Early life.

Dick Price was born October 12, 1930, to Herman and Audrey Price in Rogers Park. He died when he was struck by a boulder while hiking near Esalen on November 25, 1985, and is survived by his wife, Christine Stewart Price, and two children, David and Jennifer Price. Price had a twin brother, Bobby, who died in 1933, and a sister Joan who was born in 1929.  Price's father Herman Price (anglicised from Preuss) was born in an Eastern European Jewish family in 1895. The family emigrated from Lithuania in 1911 (at that time a part of Russia), first to New York and finally to Chicago.  During World War I his father served in the United States Coast Guard, and then in the United States Navy. Herman was a refrigeration expert. He headed appliance manufacturing and design at Sears for their Coldspot brand, working extensively with Raymond Loewy, who was a close family friend. In 1936, the family moved into the two-floor penthouse apartment in at 707 W. Junior Terrace, just off Lake Shore Drive in Chicago. With the onset of World War II, Herman was loaned by Sears to the Douglas Aircraft Company where he applied his assembly line experience to organizing the mass production of aircraft, including the B-17 in particular. Although Herman was a charismatic businessman, he was an emotionally withdrawn and distant father for Dick.  Price's mother, Audrey (Meyers) Price was born in Indiana in 1895, and grew up in Auburn, Illinois. She was of Dutch, Irish and English heritage. Audrey was a domineering figure in the family, and a problematic and intrusive mother for Dick.  In 1941, the Price family moved to Kenilworth on the North Shore of Chicago. Dick graduated from New Trier High School in 1948. He joined New Trier's wrestling team and placed second in his weight class in the state of Illinois.

College education.

Price graduated from Stanford University in 1952 with a major in psychology. While at Stanford, Price studied with both Gregory Bateson and Frederic Spiegelberg. They would later prove to be pivotal influences when he founded and developed programs at Esalen Institute. He did graduate work in the social relations department at Harvard University, although he left before completing his degree because of his frustration with the conservative, research-oriented faculty.

San Francisco.

After leaving Harvard in 1955, Price enlisted in the Air Force and was given an assignment in the East Bay (San Francisco Bay Area). He rented a room in San Francisco at Alan Watts’ and Frederic Spiegelberg’s newly founded American Academy of Asian Studies (the precursor to the California Institute of Integral Studies). During this time, the North Beach Beat scene was an emerging social trend. Dick knew most of the primary figures, including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and Gary Snyder. Dick married his first wife, Bonnie, in a Zen ceremony.

Psychosis.

In 1956, Price experienced an episode of manic psychosis in San Francisco which he later described as simply "a state", what he believed was a mental break that was transitory and which he needed to go through and experience rather than repress or manage. He was hospitalized, returned to Chicago, and discharged from the Air Force.  On December 7, 1956, Price was involuntarily committed by his parents to the Institute of Living, an exclusive mental treatment facility in Connecticut. While hospitalized, he was misdiagnosed as a schizophrenic, then subjected to physical confinement and major tranquilizers, along with numerous electroconvulsive and insulin shock treatments. While committed, his mother had his marriage annulled He was released almost a year later on Thanksgiving Day 1957. Price never forgave his parents for their actions during this episode.  Price wrote about his hospitalization experience:  After his release, Price went back to the Chicago area, where he worked for his uncles' sign company, Price Brothers. However, the work did not engage his imagination.

Founds Esalen Institute.

In May 1960, Price returned to San Francisco and took up residence at the East-West House with Gia-Fu Feng. That year he met fellow Stanford University graduate Michael Murphy at Haridas Chaudhuri’s Cultural Integration Fellowship where Murphy was in residence. Dick moved into the Cultural Integration Fellowship as well. They conceived of the idea of a place where individuals could become open to ways of thinking while avoiding the dogma often associated with groups organized around a single idea promoted by a charismatic leader. In 1961, Murphy and Price visited the oceanside property in Big Sur, California, that was owned by Murphy's family. The property included a natural hot springs.  In 1962, using the Murphy property and capital that Dick had accumulated, along with assistance from Alan Watts, Aldous Huxley, Laura Huxley, Gerald Heard, Gregory Bateson and Frederic Spiegelberg (with whom both had studied at Stanford), Price and Murphy founded the Esalen Institute. Among other objectives, Price saw Esalen as an alternative to then current mental health practice, especially the practices of mental hospitals. Esalen was to be a place where inner process could move forward safely and without interruption.  Previously, the natural hot springs baths on the Murphy property were part of a run-down resort (known as Slate's Hot Springs). The security guard was a young Hunter S. Thompson. Joan Baez was also in residence. Thompson was soon fired by Murphy's grandmother, although Baez remained in residence through the beginnings of Esalen. Henry Miller regularly visited the hot springs during this early period of Esalen's history. In the middle of 1962, Abraham Maslow happened to drive onto the Esalen grounds and soon became an important influence on the development of the institute. Julian Silverman came to Esalen in 1965, in order to work on the schizophrenia project at Agnews State Hospital, and ended up serving as Esalen's general manager. Will Schutz came to Esalen in the 1960s and worked on aspects of his "encounter group" process. George Leonard, Joseph Campbell and Ida Rolf were among the many people who had an impact upon Esalen's development. In 1974, Price married his second wife, Christine Stewart Price, a Gestalt practitioner who became his primary collaborator at Esalen.

Altered state research.

Price's interest in the expansion of human potentials led him to investigate many avenues of research, including the exploration of altered states of consciousness with psychotropic substances. In the early 1960s he experimented with LSD administered by a psychiatrist. Later he discovered that empathogens, such as MDMA, facilitated self-exploration and were helpful in psychological healing when used in conjunction with therapy.  In 1973, Price was instrumental in bringing Stanislav Grof to Esalen in the capacity of Scholar in Residence. Grof was interested in the enhancement of human potentials through the induction of non-ordinary states of consciousness. He had conducted research with LSD at the Psychiatric Research Center in Prague, followed by similar research at Johns Hopkins University and the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center. At Esalen, Price encouraged Grof to develop the therapeutic technique of Holotropic Breathwork, which functioned as a substitute for psychedelic drugs.

Gestalt Practice.

In 1964, Fritz Perls, the psychiatrist who developed Gestalt therapy together with his wife Laura Perls, arrived at Esalen. During Perls' time at Esalen, Price became one of his primary students. He was also influenced by the work of Wilhelm Reich, who had been Perls' analyst. Price worked with Perls for approximately four years, from 1966 to 1970. During this period Price experienced a second brief manic break, arising from the unresolved trauma of his commitment. Perls declared this episode fully resolved and then told Price that it was time for him to start teaching Gestalt on his own.  During the time that Price ran Esalen, he educated himself widely in Western psychology and Eastern religions, including Buddhism and Taoism. He drew from the work of many teachers who came to Esalen over the years. Gestalt Practice provided a humane approach that pulled together all these strands of ancient and modern knowledge into a coherent technique, similar to shamanistic methods of healing. This practice allowed Price to work with other people as real people, not as objects that needed to be "fixed" in some way. Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Price continued practicing, modifying, and teaching Gestalt at Esalen, until his death in a hiking accident on November 25, 1985, when he was struck by a falling boulder. The method of Gestalt Practice that Dick Price developed remains one of his most important achievements.

Hiking practice.

Price would frequently hike the trails of the Santa Lucia Range, both for pleasure and for relief from the pressures of running Esalen Institute. This became a part of his process. Hiking was often a solitary practice for him, although he regularly took other people along. Sometimes he worked with them while hiking, doing Gestalt sessions that would turn out to be quite moving.  Steven Harper was one of Price's close friends and hiking partners at Esalen. Harper became a permanent resident of Big Sur and a leader of wilderness process groups at Esalen. After Price's death, Harper was also able to secure the official naming of two geographic features for Price. A very prominent ridge behind Esalen is now called Price Ridge, and a trail is named Price-Gagarin Trail after Price and his friend Andrew Gagarin.

Legacy.

In the time since his death, Price's work has remained influential. Along with his role in founding and guiding Esalen Institute, he influenced many people's lives with his work in Gestalt Practice groups.  In 2013, during a period of management changes, Christine Stewart Price, the widow of Dick Price, decided to withdraw from teaching at Esalen Institute. She founded an organization named Tribal Ground Circle to continue Dick Price's work.

Richard "Dick" Price (October 12, 1930 – November 25, 1985) was co-founder of the Esalen Institute in 1962 and a veteran of the Beat Generation. He ran Esalen in Big Sur for many years, sometimes virtually single-handed. He developed a practice of hiking the Santa Lucia Mountains and developed a new form of personal integration and growth that he called Gestalt Practice, partly based upon Gestalt therapy and Buddhist practice.

Richard „Dick“ Price (* 12. Oktober 1930 in Chicago; † 25. November 1985) war ein US-amerikanischer Psychologe und mit Michael Murphy Gründer des Esalen-Instituts am kalifornischen Küstenstreifen Big Sur.


Personal life.

Bullen married Florence Mary Pressley (known as Mary) in Auckland in 1935 and they had two children, a son named John born in Auckland in 1936, and a daughter named Anne born in Melbourne in 1943.

Career.

Bullen went to St John's College, Cambridge in 1931, and became a research student, with Harold Jeffreys as his supervisor. Jeffreys was working on the revision of the travel time of the seismic waves from earthquakes and Bullen worked with Jeffreys on this project throughout his years in Cambridge. Jeffreys remarks of this period that 'Bullen's energy was phenomenal'.  Bullen wrote prolifically. There are 290 papers in his list of publications. The topics are diverse apart from the many research papers there are scientific biographies, articles in encyclopaedias and dictionaries of science, and articles on education, especially mathematical education.  His first book, "Introduction to the Theory of Seismology", was published by the Cambridge University Press in 1947 and has been a standard text for seismology ever since. The third edition was published in 1975 and Turkish, Chinese, and Russian translations were published in 1960, 1965, and 1965 respectively. Two other books closely related to his teaching at Sydney, "Introduction to the Theory of Dynamics" and "Introduction to the Theory of Mechanics" were published in 1948 and 1949. An eighth edition of the latter was published in 1971. His short monograph, "Seismology", was published by Methuen in 1954. The International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering published his notes for a lecture course on theoretical seismology in 1972. His last book, The "Earth's Density", was published in 1975; it covers a wider range of geophysics than its title would suggest because the problem of the Earth's density distribution is so intimately related to seismological information on the interior of the Earth.  Despite being deaf, Bullen played a very considerable role in international geophysics. He served as president of the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior, as vice-president of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, and as vice-president of the International Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research, and on a number of committees concerned with seismology and geophysics.  In Australian geophysics too he played a significant role, serving for five years as chairman of the Australian National Committee for the International Geophysical Year and also for five years as chairman of the Australian National Committee for Antarctic Research.  Bullen's energy was, as Jeffreys remarked, phenomenal. This was true not only of his vocation, science, but also of his avocations. He was indefatigable as a tourist in his earlier days and later as a coin collector. After long days at scientific meetings, or on committees, he would spend many hours seeking out coin shops or other coin collectors.

Honours.

Bullen was awarded many medals and honours by societies in Australia and abroad, being elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1949, a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences in 1961, and Member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1968. He was a foundation fellow of the Australian Academy of Science (1954), a member of the Council of the Academy 1955–57, and Matthew Flinders Lecturer and Medallist in 1969. He was also Foreign Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1960), Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society (elected 1933), Honorary Fellow of the Geological Society of America (1963) and the Geological Society of London (1967), and Fellow of the Royal Societies of New Zealand (1963) and of NSW (1974).  Bullen received the Thomas Ranken Lyle Medal of the Australian National Research Council (1949) He received the Bicentennial medal of Columbia University, New York, (1955), the Research medal of the Royal Society of Victoria (1966) and the Matthew Flinders Medal and Lecture awarded by Australian Academy of Science in 1969. He was awarded the William Bowie Medal of the American Geophysical Union in 1961, the Arthur L. Day Medal of the Geological Society of America in 1963, and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1974.

Keith Edward Bullen FAA FRS (29 June 1906 – 23 September 1976) was a New Zealand-born mathematician and geophysicist. He is noted for his seismological interpretation of the deep structure of the Earth's mantle and core. He was Professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Sydney in Australia from 1945 until 1971.

Keith Edward Bullen (* 29. Juni 1906 in Auckland; † 23. September 1976 ebenda) war ein neuseeländischer Mathematiker, Geophysiker und Seismologe.


EK9 (1997–2000) (based on 6th generation Civic).

The first Civic to receive the 'Type R' name plate was based on the 6th-generation of the fan-base 'EK' Civic. The contributing base model was the JDM Civic 3-door hatchback called the SiR (code named EK4). Like its sibling, the Integra Type R DC2/JDM DB8, the Civic SiR's transformation into a Type R was achieved by working on the base model and improving it to Honda's idea of a car capable of high performance on the circuit.  The first Civic to receive the Type R badge was introduced in August 1997, as the EK9. The EK9 shared many characteristics with the Integra Type R DC2/JDM DB8 such as omission of sound deadening and other weight reduction measures, a hand-ported B16B engine, front helical limited-slip differential and a Close-ratio transmission. The B16B engine boasted one of the highest power output per litre of all time for a naturally aspirated engine with at 8,200 rpm and at 7,500 rpm of torque from of displacement. For the first time, a strategically seam welded monocoque chassis was used to improve chassis rigidity. The interior featured red RECARO bucket seats, red door cards, red Type R floor mats, a titanium shift knob, and a Momo leather-wrapped steering wheel. The EK9 was only available for sale in Japan.  Performance figures include a acceleration time of 6.7 seconds and a quarter-mile time of 15.3 seconds. The EK9 could attain a top speed of.  In 1998, the Civic Type R Motor Sports edition was introduced. It came with steel wheels, the standard Type R interior and without any creature comforts. The above figures include 200 Motor Sport Edition / N1 cars.  Type Rx model was given a CD player, body coloured retractable electric door mirrors, power windows, auto air conditioning, keyless entry unlock system, aluminium sports pedals, and a carbon type centre panel.  In 1999, Honda tuning company Spoon Sports designed a N1 racing version of the Type R that had the B16B engine redline increased from 8,400 rpm to 11,000 rpm.

EP3 (2001–2005) (based on 7th generation Civic).

In 2001, Honda introduced the next generation of the Civic Type R as a unique 3-door hatchback to the UK market, which was manufactured in Swindon, England. This European Domestic Market Civic Type R featured a 2.0-litre i-VTEC engine (K20A2) and the regular Type R treatment of seam welding, close ratio 6-speed transmission and upgraded brakes, but did not include some of the other higher-end features, such as the helical LSD and red Recaro race-seats, that were standard on the EK9. However, Honda marketed a JDM (Japanese domestic market) version of the EP3 (which was exclusively manufactured in Swindon, UK and was shipped to Japan), which retained the highly renowned helical LSD similar to that of the EK9 and red Recaro race-seats. Other differences of the JDM model included a more track-oriented chassis/undercarriage settings as compared to the European model as well as a more powerful engine having a power output of (designated K20A) had a fully balanced crankshaft assembly with different intake manifold, exhaust manifold, higher-lift camshafts, higher-compression pistons, chrome-moly flywheel and ECU programming. All of the Japan-spec K20A Type R powertrains were built in Japan and shipped to the Swindon plant to be installed in the Japan-spec Type-R EP3. The JDM EP3 was also available in the traditional Type R championship white while the EDM was not. The EDM has more relaxed gear ratios and some high rpm torque traded for low rpm torque compared to the JDM.  In 2003, the EP3 was updated with many improvements – revised EPS with quicker steering, revised suspension settings, projector headlamps (JDM came equipped with halogens only while the EDM came with an option for HIDs with self-leveling motors), lighter clutch and flywheel assembly etc. Based on Honda literature, this facelifted (FL) model was targeted at addressing customers' and critics' feedback such as understeer on the limit (due to the front MacPherson strut setup), numb steering response and lack of low end torque.  Performance (all figures are manufacturer claims)  Note: JDM (Japanese Domestic Model), EDM (European Domestic Model).  Mugen Motorsports developed an upgraded version of the JDM Civic Type R, with a sport exhaust system and engine tuning, special Mugen Grille, and anti-roll bars for pro racing activities.

30th Anniversary Edition.

In 2003 Honda celebrated 30 years of the Civic badge by offering a special edition 30th Anniversary Civic Type R. This special edition features red bucket seats from Recaro, air conditioning, privacy glass on the rear windows, a leather MOMO steering wheel, red interior carpet and door cards. The 30th Anniversary models in the UK were available in Nighthawk Black, Satin Silver and Milano Red. Only 300 of these models were produced, 100 in each colour.

Premier Edition.

In 2005 towards the end of the EP3's production run, Honda introduced the Civic Type R Premier edition which had Recaro Trendline seats (similar to those found in the Anniversary Edition, only in red and black rather than all red), a darker shade of fabric on the rear seat centre sections, a MOMO Steering Wheel, Red Carpet, Door Linings, "Type R" embossed into the front brake calipers and black privacy glass on the rear windows. Air conditioning was an option. They were available in Milano Red, Nighthawk Black, Cosmic Grey and Satin Silver.

C Package.

In 2004 Honda introduced the "C Package" option (¥330,000 JPY) to Japan's Civic Type R line-up which included an additional colour, Satin Silver Metallic, HID lighting, rear privacy glass, automatic air conditioner and outside air temperature sensor.

FD2/FN2 (2007–2011) (based on 8th generation Civic).

The third generation of the Civic Type R was offered in two distinct models: one developed one for the Japanese domestic market and the other for UK and international markets each matching the availability of their regular 8th generation counterparts.

FD2 (Asian version).

The Japanese market Civic Type R (FD2) went on sale on 30 March 2007. For the first time, the JDM Civic Type R was sold as a four-door saloon rather than a three-door hatchback. The FD2 Type R was bigger, wider and heavier than the EP3 Type R. The wheelbase grew from to, giving the FD2 more stability during high speed cornering. The Japanese model's engine power output is higher than the European versions, with being generated at 8,000 rpm and of torque peaking at 6,100 rpm (versus at 7,800 rpm and at 5,600 rpm for the European model). Honda quoted that mid-range is increased by. Power is sent to the front wheels through a close-ratio six-speed manual gearbox, and a helical limited slip differential is fitted as standard. The front brake discs are diameter and fitted with four piston Brembo calipers. The car is fitted with Bridgestone Potenza RE070 tyres having size of 225/40 R18.  Honda claims the chassis is 50% more rigid than the previous Japan-only prefacelift DC5 Integra Type R and 25% more rigid than the previous Japan-only facelift DC5 Integra Type R. The FD2 features an independent rear suspension rather than the torsion beam configuration used on the FN2 Type-R. To save weight, aluminium is used extensively and bonded with adhesive instead of welded. Though the chassis is larger and more rigid than the JDM Integra Type R, it is only heavier.  Exterior wise, the front bumper is wider and different from the standard Civic designed aerodynamically. The rear bumper features a diffuser built into the bumper and huge rear wing completes the aero package. Inside, the trademark black and red bucket seats are no longer made by Recaro as with previous versions, but designed in-house by Honda. Also gone is the Momo made steering wheel, instead replaced by a Honda made version. The familiar red-on-black colour scheme or black-on-black scheme is offered on Championship White and Super Platinum Metallic Silver while a black-on-black scheme with red stitching is for the Vivid Blue Pearl only.  In October 2008, the Type R received new colours, those being Premium White Pearl, Premium Deep Violet Pearl and Crystal Black Pearl. The Vivid Blue Pearl colour was dropped.  In back to back tests, the Civic Type R (FD2) was on average 1 second quicker than the Integra Type-R (DC5) at the Tsukuba Circuit and four seconds faster at the longer Suzuka Circuit.  In a back to back test on the United Kingdom TV program Fifth Gear, the FD2 Type-R was three seconds quicker than the equivalent FN2 UK version around Castle Combe Circuit in wet conditions. However, the FN2 managed a 13.1 second quarter mile pass at Killarney Raceway.  Approximately 13,000 units of FD2 Civic Type R were produced until it ceased production in August 2010 due to failure to meet the upcoming emission requirements. Following the previous success due to the introduction of the FN2 Civic Type R from Europe in 2009, another batch of FN2 Type R with minor updates were available in Japan from fall 2010. However, the engine was the same K20ZA straight-4 as used in the European version.

Civic Mugen RR (Honda ABA-FD2).

In addition to Civic Type R, 300 units of Honda Civic Mugen RR cars available exclusively in "Milano Red" had also been produced for Japanese market, which reduced weight to using carbon fibre bumpers and aluminium for the bonnet. The engine is rated at at 8,000 rpm and torque at 7,000 rpm achieved through Mugen parts such as camshafts, exhaust system and ECU. Other exclusive items include Recaro SP-X racing bucket seats and other Mugen items on the interior while special 18 inch Mugen 7-spoke wheels come equipped as standard. It went on sale in Japan on 13 September 2007.  Mugen also debuted the Civic Type-RR Experimental Spec concept car at the 2008 Tokyo Auto Salon, which featured a K20A engine rated at at 8250 rpm and torque of at 6,750 rpm. Weight is further reduced using an aluminium hood (), as well as a new titanium exhaust system (). The interior was also updated with more carbon fiber parts. The car also features Intelligent-Tire Condition Monitoring System (i-TCMS) and Recaro seats.  The Honda Civic Mugen RR Advanced Concept was debuted at the 2009 Tokyo Auto Salon, based on the face-lifted FD2. It has a dry weight of. Brake disc size was increased to diameter (as compared to in Type R/RR).

Civic Mugen RC (2008).

A race version called Honda Civic Mugen RC was developed by Mugen for the 2008 Honda Exciting Cup Civic One-Make Race-Civic Series. The engine is the stock K20A engine from FD2 Honda Civic Type R. It came in the following models with the following prices:  The Civic Mugen RC was built in Mugen's M-TEC factory.

FN2 chassis (European version).

The European and international market Civic Type R is offered only as a three-door hatchback and uses a different chassis and internal layout (notably tank placement below the driver's seat), which will serve as the base for the next European version of the Jazz. The rear suspension, formerly a double wishbone setup, has been changed to a less complex torsion beam axle. The drive train is largely the same as the predecessor, offering at 7,800 rpm and of torque at 5,600 rpm, with 90 percent of peak torque is available from 2,500 rpm. The car is fitted with 225/40 R18 Y88 Bridgestone Potenza RE050A tyres, while optional 19-inch Rage alloys fitted with Yokohama Advan Sport 225/35 ZR19 88Y tyres were also available. The car has a curb weight of.

Trims.

Type R GT
The Type R GT trim includes dual zone climate control (Left:right independent), rain sensing windscreen wipers, refrigerated glove box, automatic headlights with dusk sensor, front fog lights, power folding wing mirrors, cruise control, front and rear curtain airbags. It is finished in the same four colours as the standard FN2, and a new colour called "Deep Sapphire Blue Pearl" added to the colours offered.  Type R Heritage
As often, names and trims vary even within domain markets down to local ones, and a Heritage trim replaces GT version in some of them, adding Xenon/HID lights to the mix. The Heritage's infotainment system version adds Bluetooth telephone system and voice recognition DVD satellite navigation.  Type R Race
A more radical trim dubbed Race differs from the Heritage by removing components (incl. HID, AC, fog lights, audio system, sound proofing, some airbags) to reduce weight as much as.  Type R (Aust)
The Type R (Australasia) trim includes dual zone climate control (Left:right independent), rain sensing windscreen wipers, refrigerated glove box, front fog lights, power folding wing mirrors, cruise control, CD/radio/apple integration, front and rear curtain airbags. It is finished in the same four colours as the Euro standard FN2.  Models made from 1 March 2010 had LSDs fitted as standard.  Production for the European market ended in October 2010 due to the engine not meeting Euro V emissions regulations which came into effect in 2011. Over 12,000 Civic Type Rs were sold in the UK since January 2007, Honda continued to export the car to the Australian market into 2011. It was also exported to Japan and marketed as Civic Type-R EURO in limited edition in fall 2010, following a successful run in November 2009.

Reception.

"Top Gear Magazine" awarded the European Civic Type R its 'Hot Hatch of 2007', praising the car's controls and comparing it favourably as a driver's car to its rivals, the Stig qualifying it as 'an utter gem'. However the television show "Top Gear" later criticized the new FN2 Chassis version, due to the different suspension and added weight. Jeremy Clarkson said it "just doesn't feel that quick" and that "all the poise and controllability that you used to get in the old car is just sort of... gone".

Markets.

Australia
The FN2 Civic Type R was available in Australia from mid-2007 until 2011.  Singapore
In Singapore, the FN2 Civic Type R Hatchback (European version) was sold by authorized dealer, while the FD2 sedan was sold through parallel importers.  Malaysia
The FD2 Civic Type R was officially launched in the Malaysian market on 2 August 2007. It was the first time Honda launched a Type R JDM outside of Japan  Japan
The FD2 sedan was initially the only model available in Japan, but as of November 2009, Honda imported the European FN2 hatchback in limited numbers (about 2,010 units), giving it the name Civic Type R EURO. A second batch of 1,500 was imported in fall 2010 due to the initial sales success, with the colour Crystal Black Pearl added.

FK2 (2015–2017) (based on 9th generation Civic).

In September 2012, there were rumours about the confirmation of the next-generation of the Honda Civic Type R at the Paris Motor Show. A preview didn't take place until the Geneva Motor Show in March 2014.

Production.

In January 2015, Honda announced that the production-ready model of the fourth Generation of the Civic Type R (called the FK2) would debut at the 85th Geneva Motor Show held in March alongside the European debut of the NSX. It is the first factory turbocharged Civic Type R.

Features.

Engine Performance and Specifications.

The FK2 Civic Type R is powered by K20C1 Direct Fuel Injection turbocharged Inline-four engine with Earth Dreams Technology, having a power output of at 6,500 rpm and maximum torque of at 2,500–4,500 rpm. The engine is mated to a 6-speed manual transmission with a factory equipped plate-style limited-slip differential. Honda claimed that the Type R can accelerate from 0– in 5.7 seconds. The engine is manufactured at Honda's Anna Engine Plant in Ohio before being exported to the UK.  The fuel tank has a capacity of and fuel consumption is 30.1/46.3 mpg and 38.7 mpg (combined). Combined CO emission is 170g/km and the car has achieved Euro 6 Emission Standard.

Safety Features.

The Civic Type R is equipped with dual front airbags, front side airbags and front and rear side curtain airbags. Larger brakes are fitted for improved stopping power with front brakes having ventilated and drilled discs and rear brakes having solid discs. Anti-lock braking system, electronic brake-force distribution, hill start assist, and vehicle stability assist are standard.

Special Editions.

Mugen Type R concept.

Introduced at the 2016 Tokyo Motor Show, the Mugen Civic Type R is an aerodynamic package for the Civic Type R. The package includes an adjustable front lip spoiler, front canards, side skirts and a rear diffuser. The rear wing has been replaced with a GT style fixed rear wing. These elements are made from carbon fibre, a carbon fibre hood was also included as an option. There were no changes made to the drivetrain although a new exhaust system having a single exhaust pipe instead of quad was fitted.

Special Edition.

The Black Edition marked the end of the production of the FK2 Civic Type R. Based on the GT Trim Type R, notable features include black exterior paint with red accents, black interior with red stitching and red brake calipers. Production was limited to 100 units in UK.  In other countries of Europe a White Edition was also released, still based on the GT Trim Type R, similar to Black Edition but with white accents.

Regions.

United Kingdom.

The British got to witness its sale as of July 2015 with price tags of GBP 29,995 for the base Type R model and for the Type R GT model. Although they both were priced differently, differences are limited to additional equipment and amenities. Key specifications related to power figures remain the same for both variants.

Japan.

In July 2015, Swindon, England (HUM) started exporting the FK2 Civic Type R to Japan, making it the third Civic Type R to be exported there. However, only 750 units were exported.

FK8 (2017–present) (based on 10th generation Civic).

The Civic Type R Prototype was unveiled in September 2016 at the Paris Motor Show, and the production version unveiled at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show. The new car builds on Honda's heritage in developing high-performance hatchbacks.

Exterior.

The design is based on the Civic Hatchback, with a winged carbon fibre splitter with red accent line, slatted ducts, diamond-mesh air intakes, red 'H' badge above a new air vent at the nose of the car, new air intake on the bonnet, an air scoop sited centrally in a trapezoidal recess, smoked lenses for the LED headlights and indicators and side repeaters, carbon fibre side skirts, 20-inch piano black alloy wheels with red accents, 245/30 R20 high-performance tyres, enlarged wheel arches, a carbon fibre diffuser which runs below the wider rear bumper, 3 tailpipes with a pair of directional strakes at each side, central tailpipe in bright metallic red and unique peaks at the roof flanks that point backwards.

Engine and other specifications.

The FK8 Civic Type R uses the same engine, a turbocharged inline-4, from its predecessor but power has increased to in the European and Japanese version but remains the same in other markets. The engine is mated to a close ratio 6-speed manual transmission continuing the tradition of its predecessors with limited slip differential as standard. The aerodynamic elements increase downforce even further as compared to the outgoing model. The FK8 has a top speed of making it the fastest Civic Type R model to date.  In back to back testing involving a FK8 and FK2 Type R, the reviewers praised the FK8's comfortable ride and feedback and criticised the FK2's harsh ride on the road and worse handling when the R+ driving mode was activated. The reviewers also complained about the FK2's interior being dated but stated that this was due to the model's late arrival at the end of the base model's production run.

Interior and safety features.

The interior of the Type R is based on the base model Civic and has a low driving position with the gear shift lever positioned high in order to allow for easy gear changes. The interior has red and black colour as standard with sports seats along with carbon fibre trim. The driver's seat and the steering wheel are adjustable. A reversing camera is standard for easier rear visibility while reversing while parking sensors are standard in the GT Trim. The interior although lauded for its comfortability and user friendliness is criticised for its infotainment system which has been described as slow and difficult to operate. The fit and finish is considered to be in particular with its competitors. Safety features include automatic emergency braking, traffic sign recognition, lane departure warning and automatic high beam assistance which are carried over from the base Civic. The GT trim adds blindspot monitoring and cross traffic alert, parking sensors at the front and rear, dual-zone climate control, power-folding door mirrors and infotainment upgrades that include wireless phone charging and in-built sat-navigation along with a more powerful 11-speaker stereo. The Type R earned a Euro NCAP 5 star crash test rating.

Records.

On 3 April 2017, the pre-production Type R achieved a lap time of 7:43.80 on the Nürburgring Nordschleife, almost 7 seconds faster than its predecessor, setting a new record for front-wheel drive cars.

Markets.

United States.

The Civic Type R went on sale in the United States on 14 June 2017, marking the first time the Civic Type R was officially sold in the U.S market.

United Kingdom.

In the UK, the Civic Type R were available for consumer test drives in August 2017, with official delivery and sale dates coinciding with national vehicle registration plate changes on 1 September.

Australia.

The FK8 Civic Type R went on sale in Australia in September 2017. Only one trim level was available about midway between the EDM Touring and GT specification. Citing lower access to high octane fuels the engine was only offered in the 306 bhp tune. On the road cost without any options was approximately $53K.

Indonesia.

The Civic Type R was launched in Indonesia during the 2017 Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show on 10 August 2017, with a starting price of Rp 995 million at selected Honda dealers.

Malaysia and Singapore.

In Singapore, the Civic Type R was officially launched by Kah Motor on 27 July 2017 in limited numbers.  In Malaysia, the Civic Type R was launched on October 2017 during the Malaysia Autoshow with a price of RM320,000.

Thailand.

In Thailand, the Civic Type R was launched in 2018 with a price of ฿ 4,600,000 and only 4 units.

Awards.

The FK8 Civic Type R has won many accolades and awards. It was crowned Top Gear Magazines Hot Hatch of the Year 2017, it was also voted International Editors’ Choice and overall Car of the Year 2017. What Car? also awarded the Type R its Hot Hatch of the Year award.

The is the high performance version of the Honda Civic compact car. It features a lightened and stiffened body, specially tuned engine, offered only in five- or six-speed manual transmission, and upgraded brakes and chassis. Red is used in the Honda badge background to give it a special sporting distinction and to separate it from other models.

Der Honda Civic Type R ist eine vom Honda Civic, einem Fahrzeug der Kompaktklasse des Fahrzeugherstellers Honda, abgeleitete Sportversion. Erstmals gab es einen Type R 1997. Das "R" steht für "Racing".


Description.

The fantails are small bodied (11.5–21 cm long) birds with long tails; in some species the tail is longer than the body and in most the tail is longer than the wing. When the tail is folded it is rounded at the end, but when spread in display or aerial foraging it has a characteristic fan shape that gives the family its name.  Fantails adopt a hunched horizontal posture most of the time, with the wings drooped and held away from the body and the tail half cocked. There are some exceptions to this, particularly the northern fantail of New Guinea and the Cockerell's fantail of the Solomon Islands, which have a more upright posture reminiscent of the monarch flycatchers.  The wings of fantails are tapered and have sacrificed speed for agility, making fantails highly efficient at catching insect prey. Overall the fantails are strong fliers, and some species can undertake long migrations, but the thicket fantails (sooty thicket fantail, white-bellied thicket fantail and black thicket fantail) are very weak fliers, and need to alight regularly.  The bills of fantails are typical for aerial insect eating birds, being flat and triangular. The gape is surrounded by two rows of rictal bristles which are long, often as long as the bill. The bills of most species are fairly weak, limiting fantails to softer insects, although the more terrestrial willie wagtail has a stronger bill.  The plumage of most fantails shows some variation, most species are relatively uniform with some markings. A few species, such as the Rennell fantail, have uniform plumage, while others have striking if sombre patterns. The colours of most species are greys, blacks, whites and browns, although a few species have yellow or even striking blue feathers. In most species there is no sexual dimorphism in plumage; the notable exception being the black fantail of New Guinea where the male has all-over black plumage and the female is almost entirely rufous. In a few species, such as the New Zealand fantail, there exist two colour morphs, the common pied morph and the rarer black morph (which is most common in the South Island).

Distribution and habitat.

Fantails are an Australasian family that has spread from as far as Samoa to northern India. In the south the grey fantail ranges as far as The Snares off New Zealand, in the eastern extent of the family has several endemic forms in western Polynesia. There are numerous species in Indonesia, the Philippines and in South East Asia, and the family ranges into southern China, India and the Himalayas. Some species have a widespread distribution, particularly the willie wagtail, grey fantail, white-throated fantail and northern fantail; others have a highly restricted range and in the case of some insular species may be restricted to a single island. The Mussau fantail is restricted to a single island in the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Kadavu fantail has a similarly restricted distribution in the Kadavu Group of Fiji.  Most fantails, particularly the tropical or insular forms, are sedentary and undertake no migration. Some northern and southern species undertake a variety of movements; the yellow-bellied fantail of the Himalayas is an altitudinal migrant, breeding between 1500 and 4000 metres, but moving to lower altitudes (as low as 180 m) in the winter. Some Australian fantails undertake seasonal migrations, although these show considerable variation even within individual species. Most populations of the rufous fantail exhibit little migratory behaviour, but the south-eastern population moves "en masse" to northern Queensland and New Guinea.  Fantails exhibit wide tastes in habitat; while the majority of species are found in rainforests fantails exist in most available habitats from deserts and mangrove forests to highly modified agricultural and urban environments. Most species are able to survive in a variety of habitats. Of all the species the mangrove fantail has the most restricted habitat requirements, being entirely restricted to mangrove forests over some of its range, although it can exist 3 km away in the absence of other fantails. Some of the more primitive species are generally more restricted to primary rainforest, but most other species can survive in more disturbed forest. The most adaptable species is the willie wagtail, which is abundant in every habitat type in Australia except for dense rainforest.

Behaviour and ecology.

The behaviour of many species of fantail has not been studied, but overall the family is highly uniform in its habits. Anecdotal observations of less studied species suggest a high degree of similarity with the better studied species. Fantails are highly active birds, with several of the smaller species continuously on the move; even when perched they continue to rock back and forth, spin 180° on the spot, wag their tail from side to side or fan it. In flight they are highly agile and undertake highly aerobatic and intricate looping flights while using their fanned tail to catch insects in flight.

Diet and foraging.

The majority of the diet of fantails composes of small insects and invertebrates. The larger willie wagtail is capable of tackling small skinks, but this is exceptional. Insect prey is generally small and easily handled, but larger items sometimes need to be subdued by being banged on branches, an action that also removes the wings of larger prey items like moths.  There are two general techniques used by the family in order to obtain prey. The first is known as "static searching", where the fantail will remain at a perch and watch for aerial prey which it will then sally towards and snatch from the air before returning to the perch in order to consume and resume searching. The second method used is known as "progressive searching", where the fantail moves through vegetation searching for insect prey which it gleans; the movement of the searching fantail also flushes out hidden prey which is also pursued and consumed. The willie wagtail performs a terrestrial version of this technique, pumping its tail from side to side and undertaking quick darting movements across open ground in order to flush out prey.  Fantails frequently form associations with other species in order obtain prey. Some species perch on the backs of cattle, which they use both as a vantage point and because the cattle flush up insects. This behaviour has given the willie wagtail the nickname "shepherd's companion". Fantails are often very bold around people and will approach them closely in order to capture insects flushed by them. Different species are also frequently found in mixed-species feeding flocks, travelling with other small insectivorous birds on the periphery of the flocks taking advantage of flushed prey.

Breeding.

Fantails are territorial and aggressively defend their territories from conspecifics (other members of the same species) as well as other fantail species and other flycatchers. Within the territory the female selects the nesting site, these sites are often close to the previous year's nest. Breeding responsibilities, nest building, incubation and chick feeding, are shared between both sexes.  The nest, a small cup of grass stems neatly bound together in spider silk, takes around 10 days to construct. Many species incorporate a trailing tail into the base of the nest; this possibly breaks up the shape of the nest, although little other effort is made to conceal the nest. To compensate for the high visibility of the nest fantails will aggressively defend their chicks from potential predators.  Female fantails will also distract a potential predator by appearing to be injured and luring the predator away from the nest. While the female is pretending to be injured the male may continue to attack the predator. In spite of this fantails have a generally low nesting success.

Species.

Based on del Hoyo et al. (2006)

Former species.

Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus "Rhipidura":

Fantails are small insectivorous birds of Australasia, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent belonging to the genus Rhipidura in the family Rhipiduridae. Most of the species are about 15 to 18 cm long, specialist aerial feeders, and named as "fantails", but the Australian willie wagtail is a little larger, and, though still an expert hunter of insects on the wing, concentrates equally on terrestrial prey.

Die Fächerschwänze ("Rhipidura") sind eine Gattung der gleichnamigen Familie der Fächerschwänze (Rhipiduridae), die zu den Singvögeln gehört. Die meisten Arten sind 15 bis 18 cm lang und auf den Fang fliegender Insekten spezialisiert.


Characteristics.

This tubular instrument gradually broadens towards the lower end. It usually has between six and nine holes. It employs one set of quadruple reeds, making it a quadruple reed woodwind. To master the instrument, the musician must employ various and intricate embouchure and fingering techniques.  The shehnai has a range of two octaves, from the A below middle C to the A one line above the treble clef (A3 to A5 in scientific pitch notation).  A shehnai is often but not always made with a body of wood or bamboo and a flared metal end.

Origin of the shehnai.

The shehnai is thought to have been developed by improving upon the pungi (a woodwind folk instrument used primarily for snake charming).  Another theory of the origin of the shehnai is that the name is a modification of the word "sur-nal". The word nal/nali/nad is used in many Indian languages to mean pipe or reed. The word "sur" means tone or tune—musical note or simply music—and is used as a prefix to the names of many Indian instruments. The "sur-nal" is said to have given its name to the "surna/zurna" of the old Persian Empire, which is the name by which the reed-pipe is known throughout the Middle East and eastern Europe. Shehnai is usually played at traditional North Indian weddings and is associated with the bride leaving her parental house for her husband's house. Sometimes, two shehnais can be tied together, making it a double shawm similar to the ancient Greek aulos.  The counterparts to the shehnai played in West India and Coastal Karnataka are indigenous to the territory. Shehnai players were/are an integral part of Goan/Konkani and temples along the western coast and the players are called "Vajantri" and were allotted lands for services rendered to the temples.

The'shehnai' is a musical instrument, originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is made out of wood, with a double reed at one end and a metal or wooden flared bell at the other end. Its sound is thought to create and maintain a sense of auspiciousness and sanctity and, as a result, is widely used during marriages, processions and in temples although it is also played in concerts. The shehnai is similar to South India's nadaswaram.

Shehnai, auch "shenai, sahnai," ist das in der nordindischen Musik am weitesten verbreitete Doppelrohrblattinstrument. Es wird zur Unterhaltung bei Familienfeiern, bei religiösen Prozessionen und in der klassischen Musik gespielt. Ihr südindisches Gegenstück ist die "nadaswaram".


Srebrna Góra, Lower Silesian Voivodeship

History.

The silver mining area was mentioned in a 1331 deed issued by the Silesian duke Bolko II of Ziębice in 1331, a Bohemian vassal from 1336, the settlement itself in 1417. Located near the border of the Duchy of Ziębice ("Münsterberg") with the Bohemian County of Kladsko on the mountain pass road to Nowa Ruda, Silberberg was often hit by military confrontations, at first by the Hussite Wars, later also by the Thirty Years' War, which left the area devastated.  In 1536 Silberberg received city rights and mining privileges, and after the Duchy of Ziębice as a reverted fief had fallen to the Bohemian Crown, the area was purchased by Bohemian (Czech) aristocrat William of Rosenberg in 1581. (William bought the town for reasons of prestige, because of the right to mint its own coins which has been tied with the town and local silver mines.) It passed to Duke Joachim Frederick of Brieg in 1599 and finally fell back to Bohemia upon the death of the last Piast duke George William of Legnica in 1675.  With most of Silesia, it was annexed by King Frederick II of Prussia after the First Silesian War in 1742.

Fort Srebrna Góra.

Frederick II had a border fortress of the Prussian Army built at Silberberg, finished in 1778, which after the Napoleonic Wars served as a prison in the pre-revolutionary "Vormärz" era. Among the inmates was the author Fritz Reuter, arrested here from 1834 until 1837, as well as the editor Wilhelm Wolff.  The fort is one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments ("Pomnik historii"), as designated May 1, 2004. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland.

Srebrna Góra () or Silver Mountain in English, is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Stoszowice, within Ząbkowice Śląskie County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. Prior to 1945 it was in Germany.

Srebrna Góra (deutsch "Silberberg") ist ein Dorf im Powiat Ząbkowicki ("Kreis Frankenstein") in der Woiwodschaft Niederschlesien in Polen. Es gehört zur Gemeinde Stoszowice "(Peterwitz)".


Ase and Yoruba art.

The concept of "ase" influences how many of the Yoruba arts are composed. In the visual arts, a design may be segmented or seriate - a "discontinuous aggregate in which the units of the whole are discrete and share equal value with the other units." Such elements can be seen in Ifá trays and bowls, veranda posts, carved doors, and ancestral masks.  Regarding composition in Yoruba art as a reflection of the concept of "ase", Drewal writes:

The head as the site of ase.

The head, or "ori", is vested with great importance in Yoruba art and thought. When portrayed in sculpture, the size of the head is often represented as four or five times its normal size in relation to the body in order to convey that it is the site of a person's "ase" as well as his or her essential nature, or "iwa". The Yoruba distinguish between the exterior ("ode") and inner ("inu") head. "Ode" is the physical appearance of a person, which may either mask or reveal one's inner ("inu") aspects. Inner qualities, such as patience and self-control, should dominate outer ones.  The head also links the person with the other-world. The "imori" ceremony (which translates to "knowing-the-head") is the first rite that is performed after a Yoruba child is born. During "imori", a diviner determines whether the child comes from his or her mother's or father's lineages or from a particular "orisa". If the latter is the case, then the child will undergo an orisa initiation during adulthood, during which the person's "ori inu" becomes the spiritual vessel for that orisa's "ase". To prepare for these ceremonies, the person's head is shaved, bathed and anointed.

Ase or ashe (from Yoruba "àṣẹ") is a West African philosophical concept through which the Yoruba of Nigeria conceive the power to make things happen and produce change. It is given by Olodumare to everything — gods, ancestors, spirits, humans, animals, plants, rocks, rivers, and voiced words such as songs, prayers, praises, curses, or even everyday conversation. Existence, according to Yoruba thought, is dependent upon it.

Ashé (Àşe, Aché, Axé, von Yoruba "àṣẹ") ist in der Religion der Yoruba die universelle Lebensenergie, die im Kosmos der Yoruba im unsichtbaren Bereich "(òrun)" und sichtbaren Bereich "(aye)" wirkt. Sie ist nicht nur in allen Lebewesen und Gegenständen, sondern auch in allen immateriellen Geistwesen (Orishas und Ahnen), Gebeten, Liedern und Gesten vorhanden.


Name and role.

Eshu partially serves as an alternate name for Eleggua, the messenger for all Orishas, and that there are 256 paths to Eleggua—each one of which is an Eshu. It is believed that Eshu is an Orisha similar to Eleggua, but there are only 101 paths to Eshu according to ocha, rather than the 256 paths to Eleggua according to Ifá. Eshu is known as the "Father who gave birth to Ogboni", and is also thought to be agile and always willing to rise to a challenge.  Both ocha and Ifá share some paths, however. Eshu Ayé is said to work closely with Orisha Olokun and is thought to walk on the shore of the beach. Eshu Bi is a stern and forceful avatar, appearing as both an old man and young boy, who walked with Shangó and Oyá (the initial two Ibeyi), and Eshu Bi protects both of these, as well as all other small children. Eshu Laroye is an avatar believed to be the companion of Oshún and believed to be one of the most important Eshus, and the avatar of Eshu Laroye is thought to be talkative and small.

Other names.

The name of Eshu vary around the world: in Yorùbáland, Eshu is "Èṣù-Elegba" or Laolu-Ogiri Oko; "Exu de Candomblé" in Candomblé; "Echú" in Santería and Latin America; "Legba" in Haitian Vodou; "Leba" in Winti; "Exu de Quimbanda" in Quimbanda; "Lubaniba" in Palo Mayombe; and "Exu" in Latin America.

Brazil.

Exu is known by various forms and names in Afro-Brazilian religions. They include Akessan; Alafiá; Alaketo; Bará, or Ibará; Elegbá, or Elegbará, Inan; Lalu, or Jelu; Laroiê; Lon Bií; Lonã; Odara; Olodé; Tamentau, or Etamitá; Tlriri; and Vira, a feminine manifestation of Exu. The most common forms or praise-names of Exu are Exu-Agbo, the protector and guardian of houses and terreiros; Exu-Elepô, the god of palm oil; Exu lnã, the god of fire; Exu Ojixé, a messenger god.

Candomblé.

A shrine dedicated to Exu is located outside of the main terreiro of a Candomblé temple, usually near the entrance gate. It is, in general, made of rough clay or a simple mound of red clay. They are similar to those found in Nigeria.  Ritual foods offered to Exu include palm oil; beans; corn, either in the form of cornmeal or popcorn; farofa, a manioc flour. Four-legged male birds and other animals are offered as sacrifice to Exu. In each offering made to an orixá, a part of the food is separated and dedicated to Exu.

Umbanda.

On the Syncretic religion of Umbanda, Exu may have a different meaning. Usually in Umbanda Exu is not considered a single Deity, but many different spirits may be Exu's. Some of the most popular venerated types of Exu are Exu Caveira("Skull Exu", represented as a skeleton), Exu Tranca-Rua("Street Locker", opener and closer of spiritual ways) and Exu Mirim ("Little Exu", a spirit that resembles the personality of a child or teenager). In Umbanda, a Pombagira (female consort of Exu) may also be considered a kind of Exu, commonly venerated in the practice of Brazilian Love magic.

Controversy on English translations and on Google.

From the time of the first English translations of Yorùbá words in the mid nineteenth century, Èṣù has been rendered as "devil" or "satan". The first known instance of this came from Samuel Ajayi Crowther's "Vocabulary of the Yoruba" (1842) where his entries for "Satan" and "Devil" had Eshu in English. Subsequent dictionaries over the years have followed suit, permeating popular culture and Yorùbá societies as well. Lately, many online campaigns have been set up to protest this, and many activists have worked to correct it. There have also been quite a number of academic work examining the mistranslation.  The translation on Google Translate took up the same earlier mistranslations. This led to a number of online campaigns until 2016 when Nigerian linguist and writer Kola Tubosun, then an employee at Google, first changed it back to less derogatory connotations. And when the changes were reverted, he changed them again in 2019. The translation for Èṣù to English now remains "Èṣù" while 'devil' and'satan' translate to 'bìlísì' and'sàtánì' respectively.

Eshu (Yoruba: Èṣù, also known as Echú, Exu or Exú) is an Orisha in the Yoruba religion of the Yoruba people (originating from Yorubaland, an area in and around present-day Nigeria). As the religion has spread around the world, the name of this Orisha has varied in different locations, but the beliefs remain similar.

Eshu "(Eleggua, Elegba, Eshú, Echu, Exú)" ist in der Religion der Yoruba und den davon abgeleiteten afroamerikanischen Religionen der Herr der Straßen, Straßenkreuzungen und Türen. Er ist verantwortlich für den Lebensweg, für das Gelingen oder den Misserfolg, für Begegnungen und Entscheidungen, für Zufälle, Unfälle und das unergründliche Schicksal. Eshu nimmt eine Sonderrolle unter den Orishas ein. Er wird eher den Geistern zugerechnet. Seine Hauptfunktionen sind die Vermittlung von Botschaften der Menschen an die Orishas und den allmächtigen Olódùmarè. Eshu muss bei allen Ritualen als Erster begrüßt werden und auch als Erster seine Opfergaben erhalten. Er verwaltet die Ashé und gilt als Trickster.


History.

The Egbado appear to have migrated - possibly from the Ketu, Ile-Ife, or Oyo - to their current area early in the 18th century. Egbado towns, most importantly Ilaro, Ayetoro, Afon, Imeko, Ipokia and Igbogila, were established in the 18th century to take advantage of the slave trade routes from the inland Oyo empire to the coast at Porto-Novo. Other towns were Ilobi and Ijanna, which were strategic in protecting the flanks of the slaving routes. The Egbados' were subject to the rule of the Oyo kingdom, which managed them via governor Onisare of Ijanna. The Oyo were unable to deploy their cavalry force to protect the routes, due to tsetse fly and lack of horse-fodder and thus had to rely on the Egbado people to manage the routes. The historians Akinjogbin, Morton-Williams and Smith all agree that by the early 18th century this route to the coast was heavily engaged in slave trading, and that slaves were the mainstay of the Oyo economy.  The Egbado later achieved a fragile independence after the fall of the Oyo kingdom, but were subject to frequent attacks from other groups such as the slave-raiding Dahomey (who seized, among others, Princess Sara Forbes Bonetta), and various tribes who wished to force open their own slave-trading routes to the sea. Ilaro and Ijanna towns had been destroyed by the 1830s. By the 1840s the Egbado had come under the control of the adjacent Egba group, who used the Egbado territory to forge routes to Badagry and the port of Lagos. By the 1860s the Egba abandoned the route because the British were actively using their formidable navy to try to abolish the slave trade. Consequently, the Egba expelled British missionaries and traders from the area in 1867.  After 1890 the Egbado asked for a British protectorate and got a small armed garrison, thus becoming independent of the Egba. The area became part of the British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914, as Egbado Division in Abeokuta Province. The administrative headquarters were later transferred away, after the creation of the new Ogun State subsumed the old Abeokuta Province.

The modern Egbado/Yewa.

In 1995 the Egbado chose to rename themselves the "Yewa", after the name of the Yewa River that passes through the area they inhabit. They are primarily agriculturalists, but there is some artisan and textile processings. They are located mainly in the areas of: Ado-Odo/Ota, Ipokia, Yewa South, Yewa North, Imeko Afon, and part of Abeokuta North. There were complaints that the system of patronage and nepotism in Nigerian politics has caused the area to be neglected in terms of investment.  The area developed a popular style of music, called Bolojo, in the 1970s.  The population level is uncertain, but may be around 400,000.

The Ẹgbado, now Yewa, are a tribe of the Yoruba people, and inhabit the eastern area of Ogun West Senatorial District, Ogun State, in south-west Nigeria, Africa. In 1995 they changed their name to the Yewa. Yewa clan now comprises 4 local Governments Yewa South, Yewa North, Imeko-Afon and Ipokia, while the Ado-Odo/Ota LGA forms the 5th Awori part of the senatorial district

Yewa (Yegua) ist in der Religion der Yoruba die Orisha der Keuschheit und Jungfräulichkeit und des Todes. Ihr Vater Obatala wollte, dass sie keusch bleibt. Als sich Shango in sie verliebt, schickt Obatala sie zum Friedhof, dessen „wahre Herrin“ sie ist. Yewa repräsentiert das Grab.


Biography.

Mirza Dinnayi was born in Sinjar, Iraq. His father Hasan Ali Aga was the chief of the Yazidi Dinnayi tribe. Since school Mirza started writing on Yazidi troubled state in Iraq. Later, as a student of the Medical faculty, he joined students’ opposition to Saddam Hussein and his statecraft. In 1992 he had to flee to Iraqi Kurdistan.  During the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War Mirza Dinnayi applied for political asylum in Germany. Soon, he became a prominent member of the Yazidi expatriate community. After the 2003 USA invasion of Iraq and Hussein’s fall, Dinnayi was offered a post of the presidential adviser for minority rights to Jalal Talabani. Mirza worked in this position for almost a year.  On August 14, 2007, two suicide bombers set off car bombs in two Yazidi towns near Mosul. Mirza Dinnayi initiated the fundraising company for the victims and asked his friends from Neue Osnabrücker Zeitung newspaper to print the call for help. Two german hospitals acceded, offering free of charge medical help to the injured children. The main issue was their transfer to Germany as the children were coming from poor families and had no documents. After the first mission, Dinnayi realized there were no charity organizations that worked with the Iraqi. This idea inspired him to establish Air Bridge Iraq (). Its name was taken after, a West Berlin rescue mission in the World War II. In 2007-2014 Luftbrücke Irak helped 150 children and women to find asylum and get medical help in Germany.  In early August 2014, ISIS soldiers occupied Sinjar. The Yazidi escaped to the Sinjar Mountains. Mirza Dinnayi was one of the persons, who persuaded the Iraq prime minister to evacuate the civilians by helicopters. Dinnayi himself guided the pilots, who didn’t know the local terrain. On the 12th of August, 2014, the Mi-7 helicopter with Dinnayi on board crashed in a few minutes after the ascent. With the broken leg and ribs, Mirza Dinnayi survived and was transported to Germany. Shortly afterward, in a wheelchair he returned to Iraq - to visit rescue camp in Khanke.  In the rescue camp Dinnayi found out that the Yazidi women, saved from sexual slavery in ISIS, suffered from double psychological trauma - apart from the abuse itself, they experienced severe condemnation from the conservative Yazidi society. Mirza Dinnayi arranged the evacuation to Germany, where the specialist helped the victims to deal with severe depressions, anxiety attacks, self-imposed isolation, insomnia, and suicidal ideations. More than a thousand women and children were transferred to Germany, including future social rights activist and the Sakharov Prize winner Lamiya Haji Bashar.

Awards.

In April 2016 Winfried Kretschmann, the prime minister of Baden-Württemberg, awarded Mirza Dinnayi with golden Staufer Medal for Humanitarian Service.  In October 2019 Dinnayi received the Aurora Award for Awakening Humanity. As the laureate, he could choose 3 organizations to share the $1 mln prize. Dinnayi picked Air Bridge Iraq, SEED Foundation and the Shai Fund.

Mirza Dinnayi (; born 1973) — Iraqi writer and Yazidi social activist, Aurora Humanitarian Award 2019 laureate. Mirza Dinnayi is known as the director and co-founder of the Luftbrücke Irak, an organization which helps Yazidi victims of the Iraq war, rescues women and children from the ISIS-controlled territories and transfers them to Germany, where they receive medical care.

Mirza Hasan Dinnayi () ist ein irakischer Schriftsteller jesidischer Herkunft und Jesiden-Experte und Träger des „Aurora Prize for Awakening Humanity“ 2019.


Rules.

The game is played with a 52-card pack of French playing cards. The Ace is the highest card; the Two the lowest.  At the beginning of a game, the banker places an agreed fixed amount on the table in front of him. The other players now bet against it, but the sum of the opponents' bets must not exceed "half" the amount in the bank.  The banker shuffles, offers the pack for cutting and plays the first card face up to the table and then deals the next three cards are to the other players. If his opponents can beat the banker's card, i.e. if there is a card of the same suit and higher rank than the banker's among the three punters' cards, the opponents win in the ratio 2:1.  If the opponents cannot beat the banker's card, the banker collects the bets, thus increasing the bank total. The banker may not, however, take any winnings from the bank unless he surrenders the role of banker.  If the bank goes bust ("gesprengt"), i.e. there is no more money in the bank, the banker has to give the bank up and the player to his left becomes the next banker.  If the amount in the bank after a game is at least three times the original deposit, the banker may hold the bank for one last 'trick round'. After this game, the banker must hand over the bank to his left neighbour. If the bank is not bust after this round, the amount in the bank belongs, naturally, to the banker.

Probabilities and bank advantage.

The probability of a win for the punters is 30.38% and, for the banker, 69.62%. Due to the payout ratio of 2:1, this results in a bank advantage of 8.85 %.  If a pack of 32 (Piquet pack or German-suited) cards is used instead of a 52-card pack, the probability of winning is 29.55% for the punters and 70.45% for the banker, increasing the bank advantage to 11.35%.

Polish Bank (), Polski Pachuck, Grundehrlich, Polish Red Dog or Stitch, is a gambling game using playing cards which resembles Häufeln and Mauscheln.

Polnische Bank, Polski Pachuck, Grundehrlich, englisch: Polish Red Dog oder Stitch, ist ein dem Häufeln ähnliches Glücksspiel mit Karten (→ Mauscheln).


History.

From 1882 to 1886, Glentoran used Ormeau Park as their home ground. They moved to Westbourne in Ballymacarrett for six years until 1892. They then moved to The Oval. Initially it was on Dee Street, however in 1903 The Oval's pitch was rotated 90 degrees to its current location. During the early 20th century, the land on which The Oval stood was given in perpetuity to Glentoran by the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Daniel Dixon.  Due to its proximity to the Belfast shipyards, the Oval suffered severe bomb damage during the Belfast blitz in 1941. Aerial bombing destroyed both grandstands, causing the loss of Glentoran's club assets, and also left a large crater in the pitch. As a result, the ground was flooded repeatedly by the Connswater River; the water pumps were insufficient to drain the pitch. The ground was out of use until 1949 when it was rebuilt by the Glentoran club along with supporters, who had jointly formed the 'Back to the Oval' committee. During their exile, the club played games at the ground of fellow Belfast club, Distillery - Grosvenor Park.  In 1953 the main grandstand was built. In September 1995, Glentoran had an advertising board with "JESUS" in white letters on a black background erected at The Oval. This became known colloquially as the "Jesus sign". It remained at the ground until 2010 when Glentoran officials removed it, saying that they needed the space to sell advertising because of the club's serious financial troubles and because "The sign had garnered no income for Glentoran for several years. It could be said that, in this case, God has not provided."  In 2000 The Oval received funding for the refurbishment of the railway stand, by bolting seats on to the old terracing to create a 1,600-person-capacity stand. It was funded by a small grant as part of the much bigger £2,000,000 investment in Northern Irish sports announced by the Northern Ireland sports minister Michael McGimpsey. Other than new floodlights and a small section of terracing refurbishment, the ground has received no public investment since. During this time, in excess of £50 million of public money has been spent on 15 other football grounds in Northern Ireland.  In 2005, after a match between Glentoran and rival team Linfield, Linfield fans broke down a gate in The Oval to access the pitch and throw objects at Glentoran fans in the main stand after both sets of fans had been throwing missiles at each other beforehand. Two people were charged with rioting.  In 2008, The Oval was the site of a protest by the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster against a decision by the Irish Football Association to allow football matches to be played on Sundays, a first in Northern Ireland due to traditional sabbatarianism. The protesters were concerned that regular Sunday matches would attract churchgoers away from attending church. The protest was led by Reverend David McIlveen, who said "Fundamentally, it is a desecration of God's day." In October 2010 the neo nazi British National Party (BNP), who were trying to gain electoral support, held a rally outside The Oval. Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) Member of the Legislative Assembly, Robin Newton described the BNP's presence outside The Oval as "nauseous". In July 2011, an incendiary bomb was discovered outside The Oval requiring evacuation of surrounding streets. In October 2011 during an Irish Cup match between Glentoran and Portadown, a Portadown fan threw fireworks onto the pitch, injuring Glentoran's assistant manager Pete Batey and goalkeeping coach Davy McClelland.  In the 21st century, with the continued lack of investment, the Oval has become comparatively dilapidated and has required constant temporary repairs to fulfill Health and Safety requirements for Glentoran to continue hosting its home matches there. In 2009, Glentoran's Irish Cup match against Limavady United was abandoned after the stadium's floodlight pylons started shaking in the high winds and the referee deemed it too dangerous for the match to continue. In 2012, after considering selling naming rights to The Oval, Glentoran unveiled plans to move the club to a new stadium in the Titanic Quarter of Belfast. The Oval was sold to property developers in March 2013 for £4 million. Glentoran's chairman suggested that the Oval might be redeveloped into social housing.

Location and design.

The Oval is located near the Port of Belfast, and Harland and Wolff's Samson and Goliath cranes are visible from inside the stadium. It is viewed as a historic ground by football fans because of its concrete terraces and steel fencing. This limits its capacity in UEFA-sanctioned matches to the 3,000 seats in the two main stands as terracing has not been permitted in UEFA matches since 1998.  The stadium's capacity is 26,556, but was estimated in 2010 by the Northern Ireland Assembly to have a safe capacity of 5,056 under safety legislation. However, since 2011, the safe capacity permitted by Health and Safety authorities is 5,300; before 2010 the stadium could hold more than 8,000. Linfield's manager David Jeffrey criticised these restrictions and said that they were "murdering local football." The main stand holds 2,720 and the Railway stand holds 2,070. The Oval's record attendance is 55,000 for a European Cup Winners Cup match against Rangers on 27 September 1966.  The design of the main stand is very similar to the one at Springfield Park, former home of Wigan Athletic. This was also built in 1953.

Finals.

In previous years, the Oval was used to host the final of the Irish Cup as one of Northern Ireland's biggest stadiums along with Windsor Park, with the location of the final often being decided on a coin toss. During the 1985 Irish Cup final, Glentoran supporters released a cockerel and a pig that had been painted blue onto the pitch to antagonize Linfield supporters. The Oval was used to host the final of the County Antrim Shield in 2012. The Oval has also been used to host the Setanta Cup final. It hosted the 2012 final between Belfast's Crusaders representing the IFA Premiership, and Derry City, representing the League of Ireland. The 2015 Irish Cup Final between Glentoran and Portadown was played at The Oval.

The Oval is a football stadium in Belfast, Northern Ireland, which has been home to Glentoran F.C. since 1892. In 1941 the stadium was severely damaged by aerial bombing during the Belfast blitz of World War II, and was unusable until 1949. A new main stand was constructed in 1953. The stadium was refurbished with a new stand built in 2000, but requires consistent maintenance to fulfill health and safety requirements and its total capacity is currently restricted to 6,050. The Oval has occasionally hosted the final of the Irish Cup as well as hosting the final of the County Antrim Shield and the Setanta Cup.

The Oval ist ein Fußballstadion in der nordirischen Hauptstadt Belfast. Im Stadion trägt Glentoran FC seit 1892 seine Heimspiele aus. Es steht in der "Dee Street", in East Belfast. Im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde The Oval 1941 bombardiert und Glentoran musste in den Grosvenor Park ausweichen. Nachdem das Stadion mit Hilfe von Cliftonville FC und Lisburn Distillery wieder aufgebaut werden konnte, wurde es im August 1949 wiedereröffnet. Bis 1953 wurden die aktuellen Tribünen aufgebaut.


History.

Mount Baker was well-known to indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. Indigenous names for the mountain include Koma Kulshan or Kulshan (Lummi: ', "white sentinel",, and ', "puncture wound", "i.e." "crater"); Quck Sam-ik (, "white mountain"); Kobah (, "white sentinel", and "Tukullum" or "Nahcullum" (in the language of the unidentified "Koma tribe").  In 1790, Manuel Quimper of the Spanish Navy set sail from Nootka, a temporary settlement on Vancouver Island, with orders to explore the newly discovered Strait of Juan de Fuca. Accompanying Quimper was first-pilot Gonzalo Lopez de Haro, who drew detailed charts during the six-week expedition. Although Quimper's journal of the voyage does not refer to the mountain, one of Haro's manuscript charts includes a sketch of Mount Baker. The Spanish named the snowy volcano "", as it reminded them of the white-clad monks of the Carmelite Monastery.  The British explorer George Vancouver left England a year later. His mission was to survey the northwest coast of America. Vancouver and his crew reached the Pacific Northwest coast in 1792. While anchored in Dungeness Bay on the south shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Joseph Baker made an observation of Mount Baker, which Vancouver recorded in his journal: Six years later, the official narrative of this voyage was published, including the first printed reference to the mountain. By the mid-1850s, Mount Baker was a well-known feature on the horizon to the explorers and fur traders who traveled in the Puget Sound region. Isaac I. Stevens, the first governor of Washington Territory, wrote about Mount Baker in 1853:

Climbing history.

First European ascent.

Edmund Thomas Coleman, an Englishman who resided in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and a veteran of the Alps, made the first attempt to ascend the mountain in 1866. He chose a route via the Skagit River, but was forced to turn back when local Native Americans refused him passage.  Later that same year, Coleman recruited Whatcom County settlers Edward Eldridge, John Bennett, and John Tennant to aid him in his second attempt to scale the mountain. After approaching via the North Fork of the Nooksack River, the party navigated through what is now known as Coleman Glacier and ascended to within several hundred feet of the summit before turning back in the face of an "overhanging cornice of ice" and threatening weather. Coleman later returned to the mountain after two years. At 4:00 pm on August 17, 1868, Coleman, Eldridge, Tennant and two new companions (David Ogilvy and Thomas Stratton) scaled the summit via the Middle Fork Nooksack River, Marmot Ridge, Coleman Glacier, and the north margin of the Roman Wall.

Geology.

The present-day cone of Mount Baker is relatively young; it is perhaps less than 100,000 years old. The volcano sits atop a similar older volcanic cone called Black Buttes, which was active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago. Much of Mount Baker's earlier geological record eroded away during the last ice age (which culminated 15,000–20,000 years ago), by thick ice sheets that filled the valleys and surrounded the volcano. In the last 14,000 years, the area around the mountain has been largely ice-free, but the mountain itself remains heavily covered with snow and ice.  Isolated ridges of lava and hydrothermally altered rock, especially in the area of Sherman Crater, are exposed between glaciers on the upper flanks of the volcano; the lower flanks are steep and heavily vegetated. Volcanic rocks of Mount Baker and Black Buttes rest on a foundation of non-volcanic rocks. Deposits recording the last 14,000 years at Mount Baker indicate that Mount Baker has not had highly explosive eruptions like those of other volcanoes in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, such as Mount St. Helens, Glacier Peak, or the Mount Meager massif, nor has it erupted frequently. During this period, four episodes of magmatic eruptive activity have been recently recognized.  Magmatic eruptions have produced tephra, pyroclastic flows, and lava flows from summit vents and the Schriebers Meadow Cone. The most destructive and most frequent events at Mount Baker have been lahars or debris flows and debris avalanches; many, if not most, of these were not related to magmatic eruptions, but may have been induced by magma intrusion, steam eruptions, earthquakes, gravitational instability, or possibly even heavy rainfall.

Eruptive history.

Early history.

Research beginning in the late 1990s shows that Mount Baker is the youngest of several volcanic centers in the area and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Cascade Range. The Pliocene Hannegan caldera is preserved northeast of Mount Baker Volcanic activity in the Mount Baker volcanic field began more than one million years ago, but many of the earliest lava and tephra deposits have been removed by glacial erosion. The pale-colored rocks northeast of the modern volcano mark the site of the ancient (1.15 million years old) Kulshan caldera that collapsed after an enormous ash eruption one million years ago. Subsequently, eruptions in the Mount Baker area have produced cones and lava flows of andesite, the rock that constitutes much of other Cascade Range volcanoes such as Rainier, Adams, and Hood. From about 900,000 years ago to the present, numerous andesitic volcanic centers in the area have come and disappeared through glacial erosion. The largest of these cones is the Black Buttes edifice, active between 500,000 and 300,000 years ago and formerly bigger than today's Mount Baker.

Modern craters and cone.

Mount Baker was built from stacks of lava and volcanic breccia prior to the end of the last glacial period, which ended about 15,000 years ago. Two craters are on the mountain. Ice-filled Carmelo Crater is under the summit ice dome. This crater is the source for the last cone-building eruptions The highest point of Mount Baker, Grant Peak, is on the exposed southeast rim of Carmelo Crater, which is a small pile of andesitic scoria lying on top of a stack of lava flows just below. Carmelo Crater is deeply dissected on its south side by the younger Sherman Crater. This crater is south of the summit, and its ice-covered floor is below the summit ice dome. This crater is the site of all Holocene eruptive activity. Hundreds of fumaroles vent gases, primarily,, and.  Lava flows from the summit vent erupted between 30,000 and 10,000 years ago, and during the final stages of edifice construction, blocky pyroclastic flows entered the volcano's southeastern drainages. An eruption from Sherman Crater 6,600 years ago erupted a blanket of ash that extended more than to the east. Today, sulfurous gases reach the surface via two fumarole pathways: Dorr Fumarole, northeast of the summit, and Sherman Crater, south of the summit. Both are sites of hydrothermal alteration, converting lavas to weak, white-to-yellow clays; sulfur is a common mineral around these fumaroles. At Sherman Crater, collapses of this weakened rock generated lahars in the 1840s.

Mazama Park eruptive period: 6,600 years ago.

Around 6,600 years ago, a series of discrete events culminated in the largest tephra-producing eruption in postglacial time at Mount Baker. This is the last episode of undoubted magmatic activity preserved in the geologic record. First, the largest collapse in the history of the volcano occurred from the Roman Wall and transformed into a lahar that was over deep in the upper reaches of the Middle Fork of the Nooksack River. It was at least deep downstream from the volcano. At that time, the Nooksack River is believed to have drained north into the Fraser River; this lahar is unlikely to have reached Bellingham Bay. Next, a small hydrovolcanic eruption occurred at Sherman Crater, triggering a second collapse of the flank just east of the Roman Wall. That collapse also became a lahar that mainly followed the course of the first lahar for at least, and also spilled into tributaries of the Baker River. Finally, an eruption cloud deposited ash as far as downwind to the northeast and east.

Historical activity.

Several eruptions occurred from Sherman Crater during the 19th century; they were witnessed from the Bellingham area. A possible eruption was seen in June 1792 during the Spanish expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés. Their report read, in part: In 1843, explorers reported a widespread layer of newly fallen rock fragments "like a snowfall" and that the forest was "on fire for miles around". These fires were unlikely to have been caused by ashfall, however, as charred material is not found with deposits of this fine-grained volcanic ash, which was almost certainly cooled in the atmosphere before falling. Rivers south of the volcano were reportedly clogged with ash, and Native Americans reported that many salmon perished. Reports of flooding on the Skagit River from the eruption are, however, probably greatly exaggerated. A short time later, two collapses of the east side of Sherman Crater produced two lahars, the first and larger of which flowed into the natural Baker Lake, increasing its level by at least. The location of the 19th-century lake is now covered by waters of the modern dam-impounded Baker Lake. Similar but lower-level hydrovolcanic activity at Sherman Crater continued intermittently for several decades afterward. On 26 November 1860, passengers who were traveling by steamer from New Westminster to Victoria reported that Mount Baker was "puffing out large volumes of smoke, which upon breaking, rolled down the snow-covered sides of the mountain, forming a pleasing effect of light and shade." In 1891, about of rock fell producing a lahar that traveled more than and covered. Activity in the 20th century decreased from the 19th century. Numerous small debris avalanches fell from Sherman Peak and descended the Boulder Glacier; a large one occurred on July 27, 2007. In early March 1975, a dramatic increase in fumarolic activity and snow melt in the Sherman Crater area raised concern that an eruption might be imminent. Heat flow increased more than tenfold. Additional monitoring equipment was installed and several geophysical surveys were conducted to try to detect the movement of magma. The increased thermal activity prompted public officials and Puget Power to temporarily close public access to the popular Baker Lake recreation area and to lower the reservoir's water level by. If those actions had not been taken, significant avalanches of debris from the Sherman Crater area could have swept directly into the reservoir, triggering a disastrous wave that could have caused human fatalities and damage to the reservoir. Other than the increased heat flow, few anomalies were recorded during the geophysical surveys, nor were any other precursory activities observed that would indicate that magma was moving up into the volcano. Several small lahars formed from material ejected onto the surrounding glaciers and acidic water was discharged into Baker Lake for many months.  Activity gradually declined over the next two years, but stabilized at a higher level than before 1975. The increased level of fumarolic activity has continued at Mount Baker since 1975, but no other changes suggest that magma movement is involved.

Current research at Mount Baker.

A considerable amount of research has been done at Mount Baker over the past decade, and it is now among the most-studied of the Cascade volcanoes. Recent and ongoing projects include gravimetric and GPS-based geodetic monitoring, fumarole gas sampling, tephra distribution mapping, new interpretations of the Schriebers Meadow lava flow, and hazards analyses. Mapping of Carmelo and Sherman craters, and interpretations of the eruptive history, continue, as well. The Mount Baker Volcano Research Center maintains an online archive of abstracts of this work, and an extensive references list, as well as photos.

Glaciers and hydrology.

Eleven named glaciers descend from Mount Baker. Two additional glaciers (Hadley Glacier and Sholes Glacier) descend from lower slopes detached from the main glacial mass. The Coleman Glacier is the largest; it has a surface area of. The other large glaciers—which have areas greater than —are Roosevelt Glacier, Mazama Glacier, Park Glacier, Boulder Glacier, Easton Glacier, and Deming Glacier. All retreated during the first half of the century, advanced from 1950–1975 and have been retreating with increasing rapidity since 1980.  Mount Baker is drained on the north by streams that flow into the North Fork Nooksack River, on the west by the Middle Fork Nooksack River, and on the southeast and east by tributaries of the Baker River. Lake Shannon and Baker Lake are the largest nearby bodies of water, formed by two dams on the Baker River.

U.S. Navy.

Two ammunition ships of the United States Navy (traditionally named for volcanoes) have been named after the mountain. The first was USS "Mount Baker" (AE-4), which was commissioned from 1941 to 1947 and from 1951 to 1969. In 1972, the Navy commissioned USS "Mount Baker" (AE-34). She was decommissioned in 1996 and placed in service with the Military Sealift Command as USNS "Mount Baker" (T-AE-34). She was scrapped in 2012.

Mount Baker (Lummi: '; or '), also known as Koma Kulshan or simply Kulshan, is a active glaciated andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the North Cascades of Washington in the United States. Mount Baker has the second-most thermally active crater in the Cascade Range after Mount Saint Helens. About due east of the city of Bellingham, Whatcom County, Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in the Mount Baker volcanic field. While volcanism has persisted here for some 1.5 million years, the current glaciated cone is likely no more than 140,000 years old, and possibly no older than 80–90,000 years. Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation.

Mount Baker ist ein hoher Stratovulkan mit einem eisbedeckten Gipfel im Gebirgszug der Kaskadenkette in Washington (Whatcom County). Er liegt etwa 50 km östlich des Ortes Bellingham und ist nur 64 km von der kanadischen Metropole Vancouver entfernt. Der Vulkan wurde von den Nooksack-Stämmen als „Koma Kulshan“ (deutsch "weißer steiler Berg") bezeichnet. Seinen offiziellen Namen erhielt er vom Leutnant Joseph Baker, der am 30. April 1792 an Bord der "HMS Discovery" unter dem Kommando von George Vancouver den Berg als erster Europäer sichtete.