Dimolybdenum and ditungsten.

Dimolybdenum (Mo) can be observed in the gas phase at low temperatures (7 K) by a laser evaporation technique using molybdenum sheet with, for instance, near-infrared spectroscopy or UV spectroscopy. Like dichromium, a singlet state is expected from dimolybdenum. Higher bond order is reflected in shorter bond length of 194 pm. A singlet Σ ground state can be expected from ditungsten as well. However, this ground state arises from a combination of either two isolated tungstens' ground D states or two isolated tungstens' excited S states. Only the latter corresponds to the formation of a stable, sextuply-bonded ditungsten dimer. Dimolybdenum and dichromium follow much the same mechanism to achieve the stablest ground state of their respective dimers.

Effective bond order.

Considerations of bond force constants.

The formal bond order of a molecule is calculated as the average of electrons occupied in bonding and antibonding orbitals, expressed exclusively in integers. The effective bond order derived from quantum chemistry calculations was defined by Roos "et al" as  formula_1  where η is the formal bonding orbital occupation for an electron pair p and η is the formal antibonding orbital occupation for an electron pair p with c as a correction factor accounting for deviations from equilibrium geometry. In a sextuple bond, there would be p=6 different electron pairs. A formal sextuple bond would then have a net total of 12 electrons occupying bonding orbitals. Since effective and formal bond orders (FBO) would only be equivalent if the molecule were in its stablest geometry, the effective bond order (EBO) is usually fractional and less than the formal bond order. Several metal-metal bonds' EBOs are given in the table below, compared to their formal bond orders. The following table lists some effective bond orders of select metal-metal bonds.  Dimolybdenum and ditungsten are the only molecules with effective bond orders above 5, with a quintuple bond and a partially formed sixth covalent bond. Dichromium, while formally described as having a sextuple bond, is best described as a pair of chromium atoms with all electron spins ferromagnetically coupled to each other. Additionally, while diuranium is also formally described as having a sextuple bond, relativistic quantum mechanical calculations have determined it to be a quadruple bond with four electrons ferromagnetically coupled to each other rather than in two formal bonds. Previous calculations on diuranium did not treat the electronic molecular Hamiltonian relativistically and produced higher bond orders of 4.2 with two ferromagnetically coupled electrons. Several metal-metal dimers exist held together by only van der Waals forces, due to poor participation of metal d electrons in bonding. van der Waals metal-metal dimers include the d coinage metals Cu, Ag, and Au as well as d metals such as Zn, Cd and Hg. Spectroscopic examination of select metal-metal dimers provides a correlation between the measured force constants and calculated bond orders. In general, a higher force constant implies an increasing bond order. Johnston's formula predicts that bond order is proportional to the force constant by the relation n = k/k where n is the bond order, k is the summed force constant of all the bonds between the metal atoms and k is the force constant of a single bond between the metal atoms. The table below shows some select force constants for metal-metal dimers compared to their EBOs. Thus, molybdenum is determined to have a sextuple bond because its summed  force constant is more than five times the single-bond force constant. However, this relation does not always give the same result as the method applied by Roos "et al". For example, using Johnston's formula ditungsten would have a summed force constant of 6.14 but a bond order of 2.90 while dirhenium would have a force constant of 6.26 and a bond order of 2.96, incorrectly implying that dirhenium's bond is stronger than ditungsten's. Thus, quantum chemical calculations are usually needed to confirm bond order.

Considerations of bond length and bond type.

Sextuply-bonded dimolybdenum is reported to have an equilibrium bond length of 1.93 Å, significantly lower than quadruply-bonded dimolybdenum species and suggestive of a bond order of higher than 4. Quantum mechanical calculations have revealed that the dimolybdenum bond is formed by a combination of two σ bonds, two π bonds and two δ bonds, in which the σ and π bonds contribute much more significantly to the sextuple bond than the δ bonds. This combination of increased bonding results in a dimer equilibrium internuclear distance that is significantly lower for dimolybdenum than for any neighboring 4d transition metal dimers. Although no φ bonding has been reported for transition metal dimers, it is predicted that if any sextuply-bonded actinides were to exist, at least one of the bonds would likely be a φ bond as in quintuply-bonded diuranium and dineptunium. To date, no sextuple bond has been observed in lanthanides or actinides.

Ligand effects on sextuple bonding.

Effect of aromatic ligands.

Extension beyond the dimer to larger molecules may yield possibilities of true sextuple bonding in other complexes. Calculations on the frontier molecular orbitals of dirhenocene, for example, yielded possible singlet and triplet state geometries for the complex. Although the stabler triplet state is predicted to have a formal bond order of 5, the less stable singlet geometry is predicted to give a sextuple bond with a shorter Re-Re internuclear distance. Among the three types of geometries predicted for dimetallocenes, a bent geometry is predicted to contribute to possible sextuple bonding.  Other large-molecule candidates for sextuple bonding have included the dibenzene sandwich compounds Cr(CH), Mo(CH), and W(CH). In the triplet states with geometries of symmetry D and D, evaluation of the molecular bonding orbitals for all three compounds reveals the possibility of a sextuple bond between the metal atoms. Quantum chemistry calculations reveal, however, that the corresponding D singlet geometry resulting from Jahn-Teller distortion of the D triplet state is much stabler than the triplet state itself. In the dichromium dibenzene sandwich, the triplet state is 39 kcal/mol above the singlet state of lower bond order while it lies 19 kcal/mol above the singlet in the molybdenum analog and 3 kcal/mol above the singlet in the tungsten analog. In the sandwich complexes, a triplet state would induce very long Cr-C bond distances so it is concluded that, energetically, strong association of ligands to a metal center is more important than strong bonding between two metal centers.

Effect of oxygen ligands.

Quantum mechanical calculations have revealed that the ditungsten dimer's sextuple bond is predicted to weaken with increasing oxidation state. Taking the simple W molecule and increasing the amount of oxo ligands attached to form WO (n = 1-6) complexes disrupts the sextuple bond and results in a lower bond order. The weak δ bonds break first and result in a quadruply-bonded WO, which upon further oxidation becomes a ditungsten complex with two bridging oxo ligands and no direct W-W bonds by WO. Additionally, the increase in oxidation is accompanied by decreases in the dissociation energy of the already weak W-W sextuple bond and increases in the electron binding energy of the oxo ligands.

Effect of halogenation.

Halogenation of dimolybdenum and ditungsten with trifluoroiodomethane forms a bis(trifluoroiodomethano)dimolybdenum and ditungsten complexes with paradoxical bond behavior. Both ditungsten and dimolybdenum have very short bond lengths compared to neighboring metal dimers due to the presence of an effective sextuple bond. However, their bond dissociation energies are rather low. Upon halogenation of the dimolybdenum dimer with trifluoroiodomethane ligands, it was determined that bond order decreased while bond length increased while ditungsten experienced a more regular decrease in bond length along with bond order. Due to the ultra-short bonding distance in dimolybdenum, molybdenum's 5s orbital participating in a σ bond with the second molybdenum had a slightly more repulsive character than expected due to a crowding of electron density near the equilibrium geometry of the dimer, contributing to a lower bond dissociation energy. Tungsten's 6s orbital does not exhibit repulsive character at the W-W equilibrium distance. Trifluoroiodomethane, a well-known electron acceptor, siphons off some of the electron density in the sextuple bond, effectively reducing bond order but also reducing electronic repulsions. The decrease in repulsive electron density results in a strengthening of the Mo-Mo bond by 5.34 kcal/mol and a weakening of the W-W bond by 4.60 kcal/mol, corresponding to a decrease in bond length for the Mo dimer and an increase in bond length for the W dimer.

A sextuple bond is a type of covalent bond involving 12 bonding electrons and in which the bond order is 6. The only known molecules with true sextuple bonds are the diatomic dimolybdenum (Mo) and ditungsten (W), which exist in the gaseous phase and have boiling points of and. There is strong evidence to believe that there is no element with atomic number below about 100 that can form a bond with a greater order than 6 between its atoms, but the question of possibility of such a bond between two atoms of different elements remains open. Bonds between heteronuclear systems with two atoms of different elements may not necessarily have the same limit.

Eine Sechsfachbindung ist eine chemische Bindung aus sechs bindenden Elektronenpaaren. Theoretisch sind Sechsfachbindungen möglich bei diatomaren Molekülen der 6. Nebengruppe (Dichrom Cr, Dimolybdän Mo und Diwolfram W) sowie beim Diuran U. Die Überlappung der Orbitale ist aber zum Teil unvollständig und es werden teilweise auch antibindende Orbitale besetzt, so dass die tatsächliche effektive Bindungsordnung in keinem dieser Fälle sechs erreicht. Die jeweilige effektive Bindungsordnung ist 3,5 für Cr, 5,2 für Mo und W und 4,2 für U, so dass man allenfalls bei Mo und W näherungsweise von einer Sechsfachbindung sprechen kann.


Club career.

Early career.

Son of former footballer Gaetano Stellone, Roberto Stellone starter his career at hometown club Lodigiani, where he met David Di Michele, his team-mate at Reggina and Torino. After 4 seasons in Serie C1, he left for Lucchese of Serie B in mid-1997. In the summer of 1998, he left for Parma, but he had limited opportunities at the club and left for fellow Serie B side Lecce on loan, in January 1999. He made a name for himself throughout the remainder of the season, as he scored 6 goals in 19 league matches, helping the team to win Serie A promotion, and receiving a call-up to the Italy U21 team.

Napoli.

In the summer of 1999, he left for Serie B side S.S.C. Napoli in a co-ownership deal. He added 10 more goals to his Serie B tally, which also helped Napoli win Serie A promotion, after finishing the season in 4th place. At the end of the season, Napoli bought Stellone's remaining registration rights, keeping him at the club. However, despite scoring on his Serie A debut the following season, in a 2–1 home defeat to Juventus on 30 September 2000, Stellone's league appearances in his first Serie A season were limited to just 3 due to injury, and as a result, Napoli were unable to avoid relegation. Stellone remained with Napoli in Serie B for the 2001–02 and 2002–03 seasons, scoring 19 goals in 51 matches, but missing out on several matches once again due to injury, however; in the summer of 2002, he was named the club's new captain. Facing financial difficulties, Napoli loaned Stellone to Serie A side Reggina during the 2003–04 season. Due to the presence of strikers David Di Michele and Emiliano Bonazzoli, Stellone struggled to find space in the team, and scored only once in 16 league appearances.  The next season, he left for Serie B side Genoa, where he partnered with Diego Milito and Stephen Makinwa up-front, and scored over 70% of team's total goals. Although the team won the Serie B championship, the club was later penalised and awarded last place due to their involvement in the Caso Genoa, and as a result suffered relegation to Serie C.

Torino.

Stellone was signed by Serie B runner-up Torino in co-ownership deal in August 2005, who were forced to remain at Serie B due to financial difficulty. Now partnered with Enrico Fantini and Roberto Muzzi in attack, Stellone failed to replicate his prolific performances at Geona, scoring 7 goals in 31 appearances, but Torino still bought him outright, outbidding Genoa. Despite Stellone's struggle to find the back of the net consistently, Torino still managed to obtain Serie A promotion that season. With Torino in Serie A the following season, he alternated playing as a starter and as a substitute for the club. Although Stellone and the club's other strikers failed to score, with help of Alessandro Rosina and a strong defensive line, the team still managed to avoid Serie B relegation. The next season, with the signings of David Di Michele, Nicola Ventola and Álvaro Recoba, Stellone only made 18 starts, scoring just 4 goals. In his last season with the club, the 31-year-old forward faced competition from Rolando Bianchi and Nicola Amoruso; following the team's change of formation, which only used one striker, usually Bianchi, Stellone made half of his appearances as substitute. With the departure of Alessandro Rosina in January 2009, the team struggled to score, and ultimately failed to stay in Serie A on the final match-day of the season.

Frosinone.

After the relegation of Torino in 2009, he became free agent in June. After months without a club, he signed a 3-year contract with Serie B club Frosinone in November 2009 where he was coached by Francesco Moriero. In the 2009–10 season his goals contributed to helping the team avoid relegation; following the club's relegation to Lega Pro the following year, on 28 June 2011, he announced his retirement from football.

Style of play.

A complete striker, Stellone could act either as a main striker or as a second striker, due to his vision, ability to score goals, hold up the ball in tight spaces, and create chances for team-mates. Despite his height and imposing physique, which enabled him excel in the air, he was also known for his dynamism and technique; indeed, his main qualities a forward were his dribbling and heading ability.

Managerial career.

After his retirement, he stayed at Frosinone as a youth coach in charge of the under-19 team ("Berretti") for the 2011–12 season. Under his tenure, the team won the national "Berretti" title.

Frosinone.

Thanks also to his impressive results with the youth team, Stellone was appointed as Frosinone head coach role for the season 2012–13 in Lega Pro Prima Divisione. In his first season in charge, Stellone guided the team to seventh place and was confirmed for one more year.  In the 2013–14 Lega Pro Prima Divisione, Stellone's Frosinone immediately emerged as one of the promotion favourites, losing direct promotion only on the last matchday to Perugia. In the subsequent playoff tournament, however, Frosinone managed to achieve the ultimate goal of getting back into Serie B, defeating Salernitana in the first round, Pisa in the semi-finals and, most notably, a Fabrizio Miccoli-led Lecce in a two-legged final after extra time.  On 16 May 2015, he led Frosinone to second place in Serie B and direct promotion to Serie A with a game to spare, with victory against Crotone 3–1. On 7 March 2016, Stellone won the Panchina d’Argento for the previous 2014–15 season. On 8 May 2016, Frosinone were relegated back to Serie B after one season in Serie A. One day after Frosinone's last match of the Serie A season, on 15 May, Stellone was relieved of his managerial duties.

Bari.

On 4 July 2016, Stellone was appointed manager of Bari. He was sacked on 7 November.

Palermo.

Stellone was appointed manager of Serie B club Palermo on 28 April 2018, taking over from Bruno Tedino, with five games to go and the team in third place, level on points with second-placed Parma. He ended the season in fourth place, behind second-placed Parma and third-placed Frosinone.  After defeating Venezia on the semi-finals, Palermo was defeated 2–3 on aggregate by Frosinone in a two-legged final. This marked the end of Stellone's tenure, as he was not confirmed for the new season, with Tedino being reappointed as head coach.  On 26 September 2018, he was reinstated as Palermo head following a 1–2 loss to Brescia on the fifth matchday of the season. Stellone started his second tenure in a very impressive fashion, as he successfully led Palermo to a streak of positive results that brought the "Rosanero" back on top of the league table by December. He was sacked on 23 April 2019.

Ascoli.

Stellone was appointed manager of Ascoli on 3 February 2020. He was sacked on 16 April 2020.

Career statistics.

Manager.

"As of 14 May 2016"

Roberto Stellone (born 22 July 1977) is an Italian football manager and former footballer who played as a forward. He was most recently the manager of Ascoli.

Roberto Stellone (* 22. Juli 1977 in Rom) ist ein ehemaliger italienischer Fußballspieler und jetziger -trainer. Als Aktiver unter anderem beim SSC Neapel und beim FC Turin spielend, war er von 2012 bis 2016 Cheftrainer von Frosinone Calcio. Bis April 2019 trainierte er die US Palermo.


Signs and symptoms.

Podoconiosis causes bilateral yet asymmetrical leg swelling with overlying firm nodules. Early on, symptoms may include itching, tingling, widening of the forefoot, and swelling which then progress to soft edema, skin fibrosis, papillomatosis, and nodule formation resembling moss, giving rise to the disease's alternate name of "mossy foot" in some regions of the world. As with other forms of tropical lymphedema, chronic disease can lead to rigid toes, ulceration, and bacterial superinfection. During acute episodes of adenolymphangitis, patients may develops fevers, extremity warmth, redness, and pain. These episodes are extremely debilitating and account for many days of activity and productivity loss each year.

Psychological consequences.

As a result of its appearance, podoconiosis can cause social stigmatization and discrimination. People with podoconiosis also report lower quality of life than neighborhood controls and higher levels of mental distress and depression.

Pathophysiology.

According to the World Health Organization "Evidence suggests that podoconiosis is the result of a genetically determined abnormal inflammatory reaction to mineral particles in irritant red clay soils derived from volcanic deposits".  The pathophysiology of podoconiosis is a combination of genetic susceptibility, possibly through associations with HLA-DQA1, HLA-DQB1, and HLA-DRB1 variants, and a cumulative exposure to irritant soil. In susceptible individuals, irritant soil particles penetrate the feet and collect in lymphatic vessels. Over time, chronic inflammation within the lymphatic vessels leads to fibrosis and occlusion.

Diagnosis.

Differential diagnosis.

The differential diagnosis for podoconiosis includes other causes of tropical lymphedema, such as filariasis or leprosy, and mycetoma pedis.  While filariasis is generally unilateral, podoconiosis affects the legs bilaterally albeit asymmetrically and in an ascending manner. Podoconiosis very rarely affects the groin while filariasis frequently involves the groin: a high ratio of lymphoedema/hydrocele cases in an area suggests podoconiosis as the dominant cause of lymphedema. In some cases, the history and clinical presentation alone are unable to differentiate between the two causes of tropical lymphedema. Local epidemiology can also be a clue to diagnosis, as podoconiosis is typically found in higher altitude areas with volcanic soils while filariasis is common in low-lying areas where mosquitos are prevalent. Blood smears for identification of microfilariae and antigen detection techniques can be helpful in the diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis.  Lepromatous lymphedema can also mimic podoconiosis clinically, but the former will have loss of sensation in the toes and feet, thickened nerves, and trophic ulcers. Other causes of lymphedema include Kaposi sarcoma, mycetoma, and elephantiasis nostras verrucosa.

Prevention.

Elimination of podoconiosis relies on prevention with widespread shoe implementation, stringent foot hygiene, and floor coverings. Community-based initiatives are crucial to achieving elimination of this disease. In Ethiopia, The Mossy Foot Treatment and Prevention Association (now Mossy Foot International) works to transform patients into community podoconiosis agents who in turn visit patients, teach basic treatment techniques such as foot hygiene, and educate families about the disease. This model has been adapted by several other non-government groups as they have started programs in other regions of Ethiopia.

Treatment.

The cornerstone of prevention and treatment of podoconiosis is avoidance of exposure to irritant soils. Wearing shoes in the presence of irritant soils is the primary method of exposure reduction. In Rwanda, a country of high disease prevalence, the government has banned walking barefoot in public, in order to prevent podoconiosis and other soil-borne diseases. Increasing the availability of footwear must be coupled with education on the benefits of wearing shoes as cultural influences, such as barefoot traditions, can hinder widespread use of footwear.  Once the disease has developed, rigorous foot hygiene including daily washing with soap and water, application of an emollient, and nightly elevation of the affected extremity has been shown to reduce frequency of acute attacks. Nodules will not resolve with these conservative measures, although surgical removal of the nodules can be performed.

Epidemiology.

Podoconiosis is most frequently seen in the highland areas of Africa, India, and Central America. The highest prevalence is seen in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, and Ethiopia. A recent review has summarized the global distribution of podoconiosis. In some areas of Ethiopia, the prevalence is as high as 4%. The incidence of podoconiosis increases with age, likely due to cumulative exposure to irritant soil. It is very rare to see podoconiosis in the 0–5 year old age group, and the incidence rapidly rises from 6 to 20 years of age, with the highest prevalence after 45 years of age. Podoconiosis is most commonly seen in higher altitude areas with volcanic soil, and it is estimated to affect 4 million people worldwide. Productivity losses associated with the disease are significant. In Ethiopia (where 1.6 million people are estimated to be affected), the condition is thought to have caused US $200 million in lost productivity per year.

History.

After parasitic filariae were discovered to be an important cause of tropical lymphedema in the 19th century, early investigators assumed that filariae were the sole cause of lymphedema in the tropics. It was later discovered that the distribution of tropical lymphedema and filariasis did not perfectly overlap, and researchers began to recognize that some forms of tropical lymphedema were not associated with filariasis. Dr Ernest W Price, a British surgeon living in Ethiopia, discovered the true etiology of podoconiosis in the 1970s and 1980s by studying the lymph nodes and vessels of those afflicted with the disease. Using light microscopy, Dr Ernest W Price discovered macrophage cells laden with micro-particles in lymph nodes of the affected extremity. After examining the same tissue using electron microscopy, he was able to identify the presence of silicon, aluminum, and other soil metals both in the phagosomes of macrophages and adhered to the surface of lymphocytes. Price demonstrated that the lymphatic vessels of these patients experienced subendothelial edema and eventual collagenization of the lumen leading to complete blockage. Dr Ernest W Price wrote a monograph on Podoconiosis which was published after his death in 1990.

Current situation.

Podoconiosis is now recognised as one of the WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases, its importance as a public health problem is well recognised in Ethiopia. Footwork is a charity which bring together public and private partners to support prevention and treatment of podoconiosis. There is an active research group led by Professor Gail Davey at the "Wellcome Trust Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research" which co-ordinates research worldwide. A recent article in the Lancet includes some excellent illustrations.

Podoconiosis, also known as nonfilarial elephantiasis, is a disease of the lymphatic vessels of the lower extremities that is caused by chronic exposure to irritant soils. It is the second most common cause of tropical lymphedema after lymphatic filariasis, and it is characterized by prominent swelling of the lower extremities, which leads to disfigurement and disability. Methods of prevention include wearing shoes and using floor coverings. Mainstays of treatment include daily foot hygiene, compression bandaging, and when warranted, surgery of overlying nodules.

Die Podokoniose (griechisch πούς, Genitiv ποδός „Fuß“ und κονία, konia „Staub“) ist eine nicht-infektiöse Art der Elephantiasis. Sie wird auch endemische, nicht-filariöse Elephantiasis, „Mossy Foot“-Krankheit, Elefantenfußkrankheit, oder Price-Krankheit („Morbus Price“) genannt.


Plot.

Mathayus aims to avenge the death of his father at the hand of Sargon, now king of Akkad, by taking service in his Black Scorpions squad. After completing his training he is tasked by Sargon to kill Noah, Mathayus's own brother. He saves him and escapes the city, but a magic arrow follows them and kills Noah.  Mathayus boards a ship to Egypt, accompanied by his childhood friend Layla. He intends to get the Spear of Osiris in Egypt, which he believes will be able to pass through Sargon's black magic protection. A fellow traveller, Greek poet Aristophanes (Ari), tells Mathayus and Layla that the Spear only kills Egyptian creatures, but the Sword of Damocles will work. The trio travels to Greece, where they can enter the Underworld to retrieve the Sword of Damocles. On the way, they fall into a cell and are surrounded by men left as sacrifices for the Minotaur. Some of the sacrifices are mercenaries who owe allegiance to Mathayus' father, so they help him and Layla to defeat the Minotaur, with help from a Chinese captive named Fung.  The enlarged group travel to the Underworld, where they are attacked by the goddess Astarte. Layla and Astarte fight, while Fung and Ari search for and find the sword. Astarte tries to send Layla to hell, but Mathayus frees her, and they all escape to the human realm.  Astarte orders Sargon to get her sword back, and he asks for more dark powers. The group reach Akkad, where Sargon turns on a machine that dumps oil into the water supply. The oil and water begin to flow through statues into the city, which is then set on fire.  Using the Sword of Damocles, Mathayus fights through to Sargon but finds his own father, who turns out to be Sargon in disguise. Sargon uses the confusion to disarm Mathayus and they begin fighting. Ari picks up the sword then hands it to Sargon, revealing that he had been bribing Ari with riches. More chaos and fighting ensues in the city and we learn that the sword that Ari gave Sargon was a fake and easily shattered. Ari bursts in and gives Mathayus the real sword. When Sargon states Mathayus owes him his loyalty as a black scorpion, Mathayus burns off his scorpion tattoo with the sword as Sargon retreats into the shadows.  Sargon turns into a giant near-invisible scorpion and continues his attack. Mathayus impales the Scorpion King Sargon with the Sword of Damocles. Fung and Layla put out the fires in the city. Astarte tells Mathayus that she will show him no mercy, but Mathayus tells her that she will have him one day. Mathayus awakens in a bed after being nursed by Layla, who then tells him that he has won the right to be king, but he decides for now to head off on a life of adventure, knowing one day he shall be the Scorpion King.

Production notes.

In August 2007, it was reported that Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson would not reprise his role, but instead, Michael Copon was cast as the young Mathayus, Karen David as the lead heroine, Layla, and Randy Couture as the main villain, Sargon.

Critical reaction.

The film had a widely negative reception. "Beyond Hollywood" said "the film is a complete loss, you have to wonder what the filmmakers could have done with a better script, a better cast, and a director who isn’t so hit-and-miss as to be infuriating." Aaron Peck of "Blog Critics" said, "I really wanted to like this movie. The first "Scorpion King" is a laugh-fest yes, but it’s fun to watch. This movie is painful."  Keith Uhlich of "UGO" said the film is "cheap, ugly, deadening, lacking even the common decency to be unintentionally funny, [the] sheer ineptitude increas[ing] with each passing scene." "Film Jabber" said "The Scorpion King 2" "lacks action, excitement and, more importantly, quality," adding: "While the production values are decent enough for a film like this, you can tell from minute one that this movie was made simply to coincide with the theatrical release of ""." Mark Pollard of "Kung Fu Cinema" said that "the lead actors [keep] the movie marginally entertaining long after the predictable plot, generic effects work, and poorly-edited screen fighting grows weary."  Sam Sloan of "A Slice of Sci-Fi", said the film is "a notch up in quality from what is typically seen on a Saturday night from the Sci-Fi Channel," remarking that director Russell Mulcahy "was able to turn what should have been a totally dreadful movie into a watchable film that didn’t make me feel like I had completely wasted an hour and a half of my time." Kenneth Brown of Hi-Def Digest said "The Scorpion King 2" "feels like an aborted TV pilot, [...] painfully overplotted, yet so mind-numbingly simple that it’s impossible to care about its characters or central conflicts."

Sequel.

A sequel entitled "" was released on 10 January 2012 on DVD and Blu-ray Disc with Victor Webster as Mathayus.

The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior is a 2008 direct-to-DVD prequel to the 2002 film "The Scorpion King", itself a prequel to the 1999 reimagining of "The Mummy". Filming for the film began on October 1, 2007, in Cape Town, South Africa. The film had a scheduled release date of August 19, 2008, in the United States, and was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD.

Scorpion King: Aufstieg eines Kriegers (Originaltitel: "The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior") ist ein 2008 erschienenes Direct-to-DVD-Prequel zu dem 2002 veröffentlichten Kinofilm "The Scorpion King", der wiederum selbst ein Prequel zum 1999er Remake von "Die Mumie" ist. Im August 2007 wurde bekannt, dass diesmal nicht Dwayne „The Rock“ Johnson die Hauptrolle übernehmen würde, sondern Michael Copon. Außerdem würde Karen David die Rolle der weiblichen Heldin übernehmen. Der Film handelt vom jungen Mathayus, der den Tod seines Vaters miterleben muss, und sich auf einen Rachefeldzug begibt, der ihn zum gefürchtetsten Krieger der antiken Welt werden lässt.


History.

In 1873, the station was established on the eastern edge of Hochneukirch (at that time still called "Neukirchen", now part of Jüchen), stimulating the emerging textile industry. The station (which is located at line km 11.8) is connected to the centre by Bahnhofstraße ("station street"). The former Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway connected with the Cologne–Mönchengladbach railway and both lines then used the same tracks to Rheydt-Odenkirchen station.

Course of the lines.

In 1873, the place received a rail connection from Mönchengladbach to Stolberg. The first train of the Bergisch-Markisch Railway Company ("Bergisch-Märkische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft") ran from Mönchengladbach continued via Jülich and Eschweiler-Aue to Stolberg on the Hochneukirch–Stolberg railway.  The railway to Cologne was opened in 1889. This line was built parallel with the existing line.  The station building is still preserved and has included a signal box designated "Hf" since 1964. This signal box was abandoned with the installation of an electronic interlocking in 2007. The island platform is equipped with a waiting room and a ticket machine. The former freight shed is still preserved south of the entrance building.

Development history.

The city of Mönchengladbach and its chamber of commerce presented the railway minister with a proposal for a Cologne–Mönchengladbach railway running between Mönchengladbach and Grevenbroich via Giesenkirchen instead of Hochneukirch. Mönchengladbach claimed this route would lead to more development in its hinterland. But the manufacturers and people of Hochneukirch supported a route via Hochneukirch and Grevenbroich to Cologne. The manufacturer Peter Busch contacted some deputies that he was familiar with in the Berlin Landtag and the pastor Martin Köllen addressed himself to the Oberhofmeister (chief of staff) of the Empress Augusta, Count Nesselrode-Ehreshoven. Through the intermediation of the count, Köllen was able to communicate his wishes to the railway minister Albert von Maybach in writing. As a result of his personal support, the railway line was built through Hochneukirch and opened in 1889. Peter Busch and Martin Köllen are commemorated in Hochneukirch for their dedication with streets named after them to the left and right of the station.  The tracks had to be crossed to get to the village of Hackhausen to the north of the station. In the early years, this level crossing was unsecured; barriers were erected after a rail disaster. In 1909, the building of another line was proposed from Erkelenz via Wanlo and Keyenberg to Hochneukirch, but it was never built due to lack of funds. In 1911, a bridge was built over the railway for the road between Hochneukirch and Hackhausen.

Decline.

In 1967, the bridge had to be raised 60 centimetres and the track lowered to allow the installation of the overhead line for the electrification of the line. The old railway bridge was demolished in 1988 and replaced by a new reinforced concrete bridge. On 30 May 1980, passenger traffic on the line to Stolberg was discontinued and the tracks of the line to Jülich were dismantled. Freight transport to Ameln continued until 1 June 1984. Freight traffic was also abandoned in 1987. Today, the remaining two platform tracks to Rheydt and Cologne still have the track numbers of 9 and 10 although tracks 1–8 were removed with the dismantling of the line to Jülich. The closure of the Stolberg line meant that the placement of the still well-preserved entrance building is unusual today. This is about 40 metres from the island platform. The pedestrian subway to the island platform ends in an open field. Between the remaining rail tracks and the front of the reception building, there is now a parking lot. This was part of a project that involved the building of 41 apartments for the elderly and a community hall at the station and in new buildings. The street to this small building area is called Falkensteinstrasse after a local Jewish family.

Services.

The station is served by RE8 services hourly. During the peak hour on working days, it is also served by RB27 services, which together provide a service every half-hour to Mönchengladbach and Cologne and Koblenz.

Hochneukirch is a station in Jüchen in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is located on the Cologne–Mönchengladbach railway and the closed Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway.

Der Haltepunkt Hochneukirch ist einer von zwei Schienenverkehrshalten in Jüchen im Rhein-Kreis Neuss. Er befindet sich an der Bahnstrecke Rheydt–Köln-Ehrenfeld sowie an der stillgelegten Bahnstrecke Mönchengladbach–Stolberg.


Production.

The executive producer of "M.I.A.M.I." is Lil Jon, based out of Atlanta and known for producing crunk songs, in addition to the Diaz Brothers.

Commercial performance.

Spending 40 weeks on the chart, the album peaked at number fourteen on the US "Billboard" 200 chart on September 11, 2004. The RIAA certified the album Gold on April 8, 2005 for reaching sales of 500,000.

Critical reception.

"M.I.A.M.I." received critical praise, especially in Pitbull's hometown of Miami. For the "Miami New Times", Mosi Reeves especially praised Pitbull's performances in the second half of the album for "spitting thug raps and matching wits with Bun B from UGK, Trick Daddy, and Fat Joe." Evelyn McDonnell of "The Miami Herald" rated the album three out of four stars, calling Pitbull "a skilled rhymer with a fast, Eminem flow but a deeper, more serious voice" but criticizing the album for including "six gratuitous bump-and-grind tracks."  Nationally, the album got good reviews from Allmusic and "Stylus Magazine". Alex Henderson of Allmusic rated the album three and a half stars out of five. While acknowledging that Pitbull "is hardly the first MC to rap about drugs and thug life or sex and women," Henderson praised "his willingness to combine Latin and Dirty South elements." For "Stylus Magazine", Erick Bieritz scored the album eight out of 10 points, describing it as "that odd record frontloaded with weak material and then packed with great songs on the B-side" with an "excellent taste in collaborators."  While praising "Culo" and "Hurry Up and Wait", Alex P. Kellogg offered a more critical review for "The Boston Globe": "...[the] chosen topics (partying, not giving a damn, and, ooh, giving up a life of crime) do not exactly make for groundbreaking material. From his spitfire style to his hoarse catcalls, it's clear Pitbull is excited, but he's not always exciting." Jon Caramanica rated the album two stars out of five for "Blender", calling the album outside of the Lil Jon-produced tracks "nimble but dull."  Nick Marino of "The Atlanta Journal-Constitution" graded the album with a D-minus, for continuing what he called "a long tradition of substituting sex drive for imagination" by rappers from Miami. Commenting about the Atlanta-based executive producer, Marino wrote: "Lil Jon...for all his crunk magic, can only help a guy so much."

Track listing.

Samples.

The song "Culo" samples a Coolie Dance riddim.

M.I.A.M.I. (backronym of Money Is a Major Issue) is the debut studio album by rapper Pitbull. It was released on August 24, 2004 via TVT Records.

M.I.A.M.I. (Die Abkürzung steht für "Money Is a Major Issue") ist das Debütalbum des US-amerikanischen Sängers und Rappers Pitbull. Es wurde am 3. August 2004 veröffentlicht.


Description.

The building, which was about 15 meters high, consisted of a rectangular floor plan with log-and-pillar walls, and a stepped hip roof covered with wood shingles. The sanctuary interior was elaborately painted with colorful plants, animals, zodiac signs, and texts.

History.

According to inscriptions on the ceiling, the polychromy, dated around 1652, was the work of Israel ben Mordechai from Yarychiv (Jaryczów). Between 1700 and 1731, an octagonal cupola was added to the barrel vault. The polychromy was renewed in 1729 by Isaac ben Yehuda Leib Cohen of Jaryczów and Mordechai Liśnicki of Jaryczów. Additions over time include a vestibule, women's sections, and a brick wing that served as a small synagogue, which could be heated in winter, and as a Cheder. The synagogue was destroyed by fire during World War I, when the Russian front moved through the town. The reconstructed timber-frame roof and painted ceiling were installed in the core exhibition of POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews, in Warsaw, in 2013.

Reconstruction.

The Association of the Jewish Historical Institute of Poland collaborated with Handshouse Studio, a non-profit educational institution in Massachusetts, on the reconstruction of the painted ceiling and timber-frame roof for the core exhibition of POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. The mission of Handshouse Studio is to recover lost objects: while it is impossible to recover the original object, in the sense of its original materials, it is possible to recover the knowledge of how to build it by building it using traditional tools, materials, and techniques, which is how the reconstruction was carried out.  It was possible to reconstruct this synagogue because it is the single best documented of the hundreds of wooden synagogues that once stood in the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The first to document this synagogue was the Polish painter Karol Zyndram Maszkowski (1868-1938), who visited Gwoździec in the autumn 1891. His doctoral dissertation, which is dedicated to this synagogue, provides detailed drawings of the architecture and polychromy, as well as descriptions. He made additional drawings in 1898/1989, when he returned to Gwoździec at the request of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Cracow. Isidor Kaufmann (1853-1921), a Jewish painter in Vienna, who spent many months in the region, made a painting in 1897/1898 of part of the interior of the Gwoździec synagogue, one of a very few color studies of the polychromy. The most extensive documentation, 200 architectural drawings and photographs, was made between 1910 and 1913 by Alois Breier (1885-1948) for his doctoral dissertation in architecture at the Technische Universität Wien. Thomas Hubka authored the definitive modern study of this synagogue. A 3D virtual model of the synagogue was created by Handshouse Studio and Thomas Hubka, with students at Bowling Green State University in 2006.  The reconstruction was made by a team of about 300 volunteers and experts using traditional tools. The timber-framing, which started from 200 raw logs with the bark still on, was completed in three two-week workshops during the summer of 2011 at the Museum of Folk Architecture, Sanok. The painting workshops took place in the summers of 2011 and 2012 in masonry synagogues in seven cities across Poland: Rzeszów, Kraków, Wrocław, Gdansk, Sejny, Kazimierz Dolny, and Szczebrzeszyn. At the end of the workshops, the structure was taken apart and stored until the autumn of 2013, when the parts were brought to POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews, reassembled, hoisted into place within the core exhibition, and suspended from cables. The ceiling and roof, which weigh about 25 tons, are about 85% scale. The central bimah, which was reconstructed in the same way, is 100% scale.  The entire process is the subject of a documentary film, "Raise the Roof".  The reconstruction was made possible thanks to the vision and generosity of Irene Kronhill Pletka.

The synagogue was erected around 1650 in Gwoździec ( - "Hvizdets"), then in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, today in the Kolomyia Raion, Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. The building was seriously damaged in a fire during World War I. It was rebuilt in the interwar period, but destroyed completely by the Germans in 1941. The painted ceiling and timber-frame roof were reconstructed between 2011 and 2013 for POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews, in Warsaw.

Die hölzerne Synagoge in Hwisdez () im Rajon Kolomyja der Oblast Iwano-Frankiwsk im Westen der Ukraine wurde um 1640 errichtet, während des Ersten Weltkriegs in durch russische Truppen angestifteten Pogromen beschädigt und nach 1941 von den deutschen Besatzern niedergebrannt.


Plot.

Michael Ryan is a high school student who receives an anonymous love letter. Michael is obsessed with Deborah Ann Fimple, the class beauty, and his best friend, Roger, convinces him that the letter is from her. However, he is totally oblivious that his friend Toni Williams is in love with him. Michael writes Deborah Ann an anonymous love letter in return, and asks Toni to give it to her. Toni reads the letter and, realizing it's poorly written and unromantic (since Michael had copied words from greeting cards), she rewrites it.  Elizabeth Fimple, Deborah Ann's mother, discovers the letter. Her jealous police officer husband, Lou Fimple, sees her reading it. He steals the letter, and believes that his wife is having an affair. He suspects his neighbor (and bridge partner) George Ryan. George also reads the letter (although by mistake) because Lou's wife is his night school teacher and it somehow ends up in his book. When George asks her about it, he assumes she wants to have an affair with him, despite the fact that she is friends with his wife. Meanwhile, Lou shows the letter to George's wife, Connie, and proposes that they expose the adulterers. Receiving no response from Deborah Ann, Michael writes a second letter, which Toni again rewrites.  Michael experiences a series of wacky adventures with his friends throughout the summer before his Senior year in High School. After Toni arranges a meeting between the two, he tells Deborah Ann that he wrote the love letters, and she finally agrees to a real date, during which they are almost caught by Debbie's jock college "quasi boyfriend" Steve, but Toni intervenes by pretending to seduce him and later ditches him. After a short while Michael realizes Deb is snobby and shallow — not like he expected her to be — and begins to realize his true feelings for Toni. Eventually, Michael and Deb break up at his birthday party, refusing to sleep with her when she intends for this to be his birthday present. Eventually, Lou and Connie cannot control themselves at a bridge party: Lou assaults George, and Connie has a breakdown in front of her friends.  When Michael returns home, he finds his parents arguing and his mother reading his letter; Michael angrily tells his parents the letter actually belongs to him while scolding them for invading his private mail, leaving them in a state of shock. At Deborah's house, Lou confronts Elizabeth about the letter; Deborah Ann overhears him reading the words and tearfully reprimands him, revealing the letter is hers, which leaves Lou in shock. Angered that her parents invaded her privacy, Deborah Ann heads to her room and breaks down into tears.  Later, Michael returns to Toni's house, confessing that nothing happened between him and Deborah and in the process confesses his feelings for Toni and wonders if anything can ever happen between them. However, refusing to admit her feelings after everything that happened, Toni rejects Michael.  Just as the fall semester is about to start, Deborah confronts Michael about the love letters, but upon seeing them, Michael learns they aren't the letters he wrote and realizes that Toni wrote the original love letter (by comparing Debbie's letter to Toni's handwriting). He races to her home, but is told that she left on a study abroad program aboard a ship that will keep her away for her Senior Year. Michael rushes to the dockyard after a brief scuffle with Steve, screaming his love for Toni. After shouting her love for him as the ship continues to sail away, he dives into the water, but cannot reach the ship. Toni dives into the water, too. The lovers embrace in the water and kiss.

Reception.

Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 30% of 10 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating was 4.3/10. In a negative review, Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" wrote that the initial concept might have sounded good. Maslin called Fred Ward the film's "sole ray of sunshine". "Time Out London" compared it negatively to French sex farces and said that it offers no insights. "TV Guide" rated it 1/5 stars and wrote, "This cross between theatrical farce and teen sex comedy is a moronic package that liberally insults the intelligence of both its viewing audience and the hapless adult actors locked into career low points." Reviewing the film retrospectively, Sarah D. Bunting of "Slant Magazine" called it "relatively good", which she defines as "not unwatchable" in terms of teen films.  In 1985, the "Los Angeles Times" asked a group of teens to judge their interest in a series of released films. After seeing preview and press materials, the teens rated "Secret Admirer" C on an A to F range; their opinion was divided over whether they wanted to see it or not.

"Vasos de papel" plagiarism controversy.

In 2016, the Puerto Rican film "Vasos de papel" (literal translation: "Paper Cups") was object of criticism, and mockery, after it was discovered that the film, produced and directed by Eduardo "Transfor" Ortiz, was an unauthorized, almost-exact copy of "Secret Admirer". The film had been playing on 25 screens at local cinemas for less than a week when Puerto Rican film critic Orlando Maldonado wrote an article comparing four sequences from each of the films, and pointing out how they were carbon copies of each other.  Once the film was no longer in cinemas across Puerto Rico, Ortiz, who had previously attributed the writing of the film's screenplay only to himself, first said that there were only "certain similarities between one film and the other, not plagiarism. Everything is a matter of interpretation". A few hours after making that statement, Ortiz changed it, saying in a radio interview that he "had done something terribly wrong", apologizing to his cast and crew. Ortiz refused to comment on the issue until singer-songwriter and the film's lead actress, Natalia Lugo, released a statement on her Facebook page where she both condemned the film and expressed the embarrassment she felt when she saw "Secret Admirer", and came to understand how she and her fellow actors and crew had been duped.

Secret Admirer is a 1985 American teen romantic comedy film written and directed by David Greenwalt in his feature film directorial debut, and starring C. Thomas Howell, Lori Loughlin, Kelly Preston and Fred Ward. The original music score was composed by Jan Hammer. The film was produced at the height of the teen sex comedy cinema craze in the mid-1980s.

Crazy Love – Liebe schwarz auf weiß (Originaltitel: "Secret Admirer") ist ein US-amerikanischer Spielfilm aus dem Jahr 1985. Der Film ist in die Kategorie der romantischen Teenager-Sex-Komödien einzuordnen, deren Welle im Zeitraum Mitte der 1980er Jahre auf einem Höhepunkt war. Regisseur David Greenwalt, der zusammen mit Jim Kouf auch das Drehbuch schrieb, gab mit dem Film in dieser Rolle gleichzeitig sein Debüt.


Biography.

Dugdale was born on 29 March 1922, the son of Sir William Francis Stratford Dugdale, 1st Bt of the Noble House of Stratford, and Margaret Gilmour. Educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford, he succeeded to the title of 2nd Baronet Dugdale, of Merevale and Blyth, co. Warwick [UK, 1936] on 18 April 1965.  He fought in the Second World War, where he was mentioned in despatches, gaining the rank of Captain in the service of the Grenadier Guards. He was decorated with the award of Military Cross (M.C.) in 1943 for outstanding bravery whilst under fire. He fought at Anzio, and ended the war guarding the German generals at Nuremberg.  He was a practising solicitor in 1949. He held the office of Justice of the Peace (J.P.) for Warwickshire in 1951 and office of Deputy Lieutenant (D.L.) of Warwickshire in 1955. He held the office of High Sheriff of Warwickshire for 1971. He held the office of Sheriff of Stratford-upon-Avon in 1976. He was invested as a Commander, Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.) in 1985.  He also enjoyed success in racing, riding in the Grand National in 1953 and then becoming the Chief Disciplinary steward in the Jockey Club, the organisation that ran the Racing industry.  He was chairman of General Utilities plc between 1988 and 1999 and was made head of the National Water Council in 1983, helping then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher with the powerful Unions in the water industry. His position and the fact he was a distant relation of IRA terrorist Rose Dugdale, made him a target for the IRA. He lived in 2003 at Merevale Hall, Atherstone, Warwickshire and at 24 Bryanston Mews West, London, England.

Family.

He married, firstly, Lady Belinda Pleydell-Bouverie, daughter of William Pleydell-Bouverie, 7th Earl of Radnor and Helena Olivia Adeane, on 13 December 1952. Lady Belinda died of cancer in 1961. He married, secondly, Cecilia (Cylla) Mary Mount, daughter of Sir William Mount, 2nd Baronet and Elizabeth Nance Llewellyn, on 17 October 1967.  Children of Sir William Dugdale, Bt and Lady Belinda Pleydell-Bouverie:  Children of Sir William Dugdale, Bt and Cecilia Mary Mount:  Dugdale's niece, Elizabeth Dugdale, daughter of his brother Sir John Dugdale, is a god-daughter of Queen Elizabeth II.  The former Conservative Party leader and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron, is the nephew by marriage of Sir William Dugdale.

Sir William Stratford Dugdale, 2nd Baronet, (29 March 1922 – 13 November 2014) was the chairman of Aston Villa from 1975 to 1978. Dugdale arrived at Aston Villa as a director when they were in the third division, having been relegated due to poor performances on and off the pitch. He left the club in 1982, the year they won the European Cup. Following several successful years as a director in the early-1970s, he was elected chairman in 1975, taking over the position from Doug Ellis, the package holiday businessman, before being replaced by Harry Kartz.

Sir William Dugdale, 2. Baronet CBE MC DL (* 29. März 1922; † 13. November 2014) war ein britischer Adliger und Sportfunktionär.


Early life.

Negahban was born in Mashhad, Iran. He took a liking to theater when he was eight years old, while provoking laughter from a large audience by portraying an old man on stage. He left Iran when he was 20 for Turkey and then Germany, where he spent eight-and-a-half years. In Germany, he worked for a theater company, and then in 1993 he moved to the United States. He is fluent in English, German and Farsi. He also began learning French for his role on "Legion".

Career.

He has appeared in "The Shield", "The West Wing", "Lost", and "". He has collaborated twice with Iranian-American actress Necar Zadegan, once in "24", where her on-screen husband ordered his interrogation and the torturing of his family, and also in "CSI: Miami", where, as his wife, she killed him.  Negahban also had two collaborations with another Iranian-American actress Mozhan Marnò in the TV series "The Unit" and the movie "The Stoning of Soraya M.", where he plays the husband of Soraya (Marnò). In 2008, Negahban voiced and provided his likeness to the character Dr. Challus Mercer in the survival horror game "Dead Space". Negahban also appeared as the main antagonist in the critically acclaimed TV series "Homeland". In 2011 he won the Best Actor Award for the 2009 Iranian short film, "Liberation" at the Noor Iranian Film Festival, and in 2012, he returned to serve as an official festival judge.  In February 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" and "Variety" confirmed that Negahban had begun shooting the spy thriller, "Damascus Cover", based on the novel by Howard Kaplan, alongside Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Olivia Thirlby and John Hurt. Negahban played the role of Syrian General Sarraj. Negahban appeared as General Abdul Rashid Dostum in the 2018 war drama, "12 Strong", and also starred as the Sultan in the 2019 live-action adaptation of "Aladdin".

Navid Negahban (; born June 2, 1968) is an Iranian-American actor. He has appeared on "24", "Homeland", "Mistresses" and as Amahl Farouk / Shadow King in the second and third seasons of FX's "Legion." He has also starred as The Sultan in the live-action remake of "Aladdin".

Navid Negahban (* 2. Juni 1968 in Maschhad, Iran) ist ein iranisch-amerikanischer Schauspieler. Bekannt wurde er durch die Fernsehserien "24" und "Homeland".


Language development.

Expected language emergence.

Toddlers aged 1-2 years begin to use and comprehend different types of words. Initially the most prominent types are nouns and eventually they move on to other word types such as verbs and adjectives. Once a toddler has said his first word, he will begin to acquire new words at a rate of roughly one per week Words will be related to things in the toddler’s environment such as body parts, toys, clothes, etc. They will often use one word to mean many different things, for example, they may call all types of transport ‘car’.  Around the 15-month mark toddlers will know six words on average, and begin to notice and wonder about things that are a little outside of their environment. Once they reach 18 months, they refer to themselves by their name and eventually start using the pronoun ‘I’. During this stage, they will also repeat parts of sentences they hear. As they get close to 2 years, toddlers start putting two words together. They begin to learn the use of “no” and ask adults to tell them the name of people and new objects. On average, a 2-year-old will know 50 words and will then begin to learn new words at a rate of approximately one per day. From 2 to 3 years of age, their vocabulary grows rapidly. At 30 months old they are expected to know around 200 words and by 3 they will be able to participate in very simple conversations.

Late talker's language emergence.

Late language emergence (LLE) occurs when a toddler does not produce or comprehend language at the expected rate for their age. About 13% of two-year old’s experience a delay in language emergence. Late talkers differ from toddlers with language development disorders and disabilities in the sense that their only characteristic is that they experience limited expressive vocabulary for their age, as oppose to, lack of receptive language or cognitive abilities. LLE can be an indicator of other kinds of disorders or disabilities. If a late talker is not catching-up to typical talkers by the age of 4, they could have specific language impairment. Expressive language screening between the ages of 18-35 months help determine if LLE is “secondary to autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, hearing impairment, receptive language delay, or demographic risk”.  When compared to typical talkers, 24-month-old late talkers do not seem to struggle with verbs and their formation, which are an important part of one’s grammatical development. They struggle with nouns more than a typical talker and have difficulty combining words. Late talkers perform lower than typical talkers in cognitive functioning and receptive language skills.

Signs.

A toddler is at risk of being a late talker if:

Diagnosis.

LLE could be a sign of other types of language disorders or intellectual disabilities, so there is a risk of misdiagnosing a child as just being a late talker. This symptom may be secondary to: problems with their vocal tract or hearing, autism, neglect or abuse. In order for toddlers to be diagnosed as late talkers, they need to see a doctor and a speech pathologist. A doctor will conduct a full medical examination and a speech pathologist will do a full screening and comprehensive assessment. The Language Development Survey (LDS) is a prevalent screening method used on toddlers aged 18-35 months of age. This tests to see if a child’s expressive vocabulary and syntax is developing in a standard way. The LDS consists of a parent or carer of the child to report on the child’s language development in regards to word combination. This screening takes a total of ten minutes. It also takes risk factors into consideration such as, the child’s demographic and history. This test, combined with other forms of assessment, will determine whether a child is a late talker, or if their language delay is associated with another type of language disorder or intellectual disability.

Types of assessment.

Assessments are carried out in order to determine the speech and language ability of a child. A speech pathologist works with the parent or carer of the child to decide on the most appropriate assessment.

Ethnographic interviewing.

Ethnographic interviewing is a style of assessment that consists of one-on-one interviews between the assessor and assessed. It requires the assessor to ask the child open-ended questions to find information about the child’s environment.

Language sampling.

Language sampling is utilised to obtain random samples of a child’s language during play, conversation or narration. Language sampling must be used with standardized assessments to compare and diagnose a child as a late talker.

Dynamic assessment.

Dynamic assessment involves testing, teaching and retesting a child. Firstly, the child’s knowledge is tested. Then, the child is taught a word. Finally, the child is retested to see if he has learnt the target language. This type of assessment is useful in determining whether a child is a late talker or if his language delay is a factor of another kind of disorder.

Standardised assessments.

Norm-referenced test.

A norm-referenced test consists of comparing and raking a child’s scores to others. This allows a child’s results to be compared to a statistical standard. A child can be at risk of being a late talker if his test results are on the lower end of the scale compared to other test takers.

Criterion-referenced test.

A criterion-referenced test consists of comparing a child’s scores to a pre-set standard. A child’s scores are taken and analysed to see if they meet the criteria of a typically developing child. This test can be carried out formally or informally.

Observation techniques.

Analog tasks.

Analog tasks consist of the assessor observing the child participate in play in a staged environment that simulates a real-world situation. The assessor can take note of the child’s behaviour and language performance, and use it to diagnose the child.

Naturalistic observation.

Naturalistic observation involves observing a child’s interaction with others in a trivial social setting. It is often used with criterion-referenced assessments to diagnose a child.

Systematic observation and contextual analysis.

Systematic Observation and Contextual Analysis consists of observing the child in a mixture of contexts. The child is observed while doing a task, playing or interacting with others. Conclusions are then drawn of his language function and problems are identified if present.

Culture and assessment.

When choosing tests and assessments for a child, culture is taken in to consideration. The assessments carried out on the child needs to be appropriate for the child’s cultural setting. Tests cannot be translated as this affects the data and can result in a child being misdiagnosed. For children who speak more than one language, assessments need to be catered to that. A standardized test is not enough to diagnose a child who is bilingual. Bilingual children need to be assessed using a combination of ethnographic interviewing, language sampling, dynamic assessment, standardised tests and observation techniques to be accurately diagnosed as a late talker.

Treatment.

The earlier interventions are put in place to help a toddler overcome LLE, the better the outcome. Language interventions (with the help of speech pathologists) are needed, so late talkers eventually catch-up. Some common approaches are monitoring, indirect and direct language stimulation.  Late talkers struggle with learning vocabulary and phonological acquisition. Targeting vocabulary and increasing their vocabulary bank, will simultaneously improve their phonological development.  When deciding which approach to take in treating a toddler, cultural background needs to be taken into consideration. Some types of intervention may work for some cultures, but may not work nor be appropriate for others.

Language intervention.

Late talkers can be treated with a variety of language intervention methods. The earlier a child is diagnosed and treated the better his language skills will develop when growing up.

General language stimulation.

General Language Stimulation involves providing the child with an environment that is full of language stimulation. This includes giving the child the opportunity to participate in reading books, playing, cooking and other everyday activities the child is interested in. The key to this intervention is to follow the late talker’s lead. Once a child is interested in a specific object the parent or carer will then take part in parallel talk, that is, talking about the object rather than directly modelling the word. The parent or carer is then required to repeat the child’s utterance, regardless of how incorrect it is, and complement this with semantic and grammatical detail.

Focused language stimulation.

Focused language stimulation requires the parent or carer to have a list of goal words for the child to learn and produce. The average number of target words is ten, but this will vary from child to child. The parent or carer will then have to allow the child to be exposed to the target language as much as possible. The adult has to produce the target language in a meaningful and functional context such as, in a sentence or question form. The child is then prompted (not instructed) to repeat the target word. If the target word is produced incorrectly, the parent follows with a recast. Once the child has learnt these words the adult replaces these with new ones and the process is repeated.

Milieu teaching.

Milieu Teaching involves changing the child’s environment to give him as many opportunities to talk and produce the target language. In this intervention method it is necessary to have a set of language goals for the child to achieve. Incorrect production of target language follows by the adult modelling the word for the child to imitate. Correct production of target language follows by the adult providing a recast.

Culture and treatment.

Culture diversity is a considerable factor in choosing the right type of intervention for a child. Speech pathologist are the ones responsible for choosing a treatment that is culturally appropriate for the child and his family. Treatments such as General Language Stimulation, Focused language stimulation and Milieu Teaching are designed appropriately to meet the needs of the majority in the United States. These methods are adapted to meet the needs of other cultures in the community for the child to have a higher success rate.  The nature and context of social interactions is observed when modifying a standard treatment to meet the norms of a child’s culture and background. For example, in some cultures it is not common for parents to be so involved in play with their child. The treatment is then adapted for other family members (siblings, cousins, other peers) to deliver the intervention. The location where these treatments are usually provided is the family home. In many cultures this is seen as unacceptable. Treatments for these kinds of situations are modified and options such as, schools are considered as a place to undertake treatment.

Outcomes.

Once late talkers enter kindergarten, most begin to catch-up and present language ability within the typical talker range. Late talkers tend to demonstrate poorer language ability and be at the lower end of the normal range than typical talkers. Late talkers exhibit considerably lower scorers on language measures than typical talkers once they reach adolescence. Around 50% to 70% of children who experience LLE reach normal language level by the time they enter school. Their chances of successfully catching up decrease when language delay is still present by the time, they are three years old. This is only the case for 5-8% of preschool children.

A late talker is a toddler experiencing late language emergence (LLE). LLE can also be an early or secondary sign of an autism spectrum disorder, or other developmental disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, intellectual disability, learning disability, social communication disorder, or specific language impairment. Late talkers are children who are intellectually abled, but do not show signs of normal language development for their age. Lack of language development, comprehension skills and challenges with literacy skills are potential risks as late talkers age. Outlook for late talkers with or without intervention is generally favorable. Toddlers have a high probability of catching up to typical toddlers if early language interventions are put in place. Language interventions include general language stimulation, focused language stimulation and milieu teaching.

Mit dem englischen Begriff Late Talker werden Kinder beschrieben, die spät mit dem Sprechen beginnen. Die meisten Kinder überschreiten mit ihrem Wortschatz die 50-Wort-Grenze im Alter von zwei Jahren. Auch Zweiwortsätze können sie dann bilden. Späte Sprecher – in der Fachliteratur Late Talker genannt – sprechen mit 24 Monaten weniger als 50 Wörter und/oder können keine Zweiwortsätze bilden. Etwa die Hälfte der Late Talker holt den Rückstand bis zum dritten Geburtstag auf. Bei der anderen Hälfte besteht die Sprachentwicklungsverzögerung fort. Um einer drohenden spezifischen Sprachentwicklungsstörung zu begegnen, wird empfohlen, frühzeitig einen Kinderarzt zu konsultieren. Soweit erforderlich folgt darauf eine sprachtherapeutische Unterstützung.


History.

The Mukteshvara Temple is found to be the earliest work from the Somavamshi period. Most scholars believe the temple is the successor to Parashurameshvara Temple and built earlier to the Brahmeswara Temple (1060 CE). Percy Brown puts the date of construction of the temple to 950 CE. The presence of a "torana", which is not part of any other temple in the region, makes this temple unique and some of the representations indicate the builders were starters of a new culture. K.C. Panigrahi places the temple to be built during 966 CE and postulates that the Somavamshi king Yayati I built the temple. He also associates the legend of Kirtivassa to this temple, but the postulation is not accepted as Kirtivasa is associated with Lingaraja, though both were built at the same time for the same deity, Shiva. There is no historic evidence to conclude that Yayati had built the temple.

Architecture.

This architecture is one of the basic reasons why Mukteshvara Temple is also known as the "Gem of Odisha architecture" or "Kalinga Architecture". The temple faces west and is constructed in a lower basement amidst a group of temples. The pyramidal roof to the "jagamohana" present in the temple was the first of its kind over the conventional two tier structure. The temple is a small one compared to other larger temples in Bhubaneswar. The temples is enclosed within an octagonal compound wall with elaborate carvings on it. It is believed that the experiment of newer pattern in the temple showed a mature phase compared to its predecessors and culminated the beginning of replication of similar pattern in the later temples in the city. The temple has a porch, called "torana", which acts as the gateway to the octagonal compound. The temple has two structures namely, the "vimana" (structure above the sanctum) and a "mukhasala", the leading hall, both of which are built on a raised platform. The temple is the earlies to be built in "pithadeula" type.

Porch.

The most important feature of the Mukteshvara Temple is the "torana", or the arched gateway, dating back to about 900 CE and showing the influence of Buddhist architecture. The arched gateway has thick pillars that have strings of beads and other ornaments carved on statues of smiling women in languorous repose. The porch is a walled chamber with a low, massive roof and internal pillars. The combination of vertical and horizontal lines is skilfully arranged so as to give dignity of buildings of moderate height. This early astylar form of the temple is best illustrated in this temple. The gateway has sculptures that range from elaborate scrolls to pleasant female forms and figures of monkeys and peacocks. The front and back of the arch are similar in design.

Vimana.

The "Vimana" is square in plan and is built in a raised platform with pilasters in each facade. The "shikara" is small compared to other temples; it has four Natarajas on and four kirthimukhas on the four faces. The top portion of the "shikara" has the "kalasa". The "shikara" is tall, with every inch sculpted with decorative patterns, architectural patterns and sculpted figures. A new form of decoration called "bho", possibly developed here, became a prominent feature in later Odishan temples. It is a highly ornate chaitya window crowned by masked demon head and dwarf figures.

Sanctum.

The sanctum is sculpted with beautiful damsels exhibiting feminine charms entwined with "nagas" and "naginis". The sanctum is cubical from the inside with offset walls in the outside.

Jagamohana.

This distinctive 10th-century temple is one of the smallest and compact temples. The "jagamohana" is tall. It is decorated with intricate carvings by the Vishwakarma Moharana sculptors. The temple is regarded as a gem of Nagara architecture of Kalinga architecture. Except for the rectangular plan of its "jagamohana", it is the earliest example of what may be termed proper Odisha temple type; a "vimana" with a curvelinear spire and a "jaganmohana" with a stepped pyramidal roof. The temple's red sandstone is covered with exquisite carvings of lean "sadhus" or holy men and voluptuous women encrusted with jewels. The images of Ganga and Yamuna are carved next to Chanda and Prachanda. The "torana" is present in front of the "jagamohana". The figure of Lakulisa, seated in "bhumispara-mudra" and holding a "lakuta" is present on the lintel of the "jagamohana". The figures of Gajalakshmi, Rahu and Ketu are also sculpted in the structure. A small extension from the side roof of the "jagamohana" has the image of a lion sitting on its hind legs. The exterior walls of the structure are decorated with pilasters with "nagas" and "naginis".

Others.

The doorway to the inner sanctum houses the image of Ketu with three hooded snakes, commonly regarded as the ninth planet in the Hindu mythology. There is a tank in the eastern side of the temple and a well in the south-western corner. A dip in the first known as the "Marichi Kunda" is believed to cure infertility in women. There are other shrines within the temple complex with "lingam" inside, which were used as offering shrines. The doorway of the temple is ornate. The temple is enclosed by a low compound wall that follows the contours of the temple. The temple has sculptures both inside and outside the structure. The compound walls leaves a very small passage separating the shrine.

Religious significance.

Mukteshvara means "Lord of Freedom". The temple is dedicated to Hindu God Shiva. There are a number of sculptures of skeletal ascetics in teaching or meditation poses. Some scholars correlate the role of the temple as a centre for Tantric initiation with the name Mukteshvara as a possible thesis. The outer face of the compound wall has niches of Hindu deities like Saraswathi, Ganesha and Lakulisha (the fifth century founder of the Pashupata sect of tantric Shaivism). The numerous images of Lakulisha are found in miniature forms within Chaitya arches, showing various mudras like yoga, Bhumispara and vyakyana with yogapatta tied to their knees. They are accompanied by the images of the disciples. According to tradition, barren women give birth to sons if they take a dip in the "Marichi Kunda" tank in the premises of the temple on the night before Ashokashtami car festival. On the evening, the water in the tank is sold to the public.

In popular culture.

The Department of Tourism of the state government organises a three-day yearly dance function called "Mukteswar Dance Festival" in the temple premises. This festival celebrates the features of Odissi, the classical dance form of Odisha and Odissi music, the classical music of the same tradition. Popular Odissi dancers perform during the function, accompanied by instruments like mardala. The event is webcast in the state government portal.

External links.

Mukteshvara Temple (; also spelt Mukteswar) is a 10th-century Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. The temple dates back to 950–975 CE and is a monument of importance in the study of the development of Hindu temples in Odisha. The stylistic development the Mukteswar marks the culmination of all earlier developments, and initiates a period of experiment which continues for an entire century, as seen in such temples as the Rajarani Temple and Lingaraj temple, both located in Bhubaneswar. It is one of the prominent tourist attractions of the city.

Der dem Hindu-Gott Shiva geweihte Mukteswar-Tempel oder Muktesvara-Tempel von Bhubaneswar im ostindischen Bundesstaat Odisha markiert den Übergang von der frühen Phase des Tempelbaus in Bhubaneswar (Vaital Deul, Parasumaresvara-Tempel) zur späteren Phase (Siddheswara-Tempel, Brahmeswara-Tempel, Lingaraja-Tempel). Architektonische Besonderheiten sind das freistehende Tor ("torana") vor dem Tempel sowie mehrere kleine Nebenschreine in seiner Nähe.


History.

The settlement was founded in 1790 as Horochivka and in 1793 was renamed Voskresensk. It was an admiralty settlement and belonged to Kherson Governorate. Between 1864 and 1900, it belonged to Nikolayev Military Governorate, which was a part of Kherson Governorate. In December 1920, Kherson Governorate was renamed Nikolayev Governorate, and in 1921 it was merged into Odessa Governorate. In 1923, governorates were abolished in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Mykolaiv Raion, with the administrative center in Mykolaiv, was established, and Voksresensk belonged to Mykolaiv Raion of Mykolaiv Okruha. In 1925, the governorates were abolished, and okruhas were directly subordinated to Ukrainian SSR. In 1930, okruhas were abolished, and Mykolaiv Raion was abolished as well. Voskresensk was transferred to Varvarivka Raion. On 27 February 1932, Odessa Oblast was established, and the area was transferred to Odessa Oblast. On 22 September 1937, Mykolaiv Oblast was established on lands which previously belonged to Dnipropetrovsk and Odessa Oblasts, and Varvarivka Raion became part of newly created Mykolaiv Oblast. In 1939, Mykolaiv Rural Raion (sometimes referred to as Mykolaiv Raion) was established with the center in the city of Mykolaiv. During World War II, an Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews in a mass execution. On 12 September 1944, Mykolaiv Raion was renamed Zhovtneve Raion, and the administrative center of the raion was transferred from Mykolaiv to the town of Zhovtneve. In 1947, Voskresensk was renamed Voskresenske. In 1956, Voskresenske was given urban-type settlement status. On 19 May 2016, Zhovtneve Raion was renamed Vitovka Raion conform to the law prohibiting names of Communist origin.

Economy.

Most inhabitants commute for jobs to nearby Mykolaiv.

Transportation.

The closest railway station is in Horokhivka, south of the settlement.

Voskresenske (, ) is an urban-type settlement in Vitovka Raion in the south of Mykolaiv Oblast, Ukraine. Population: Voskresenske is located n the left bank of the Southern Bug and is adjacent to the city of Mykolaiv.

Woskressenske (; ) ist eine Siedlung städtischen Typs in der ukrainischen Oblast Mykolajiw mit etwa 4800 Einwohnern (2014). Das im Jahr 1790 gegründete Dorf erhielt 1956 den Status einer Siedlung städtischen Typs und ist das administrative Zentrum der gleichnamigen Siedlungsratsgemeinde innerhalb des Rajons Witowka, zu der noch die Ansiedlung Horochiwka ( ) mit etwa 260 Einwohnern gehört.


Launch.

The XE was announced, but not displayed, at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show and debuted globally on 8 September 2014 in London. Sales were expected to begin globally in 2015, followed by the United States in 2016. Production formally commenced on 13 April 2015 at Jaguar Land Rover's Solihull plant.

Production.

The XE was the first Jaguar to be built at the factory in Solihull, which was to be dedicated to the manufacture of aluminium vehicles under both the Jaguar and Land Rover brands, including the second-generation Range Rover Sport. Due to high demand for the vehicle production capacity was increased by adding a line at Castle Bromwich Assembly. Production transferred completely to Castle Bromwich in 2017 as part of a £100m refit.  An extended-wheelbase version—exclusively for the Chinese market—called "XEL" commenced production at the Chery Jaguar Land Rover plant in Changshu in 2015.

Engines.

The XE was the first application of Jaguar Land Rover's new 2.0 L turbocharged "Ingenium" four-cylinder engine. The four-cylinder is available in both petrol and diesel variants, in a range of different power outputs. The diesel significantly reduced consumption and carbon emission figures, and is capable of fuel consumption less than and producing CO emissions of only 99 g/km. The cleanest models in Britain pay no annual Vehicle Excise Duty.  From the XE's launch until 2017 the petrol four-cylinders were from Ford's family of "EcoBoost" engines. New Ingenium petrol engines replaced the Ford units beginning in the 2018 model year.  Higher specification XEs feature the same supercharged 3.0 L petrol V6 engine as the F-Type. However, after 2019 the V6 engine was no longer offered.

Design.

Exterior.

Ian Callum was responsible for the exterior design of the vehicle. The construction features bonded and riveted aluminium construction, with the front and rear crash structure and key body panels being bolted on to simplify repair times and decrease insurance costs. The bonnet is of the pop-up type to provide additional protection in the event of a collision with a pedestrian.  The exterior design achieves a drag co-efficient of 0.26. The most feature additional drag reduction measures, such as air vents which open and close when needed to further reduce drag.

Interior.

Upon debut the interior featured several existing Jaguar design cues, including the rotary gear selector which rises when the car is started. The central console featured an touch screen (10.2 inch optional) allowing access to in car entertainment, satellite navigation and vehicle settings. The car features smartphone connectivity and some models allow the owner to control the vehicle remotely, pre-heating the interior or unlocking the car using a smartphone application. A laser colour head-up display is an available option, projecting speed and navigation instructions onto the windscreen in front of the driver.  Jaguar made several interior revisions in 2017 including cupholder covers like in the XF, In-Control display and dashboard LCD Display with more pixels, redesigned XF-like interface for dashboard display. In-Control Touch Pro became a standard while user need to provide the SIM card with data connection.  In 2019, the interior was comprehensively revised with new door panels, centre tunnel, and In-Control Touch Pro Duo infotainment system shared with other Jaguar Land Rover products. The automatic gearbox's rotary knob gear selector was replaced with a more conventional type called the Sport Shift Selector.

Construction.

Platform.

The XE is the first built on the Jaguar Land Rover iQ[Al] (D7a) modular platform, also used for the second generation Jaguar XF (X260) model, the Jaguar F-Pace sports utility vehicle and the Range Rover Velar. The design features double wishbone suspension at the front, with similarities to the system fitted to the XF and F-Type models, the rear features an entirely new subframe mounted multi-link suspension system, named by Jaguar as Integral Link. This system is a more costly combination to manufacture but allows for greater tuning to provide a good balance between handling and ride quality.  The major suspension components are manufactured from aluminium to reduce the unsprung mass, the overall mass of the vehicle and to increase the stiffness of the suspension system. There are sacrificial slipping fixings fitted within the suspension systems to prevent expensive major components from suffering damage in the event of kerb strikes. Aluminium forged control arms FUCA, Tension and Lateral arms come from Taiwanese company, Alfot Technologies Co., Ltd. To create the 50:50 weight balance Jaguar have located the battery in the boot, this takes up the space where a spare wheel would normally sit. They have also made the rear boot floor and trunk lid out of steel to perfect the weight distribution.  Single-piston brake calipers are provided with one of three different sizes of brake discs fitted, depending on the vehicle's configuration.An electric power steering system is fitted and the XE comes with a choice of four different road wheel sizes. Initially there was a choice of eight alloy wheel designs.

Transmission.

The XE was initially produced as a rear-wheel drive car, but the D7a modular architecture is capable of accommodating an all-wheel drive (AWD) system and AWD versions of the XE were launched in November 2015, to compete with Audi Quattro, BMW xDrive and Mercedes-Benz 4MATIC models.  All XE models are equipped with a ZF 8HP45 or ZF 8HP70 eight-speed automatic transmission, a lighter variant of the gearbox currently fitted to other Jaguar models and the competing BMW 3 Series. The gearbox is older version of the second generation ZF 8HP50 currently fitted to the competing Alfa Romeo Giulia model. A six-speed ZF manual gearbox is available on diesel models.  Expertise developed for Jaguar's sister brand, Land Rover, has been used in the development of a traction control system called All Surface Progress Control, developed from the Terrain Response system fitted to Land Rover's range of off-road vehicles. This system allows for better traction in snow and ice, conditions traditionally regarded as challenging for rear-wheel drive cars.

Security and Safety.

Jaguar expected the XE to obtain a five star Euro NCAP safety rating which was proven in 2015. The design features several safety features now mandatory to be considered for a five star rating, including the Advanced Emergency Braking System (pre-crash system).  The XE was tested by Thatcham's New Vehicle Security Ratings (NVSR) organisation and achieved the following ratings:

SV Project 8.

A special limited-production, high-performance version of the XE called "SV Project 8" was revealed at the 2017 Goodwood Festival of Speed. The base car was extensively modified by Jaguar Land Rover's Special Vehicle Operations (SVO) team, with new carbon fibre body panels and aerodynamic aids such as a front splitter and rear wing, carbon fibre and Alcantara interior trim, 400 mm carbon ceramic brake discs in front with six-piston calipers, unique 20-inch wheels shod with Michelin Sport Cup 2 tires, and under the bonnet a supercharged and intercooled 592 hp version of the 5.0 L Jaguar AJ-V8.  In the typical road-going trim the Project 8 has four leather-trimmed bucket seats, with the two front seats mounted on lightweight magnesium frames. A "track package", not available in the United States, features a harness retention hoop in place of the rear seats, and carbon fibre racing seats with four-point competition harnesses installed in the front.  Total production is strictly limited to only 300 examples worldwide.

The Jaguar XE is a rear or all-wheel drive, front-engine, four-door compact executive car manufactured and marketed by Jaguar Land Rover, designed by Ian Callum and launched at the October 2014 Paris Motor Show. XE production began in April 2015 under the internal designation "X760".

Der Jaguar XE (Codename X760) ist ein Mittelklassemodell des britischen Herstellers Jaguar Land Rover, das im September 2014 seine Weltpremiere feierte und seit dem 13. Juni 2015 in Deutschland zum Verkauf angeboten wird. Der XE folgt dem von Frühjahr 2001 bis Ende 2009 produzierten X-Type in diesem Marktsegment nach.


Cause.

Allen Avinoam Kowarski et al. described the first two cases of the Kowarski syndrome in 1978. The group speculated that their patients' growth impairment was caused by a mutation in the growth hormone gene, which altered the structure of their secreted growth hormone, reducing its biological activity while retaining its ability to bind the antibodies used in the RIA-GH. Their RIA-GH measured growth hormone of reduced bioactivity. The children retained the ability to respond to treatment with active growth hormone.  The speculation of Kowarski et al. was confirmed by Valenta et al in 1985, Takahshi et al in 1996 and 1997 and Besson et al in 2005. Valenta et al studied a case of Kowarski syndrome where they confirmed a structural abnormality of the growth hormone molecule. 60 to 90% of circulating growth hormone of the patient was in the form of tetramers and dimers (normal, 14% to 39% in plasma) and the patients' growth hormone polymers were abnormally resistant to conversion into monomers by urea.  Takahashi et al. reported a case of a boy with short stature who was heterozygous for a mutation in the GH1 gene. In this child, growth hormone not only could not activate the GH receptor (GHR) but also inhibited the action of wild type GH because of its greater affinity for GHR and GH-binding protein (GHBP) that is derived from the extracellular domain of the GHR. Thus, a dominant-negative effect was observed.  Takahashi et al. demonstrated in a girl with short stature, a biologically inactive growth hormone resulting from a heterozygous mutation in the GH1 gene. At age 3 years, the girl's height was 3.6 standard deviations below the mean for age and sex. Bone age was delayed by 1.5 years. She had a prominent forehead and a hypoplastic nasal bridge with normal body proportions. She showed lack of growth hormone action despite high immunoassayable GH levels in serum and marked catch-up growth to exogenous GH administration. Results of other studies were compatible with the production of a bioinactive GH, which prevented dimerization of the growth hormone receptor, a crucial step in GH signal transduction.  Besson et al described in 1955 a Serbian patient with Kowarski syndrome who was homozygous for a mutation in the GH1 gene that disrupted the first disulfide bridge in growth hormone. The parents were each heterozygous for the mutation and were of normal stature.

Diagnosis.

Diagnostic criteria.

The discovery of the Kowarski syndrome created a dilemma. The first diagnostic test for the syndrome was subjecting the suspected children to six month of growth hormone therapy. Kowarski syndrome was assumed to be a very rare disorder (officially recognized as an “orphan disease”). Researchers could not justify subjecting children to a trial period of growth hormone therapy to confirm the diagnosis of a rare syndrome. There is a need for a reliable and practical diagnostic procedure for the syndrome.

Reliability of testing.

The standard test for growth hormone deficiency is the growth hormone stimulation test. Peak levels of growth hormone below normal are considered confirmation of a growth hormone deficiency. Growth-impaired children with a normal stimulation test were considered suspect for having the Kowarski syndrome that may benefit from treatment with growth hormone.  Zadik et al. reported in 1990 that the growth hormone stimulation test is not reliable, suggesting the use of the more reliable 24-hour integrated concentration of growth hormone (IC-GH) as a better test. In 1995, it was also suggested that some cases of the neurosecretory growth failure syndrome might have the Kowarski syndrome.  Albertsson-Wikland Kerstin confirmed in 1992 that the IC-GH test is a reproducible test for growth hormone deficiency and Carel et al. confirmed in 1997 that the reliability of the growth hormone stimulation tests was poor.  A 1987 study by Bistrizer et al suggested a diagnostic procedure that may be used to diagnose the Kowarski syndrome. Their study was based on the requirement for the growth hormone molecule to bind a specific binding molecule on the wall of the responsive cells to elicit its activity. Their study demonstrated a decrease ability of the growth hormone from children with the Kowarski syndrome to bind with living IM-9 cells. The test involved measuring the ratio between the levels of growth hormone by a radioreceptor assay (RRA-GH) to the level of growth hormone determined by the established radioimmunoassay (RIA-GH). The study found that the RRA-GH/RIA-GH ratio in NS subjects was normal but significantly below normal (P<0.005) in the Kowarski syndrome patients. The authors proposed the use of their test for the diagnosis of the Kowarski syndrome.  Bistrizer, Chalew and Kowarski demonstrated in 1995 that a modified RRA-GH/RIA-GH ratio test was a predictor for the responsiveness of growth-impaired children to growth hormone therapy. The RRA-GH/RIA-GH ratio assay proposed by Bistrizer et al. can be used for screening of patients who may have the Kowarski syndrome thus more likely to respond to Growth Hormone therapy. Advances in the methodology for identifying spot mutations in the DNA of individuals demonstrated that the "Kowarski Syndrome is caused by various mutations in the GH1 gene (17q22-q24) that result in structural GH anomalies and a biologically inactive molecule." Testing individual patient for such mutation is offered on the Internet.

Kowarski syndrome describes cases of growth failure (height and bone age two standard deviations below the mean for age), despite the presence of normal or slightly high blood growth hormone by radioimmunoassay (RIA-GH) and low serum IGF1 (formerly called somatomedin), and who exhibit a significant increase in growth rate following recombinant GH therapy.

Das Kowarski-Syndrom bezeichnet einen Kleinwuchs durch Störung der Produktion von Wachstumshormon. Dadurch kommt es zu einer Wachstumsverzögerung und zum Kleinwuchs.


Location.

Bad Rappenau Station is located in centre of the spa town. The otherwise single track Elsenz Valley Railway has three tracks in the station area. The address of the station is "Bahnhofstrasse 5".

History.

Opening of Rappenau station.

The Neckargemünd–Meckenheim section of the Neckargemünd–Sinsheim–Bad Friedrichshall line was opened on 23 October 1862 by the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railway ("Großherzoglich Badische Staatseisenbahnen") as part of the Odenwald Railway from Heidelberg to Mosbach and Würzburg. The section from Meckenheim to Bad Rappenau followed on 25 June 1868. Unlike the neighbouring Bad Wimpfen station, Bad Rappenau station originally had no "Bad" prefix and was called "Rappenau" station. The closing of the Bad Rappenau–Jagstfeld (Bad Friedrichshall) gap on 5 August 1869 completed the Elsenz Valley Railway.

Other development.

After the municipality of Rappenau was designated as a spa town in 1903 (entitling it to the prefix of "Bad"), Rappenau station was officially renamed Bad Rappenau in 1914. In an order of the Baden Ministry of 4 September 1930, the municipality was renamed from Rappenau (Bezirksamt Sinsheim) to Bad Rappenau with effect from 1 October 1930—about 15 years after the renaming of the station.

Station upgrade and inclusion in the Heilbronn Stadtbahn.

As part of the expansion of Heilbronn Stadtbahn northern branch, the Bad Rappenau–Bad Friedrichshall section was closed for upgrading between 7 January 2014 and 1 May 2015. At the same time, Bad Rappenau station was upgraded to make it accessible for the disabled and given a third platform track. The new Bad Rappenau Kurpark station, which is located next to the Bad Rappenau Kurpark (spa park), was also built for the Stadtbahn.

Entrance building.

Bad Rappenau station's entrance building is a neoclassical building from around the period of railway's construction in 1868. It now houses the "BAHNHOFSGALERIE" ("Station gallery"), which includes a small flower shop, a Schmitt&Hahn bookshop, a customer centre of the AOK health insurance company and a bakery.

Transport services.

Bad Rappenau is in the area where fares are set by the Heilbronner Hohenloher Haller Nahverkehr GmbH (HNV) transport association. Passengers can also use transitional fares set by the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Neckar (VRN).

Passenger services.

Bad Rappenau is located on the Elsenz Valley Railway, running from Bad Friedrichshall via Sinsheim to Heidelberg. RE 2 Regional-Express services coming from Mannheim Hauptbahnhof and S42 Stadtbahn services coming from Bad Friedrichshall normally cross here.  The railway line was extensively renovated between 7 January 2014 and 1 May 2015. At this time, replacement buses ran between Sinsheim, Bad Rappenau and Neckarsulm.  Regionalbahn service RB 74 ran hourly between Sinsheim, Bad Rappenau, Bad Wimpfen and Bad Friedrichshall (some to/from Heilbronn) until the closure of the line in early January 2014. Since the reopening of the line on 1 May 2015, Bad Rappenau has been served by line S42 of the Heilbronn Stadtbahn.  Until early January 2014, the Regional-Express service RE 2 ran between Mannheim, Heidelberg, Sinsheim and Heilbronn every two hours. These mostly crossed RB 74 services in Bad Rappenau. These services were restored in May 2015 and stop in Bad Rappenau.

Bad Rappenau station is the station of Bad Rappenau, a spa town in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located at kilometre 27.9 on the Elsenz Valley Railway ("Elsenztalbahn") or Neckargemünd–Bad Friedrichshall railway and is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 5 station.

Der Bahnhof Bad Rappenau ist der Bahnhof der baden-württembergischen Kurstadt Bad Rappenau. Er liegt an Streckenkilometer 27,9 der Bahnstrecke Neckargemünd–Bad Friedrichshall und gehört der Bahnhofskategorie 5 der Deutschen Bahn AG (DB) an.