaries drawn from the Welsh Marches, including Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke. With his new supporters, he reclaimed Leinster but died shortly afterwards in 1171; de Clare then claimed Leinster for himself. The situation in Ireland was tense and the Anglo-Normans heavily outnumbered.  Henry took this opportunity to intervene personally in Ireland. He took a large army into south Wales, forcing the rebels who had held the area since 1165 into submission

Great Revolt (1173–1174).

In 1173 Henry faced the Great Revolt, an uprising by his eldest sons and rebellious barons, supported by France, Scotland and Flanders. Several grievances underpinned the revolt. Young Henry was unhappy that, despite the title of king, in practice he made no real decisions and his father kept him chronically short of money. He had also been very attached to Thomas Becket, his former tutor, and may have held his father responsible for Becket's death. Geoffrey faced similar difficulties; Duke Conan of Brittany had died in 1171, but Geoffrey and Constance were still unmarried, leaving Geoffrey in limbo without his own lands. Richard was encouraged to join the revolt as well by Eleanor, whose relationship with Henry had disintegrated. Meanwhile, local barons unhappy with Henry's

Final years (1175–1189).

Aftermath of the Great Revolt.

In the aftermath of the Great Revolt, Henry held negotiations at Montlouis, offering a lenient peace on the basis of the pre-war status quo. Henry and Young Henry swore not to take revenge on each other's followers; Young Henry agreed to the transfer of the disputed castles to John, but in exchange the elder Henry agreed to give the younger Henry two castles in Normandy and 15,000 Angevin pounds; Richard and Geoffrey were granted half the revenues from Aquitaine and Brittany respectively. Eleanor was kept under effective house arrest until the 1180s. The rebel barons were kept imprisoned for a short time and in some cases fined, then restored to their lands. The rebel castles in England and Aquitaine were destroyed. Henry was less generous to William of Scotland, who was not released until he had agreed to the Treaty of Falaise in December 1174, under which he publicly gave homage to Henry and surrendered five key Scottish castles to Henry's men. Philip of Flanders declared his neutrality towards Henry, in return for which the King agreed to provide him with regular financial support.  Henry now appeared to his contemporaries to be stronger than ever, and he

Family tensions.

In the late 1170s Henry focused on trying to create a stable system of government, increasingly ruling through his family, but tensions over the succession arrangements were never far away, ultimately leading to a fresh revolt. Having quelled the left-over rebels from the Great Revolt, Richard was recognised by Henry as the Duke of Aquitaine in 1179. In 1181 Geoffrey finally married Constance of Brittany and became Duke of Brittany; by now most of Brittany accepted Angevin rule, and Geoffrey was able to deal with the remaining disturbances on his own. John had spent the Great Revolt travelling alongside his father

Henry and Philip Augustus.

Henry's relationship with his two surviving heirs was fraught. The King had great affection for his youngest son John, but showed little warmth towards Richard and indeed seems to have borne him a grudge after their argument in 1184. The bickering and simmering tensions between Henry and Richard were cleverly exploited by the new French King, Philip II Augustus. Philip had come to power in 1180 and he rapidly demonstrated that he could be an assertive, calculating and manipulative political leader. Initially Henry and Philip Augustus had enjoyed a good relationship. Despite attempts to divide the two, Henry and Philip Augustus agreed to a joint alliance, even though this cost the French King the support of Flanders and Champagne. Philip Augustus regarded Geoffrey as a close friend, and would have welcomed him as a successor to Henry. With the death of Geoffrey, the relationship between Henry and Philip broke down.  In 1186, Philip Augustus demanded that he be given custody of Geoffrey's children and Brittany, and insisted that Henry order Richard to withdraw from Toulouse, where he had been sent with an army

Death.

The relationship between Henry and Richard finally dissolved into violence shortly before Henry's death. Philip held a peace conference in November 1188, making a public offer of a generous long-term peace settlement with Henry, conceding to his various territorial demands, if Henry would finally marry Richard and Alys and announce Richard as his recognised heir. Henry refused the proposal, whereupon Richard himself spoke up, demanding to be recognised as Henry's successor. Henry remained silent and Richard then publicly changed sides at the conference and gave formal homage to Philip in front of the assembled nobles.  The papacy intervened once again to try to produce a last-minute peace deal, resulting in a fresh conference at La Ferté-Bernard in 1189. By now Henry was suffering from a bleeding ulcer that would ultimately prove fatal. The discussions achieved little, although Henry is alleged to have offered Philip that John, rather than Richard, could marry Alys, reflecting the rumours circulating over the summer that Henry was considering openly disinheriting Richard. The conference broke up with war appearing likely, but Philip and Richard launched a surprise attack immediately afterwards during

Legacy.

In the immediate aftermath of Henry's death, Richard successfully claimed his father's lands; he later left on the Third Crusade, but never married Alys as he had agreed with Philip Augustus. Eleanor was released from house arrest and regained control of Aquitaine, where she ruled on Richard's behalf. Henry's empire did not survive long and collapsed during the reign of his youngest son John, when Philip captured all of the Angevin possessions in France except Gascony. This collapse had various causes, including long-term changes in economic power, growing cultural differences between England and Normandy but, in particular, the fragile, familial nature of Henry's empire.  Henry was not a popular king and few expressed much grief on news of his death. Writing in the 1190s, William of Newburgh commented that "in his own time he was hated by almost everyone"; Henry was widely criticised by his own contemporaries, even within his own court. Many of the changes he introduced during his long rule had major long-term consequences. His legal changes are generally considered to have laid the basis for English Common Law, the Exchequer court being a forerunner of the later Common Bench at Westminster. Henry's itinerant justices also influenced his contemporaries' legal reforms: Philip Augustus' creation of itinerant "bailli", for example, clearly drew on the Henrician model. Henry's intervention in Brittany, Wales and Scotland also had a significant long-term impact on the development of their societies and governmental systems.

Historiography.

Henry and his reign have attracted historians for many years. In the 18th century the historian David Hume argued that Henry's reign was pivotal to creating a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. Henry's role in the Becket controversy was considered relatively praiseworthy by Protestant historians of the period, while his disputes with the French King, Louis, also attracted positive patriotic comment. In the Victorian period there was a fresh interest in the personal morality of historical figures and scholars began to express greater concern over aspects of Henry's behaviour, including his role as a parent and husband. The King's role in the death of Becket attracted particular criticism. Late-Victorian historians, with increasing access to the documentary records from the period, stressed Henry's contribution to the evolution of key English institutions, including the development of the law and the exchequer. William Stubbs' analysis led

Popular culture.

Henry II appears as a character in several modern plays and films. He is a central character in James Goldman's 1966 play "The Lion in Winter", set in 1183 and presenting an imaginary encounter between Henry's immediate family and Philip Augustus over Christmas at Chinon. The 1968 film adaptation communicates the modern popular view of Henry as a somewhat sacrilegious, fiery and determined king although, as Goldman acknowledges, Henry's passions and character are essentially fictional.

Henry II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189), also known as Henry Curtmantle (), Henry FitzEmpress or Henry Plantagenet, was King of England from 1154 to his death. He was the first king of the House of Plantagenet. King Louis VII of France made him Duke of Normandy in 1150. Henry became Count of Anjou and Maine upon the death of his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, in 1151. His marriage in 1152 to Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII had recently been annulled, made him Duke of Aquitaine. He became Count of Nantes by treaty in 1185. Before he was 40 he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the eastern half of Ireland and the western half of France—an area that would later come to be called the Angevin Empire. At various times, Henry also partially controlled Scotland, Wales and the Duchy of Brittany.

Heinrich II. (englisch "Henry II", ursprünglich "Henry Plantagenet"; * 5. März 1133 in Le Mans; † 6. Juli 1189 in Chinon) war Herzog der Normandie und von Aquitanien, Graf von Anjou sowie König von England (1154–1189). Zeitweise beherrschte er Wales, Schottland, das östliche Irland und das westliche Frankreich. Er war der erste der angevinischen Könige, die auch als das Haus Plantagenet bezeichnet wurden.