Early life and education.

John William Cheever was born in Quincy, Massachusetts, the second child of Frederick Lincoln Cheever and Mary Liley Cheever. His father was a prosperous shoe salesman, and Cheever spent much of his childhood in a large Victorian house, at 123 Winthrop Avenue, in the then-genteel suburb of Wollaston, Massachusetts. In the mid-1920s, however, as the New England shoe and textile industries began their long decline, Frederick Cheever lost most of his money and began to drink heavily. To pay the bills, Mary Cheever opened a gift shop in downtown Quincy—an "abysmal humiliation" for the family, as John saw it. In 1926, Cheever began attending Thayer Academy, a private day school, but he found the atmosphere stifling and performed poorly, and finally transferred to Quincy High in 1928. A year later he won a short story contest sponsored by the "Boston Herald" and was invited back to Thayer as a "special student" on academic probation. His grades continued to be poor, however, and, in March 1930, he was either expelled for smoking or (more likely) departed of his own accord when the headmaster delivered an ultimatum to the effect that he must either apply himself or leave. The 18-year-old Cheever wrote a sardonic account of this experience, titled "Expelled", which was subsequently published in "The New Republic". (1930).  Around this time, Cheever's older brother Fred, forced to withdraw from Dartmouth in 1926 because of the family's financial crisis, re-entered Cheever's life "when the situation was most painful and critical", as Cheever later wrote. After the 1932 crash of Kreuger & Toll, in which Frederick Cheever had invested what was left of his money, the Cheever house on Winthrop Avenue was lost to foreclosure. The parents separated, while John and Fred took an apartment together on Beacon Hill, in Boston. In 1933, John wrote to Elizabeth Ames, the director of the Yaddo artist's colony in Saratoga Springs, New York: "The idea of leaving the city," he said, "has never been so distant or desirable." Ames denied his first application but offered him a place the following year, whereupon Cheever decided to sever his "ungainly attachment" to his brother. Cheever spent the summer of 1934 at Yaddo, which would serve as a second home for much of his life.

Career.

Early writings.

For the next few years, Cheever divided his time between Manhattan, Saratoga, Lake George (where he was caretaker of the Yaddo-owned Triuna Island), and Quincy, where he continued to visit his parents, who had reconciled and moved to an apartment at 60 Spear Street. Cheever drove from one place to another in a dilapidated Model A roadster, but had no permanent address. In 1935, Katharine White of "The New Yorker" bought Cheever's story "Buffalo", for $45—the first of many that Cheever would publish in the magazine. Maxim Lieber became his literary agent, 1935–1941. In 1938, he began work for the Federal Writers' Project in Washington, D. C., which he considered an embarrassing boondoggle. As an editor for the "WPA Guide to New York City", Cheever was charged with (as he put it) "twisting into order the sentences written by some incredibly lazy bastards." He quit after less than a year and a few months later he met his future wife, Mary Winternitz, seven years his junior. She was a daughter of Milton Winternitz, dean of Yale Medical School, and granddaughter of Thomas A. Watson, an assistant to Alexander Graham Bell during the invention of the telephone. They married in 1941.  Cheever enlisted in the Army on May 7, 1942. His first collection of short stories, "The Way Some People Live", was published in 1943 to mixed reviews. Cheever himself came to despise the book as "embarrassingly immature", and for the rest of his life destroyed every copy he could lay his hands on. However, the book may have saved his life after falling into the hands of Major Leonard Spigelgass, an MGM executive and officer in the Army Signal Corps, who was struck by Cheever's "childlike sense of wonder." Early that summer, Cheever was transferred to the former Paramount studio in Astoria, Queens, New York City, where he commuted via subway from his apartment in Chelsea, Manhattan, New York City. Meanwhile, most of his old infantry company was killed on a Normandy beach during the D-Day invasion. Cheever's daughter Susan was born on July 31, 1943.  After the war, Cheever moved his family to an apartment building at 400 East 59th Street, near Sutton Place, Manhattan; almost every morning for the next five years, he would dress in his only suit and take the elevator to a maid's room in the basement, where he stripped to his boxer shorts and wrote until lunchtime. In 1946, he accepted a $4,800 advance from Random House to resume work on his novel, "The Holly Tree", which he had discontinued during the war. "The Enormous Radio" appeared in the May 17, 1947, issue of "The New Yorker" — a Kafkaesque tale about a sinister radio that broadcasts the private conversations of tenants in a New York apartment building. A startling advance on Cheever's early, more naturalistic work, the story elicited a fan letter from the magazine's irascible editor, Harold Ross: "It will turn out to be a memorable one, or I am a fish." Cheever's son Benjamin was born on May 4, 1948.

Mid-career.

Cheever's work became longer and more complex, apparently a protest against the "slice of life" fiction typical of "The New Yorker" in those years. An early draft of "The Day the Pig Fell into the Well"—a long story with elaborate Chekhovian nuances, meant to "operate something like a rondo", as Cheever wrote to his friend and "New Yorker" editor William Maxwell—was completed in 1949, though the magazine did not make space for it until five years later. In 1951, Cheever wrote "Goodbye, My Brother", after a gloomy summer in Martha's Vineyard. Largely on the strength of these two stories (still in manuscript at the time), Cheever was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship. On May 28, 1951, Cheever moved to Beechwood, the suburban estate of Frank A. Vanderlip, a banker, in the Westchester hamlet of Scarborough-on-Hudson, where he rented a small cottage on the edge of the estate. The house, coincidentally, had been occupied before the Cheevers by another suburban chronicler, Richard Yates. In Scarborough, he was a casual volunteer for the Briarcliff Manor Fire Department.  Cheever's second collection, "The Enormous Radio", was published in 1953. Reviews were mostly positive, though Cheever's reputation continued to suffer because of his close association with "The New Yorker" (considered middlebrow by such influential critics as Dwight Macdonald), and he was particularly pained by the general preference for J. D. Salinger's "Nine Stories", published around the same time. Meanwhile, Random House demanded that Cheever either produce a publishable novel or pay back his advance, whereupon Cheever wrote Mike Bessie at Harper & Brothers ("These old bones are up for sale"), who bought him out of his Random House contract. In the summer of 1956, Cheever finished "The Wapshot Chronicle" while vacationing in Friendship, Maine, and received a congratulatory telegram from William Maxwell: "WELL ROARED LION." With the proceeds from the sale of film rights to "The Housebreaker of Shady Hill", Cheever and his family spent the following year in Italy, where his son Federico was born on March 9, 1957 ("We wanted to call him Frederick", Cheever wrote, "but there is of course no K in the alphabet here and I gave up after an hour or two").  "The Wapshot Scandal" was published in 1964, and received perhaps the best reviews of Cheever's career up to that point (amid quibbles about the novel's episodic structure). Cheever appeared on the cover of "Time" magazine's March 27 issue, this for an appreciative profile, "Ovid in Ossining." (In 1961 Cheever had moved to a stately, stone-ended Dutch Colonial farmhouse in Ossining, on the east bank of the Hudson.) "The Swimmer" appeared in the July 18, 1964 issue of "The New Yorker". Cheever noted with chagrin that the story (one of his best) appeared toward the back of the issue—behind a John Updike story—since, as it happened, Maxwell and other editors at the magazine were a little bewildered by its non-"New Yorker"ish surrealism. In the summer of 1966, a screen adaptation of "The Swimmer", starring Burt Lancaster, was filmed in Westport, Connecticut. Cheever was a frequent visitor on the set, and made a cameo appearance in the movie.  By then Cheever's alcoholism had become severe, exacerbated by torment concerning his bisexuality. Still, he blamed most of his marital woes on his wife, and in 1966 he consulted a psychiatrist, David C. Hays, about her hostility and "needless darkness." After a session with Mary Cheever, the psychiatrist asked to see the couple jointly; Cheever, heartened, believed his wife's difficult behavior would finally be addressed. At the joint session, however, Hays said (as Cheever noted in his journal) that Cheever himself was the problem: "a neurotic man, narcissistic, egocentric, friendless, and so deeply involved in [his] own defensive illusions that [he has] invented a manic-depressive wife." Cheever soon terminated therapy.

Later life and career.

"Bullet Park" was published in 1969, and received a devastating review from Benjamin DeMott on the front page of "The New York Times Book Review": "John Cheever's short stories are and will remain lovely birds... But in the gluey atmosphere of "Bullet Park" no birds sing." Cheever's alcoholic depression deepened, and in May he resumed psychiatric treatment (which again proved fruitless). He began an affair with actress Hope Lange in the late 1960s.  On May 12, 1973, Cheever awoke coughing uncontrollably and learned at the hospital that he had almost died from pulmonary edema caused by alcoholism. After a month in the hospital, he returned home vowing never to drink again; however, he resumed drinking in August. Despite his precarious health, he spent the fall semester teaching (and drinking, both with fellow writer-teacher, Raymond Carver) at the Iowa Writers' Workshop, where his students included T. C. Boyle, Allan Gurganus, and Ron Hansen. As his marriage continued to deteriorate, Cheever accepted a professorship at Boston University the following year and moved into a fourth-floor walkup apartment at 71 Bay State Road. Cheever's drinking soon became suicidal and, in March 1975, his brother Fred, now virtually indigent, but sober after his own lifelong bout with alcoholism, drove John back to Ossining. On April 9, Cheever was admitted to the Smithers Alcoholic Rehabilitation Unit in New York, where he shared a bedroom and bath with four other men. Driven home by his wife on May 7, Cheever never drank alcohol again.  In March 1977, Cheever appeared on the cover of "Newsweek" with the caption, "A Great American Novel: John Cheever's "Falconer."" The novel was No. 1 on the "New York Times" Best Seller list for three weeks. "The Stories of John Cheever" appeared in October 1978, and became one of the most successful collections ever, selling 125,000 copies in hardback and winning universal acclaim.  Cheever was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal for outstanding contribution to the arts by the MacDowell Colony in 1979.

Personal life.

Cheever's marriage was complicated by his sexuality. Variously described as gay, homosexual, or bisexual, Cheever had relationships with both men and women, including a short relationship with composer Ned Rorem and an affair with actress Hope Lange. Cheever's longest lover was a student of his, Max Zimmer, who lived in the Cheever family home. Cheever's daughter, Susan, described her parents' marriage as "European", saying: "they were people who felt their feelings weren't necessarily a reason to shatter a family. They certainly hurt each other plenty but they didn't necessarily see that as a reason for divorce."

Illness and death.

In the summer of 1981, a tumor was discovered in Cheever's right lung, and, in late November, he returned to the hospital and learned that the cancer had spread to his femur, pelvis, and bladder. Cheever's last novel, "Oh What a Paradise It Seems," was published in March 1982; the book received respectful reviews in part because it was widely known the author was dying of cancer. On April 27, he received the National Medal for Literature at Carnegie Hall, where colleagues were shocked by Cheever's ravaged appearance after months of cancer therapy. "A page of good prose", he declared in his remarks, "remains invincible." John Updike wrote that "All the literary acolytes assembled there fell quite silent, astonished by such faith."  Cheever died on June 18, 1982. The flags in Ossining were lowered to half staff for 10 days after Cheever's death. He is buried at First Parish Cemetery, Norwell, Massachusetts.

Posthumous.

In 1987, Cheever's widow, Mary, signed a contract with a small publisher, Academy Chicago, for the right to publish Cheever's uncollected short stories. The contract led to a long legal battle and a book of 13 stories by the author entitled "Fall River and Other Uncollected Stories", published in 1994 by Academy Chicago Publishers.  Two of Cheever's children, Susan and Benjamin, became writers. Susan's memoir, "Home Before Dark" (1984), revealed Cheever's bisexuality, which was confirmed by his posthumously published letters and journals. This was parodied to comedic effect in a 1992 episode of the TV sitcom "Seinfeld", when the character Susan discovers explicit love letters from Cheever to her father.  After Blake Bailey published his biography of Richard Yates, "A Tragic Honesty" (2003), Cheever's son Ben suggested Bailey write an authoritative biography of Cheever. The book was published by Knopf on March 10, 2009 and won that year's National Book Critics Circle Award in Biography and the Francis Parkman Prize, and was a finalist for the Pulitzer and James Tait Black Memorial Prize.  Also in 2009, Cheever was featured in "Soul of a People: Writing America's Story", a 90-minute documentary about the WPA Writers' Project. His life during the 1930s is also highlighted in the companion book, "Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America".

John William Cheever (May 27, 1912 – June 18, 1982) was an American novelist and short story writer. He is sometimes called "the Chekhov of the suburbs." His fiction is mostly set in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, the Westchester suburbs, old New England villages based on various South Shore towns around Quincy, Massachusetts, where he was born, and Italy, especially Rome. His short stories included "The Enormous Radio", "Goodbye, My Brother", "The Five-Forty-Eight", "The Country Husband", and "The Swimmer", and he also wrote four novels, comprising "The Wapshot Chronicle" (National Book Award, 1958), "The Wapshot Scandal" (William Dean Howells Medal, 1965), "Bullet Park" (1969), "Falconer" (1977) and a novella "Oh What a Paradise It Seems" (1982).

John Cheever (* 27. Mai 1912 in Quincy, Massachusetts; † 18. Juni 1982 in Ossining, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller.


Life.

He was born on 3 October 1916 in Sunderland, County Durham, England to James Wight (1890–1960) and Hannah "née" Bell (1890–1980). Shortly after their wedding in 1915, the Wights moved from Brandling Street, Sunderland, to Glasgow, Scotland, where James took work as a ship plater and as a pianist for a local cinema, while Hannah was a singer and a dressmaker. Hannah returned to Sunderland to give birth to James, bringing him back to Glasgow when he was three weeks old.  Wight attended Yoker Primary School and Hillhead High School. As a boy in Glasgow, one of Wight's favourite pastimes was walking with his dog, an Irish Setter, in the Scottish countryside and watching it play with his friends' dogs. He later wrote that 'I was intrigued by the character and behaviour of these animals... [I wanted to] spend my life working with them if possible.' At age twelve, he read an article in "Meccano Magazine" about veterinarians, and was captivated with the idea of treating sick animals as a career. Two years later, in 1930, he decided to become a veterinarian after the principal of Glasgow Veterinary College gave a lecture at his high school. Wight studied for six years at Glasgow Veterinary College, and qualified as a veterinary surgeon in December 1939 at age 23.  Wight's first position, which he accepted in January 1940, was at a veterinary practice in Sunderland. He moved to work in a rural practice the following July, based at 23 Kirkgate in Thirsk, Yorkshire, near the Yorkshire Dales and North York Moors. The practice owner, Donald Sinclair, had enlisted in the Royal Air Force (RAF) and would leave soon for training; he gave Wight all the practice's income in return for looking after it during his absence. After Sinclair was discharged from the RAF four months later, he asked Wight to stay permanently with the practice, offering him a salaried partnership. Wight accepted the position and married Joan Catherine Anderson Danbury on 5 November 1941 at St Mary's Church, Thirsk. They had two children: James Alexander (born 13 February 1943), who also became a veterinarian and was a partner in the practice, and Rosemary (born 9 May 1947), who became a general practitioner.  Wight enlisted in the RAF in November 1942. He did well in his training, and was one of the first men in his regiment to fly solo. After undergoing surgery on an anal fistula in July 1943, he was deemed unfit to fly combat aircraft and was discharged as a leading aircraftman the following November. He joined his wife at her parents' house, where she had lived since he left Thirsk. They lived there until the summer of 1945, when they moved back to 23 Kirkgate after Sinclair and his wife moved to a house of their own. In 1953, the family moved to a house on Topcliffe Road, Thirsk. Desirous of more privacy as the popularity of "All Creatures Great and Small" increased, in 1977 Wight and his wife moved again, to the smaller village of Thirlby, about from Thirsk. Wight lived here until his death in 1995.  Wight retired in 1989, passing his share of the practice down to his son. He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1991 and was treated in the Friarage Hospital in Northallerton. He died on 23 February 1995 at home in Thirlby at age 78, leaving an estate valued for probate at £5,425,873 (equivalent to £ in ). His remains were cremated and scattered on Sutton Bank. His wife's health declined after his death, and she died on 14 July 1999.

Career as an author.

Although Wight claimed in the preface of "James Herriot's Yorkshire" that he only began to write after his wife encouraged him at age 50, he in fact kept copious diaries as a child, as a teenager wrote for his school's magazine, and wrote at least one short story during his college years. In the early 1960s he began writing more seriously, composing numerous short stories and, in his own words, 'bombarding' publishers with them. He also analysed the books of successful authors that he enjoyed reading, such as P. G. Wodehouse and Conan Doyle, to understand different writing styles. Still, Wight told Paul Vallely in a 1981 interview for the "Sunday Telegraph Magazine" that'my style was improving but I realised that my subjects were wrong. [...] So I returned to the vet subjects.'  In 1969, Wight wrote "If Only They Could Talk", a collection of stories centred around his experiences as a young veterinarian in the Yorkshire Dales. The book was published in the United Kingdom in 1970 by Michael Joseph Ltd, but sales were slow until Thomas McCormack of St. Martin's Press in New York City received a copy and arranged to have the first two books published as a single volume in the United States. Wight named the volume "All Creatures Great and Small" from the second line of the hymn 'All Things Bright and Beautiful'. The resulting book was a huge success.  Wight wrote seven more books in the series started by "If Only They Could Talk". In the United States, the first six books of the original series were thought too short to publish independently and were collected into three omnibus volumes: the final two books were published separately. The last book of the series, "Every Living Thing", sold 650,000 copies in six weeks in the United States and stayed in the "The New York Times" Best Seller list for eight months.  Wight's books are partially autobiographical, with many of the stories loosely based on real events or people. Most of the stories are set in the fictional town of Darrowby, which Wight described as a composite of Thirsk, its nearby market towns Richmond, Leyburn, and Middleham, and 'a fair chunk of my own imagination'. Wight anonymised the majority of his characters by renaming them: notably, he called Donald Sinclair and his brother Brian Siegfried and Tristan Farnon respectively, and used the name Helen Alderson for his wife Joan. At the time of the series's publication, veterinary surgeons were heavily discouraged from writing books under their own names (as doing so could be seen as advertisement), so Wight took 'James Herriot' as his pen name after seeing Scottish goalkeeper Jim Herriot play for Birmingham City F.C. in a televised game against Manchester United F.C. Many of the stories which are set in the 1930s–1950s were inspired by cases that Wight attended in the 1960s and 1970s.

Film and television adaptions.

Wight's books have been adapted for film and television, including the 1975 film "All Creatures Great and Small" followed by "It Shouldn't Happen to a Vet" in 1976.  The BBC produced a television series based on Wight's books titled "All Creatures Great and Small", which ran from 1978–1980 and 1988–1990; ninety episodes were broadcast altogether. Another television series of the same name, produced by PBS and Playground Entertainment, is planned to be released in 2020.  In September 2010, the Gala Theatre in Durham presented the world premier professional stage adaptation of "All Creatures Great & Small."  In 2010, the BBC commissioned the three-part drama "Young James Herriot" inspired by Wight's early life and studies in Scotland. The series drew on archives and the diaries and case notes which Wight kept during his student days in Glasgow, as well as the biography written by his son. The first episode was shown on BBC One on 18 December 2011, and drew six million viewers. The BBC announced in April 2012 that the series would not return. A book titled "Young James Herriot" was written to accompany the series by historian and author John Lewis-Stempel.

Recognition and tourist industry.

Thirsk has become a magnet for fans of Wight's books. Local businesses include the World of James Herriot museum at 23 Kirkgate, where the original practice surgery was located, and a pub, later renamed, which was called the "Darrowby Inn". Parts of the BBC TV series set are on display at the World of James Herriot museum, including the living room and the dispensary. Many of the original contents of the surgery can be found at the Yorkshire Museum of Farming in Murton, York. Grand Central train company operates train services from Sunderland to London King's Cross, stopping at Thirsk. Class 180 DMU No. 180112 was named 'James Herriot' in Wight's honour, and was dedicated on 29 July 2009 by his daughter Rosemary and son James. Actor Christopher Timothy, who played Herriot in the television series, unveiled a statue of Wight in October 2014 at Thirsk Racecourse.  Wight received an honorary doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1979, and was made an officer of the Order of the British Empire the same year. In 1994, the library at Glasgow Veterinary College was named the 'James Herriot Library' in honour of Wight's achievements. Wight was deeply gratified by this recognition, replying in his acceptance letter, 'I regard this as the greatest honour that has ever been bestowed upon me.' He was a lifelong supporter of Sunderland A.F.C., and was made an honorary president of the club in 1991.  A blue plaque was placed at Wight's childhood home in Glasgow in October 2018. There is also a blue plaque at 23 Kirkgate, Wight's former surgery.

Published works.

Collected works from the original UK series.

In the United States, Wight's books were considered too short to publish independently, so several pairs were collected into three omnibus volumes.

James Alfred Wight (3 October 1916 – 23 February 1995), better-known by his pen name James Herriot, was a British veterinary surgeon and writer.

James Herriot, eigentlich James Alfred „Alf“ Wight (* 3. Oktober 1916 in Roker, Sunderland; † 23. Februar 1995 in Thirlby bei Thirsk) war ein britischer Tierarzt und Buchautor. Nachdem er 25 Jahre als Landtierarzt gearbeitet hatte, fing er nebenberuflich damit an, Leben und Arbeit eines Landtierarztes in humorvollen Kurzgeschichten zu schildern, die er in der fiktiven Stadt Darrowby und ihrer Umgebung spielen ließ. So entstanden von 1970 bis 1992 acht erfolgreiche Bücher, aus denen auch zwei Kinofilme und die Fernsehserie "All Creatures Great and Small" (deutsch: "Der Doktor und das liebe Vieh") hervorgingen.


Reasons for voting.

The chance of any one vote determining the outcome is low. Some studies show that a single vote in a voting scheme such as the Electoral College in the United States has an even lower chance of determining the outcome. Other studies claim that the Electoral College actually increases voting power. Studies using game theory, which takes into account the ability of voters to interact, have also found that the expected turnout for any large election should be zero.  The basic formula for determining whether someone will vote, on the questionable assumption that people act completely rationally, is  where  Since "P" is virtually zero in most elections, "PB" is also near zero, and "D" is thus the most important element in motivating people to vote. For a person to vote, these factors must outweigh "C". Experimental political science has found that even when "P" is likely greater than zero, this term has no effect on voter turnout. Enos and Fowler (2014) conducted a field experiment that exploits the rare opportunity of a tied election for major political office. Informing citizens that the special election to break the tie will be close (meaning a high "P" term) has little mobilizing effect on voter turnout.  Riker and Ordeshook developed the modern understanding of "D". They listed five major forms of gratification that people receive for voting: complying with the social obligation to vote; affirming one's allegiance to the political system; affirming a partisan preference (also known as expressive voting, or voting for a candidate to express support, not to achieve any outcome); affirming one's importance to the political system; and, for those who find politics interesting and entertaining, researching and making a decision. Other political scientists have since added other motivators and questioned some of Riker and Ordeshook's assumptions. All of these concepts are inherently imprecise, making it difficult to discover exactly why people choose to vote.  Recently, several scholars have considered the possibility that B includes not only a personal interest in the outcome, but also a concern for the welfare of others in the society (or at least other members of one's favorite group or party). In particular, experiments in which subject altruism was measured using a dictator game showed that concern for the well-being of others is a major factor in predicting turnout and political participation. Note that this motivation is distinct from D, because voters must think others benefit from the "outcome" of the election, not their "act" of voting in and of itself.

Significance.

High voter turnout is often considered to be desirable, though among political scientists and economists specializing in public choice, the issue is still debated. A high turnout is generally seen as evidence of the legitimacy of the current system. Dictators have often fabricated high turnouts in showcase elections for this purpose. For instance, Saddam Hussein's 2002 plebiscite was claimed to have had 100% participation. Opposition parties sometimes boycott votes they feel are unfair or illegitimate, or if the election is for a government that is considered illegitimate. For example, the Holy See instructed Italian Catholics to boycott national elections for several decades after the creation of the state of Italy. In some countries, there are threats of violence against those who vote, such as during the 2005 Iraq elections, an example of voter suppression. However, some political scientists question the view that high turnout is an implicit endorsement of the system. Mark N. Franklin contends that in European Union elections opponents

Determinants and demographics of turnout.

In each country, some parts of society are more likely to vote than others. In high-turnout countries, these differences tend to be limited. As turnout approaches 90%, it becomes difficult to find significant differences between voters and nonvoters, but in low turnout nations the differences between voters and non-voters can be quite marked.

Habit.

Turnout differences appear to persist over time; in fact, the strongest predictor of individual turnout is whether or

Childhood influences.

One study found that improving

Demographics.

Socioeconomic factors are significantly associated with whether individuals develop the habit of voting. The most important socioeconomic factor affecting voter turnout is education. The more educated a person is, the more likely they are to vote, even controlling for other factors that are closely associated with education level, such as income and class. Income has some effect independently: wealthier people are more likely to vote, regardless of their educational background. There is some debate over the effects of ethnicity, race, and gender. In the past, these factors unquestionably influenced turnout in many nations, but nowadays the consensus among political scientists is that these factors have little effect in Western democracies when education and income differences are taken into

Differences between elections.

Within countries there can be important differences in turnout between individual elections. Elections where control of the national executive is not at stake generally have much lower turnouts—often half that for general elections. Municipal and provincial elections, and by-elections to fill casual vacancies, typically have lower turnouts, as do elections for the parliament of the supranational European Union, which is separate from the executive branch of the EU's government. In the United States, midterm congressional elections attract far lower turnouts than Congressional elections held concurrently with Presidential ones. Runoff elections also tend to attract lower turnouts.

Competitiveness of races.

In theory, one of the factors that is most likely to increase turnout is a close race. With an intensely polarized electorate and all polls showing a close finish between President George W. Bush and Democratic challenger John F. Kerry, the turnout in the 2004 U.S. presidential election was close to 60%, resulting in a record number of popular votes for both candidates (around 62 million for Bush and 59 million for Kerry). However, this race also demonstrates the influence that contentious social issues can have on voter turnout; for example, the voter turnout rate in 1860 wherein anti-slavery

Incarceration.

One 2017 study in the "Journal of Politics" found that, in the United States, incarceration had no significant impact on turnout in elections: ex-felons did not become less likely to vote after

Access to polling places.

A 2017 study found that the opening and closing hours of polling places determines the age demographics

Costs of participation.

A 2017 study in "Electoral Studies" found that Swiss cantons that reduced the costs of postal voting for voters by prepaying the postage on return envelopes (which otherwise cost 85 Swiss Franc cents) were "associated with a statistically significant 1.8 percentage point increase in voter turnout". A 2016 study in the "American Journal of Political Science" found that preregistration - allowing young citizens to register before being eligible to vote - increased turnout by 2 to 8 percentage points. A 2019 study in "Social Science Quarterly" found that the introduction of a vote‐by‐mail system in Washington state led to an increase in turnout. Another 2019 study in "Social Science Quarterly" found that online voter registration increased voter turnout, in particular for young voters.  A 2018 study in the "British Journal of Political Science"

Knowledge.

A 2017 experimental study found that by sending registered voters between the ages of 18 and 30 a voter guide

Weather.

Research results are mixed as to whether bad weather affects turnout. There is research that shows that precipitation can reduce turnout, though this effect is generally rather small, with most studies finding each millimeter of rainfall to reduce turnout by 0.015 to 0.1 percentage points. At least two studies, however, found no evidence that weather disruptions reduce turnout. A 2011 study found "that while rain decreases turnout on average, it does not do so in competitive elections." Some research has also investigated the effect of temperature on turnout, with some finding increased temperatures to moderately increase turnout. Some other studies, however, found temperature to have no significant impact on turnout. These variations in turnout

Hereditary factors.

Limited research suggests that genetic factors may also be important. Some scholars recently argued that the decision to vote in the United States has very strong heritability, using twin studies of validated turnout in Los Angeles and self-reported turnout in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to establish that. They suggest that genetics could help to explain why parental turnout is such a strong predictor of voting in young people, and also why voting appears to be habitual. Further, they suggest, if there is an innate

Household socialization.

A 2018 study in the "American Political Science Review" found that the parents to newly enfranchised voters "become 2.8 percentage points more likely to vote." A 2018 study in the journal "Political Behavior" found that

Enfranchisement.

A 2018 study in "The Journal of Politics" found that Section 5 of the 1965 Voting Rights Act "increased black voter registration by 14–19

Ballot secrecy.

According to a 2018 study, get-out-the-vote groups in the United States who

International differences.

Voter turnout varies considerably between nations. It tends to be lower in North America, Asia and Latin America than in most of Europe and Oceania. Based on all parliamentary elections between 1945 and 1997, Western Europe averages a 77% turnout, and South and Central America around 54%. The differences between nations tend to be greater than those between classes, ethnic groups, or regions within nations. Confusingly, some of the factors that cause internal differences do not seem to apply on a global level. For instance, nations with better-educated populaces do not have higher turnouts. There are two main commonly cited causes of these international differences: culture and institutions. However, there is much debate over the relative impact of the various factors.

Cultural factors.

Wealth and literacy have some effect on turnout, but are not reliable measures. Countries such as Angola and Ethiopia have long had high turnouts, but so have the wealthy states of Europe. The United Nations Human Development Index shows some correlation between higher standards of living and higher turnout. The age of a democracy is also an important factor. Elections require considerable involvement by the population, and it takes some time to develop the cultural habit of voting, and the associated understanding of and confidence in the electoral process. This factor may explain the lower turnouts in the newer democracies of Eastern Europe and Latin America. Much of the impetus to vote comes from a sense of civic duty, which takes time and certain social conditions that can take decades to develop:  Demographics also have an effect. Older people tend to vote more than youths, so societies where the average age is

Institutional factors.

Institutional factors have a significant impact on voter turnout. Rules and laws are also generally easier to change than attitudes, so much of the work done on how to improve voter turnout looks at these factors. Making voting compulsory has a direct and dramatic effect on turnout. Simply making it easier for candidates to stand through easier nomination rules is believed to increase voting. Conversely, adding barriers, such as a separate registration process, can suppress turnout. The salience of an election, the effect that a vote will have on policy, and its proportionality, how closely the result reflects the will of the people, are two structural factors that also likely have important effects on turnout.

Voter registration.

The modalities of how electoral registration is conducted can also affect turnout. For example, until "rolling registration" was introduced in the United Kingdom, there was no possibility of the electoral register being updated during its currency, or even amending genuine mistakes after a certain cut off date. The register was compiled in October, and would come into force the next February, and would remain valid until the next January. The electoral register would become progressively more out of date during its period of validity, as electors moved or died (also people studying or working away from home often had difficulty voting). This meant that elections taking place later in the year tended to have lower turnouts than those earlier in the year. The introduction of rolling registration where the register is updated monthly has reduced but not entirely eliminated this issue since the process of amending the register is not automatic, and some individuals do not

Compulsory voting.

One of the strongest factors affecting voter turnout is whether voting is compulsory. In Australia, voter registration and attendance at a polling booth have been mandatory since the 1920s, with the most recent federal election in 2016 having turnout figures of 91% for the House of Representatives and 91.9% for the Senate. Several other countries have similar laws, generally with somewhat reduced levels of enforcement. If a Bolivian voter fails to participate in an election, the citizen may be denied withdrawal of their salary from the bank for three months.  In Mexico and Brazil, existing sanctions for non-voting are minimal or are rarely enforced. When enforced, compulsion has a

Salience.

Mark N. Franklin argues that salience, the perceived effect that an individual vote will have on how the country is run, has a significant effect on turnout. He presents Switzerland as an example of a nation with low salience. The nation's administration is highly decentralized, so that the federal government has limited powers. The government invariably consists of a coalition of parties, and the power wielded by a party is far more closely linked to its position relative to the coalition than to the number of votes it received. Important decisions are placed before

Proportionality.

Another institutional factor that may have an important effect is proportionality, i.e., how closely the legislature reflects the views of the populace. Under a pure proportional representation system the composition of the legislature is fully proportional to the votes of the populace and a voter can be sure that of being represented in parliament, even if only from the opposition benches. (However many nations that use a form of proportional representation in elections depart from pure proportionality by stipulating that smaller parties are not supported by a certain threshold percentage of votes cast will be excluded from parliament.) By contrast, a voting system based on single seat constituencies (such as the plurality system used in North America, the UK and India) will tend to result in

Ease of voting.

Ease of voting is a factor in rates of turnout. In the United States and most Latin American nations, voters must go through separate voter registration procedures before they are allowed to vote. This two-step process quite clearly decreases turnout. U.S. states with no, or easier, registration requirements have larger turnouts. Other methods of improving turnout include making voting easier through more available absentee polling and improved access to polls, such as increasing the number of possible voting locations, lowering the average time voters have to spend waiting in line, or requiring companies to give workers some time off on voting day. In some areas,

Voter fatigue.

Voter fatigue can lower turnout. If there are many elections in close succession, voter turnout will decrease as the public tires of participating. In low-turnout Switzerland, the average voter is invited to go to the polls an average

Voter pledges.

A 2018 study found that "young people who pledge to vote are more likely to turn out than those who are contacted using standard Get-Out-the-Vote materials. Overall, pledging to vote increased voter turnout by 3.7 points among all subjects and 5.6 points for people who had never voted before."  Differing methods of measuring voter turnout can contribute to reported differences between nations. There are difficulties in measuring both the numerator, the number of voters who cast votes, and the denominator, the number of voters eligible to vote.  For the numerator, it is often assumed that the number of voters who went to the polls should equal the number of ballots cast, which in turn should equal the number of votes counted, but this is not the case. Not all voters who arrive at the polls necessarily cast ballots. Some may be turned away because they are ineligible, some may be turned away improperly, and some who sign the voting register may not actually cast ballots. Furthermore, voters who do cast ballots may abstain, deliberately voting for nobody, or they may spoil their votes, either accidentally or as an act of protest.  In the United Kingdom, the Electoral Commission distinguishes between "valid vote turnout", which excludes spoilt ballots, and "ballot box turnout", which does not.  In the United States, it has been common to report turnout as the sum of votes

Trends of decreasing turnout since the 1980s.

Over the last 40 years, voter turnout has been steadily declining in the established democracies. This trend has been significant in the United States, Western Europe, Japan and Latin America. It has been a matter of concern and controversy among political scientists for several decades. During this same period, other forms of political participation have also declined, such as voluntary participation in political parties and the attendance of observers at town meetings. The decline in voting has also accompanied a general decline in civic participation, such as church attendance, membership in professional, fraternal, and student societies, youth groups, and parent-teacher associations. At the same time, some forms of participation have increased. People have become far more likely to participate in boycotts, demonstrations, and to donate to political campaigns.  Before the late 20th century, suffrage — the right to vote — was so limited in most nations that turnout figures have little relevance to today. One exception was the United States, which had near universal white male suffrage by 1840. The U.S. saw a steady rise in voter turnout during the century, reaching its peak in the years after the Civil War. Turnout declined from the 1890s until the 1930s, then increased again until 1960 before beginning its current long decline. In Europe, voter turnouts steadily increased from the introduction of universal suffrage before peaking in the mid-to-late 1960s, with modest declines since then. These declines have been smaller than those in the United States, and in some European countries turnouts have remained stable and even slightly increased. Globally, voter turnout has decreased by about five percentage points over the last four decades.

Reasons for decline.

Many causes have been proposed for this decline; a combination of factors is most likely. When asked why they do not vote, many people report that they have too little free time. However, over the last several decades, studies have consistently shown that the amount of leisure time has not decreased. According to a study by the Heritage Foundation, Americans report on average an additional 7.9 hours of leisure time per week since 1965. Furthermore, according to a study by the National Bureau of Economic Research, increases in wages and employment actually decrease voter turnout in gubernatorial elections and do not affect national races. Potential voters' perception that they are busier is common and might be just as important as a real decrease in leisure time. Geographic mobility has increased over the last few decades. There are often barriers to voting in a district where one is a recent arrival, and a new arrival is likely to know little about the local candidate and local issues. Francis Fukuyama has blamed the welfare state, arguing that the decrease in turnout has come shortly after the government became far more involved in people's lives. He argues in "Trust: The Social Virtues and The Creation of Prosperity" that the social capital essential to high voter turnouts is easily dissipated by government actions. However, on an international level those states with the most extensive social programs tend to be the ones with the highest turnouts. Richard Sclove argues in "Democracy and Technology" that technological developments in society such as "automobilization," suburban living, and "an explosive proliferation of home entertainment devices" have contributed to a loss of community, which in turn has weakened participation in civic life.  Trust in government and in politicians has decreased in many nations. However, the first signs of decreasing voter turnout occurred in the early 1960s, which was before the major upheavals of the late 1960s and 1970s. Robert D. Putnam argues that the collapse in civil engagement is due to the introduction of television. In the 1950s and 1960s, television quickly became the main leisure activity in developed nations. It replaced earlier more social entertainments such as bridge clubs, church groups, and bowling leagues. Putnam argues that as people retreated within their homes and general social participation declined, so too did voting.

United States.

Rosenstone and Hansen contend that the decline in turnout in the United States is the product of a change in campaigning strategies as a result of the so-called new media. Before the introduction of television, almost all of a party's resources would be directed towards intensive local campaigning and get out the vote initiatives. In the modern era, these resources have been redirected to expensive media campaigns in which the potential voter is a passive participant. During the same period, negative campaigning

International treaties.

When national governments establish international treaties and agreements, a platform of powers is created above the voter platform that undermines the voter importance, directly or indirectly. For instance, the establishment of the European Union created an international platform above the national governments, and yet voters can only vote via their national parties for the European parliament, and not directly via European parties. Meanwhile, because the national governments gave more powers to 'Europe' less power remained for parties at that national level and for their voters. Therefore, the added level of governance did no longer coincide with the highest participation level for voters, while 'at home' the national parties had given (part of) their national powers away to Brussels. It should be common logic that voters

Ineligibility.

Much of the above analysis is predicated on voter turnout as measured as a percentage of the voting-age population. In a 2001 article in the American Political Science Review, Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin argued, that at least in the United States, voter turnout since 1972 has not actually declined when calculated for those eligible to vote, what they term the voting-eligible population. In

Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. Eligibility varies by country, and the voting-eligible population should not be confused with the total adult population. Age and citizenship status are often among the criteria used to determine eligibility, but some countries further restrict eligibility based on sex, race, or religion.

Die Wahlbeteiligung gibt den Anteil der Wahlberechtigten wieder, die bei einer Wahl tatsächlich gewählt haben. Abhängig von der jeweiligen Gebietskörperschaft werden auch jene zu den Wählenden gezählt, die einen leeren Wahlzettel oder einen ungültigen eingelegt haben. In der Öffentlichkeit wird der Begriff meist im Zusammenhang mit politischen Wahlen gebraucht, allerdings kann er auch bezogen auf andere Wahlen benutzt werden. Bei politischen Wahlen ist sie eine Art der politischen Partizipation.


History.

It was founded in 1737 as a fortress called Stavropol () by the Russian statesman Vasily Tatishchev. Informally it was often referred as Stavropol-on-Volga (, "Stavropol-na-Volge") to distinguish from Stavropol, a large city in southwest Russia, although Stavropol-on-Volga was never its official name.  The construction of the Kuybyshev Dam and Hydroelectric Station on the Volga River in the 1950s created the Kuybyshev Reservoir, which covered the existing location of the city, and it was completely rebuilt on a new site. In 1964, the city was chosen as the location of the new VAZ automobile plant - a joint venture between Fiat and the Soviet government. It was thus renamed Tolyatti (after Palmiro Togliatti, the longest-serving secretary of the Italian Communist Party, who had been instrumental in setting up the venture with Fiat). Much of the modern city was constructed in the 1960s to house the workers of the factory, and today, AvtoVAZ dominates the economy of the city.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Tolyatti serves as the administrative center of Stavropolsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Tolyatti is incorporated as Tolyatti Urban Okrug.

City divisions.

For the administrative purposes, the city is divided into three districts:

Economy.

The city's main claim to fame has been automobiles Lada (Zhiguli) manufactured by AvtoVAZ car plant employing some 110,000 people: in cooperation with Italy's Fiat since 1970, with General Motors since 2001 and with the Renault-Nissan Alliance since 2012.  Other industries have moved into Tolyatti because it is close to abundant supplies of electricity and water. Petrochemicals are well represented in the city. Among the significant enterprises based there are "TogliattiAzot" (Russia's biggest ammonia manufacturer headed by Sergei Makhlai) and "KuibyshevAzot" (a nitrogen fertilizer manufacturer and Russia's biggest caprolactam and polyamide producer). Other industries include building materials production, ship repair and electrical equipment and electronics.  In 2011 the Togliatti Special Economic Zone was launched in order to develop the region further and diversify the economy of the city. Several auto-component producers (German Mubea and Japanese Sanoh among them) have since been registered, as well as large industrial manufacturers (Praxair and Edscha). By November 2012 the value of project investment totalled 10 billion Rubles and around 3000 jobs were being created.

Transportation.

The transport system is well developed in the city. Public transport includes municipal buses and trolley-buses, and so-called "alternative" (commercial) transport or marshrutkas.  External transport routes are provided by two bus stations, two railway stations and a city harbour. Tolyatti has its airport as well, but it is used by personal aircraft only (the nearest international airport, Kurumoch, is located 40 km away, towards Samara). The city is linked to the federal road network by the M5 "Ural" highway.  As one of Russia's "motor cities", Tolyatti's car population has been greatly expanded, and traffic jams are common during morning and evening rush hours — Samara Oblast was one of the first regions to receive an additional licence plate code because its existing code did not have enough numbers for all its residents' cars.

Culture, education, and sports.

The creation of the Kuybyshev Reservoir in the 1950s destroyed much of the city's history, so almost all the city's cultural points of interest date from the Soviet period, but the city administration has continued to build new monuments and cathedrals. A recent notable event was the 1998 opening of the large Tatishchev Monument near the Volga. The Transfiguration Cathedral was completed in 2002.

Education.

Education is represented by over one hundred public and ten private schools, as well as several higher education institutions. Most notable ones include:

Sports.

In the eyes of the Soviet leaders, Tolyatti was a perfect Soviet city (since most population migrated here during the construction of AvtoVAZ factories) – many sports facilities appeared so that the "perfect Soviet person" could be healthy. The city has high-quality sports facilities: gymnasiums, swimming pools, ice arenas, association football and racing stadiums — as a result, many athletes, including Olympic Champion Alexei Nemov, Stanley Cup winners Alexei Kovalev and Ilya Bryzgalov had moved to Tolyatti. Former Montreal Canadiens defenseman Alexei Emelin, and former Washington Capitals winger Viktor Kozlov and defenseman Alexei Tezikov were born there. in addition, Daria Kasatkina,a professional tennis player, was born there. Tolyatti is represented in almost every kind of team sports. Tolyatti's Lada-sponsored Ice Hockey Club broke the Moscow teams' domination of the game. The Lada women's football team has won the Russian championship several times — and the Lada women's handball team, who are the Russian and European Champions, is the core for Russian national women's handball. Men's football (FC Lada Togliatti and FC Togliatti), basketball, speedway and handball teams also take part in national championships. As for the traditional national sport of Russia, bandy, there is a team founded in 2013, TOAZ, which however only takes part in a recreational league.

Parks and monuments.

Tolyatti has many parks, and many of these contain monuments of cultural, historical, and aesthetic interest. Examples include Victory Park with its Victory Monument and other monuments, Liberty Square with its Obelisk of Glory and other monuments, Central Park with its "Mourning Angel" (a memorial to victims of Soviet repression), large statue of Lenin, and other monuments, and other parks.  And there are other monuments outside the parks. The City Duma has been energetic in creating or designating historical and cultural monuments, ranging from the colossal equestrian Tatishchev Monument to the tumbledown Repin House and a monument to a faithful dog, and many other types.

Media.

There are a number of local newspapers published in Tolyatti: "Ploshchad Svobody", "Tolyattinskoye Obozreniye" ("Tolyatti Observer"), business newspaper "Monday" ("Ponedelnik"), "Volny Gorod", "Gorodskiye Vedomosti", and a few others. In the end of the 1990s, "Tolyattinskoye Obozreniye" published a series of articles on a local crime group. The stories drew attention to the group's connections with the local police. Subsequently, Togliatti Review saw two of its editors (Valery Ivanov and Alexei Sidorov) killed in 2002–2003.  The only local-born FM-band radio station is Radio August () at 70.64 and 102.3 MHz.

Religion.

Tolyatti is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious city. Most of all in the city of Orthodox Christians. Muslims are the second largest group of believers.

Crime.

October 2007 bomb attack.

During the morning rush hour of 31 October 2007, a bomb exploded on a passenger bus in the city, killing at least eight people and injuring about 50 in what Irina Doroshenko, a spokeswoman for the investigative wing of the local prosecutor's office, said could be a terrorist attack. At the beginning of the investigation, it was believed to be the work of terrorists from the North Caucasus. Early reports indicated possible involvement of Chechen terrorist Doku Umarov. However, the officials later named a 21-year-old Evgeny Vakhrushev, who also died in the blast, as the only person to be responsible for the tragedy.

Organized crime.

The city also has a reputation for gang violence.

Violent crimes.

The city has witnessed a mafia killing spree: there have been 550 commissioned killings in Tolyatti over 1998–2004, five of those murdered were journalists.  Three chief architects of Tolyatti were victims of violent crimes: Valery Lopatin was shot to death on July 7, 2004, Mikhail Syardin and Aleksander Kiryakov were also injured in violent attacks.  A former city mayor (1994–2000), Sergey Zhilkin (), was murdered on November 15, 2008.  On December 13, 2008, Anatoly Stepanov, a vice-speaker of Duma of Samara Oblast, a former head of administration of Tsentralny City District of Tolyatti in 1991-1997 and Tolyatti mayor candidate in 2004, was attacked on a street and left with serious head injuries. He died in hospital on February 24, 2009.

Corruption.

The city's mayor in 2000–2007, Nikolay Utkin (), was sentenced to seven years in prison on corruption charges.

Local government.

Mayor Antashev Sergey Alexandrovich was born on December 16, 1959 in the city of Saransk, Mordovia. In 1994 he moved to Tolyatti, was accepted to the post of director of the heating network enterprise of TEVIS. In 2000 he graduated from the International Market Institute with a degree in Management. From 2000 to April 9, 2012 - Marketing Director - Energy Sales Director of TEVIS. Deputy of the Duma of the city district of Togliatti IV (from 2005 to 2009) and V (from 2008 to 2012) convocations. From April 2012 to February 2015, he served as deputy mayor of the city of Tolyatti on urban economy. On April 12, 2017, the Tolyatti City Council appointed Sergey Antashev as the mayor of the city.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Tolyatti is twinned with:

Tolyatti (), also known in Italian as Togliattigrad and English as Togliatti in honor of Palmiro Togliatti, is a city in Samara Oblast, Russia. Population: It is the largest city in Russia which does not serve as the administrative center of a federal subject. Internationally, the city is best known as the home of Russia's largest car manufacturer AvtoVAZ (Lada), which was founded in 1966. It was previously known as "Stavropol-on-Volga" (until 1964).

Toljatti ( (), aufgrund ihres Namenspatrons auch "Togliatti"; bis 1964 "Stawropol-Wolschskij") ist eine Stadt in Russland in der Oblast Samara. Mit Einwohnern (Stand ) ist sie nach der Gebietshauptstadt Samara die zweitgrößte und -wichtigste Stadt der Oblast. Toljatti ist vor allem durch die dortigen Lada-Werke bekannt.


Biography.

Early life.

Nathaniel Hawthorne was born on July 4, 1804, in Salem, Massachusetts; his birthplace is preserved and open to the public. William Hathorne was the author's great-great-great-grandfather. He was a Puritan and was the first of the family to emigrate from England, settling in Dorchester, Massachusetts, before moving to Salem. There he became an important member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and held many political positions, including magistrate and judge, becoming infamous for his harsh sentencing. William's son and the author's great-great-grandfather John Hathorne was one of the judges who oversaw the Salem witch trials. Hawthorne probably added the "w" to his surname in his early twenties, shortly after graduating from college, in an effort to dissociate himself from his notorious forebears. Hawthorne's father Nathaniel Hathorne Sr. was a sea captain who died in 1808 of yellow fever in Dutch Suriname; he had been a member of the East India Marine Society. After his death, his widow moved with young Nathaniel and two daughters to live with relatives named the Mannings in Salem, where they lived for 10 years. Young Hawthorne was hit on the leg while playing "bat and ball" on November 10, 1813, and he became lame and bedridden for a year, though several physicians could find nothing wrong with him.  In the summer of 1816, the family lived as boarders with farmers before moving to a home recently built specifically for them by Hawthorne's uncles Richard and Robert Manning in Raymond, Maine, near Sebago Lake. Years later, Hawthorne looked back at his time in Maine fondly: "Those were delightful days, for that part of the country was wild then, with only scattered clearings, and nine tenths of it primeval woods." In 1819, he was sent back to Salem for school and soon complained of homesickness and being too far from his mother and sisters. He distributed seven issues of "The Spectator" to his family in August and September 1820 for the sake of having fun. The homemade newspaper was written by hand and included essays, poems, and news featuring the young author's adolescent humor.  Hawthorne's uncle Robert Manning insisted that the boy attend college, despite Hawthorne's protests. With the financial support of his uncle, Hawthorne was sent to Bowdoin College in 1821, partly because of family connections in the area, and also because of its relatively inexpensive tuition rate. Hawthorne met future president Franklin Pierce on the way to Bowdoin, at the stage stop in Portland, and the two became fast friends. Once at the school, he also met future poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, future congressman Jonathan Cilley, and future naval reformer Horatio Bridge. He graduated with the class of 1825, and later described his college experience to Richard Henry Stoddard:

Early career.

In 1836, Hawthorne served as the editor of the "American Magazine of Useful and Entertaining Knowledge". At the time, he boarded with poet Thomas Green Fessenden on Hancock Street in Beacon Hill in Boston. He was offered an appointment as weigher and gauger at the Boston Custom House at a salary of $1,500 a year, which he accepted on January 17, 1839. During his time there, he rented a room from George Stillman Hillard, business partner of Charles Sumner. Hawthorne wrote in the comparative obscurity of what he called his "owl's nest" in the family home. As he looked back on this period of his life, he wrote: "I have not lived, but only dreamed about living." He contributed short stories to various magazines and annuals, including "Young Goodman Brown" and "The Minister's Black Veil", though none drew major attention to him. Horatio Bridge offered to cover the risk of collecting these stories in the spring of 1837 into the volume "Twice-Told Tales", which made Hawthorne known locally.

Marriage and family.

While at Bowdoin, Hawthorne wagered a bottle of Madeira wine with his friend Jonathan Cilley that Cilley would get married before Hawthorne did. By 1836, he had won the bet, but he did not remain a bachelor for life. He had public flirtations with Mary Silsbee and Elizabeth Peabody, then he began pursuing Peabody's sister, illustrator and transcendentalist Sophia Peabody. He joined the transcendentalist Utopian community at Brook Farm in 1841, not because he agreed with the experiment but because it helped him save money to marry Sophia. He paid a $1,000 deposit and was put in charge of shoveling the hill of manure referred to as "the Gold Mine". He left later that year, though his Brook Farm adventure became an inspiration for his novel "The Blithedale Romance". Hawthorne married Sophia Peabody on July 9, 1842, at a ceremony in the Peabody parlor on West Street in Boston. The couple moved to The Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, where they lived for three years. His neighbor Ralph Waldo Emerson invited him into his social circle, but Hawthorne was almost pathologically shy and stayed silent at gatherings. At the Old Manse, Hawthorne wrote most of the tales collected in "Mosses from an Old Manse".  Like Hawthorne, Sophia was a reclusive person. Throughout her early life, she had frequent migraines and underwent several experimental medical treatments. She was mostly bedridden until her sister introduced her to Hawthorne, after which her headaches seem to have abated. The Hawthornes enjoyed a long and happy marriage. He referred to her as his "Dove" and wrote that she "is, in the strictest sense, my sole companion; and I need no other—there is no vacancy in my mind, any more than in my heart... Thank God that I suffice for her boundless heart!" Sophia greatly admired her husband's work. She wrote in one of her journals: I am always so dazzled and bewildered with the richness, the depth, the... jewels of beauty in his productions that I am always looking forward to a second reading where I can ponder and muse and fully take in the miraculous wealth of thoughts.  Poet Ellery Channing came to the Old Manse for help on the first anniversary of the Hawthornes' marriage. A local teenager named Martha Hunt had drowned herself in the river and Hawthorne's boat "Pond Lily" was needed to find her body. Hawthorne helped recover the corpse, which he described as "a spectacle of such perfect horror... She was the very image of death-agony". The incident later inspired a scene in his novel "The Blithedale Romance".  The Hawthornes had three children. Their first was daughter Una, born March 3, 1844; her name was a reference to "The Faerie Queene", to the displeasure of family members. Hawthorne wrote to a friend, "I find it a very sober and serious kind of happiness that springs from the birth of a child... There is no escaping it any longer. I have business on earth now, and must look about me for the means of doing it." In October 1845, the Hawthornes moved to Salem. In 1846, their son Julian was born. Hawthorne wrote to his sister Louisa on June 22, 1846: "A small troglodyte made his appearance here at ten minutes to six o'clock this morning, who claimed to be your nephew." Daughter Rose was born in May 1851, and Hawthorne called her his "autumnal flower".

Middle years.

In April 1846, Hawthorne was officially appointed the Surveyor for the District of Salem and Beverly and Inspector of the Revenue for the Port of Salem at an annual salary of $1,200. He had difficulty writing during this period, as he admitted to Longfellow:  I am trying to resume my pen... Whenever I sit alone, or walk alone, I find myself dreaming about stories, as of old; but these forenoons in the Custom House undo all that the afternoons and evenings have done. I should be happier if I could write.  This employment, like his earlier appointment to the custom house in Boston, was vulnerable to the politics of the spoils system. Hawthorne was a Democrat and lost this job due to the change of administration in Washington after the presidential election of 1848. He wrote a letter of protest to the "Boston Daily Advertiser" which was attacked by the Whigs and supported by the Democrats, making Hawthorne's dismissal a much-talked about event in New England. He was deeply affected by the death of his mother in late July, calling it "the darkest hour I ever lived". He was appointed the corresponding secretary of the Salem Lyceum in 1848. Guests who came to speak that season included Emerson, Thoreau, Louis Agassiz, and Theodore Parker.  Hawthorne returned to writing and published "The Scarlet Letter" in mid-March 1850, including a preface that refers to his three-year tenure in the Custom House and makes several allusions to local politicians—who did not appreciate their treatment. It was one of the first mass-produced books in America, selling 2,500 volumes within ten days and earning Hawthorne $1,500 over 14 years. The book was pirated by booksellers in London and became a best-seller in the United States; it initiated his most lucrative period as a writer. Hawthorne's friend Edwin Percy Whipple objected to the novel's "morbid intensity" and its dense psychological details, writing that the book "is therefore apt to become, like Hawthorne, too painfully anatomical in his exhibition of them", though 20th-century writer D. H. Lawrence said that there could be no more perfect work of the American imagination than "The Scarlet Letter".  Hawthorne and his family moved to a small red farmhouse near Lenox, Massachusetts, at the end of March 1850. He became friends with Herman Melville beginning on August 5, 1850, when the authors met at a picnic hosted by a mutual friend. Melville had just read Hawthorne's short story collection "Mosses from an Old Manse", and his unsigned review of the collection was printed in "The Literary World" on August 17 and August 24 titled "Hawthorne and His Mosses". Melville wrote that these stories revealed a dark side to Hawthorne, "shrouded in blackness, ten times black". He was composing his novel "Moby-Dick" at the time, and dedicated the work in 1851 to Hawthorne: "In token of my admiration for his genius, this book is inscribed to Nathaniel Hawthorne."  Hawthorne's time in the Berkshires was very productive. While there, he wrote "The House of the Seven Gables" (1851), which poet and critic James Russell Lowell said was better than "The Scarlet Letter" and called "the most valuable contribution to New England history that has been made." He also wrote "The Blithedale Romance" (1852), his only work written in the first person. He also published "A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys" in 1851, a collection of short stories retelling myths which he had been thinking about writing since 1846. Nevertheless, poet Ellery Channing reported that Hawthorne "has suffered much living in this place". The family enjoyed the scenery of the Berkshires, although Hawthorne did not enjoy the winters in their small house. They left on November 21, 1851. Hawthorne noted, "I am sick to death of Berkshire... I have felt languid and dispirited, during almost my whole residence."

The Wayside and Europe.

In May 1852, the Hawthornes returned to Concord where they lived until July 1853. In February, they bought The Hillside, a home previously inhabited by Amos Bronson Alcott and his family, and renamed it The Wayside. Their neighbors in Concord included Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. That year, Hawthorne wrote "The Life of Franklin Pierce", the campaign biography of his friend which depicted him as "a man of peaceful pursuits". Horace Mann said, "If he makes out Pierce to be a great man or a brave man, it will be the greatest work of fiction he ever wrote." In the biography, Hawthorne depicts Pierce as a statesman and soldier who had accomplished no great feats because of his need to make "little noise" and so "withdrew into the background". He also left out Pierce's drinking habits, despite rumors of his alcoholism, and emphasized Pierce's belief that slavery could not "be remedied by human contrivances" but would, over time, "vanish like a dream".  With Pierce's election as President, Hawthorne was rewarded in 1853 with the position of United States consul in Liverpool shortly after the publication of "Tanglewood Tales". The role was considered the most lucrative foreign service position at the time, described by Hawthorne's wife as "second in dignity to the Embassy in London". His appointment ended in 1857 at the close of the Pierce administration. The Hawthorne family toured France and Italy until 1860. During his time in Italy, the previously clean-shaven Hawthorne grew a bushy mustache.  The family returned to The Wayside in 1860, and that year saw the publication of "The Marble Faun", his first new book in seven years. Hawthorne admitted that he had aged considerably, referring to himself as "wrinkled with time and trouble".

Later years and death.

At the outset of the American Civil War, Hawthorne traveled with William D. Ticknor to Washington, D.C., where he met Abraham Lincoln and other notable figures. He wrote about his experiences in the essay "Chiefly About War Matters" in 1862.  Failing health prevented him from completing several more romance novels. Hawthorne was suffering from pain in his stomach and insisted on a recuperative trip with his friend Franklin Pierce, though his neighbor Bronson Alcott was concerned that Hawthorne was too ill. While on a tour of the White Mountains, he died in his sleep on May 19, 1864, in Plymouth, New Hampshire. Pierce sent a telegram to Elizabeth Peabody asking her to inform Mrs. Hawthorne in person. Mrs. Hawthorne was too saddened by the news to handle the funeral arrangements herself. Hawthorne's son Julian was a freshman at Harvard College, and he learned of his father's death the next day; coincidentally, he was initiated into the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity on the same day by being blindfolded and placed in a coffin. Longfellow wrote a tribute poem to Hawthorne published in 1866 called "". Hawthorne was buried on what is now known as "Authors' Ridge" in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts. Pallbearers included Longfellow, Emerson, Alcott, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., James Thomas Fields, and Edwin Percy Whipple. Emerson wrote of the funeral: "I thought there was a tragic element in the event, that might be more fully rendered—in the painful solitude of the man, which, I suppose, could no longer be endured, & he died of it."  His wife Sophia and daughter Una were originally buried in England. However, in June 2006, they were reinterred in plots adjacent to Hawthorne.

Writings.

Hawthorne had a particularly close relationship with his publishers William Ticknor and James Thomas Fields. Hawthorne once told Fields, "I care more for your good opinion than for that of a host of critics." In fact, it was Fields who convinced Hawthorne to turn "The Scarlet Letter" into a novel rather than a short story. Ticknor handled many of Hawthorne's personal matters, including the purchase of cigars, overseeing financial accounts, and even purchasing clothes. Ticknor died with Hawthorne at his side in Philadelphia in 1864; according to a friend, Hawthorne was left "apparently dazed".

Literary style and themes.

Hawthorne's works belong to romanticism or, more specifically, dark romanticism, cautionary tales that suggest that guilt, sin, and evil are the most inherent natural qualities of humanity. Many of his works are inspired by Puritan New England, combining historical romance loaded with symbolism and deep psychological themes, bordering on surrealism. His depictions of the past are a version of historical fiction used only as a vehicle to express common themes of ancestral sin, guilt and retribution. His later writings also reflect his negative view of the Transcendentalism movement.  Hawthorne was predominantly a short story writer in his early career. Upon publishing "Twice-Told Tales", however, he noted, "I do not think much of them," and he expected little response from the public. His four major romances were written between 1850 and 1860: "The Scarlet Letter" (1850), "The House of the Seven Gables" (1851), "The Blithedale Romance" (1852) and "The Marble Faun" (1860). Another novel-length romance, "Fanshawe", was published anonymously in 1828. Hawthorne defined a romance as being radically different from a novel by not being concerned with the possible or probable course of ordinary experience. In the preface to "The House of the Seven Gables", Hawthorne describes his romance-writing as using "atmospherical medium as to bring out or mellow the lights and deepen and enrich the shadows of the picture". The picture, Daniel Hoffman found, was one of "the primitive energies of fecundity and creation."  Critics have applied feminist perspectives and historicist approaches to Hawthorne's depictions of women. Feminist scholars are interested particularly in Hester Prynne: they recognize that while she herself could not be the "destined prophetess" of the future, the "angel and apostle of the coming revelation" must nevertheless "be a woman." Camille Paglia saw Hester as mystical, "a wandering goddess still bearing the mark of her Asiatic origins... moving serenely in the magic circle of her sexual nature". Lauren Berlant termed Hester "the citizen as woman [personifying] love as a quality of the body that contains the purest light of nature," her resulting "traitorous political theory" a "Female Symbolic" literalization of futile Puritan metaphors. Historicists view Hester as a protofeminist and avatar of the self-reliance and responsibility that led to women's suffrage and reproductive emancipation. Anthony Splendora found her literary genealogy among other archetypally fallen but redeemed women, both historic and mythic. As examples, he offers Psyche of ancient legend; Heloise of twelfth-century France's tragedy involving world-renowned philosopher Peter Abelard; Anne Hutchinson (America's first heretic, circa 1636), and Hawthorne family friend Margaret Fuller. In Hester's first appearance, Hawthorne likens her, "infant at her bosom", to Mary, Mother of Jesus, "the image of Divine Maternity". In her study of Victorian literature, in which such "galvanic outcasts" as Hester feature prominently, Nina Auerbach went so far as to name Hester's fall and subsequent redemption, "the novel's one unequivocally religious activity". Regarding Hester as a deity figure, Meredith A. Powers found in Hester's characterization "the earliest in American fiction that the archetypal Goddess appears quite graphically," like a Goddess "not the wife of traditional marriage, permanently subject to a male overlord"; Powers noted "her syncretism, her flexibility, her inherent ability to alter and so avoid the defeat of secondary status in a goal-oriented civilization".  Aside from Hester Prynne, the model women of Hawthorne's other novels—from Ellen Langton of "Fanshawe" to Zenobia and Priscilla of "The Blithedale Romance," Hilda and Miriam of "The Marble Faun" and Phoebe and Hepzibah of "The House of the Seven Gables"—are more fully realized than his male characters, who merely orbit them. This observation is equally true of his short-stories, in which central females serve as allegorical figures: Rappaccini's beautiful but life-altering, garden-bound, daughter; almost-perfect Georgiana of "The Birthmark"; the sinned-against (abandoned) Ester of "Ethan Brand"; and goodwife Faith Brown, linchpin of Young Goodman Brown's very belief in God. "My Faith is gone!" Brown exclaims in despair upon seeing his wife at the Witches' Sabbath.. Perhaps the most sweeping statement of Hawthorne's impetus comes from Mark Van Doren: "Somewhere, if not in the New England of his time, Hawthorne unearthed the image of a goddess supreme in beauty and power."  Hawthorne also wrote nonfiction. In 2008, the Library of America selected Hawthorne's "A show of wax-figures" for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American True Crime.

Criticism.

In "Hawthorne and His Mosses", Herman Melville wrote a passionate argument for Hawthorne to be among the burgeoning American literary canon, "He is one of the new, and far better generation of your writers." In this review of "Mosses from an Old Manse", Melville describes an affinity for Hawthorne that would only increase: "I feel that this Hawthorne has dropped germinous seeds into my soul. He expands and deepens down, the more I contemplate him; and further, and further, shoots his strong New-England roots into the hot soil of my Southern soul." Edgar Allan Poe wrote important reviews of both "Twice-Told Tales" and "Mosses from an Old Manse". Poe's assessment was partly informed by his contempt of allegory and moral tales, and his chronic accusations of plagiarism, though he admitted,  The style of Mr. Hawthorne is purity itself. His tone is singularly effective—wild, plaintive, thoughtful, and in full accordance with his themes... We look upon him as one of the few men of indisputable genius to whom our country has as yet given birth. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, "Nathaniel Hawthorne's reputation as a writer is a very pleasing fact, because his writing is not good for anything, and this is a tribute to the man." Henry James praised Hawthorne, saying, "The fine thing in Hawthorne is that he cared for the deeper psychology, and that, in his way, he tried to become familiar with it." Poet John Greenleaf Whittier wrote that he admired the "weird and subtle beauty" in Hawthorne's tales. Evert Augustus Duyckinck said of Hawthorne, "Of the American writers destined to live, he is the most original, the one least indebted to foreign models or literary precedents of any kind."  Contemporary response to Hawthorne's work praised his sentimentality and moral purity while more modern evaluations focus on the dark psychological complexity. Beginning in the 1950s, critics have focused on symbolism and didacticism.  The critic Harold Bloom opined that only Henry James and William Faulkner challenge Hawthorne's position as the greatest American novelist, although he admitted that he favored James as the greatest American novelist. Bloom saw Hawthorne's greatest works to be principally "The Scarlet Letter", followed by "The Marble Faun" and certain short stories, including "My Kinsman, Major Molineux", "Young Goodman Brown", "Wakefield", and "Feathertop".

Selected works.

The "definitive edition" of Hawthorne's works is "The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne", edited by William Charvat and others, published by The Ohio State University Press in twenty-three volumes between 1962 and 1997. "Tales and Sketches" (1982) was the second volume to be published in the Library of America, "Collected Novels" (1983) the tenth.

Nathaniel Hawthorne (; né Hathorne; July 4, 1804 – May 19, 1864) was an American novelist, dark romantic, and short story writer. His works often focus on history, morality, and religion.

Nathaniel Hawthorne (* 4. Juli 1804 in Salem, Massachusetts; † 19. Mai 1864 in Plymouth, New Hampshire) war ein amerikanischer Schriftsteller der Romantik. Mit seinen oft allegorischen Romanen und Kurzgeschichten erlangte er Weltgeltung.


Life and career.

Early life.

Andress, the third of six children, was born in Ostermundigen, Canton of Bern, Switzerland to Anna, a landscape gardener of French and Italian descent, and Rolf Andress, a German diplomat. She has a brother, Heinz and four sisters, Erika, Charlotte, Gisela and Kàtey.  She went to school in Bern until she was 16 and speaks several languages including French, German and Italian. She studied art in Paris for a year, then went to Rome, where she did jobs such as nannying children.

Italian films.

Andress was at a party when she met a producer who offered her a screen test for a role in an Italian film. She was successful and appeared in "The Sins of Casanova" (1955) (starring later Bond ally Gabriele Ferzetti).  She followed it with "An American in Rome" (1954) (starring Alberto Sordi) and "La catena dell'odio" (1955). She was seen by a Hollywood executive who persuaded her to try her luck in Hollywood.

Hollywood.

Andress arrived in Hollywood in January 1955. In March she was signed to a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures starting at $287 a week. The contract resulted in no acting roles due to her inability to learn English at the time. "I spent most of my time watching old Marlene Dietrich movies," she said.  Andress did receive some publicity for dating James Dean shortly before the actor's death. She bought herself out of her contract. In March 1956 it was announced she signed to Columbia Pictures. She made no films for them either and was Miss World Trade of 1956. She stayed in Hollywood because she married John Derek in 1957. In 1959 it was announced she and Derek would star in a film, "High Variety", but no movie resulted.

"Dr. No" and stardom.

Andress returned to screens in 1962 in an episode of "Thriller", "La Strega" (1962) with Alejandro Rey.  She soon became internationally famous as Honey Ryder, a shell diver and James Bond's woman of desire in "Dr. No" (1962), the first Bond film. In what became an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history, she rose out of the Caribbean Sea in a white bikini sporting a large diving knife on her hip. The calypso was sung by Diana Coupland. The scene made Andress a "quintessential" Bond girl. Andress later said that she owed her career to that white bikini: "This bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in "Dr. No" as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent." The bikini she wore in the film sold at auction in 2001 for £41,125. In 2003, in a UK Survey by Channel 4, her entrance in "Dr. No" was voted #1 in "the 100 Greatest Sexy Moments". Andress won the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year in 1964 for her appearance in the film.  Andress followed it playing the female lead in an Elvis Presley musical, "Fun in Acapulco" (1963). She was billed after Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin and Anita Ekberg in "4 for Texas" (1963); her casting in the latter led to the title being changed from "Two for Texas". Both films were widely seen. Less so was a film Andress starred in alongside Derek, "Nightmare in the Sun" (1965).  In 1965, nude photographs of her from "Nightmare in the Sun" were published in "Playboy"; it would be the first of seven times she was pictured in the magazine over the next fifteen years. When asked why she had agreed to do the "Playboy" shoot, Andress replied coolly, "Because I'm beautiful."

Career peak.

Andress was cast in the title role of "She" (1965) playing an immortal queen, for Hammer Films and Seven Arts Productions, shot in England and Israel. Andress agreed to make it as part of a two-picture deal with Seven Arts. It was a hit at the box office, though Andress elected not to appear in the sequel, "The Vengeance of She" (1967).  Andress had a support role in the comedy "What's New Pussycat?" (1965) for producer Charles K. Feldman which was a huge hit. She went to France to play Jean-Paul Belmondo's love interest in "Up to His Ears" (1965), which was popular in France; she and Belmondo became romantically involved, leading to her and Derek divorcing (although they had already been separated for a year). Andress moved to Paris to live with Belmondo and it would be her home for the next seven years.  In Italy, she starred opposite Marcello Mastroianni in the science fiction movie "The 10th Victim" (1965). She returned to Hollywood to play George Peppard's love interest in the World War One film, "The Blue Max" (1966), another success at the box office.  Andress made her second film for Seven Arts: another with Derek, who again starred and directed, "Once Before I Die" (1966), shot in the Philippines. More widely seen was the Bond satire "Casino Royale" (1967), also produced by Feldman, where Andress played Vesper Lynd, an occasional spy who persuades Evelyn Tremble, played by Peter Sellers, to carry out a mission. It was a big box office hit. Her fee was a reported £200,000.  In Italy she appeared alongside fellow former Bond girl Claudine Auger in "Anyone Can Play" (1968) for director Luigi Zampa. She then went to Africa to make "The Southern Star" (1969) with George Segal, which was a hit in England. She appeared nude or semi-nude in nearly all of her film roles between 1969 and 1979, earning her the nickname "Ursula Undress".

1970s.

Andress went to England to appear in "Perfect Friday" (1970), a heist film starring Stanley Baker and David Warner. In Spain she appeared in "Red Sun" (1971), a Western with an international cast, including Charles Bronson, Toshiro Mifune and Alain Delon. In a 1972 interview, she said "I think my image, especially to Americans, is that of a femme fatale, a man-eating woman. I'm not empty-headed or calculating and cool. But maybe my looks give that impression. I'm disciplined in my doings and undisciplined in my emotions. I can't control the things I feel or hide my feelings."  Andress did some action films, "Stateline Motel" (1973), "Loaded Guns" (1974), and "Africa Express" (1975). She played the title role in "The Sensuous Nurse" (1975) and did a comedy with another former Bond girl, Barbara Bouchet, "Spogliamoci così, senza pudor..." (1976).  Andress played Joséphine de Beauharnais in the swashbuckling spoof "The Loves and Times of Scaramouche" (1976) with Michael Sarrazin. She made a sequel to "Africa Express", "Safari Express" (1976), then did another with Mastroianni, "Double Murder" (1978).  Andress was in the cult favorite "Slave of the Cannibal God" (1978) with Stacy Keach; the anthology sex comedy "Tigers in Lipstick" (1979) for Luigi Zampa; and the swashbuckler period piece "The Fifth Musketeer" (1979), playing Louise de La Vallière opposite Beau Bridges.

1980s.

She played Aphrodite in 1981's "Clash of the Titans", where she worked with Laurence Olivier. During the making of the film, Andress hooked up with leading man Harry Hamlin, who became the father of her child.  In 1982, she portrayed Mabel Dodge in the adventure-drama film "Red Bells" and guest starred on shows like "Manimal" and "The Love Boat". In France she was in "Liberté, égalité, choucroute" (1985).  On television, she participated in the 1986 Emmy-winning miniseries "Peter the Great", and joined the cast of the primetime soap opera "Falcon Crest" for a three-episode arc in 1988 as an exotic foreigner who assists David Selby in retrieving Dana Sparks from a white slave ring. Andress was also in "Big Man – The Diva" (1988) with Bud Spencer and "Man Against the Mob: The Chinatown Murders" (1989).

1990s–present.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, her acting appearances have been rare. She was in "Klassäzämekunft" (1990) (English title: "Broken Silence"), "The Cave of the Golden Rose 3" (1993), "The Cave of the Golden Rose 4" (1994) and "Cremaster 5" (1995).  In 1995, Andress was chosen by "Empire" magazine as one of the "100 Sexiest Stars in film history." Her last role to date was playing "Madonna" in the low-budget 2005 Swiss feature "" (English title: "The Bird Preachers").  She appeared in the documentary "Masterpiece or Forgery? The Story of Elmyr De Hory" (2008).

Personal life.

Andress has stated that she lost her virginity to married actor Daniel Gelin in 1953, when she was 17 and he was 32. She dated Dennis Hopper and James Dean after moving to the US in 1955, and that same year began an affair with actor/director John Derek, a married father-of-two who walked out on his wife, Pati Behrs, and their family to be with 19-year-old Andress. Derek and Andress wed in 1957 in Las Vegas, but separated in 1964 over her affair with "Once Before I Die" co-star Ron Ely, officially divorcing in 1966. During interim, the separated but still married Andress publicly dated John Richardson, her co-star from "She", and Marcello Mastroianni, her co-star from "The 10th Victim".  From 1965 to 1972, Andress lived with "Up to His Ears" co-star Jean-Paul Belmondo. He was, she says, the love of her life. Her next live-in relationship was with another co-star, "Stateline Motel"'s Fabio Testi, from 1973 to 1977 (except for one year when they broke up). She also dated Ryan O'Neal, John Delorean, Helmut Berger, Paolo Pazzaglia, Johnny Dorelli, Franco Nero, whom she would later star with in "Red Bells", Nels Van Patten and Ricci Martin.  When Andress broke her arm in late summer 1978, the official story was that she'd been struck by Hurricane Norman while bodysurfing in Malibu, but rumors flew that she actually acquired the injury during a fight with her on/off boyfriend O'Neal. O'Neal and Andress were in a relationship twice, first from 1972–73 then again from 1977–78.  Andress was in a relationship with American actor Harry Hamlin after meeting on the set of "Clash of the Titans" in 1979. She gave birth to their son, Dimitri Hamlin, on 19 May 1980. After she gave birth to a son at age 44, she moved into close friend Linda Evans' Coldwater Canyon home until hers was ready. Although an engagement was announced, the couple never married. In 1983, Hamlin broke up with her.  In the mid-1980s, Andress was romantically involved with Brazilian soccer player Paulo Roberto Falcão, actor Gerardo Amato, singer Julio Iglesias, real estate developer Stan Herman and Greek bodybuilder Mario Natokis. In 1986 she began dating future Sicilian regional assembly member Fausto Fagone, then an economics student in university; he was 20 and she was 50. The relationship, which infuriated Fagone's parents, lasted until 1991. Later that year Andress briefly dated martial arts expert Jeff Speakman, but has not been publicly linked with anyone since then.  In 2017, Andress sold her home in Beverly Hills at a considerable profit. As of 2020, Andress splits her time between an apartment in Rome and a house in Switzerland, near to her siblings. !colspan="3" style="background:#C1D8FF;"| Acting roles

Ursula Andress (; born 19 March 1936) is a Swiss film and television actress, former model and sex symbol, who has appeared in American, British and Italian films. She is best known for her breakthrough role as Bond girl Honey Ryder in the first James Bond film, "Dr. No". She later starred as Vesper Lynd in the Bond parody "Casino Royale". Her other films include "The Southern Star, Fun in Acapulco", "She", "The 10th Victim", "The Blue Max", "Perfect Friday", "The Sensuous Nurse", "Slave of the Cannibal God", "The Fifth Musketeer" and "Clash of the Titans".

Ursula Andress (* 19. März 1936 in Ostermundigen, Kanton Bern) ist eine Schweizer Schauspielerin, die als erstes Bondgirl in dem 1962 erschienenen Film "James Bond jagt Dr. No" Berühmtheit erlangte und anschließend eine internationale Karriere startete. Sie wurde 1964 mit dem Golden Globe ausgezeichnet.