Early life and education.

Herschbach was born in San Jose, California on June 18, 1932. The eldest of six children, he grew up in a rural area. He graduated from Campbell High School, where he played football. Offered both athletic and academic scholarships to Stanford University, Herschbach chose the academic. His freshman advisor, Harold S. Johnston, hired him as a summer research assistant, and taught him chemical kinetics in his senior year. His master's research involved calculating Arrhenius A-factors for gas-phase reactions. Herschbach received a B.S. in mathematics in 1954 and an M.S. in chemistry in 1955 from Stanford University.  Herschbach then attended Harvard University, where he earned an A.M. in physics in 1956 and a Ph.D. in chemical physics in 1958 under the direction of Edgar Bright Wilson. At Harvard, Herschbach examined tunnel splitting in molecules, using microwave spectroscopy. He was awarded a three-year Junior Fellowship in the Society of Fellows at Harvard, lasting from 1957 to 1959.

Research.

In 1959, Herschbach joined the University of California at Berkeley, where he was appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry and became an Associate Professor in 1961. At Berkeley, he and graduate students George Kwei and James Norris constructed a cross-beam instrument large enough for reactive scattering experiments involve alkali and various molecular partners. His interest in studying elementary chemical processes in molecular-beam reactive collisions challenged an often-accepted belief that "collisions do not occur in crossed molecular beams". The results of his studies of K + CHI were the first to provide a detailed view of an elementary collision, demonstrating a direct rebound process in which the KI product recoiled from an incoming K atom beam. Subsequent studies of K + Br resulted in the discovery that the hot-wire surface ionization detector they were using was potentially contaminated by previous use, and had to be pre-treated to obtain reliable results. Changes to the instrumentation yielded reliable results, including the observation that the K + Br reaction involved a stripping reaction, in which the KBr product scattered forward from the incident K atom beam. As the research continued, it became possible to correlate the electronic structure of reactants and products with the reaction dynamics.  In 1963, Herschbach returned to Harvard University as a professor of chemistry. There he continued his work on molecular-beam reactive dynamics, working with graduate students Sanford Safron and Walter Miller on the reactions of alkali atoms with alkali halides. In 1967, Yuan T. Lee joined the lab as a postdoctoral student, and Herschbach, Lee, and graduate students Doug MacDonald and Pierre LeBreton began to construct a "supermachine" for studying collisions such as Cl + Br and hydrogen and halogen reactions.  His most acclaimed work, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1986 with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi, was his collaboration with Yuan T. Lee on crossed molecular beam experiments. Crossing collimated beams of gas-phase reactants allows partitioning of energy among translational, rotational, and vibrational modes of the product molecules—a vital aspect of understanding reaction dynamics. For their contributions to reaction dynamics, Herschbach and Lee are considered to have helped create a new field of research in chemistry. Herschbach is a pioneer in molecular stereodynamics, measuring and theoretically interpreting the role of angular momentum and its vector properties in chemical reaction dynamics.  In the course of his life's work in research, Herschbach has published over 400 scientific papers. Herschbach has applied his broad expertise in both the theory and practice of chemistry and physics to diverse problems in chemical physics, including theoretical work on dimensional scaling. One of his studies demonstrated that methane is, in fact, spontaneously formed at high-pressure and high-temperature environments such as those deep in the Earth's mantle; this finding is an exciting indication of abiogenic hydrocarbon formation, meaning that the actual amount of hydrocarbons available on Earth might be much larger than conventionally assumed under the assumption that all hydrocarbons are fossil fuels. His recent work also includes a collaboration with Steven Brams studying approval voting.

Science and education.

Hershbach's teaching ranges from graduate seminars on chemical kinetics to an introductory undergraduate course in general chemistry that he taught for many years at Harvard, and described as his "most challenging assignment."  Herschbach has been a strong proponent of science education and science among the general public, and frequently gives lectures to students of all ages, imbuing them with his infectious enthusiasm for science and his playful spirit of discovery. Herschbach has also lent his voice to the animated television show "The Simpsons" for the episode "Treehouse of Horror XIV" where he is seen presenting the Nobel Prize in Physics to Professor Frink.  In October 2010, Herschbach participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students will get to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize-winning scientist over a brown-bag lunch. Herschbach is also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board. Furthermore, Herschbach has participated in the Distinguished Lecture Series of the Research Science Institute (RSI), a summer research program for high school students held at MIT.  Although still an active research professor at Harvard, he joined the Texas A&M University faculty September 1, 2005 as a Professor of Physics, teaching one semester per year in the chemical physics program. As of 2010, he holds the title of Professor Emeritus at Harvard, and remains well known for his involvement as a lecturer and mentor in the Harvard research community. He and his wife Georgene Herschbach also served for several years as the co-Masters of Currier House, where they were highly involved in undergraduate life in addition to their full-time duties.

Public service.

He is a board member of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation and was the chairman of the board for Society for Science & the Public from 1992-2010. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.  He is also an Eagle Scout and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award (DESA).

2016 endorsement for President of USA.

Professor Herschbach publicly endorsed Hillary Clinton for President in 2016.

Family.

Herschbach's wife, Georgene Herschbach, served as the Associate Dean of Harvard College for Undergraduate Academic Programs. Prior to retirement in 2009, she chaired Harvard College's influential Committee on Undergraduate Education.

Awards and honors.

Herschbach is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the Royal Chemical Society of Great Britain. In addition to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, he has received a wide variety of national and international awards. These include the National Medal of Science, the ACS Award in Pure Chemistry, the Linus Pauling Medal, the Irving Langmuir Award, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, and the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal.

Dudley Robert Herschbach (born June 18, 1932) is an American chemist at Harvard University. He won the 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes." Herschbach and Lee specifically worked with molecular beams, performing crossed molecular beam experiments that enabled a detailed molecular-level understanding of many elementary reaction processes. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists".

Dudley Robert Herschbach (* 18. Juni 1932 in San José, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Chemiker. Herschbach wurde 1986 zusammen mit Yuan T. Lee und John C. Polanyi für die Arbeit auf dem Gebiet der Dynamik chemischer Prozesse mit dem Nobelpreis für Chemie ausgezeichnet.


History.

Brabag, sometimes called 'BRABAG', is a portmanteau acronym () denoting the firm's chief inputs and outputs: brown coal (lignite) and gasoline ('benzine').  Upon the ramp-up of the Nazi program of industrial autarky that marked the approach of war, Berlin saw that one of its weakest points was the almost complete absence of crude oil production within German borders; this insight coincided with the emergence in both Hitler's Chancellery and the General Staff of a belief in a blitzkrieg war-fighting strategy that centered on Panzer warfare, buttressed by warplanes carrying out tactical air support. This strategy needed synthetic petroleum products.  Berlin therefore in October 1934 ordered the German chemical conglomerate I.G. Farben to join with a cartel of lignite mineowners and other firms to invest 100.0 million Reichsmarks as an initial tranche of venture capital; these funds were used to set up a new firm, Brabag. The new firm was ordered to distill gasoline and other synthetic petroleum products, of which Germany had very little, from lignite, of which the Germans had an ample supply. Chemists had invented the Bergius process and the Fischer-Tropsch process to accomplish this goal.  Soon plants were built. In 1937, for example, Brabag completed the Brabag II facility in Ruhland-Schwarlheide (the 4th Nazi Germany Fischer-Tropsch plant) to produce gasoline and diesel fuel from lignite coal.

Forced labor.

As Germany deepened its commitment to World War II, Brabag's plants became vital elements of the war effort. Like other strategic firms under the Nazi regime, Brabag was assigned a significant quota of forced labor of conscripts from the occupied nations. One estimate counts 13,000 Nazi concentration camp laborers working for Brabag. Brabag plants were a target of the Oil Campaign of World War II. Production of synthetic petroleum products had been severely damaged by the end of the war in 1945.

Brabag (Braunkohle Benzin AG) was a German firm, planned in 1933 and operating from 1934 until 1945, that distilled synthetic aviation fuel, diesel fuel, gasoline, lubricants, and paraffin wax from lignite. It was an industrial cartel firm closely supervised by the Nazi regime; while it operated, it produced commodities vital to the German military forces before and during World War II. After substantial damage from strategic bombing, the firm and its remaining assets were dissolved at the end of the war.

Die Braunkohle-Benzin AG (kurz: Brabag, auch BRABAG) war eine 1934 als „Pflichtgemeinschaft der deutschen Braunkohlenwirtschaft“ gegründete deutsche Aktiengesellschaft mit Sitz in Berlin am Schinkelplatz 1–2. Unter Verwendung von Braunkohle stellte das Unternehmen bis 1945 in Hydrierwerken an den Standorten Böhlen, Magdeburg, Schwarzheide und Zeitz synthetische Kraftstoffe sowie Schmieröle her.


Concepts.

WebML enables designers to express the core features of a site at a high level, without committing to detailed architectural details. WebML concepts are associated with an intuitive graphic representation, which can be easily supported by CASE tools and effectively communicated to the non-technical members of the site development team (e.g., with the graphic designers and the content producers). WebML also supports an XML syntax, which instead can be fed to software generators for automatically producing the implementation of a Web site. The specification of a site in WebML consists of four orthogonal perspectives:

Design Process.

A typical design process using WebML proceeds by iterating the following steps for each design cycle:

Structural Model.

The fundamental elements of WebML structure model are entities, which are containers of data elements, and relationships, which enable the semantic connection of entities. Entities have named attributes, with an associated type; properties with multiple occurrences can be organized by means of multi-valued components, which corresponds to the classical part-of relationship. Entities can be organized in generalization hierarchies. Relationships may be given cardinality constraints and role names.

HyperText Model.

Composition Model.

The purpose of composition modeling is to define which nodes make up the hypertext contained in the Web site. More precisely, composition modeling specifies content units (units for short), i.e., the atomic information elements that may appear in the Web site, and pages, i.e., containers by means of which information is actually clustered for delivery to the user. In a concrete setting, e.g., an HTML or WML implementation of a WebML site, pages and units are mapped to suitable constructs in the delivery language, e.g., units may map to HTML files and pages to HTML frames organizing such files on the screen.  WebML supports six types of unit to compose an hypertext:

Navigational Model.

Units and pages do not exist in isolation, but must be connected to form a hypertext structure. The purpose of navigation modeling is to specify the way in which the units and pages are linked to form a hypertext. To this purpose, WebML provides the notion of link. There are two variants of links:

Personalization Model.

Personalization is the definition of content or presentation style based on user profile data. In WebML, units, pages, their presentation styles, and site views can be defined so to take user- or group-specific data into account. This can be done in two complementary ways:

Presentational Model.

Presentation modeling is concerned with the actual look and feel of the pages identified by composition modeling. WebML pages are rendered according to a style sheet. A style sheet dictates the layout of pages and the content elements to be inserted into such layout, and is independent of the actual language used for page rendition. For better reusability, two categories of style sheets are provided: untyped style sheets (also called models) describe the page layout independently of its content, and thus can be applied regardless of the mapping of the page to a given concept; typed style sheets are specified at a finer granularity and thus apply only to pages describing specific concepts.

WebML (Web Modeling Language) is a visual notation and a methodology for designing complex data-intensive Web applications. It provides graphical, yet formal, specifications, embodied in a complete design process, which can be assisted by visual design tools.

Die Web Modeling Language (WebML) wird verwendet um Zusammenhänge zwischen Hypertext-Seiten wie beispielsweise Webseiten im Internet darzustellen. WebML baut unter anderem auf UML auf, einer allgemeineren Beschreibungssprache. "WebML" ist gesetzlich geschützt und für die Firma Webratio patentiert.


Early life.

Floyd was born on December 17, 1734 in Brookhaven, Province of New York on Long Island into a family of English and Welsh origins. He was the son of Tabitha (née Smith) Floyd and Nicholl Floyd (1705–1755). Among his siblings was sister Ruth Floyd, who married Brig. Gen. Nathaniel Woodhull; sister Charity Floyd, who married Continental Congressmen Ezra L'Hommedieu; and brother Charles Floyd, who married Margaret Thomas in 1761.  William's great-grandfather was Richard Floyd, who was born in Brecknockshire, Wales in about 1620 and was the last of his brothers to leave England, first visiting Jamestown, Virginia before settling in the Province of New York around 1640 where he practiced law. Around 1688, his grandfather purchased 4,400 acres from Tangier Smith's family in the Mastic Neck of the Town of Brookhaven. William's father Nicoll built a house there in 1723 where William was born.

Career.

After his father's death in 1755, William took over the family farm. He became a member of the Suffolk County Militia in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, becoming Major General. He was a delegate from New York in the First Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776. He was a member of the New York State Senate (Southern District) from 1777 to 1788.  On July 4, 1787, he was elected an Honorary Member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. In March 1789, he was elected to the 1st United States Congress under the new Constitution as an Anti-Administration candidate and served until March 3, 1791. Floyd was a presidential elector in 1792, voting for George Washington and George Clinton. Floyd, for whom the town of Floyd, New York is named, became a resident of Oneida County in 1794.  In 1795, Floyd ran for Lieutenant Governor of New York with Robert Yates on the Democratic-Republican ticket, but they were defeated by Federalists John Jay and Stephen Van Rensselaer. Floyd was again a presidential elector in 1800, voting for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr; and in 1804, voting for Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton. Floyd was again a member of the State Senate (Western District) in 1808.  In 1820, Floyd was again chosen a presidential elector but did not attend the meeting of the electoral college, and Martin Van Buren was appointed to fill the vacancy. In the 1820 Census, when Floyd was 86, he had 6 slaves and 2 free black residents lived in his household at the General William Floyd House in Westernville, New York.

Personal life.

In 1769, Floyd was married to Hannah Jones (1740–1781), who was born in Southampton, New York and was the daughter of William Jones. Together, they were the parents of:  After the death of his first wife in 1781, Floyd remarried to Joanna Strong (1747–1826), who was born in Setauket, New York and was the daughter of Benajah Strong and Martha (née Mills) Strong. Together, they were the parents of:  Floyd died on August 4, 1821 and is buried at the Westernville Cemetery in Oneida County. His widow died in 1826.

Residence and estate.

The William Floyd House, the family home, is located in Mastic Beach, is part of Fire Island National Seashore and is open to visitors. It consists of the home, grounds and a cemetery of the Floyd family. Over the course of 200 years, eight generations of Floyds have managed the 25-room mansion and 613-acre property. Prior to the 20th century, the estate was much larger.

Descendants.

Through his son Nicoll, he was a grandfather of U.S. Representative John Gelston Floyd, and Mary Floyd, who married John Lawrence Ireland (grandson of New York State Senator Jonathan Lawrence).  Through his daughter Catherine, he was the grandfather of Harriet Ashton (née Clarkson) Crosby (1786–1859), and great-grandfather of New York State Senator Clarkson Floyd Crosby, who married Angelica Schuyler, daughter of John Schuyler.

Legacy.

There are several places and institutions named after William Floyd, including:

The Royal Fleet Auxiliary is the fifth fighting arm of the Royal Navy. It is made up of civilian-crewed ships operated by the Ministry of Defence. It provides vital – and highly valued – logistical and operational support to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines. A committed team of personnel makes sure the Royal Navy and Royal Marines are well supplied and well supported, providing medical care, transporting kit, fuel and other essentials all over the world. In addition the RFA provides humanitarian aid, undertakes counter piracy patrols, counter narcotic operations, defence diplomacy together with assisting in preventing conflict or safeguarding the flow of international trade as single units. They are the uniformed civilian branch of the Naval Service, staffed by UK merchant sailors.

Die Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA; deutsch: Königliche Hilfsflotte) ist eine zur Marine gehörende, dem Verteidigungsministerium des Vereinigten Königreichs unterstehende Hilfsflotte. In ihr sind Hilfsschiffe der britischen Royal Navy organisiert. Sie ist eine Flottille der britischen Flotte und wird vom "Commodore RFA" geführt. Die Schiffsnamen beginnen mit dem Kürzel "RFA". Das Personal besteht zum großen Teil aus nach den Regeln der Handelsmarine ausgebildeten Zivilisten, die eine der Royal Navy ähnliche Uniform tragen. Die Flagge der RFA ist das Blue Ensign, der britischen Dienstflagge zur See, mit einem goldenen Anker.


Names in different cultures.

The Rainbow Serpent is known by different names by the many different Aboriginal sub-cultures. The Rainbow Serpent (or Serpents if there are more than one) is known as "Borlung" by the Miali, "Dhakkan" (or "Takkan") by the Kuli, "Kajura" by the Ingarda, "Goorialla" by the Lardil people, "Kunmanggur" by the Murinbata, "Ngalyod" by the Kunwinjku, "Numereji" by the Kakadu, "Taipan" by the Wikmunkan, "Tulloun" by the Mitakoodi, Wagyl by the Noongar, "Wanamangura" by the Talainji, and "Witij"/"Wititj" by the Yolngu. Other names include "Bolung", "Galeru", "Julunggul", "Kanmare", "Langal", "Myndie", "Muit", "Ungur", "Wollunqua", "Wonambi", "Wonungar", "Worombi", "Yero", "Yingarna", and "Yurlungur".  The "Dictionary of World Mythology" (1997) cites "Yurlungur" as the Murngin (Yolngu) name for a great copper python (perhaps copperhead) who is "the great father", the "rainbow serpent."

Development of concept.

Though the concept of the Rainbow Serpent has existed for a long time in Aboriginal Australian cultures, it was introduced to the wider world through the work of anthropologists. In fact, the name "Rainbow Serpent" or "Rainbow Snake" appears to have been coined in English by Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, an anthropologist who noticed the same concept going under different names among various Aboriginal Australian cultures, and called it "the rainbow-serpent myth of Australia." It has been suggested that this name implies that there is only one Rainbow Serpent, when the concept actually varies quite a bit from one Aboriginal culture to another, and should be properly called the Rainbow Serpent myth"s" of Australia. Similarly, it has been suggested that the Serpent's position as the most prominent creator god in the Australian tradition has largely been the creation of non-Aboriginal anthropologists. Another error of the same kind is the way in which Western-educated people, with a cultural stereotype of Greco-Roman or Norse myths, tell the Aboriginal stories in the past tense. For the indigenous people of Australia, the stories are "everywhen"past, present and future.

Characteristics and associations.

Dreamtime (or The Dreaming or Tjukurrpa or Jukurrpa) stories tell of the great spirits and totems during creation, in animal and human form that moulded the barren and featureless earth. The Rainbow Serpent came from beneath the ground and created huge ridges, mountains, and gorges as it pushed upward. The Rainbow Serpent is understood to be of immense proportions and inhabits deep permanent waterholes and is in control of life's most precious resource, water. In some cultures, the Rainbow Serpent is considered to be the ultimate creator of everything in the universe.  In some cultures, the Rainbow Serpent is male; in others, female; in yet others, the gender is ambiguous or the Rainbow Serpent is hermaphroditic or bisexual, thus an androgynous entity. Some commentators have suggested that the Rainbow Serpent is a phallic symbol, which fits its connection with fertility myths and rituals. When the Serpent is characterized as female or bisexual, it is sometimes depicted with breasts. Other times, the Serpent has no particular gender. The Serpent has also been known to appear as a scorpion or another animal or creature. In some stories, the Serpent is associated with a bat, sometimes called a "flying fox" in Australian English, engaged in a rivalry over a woman. Some scholars have identified other creatures, such as a bird, crocodile, dingo, or lizard, as taking the role of the Serpent in stories. In all cases, these animals are also associated with water. The Rainbow Serpent has also been identified with the bunyip, a fearful, water-hole dwelling creature in Australian mythology.  The sometimes unpredictable Rainbow Serpent (in contrast to the unyielding sun) replenishes the stores of water, forming gullies and deep channels as the Rainbow Serpent slithers across the landscape. In this belief system, without the Serpent, no rain would fall and the Earth would dry up. In other cultures, the Serpent is said to come to stop the rain. In addition to the identification with the rainbow, the Serpent is also identified with a prismatic halo around the moon that can be regarded as a sign of rain. The Rainbow Serpent is sometimes associated with human blood, especially circulation and the menstrual cycle, and considered a healer. Thunder and lightning are said to stem from when the Rainbow Serpent is angry, and the Serpent can even cause powerful rainstorms and cyclones. Quartz crystal and seashells are also associated with the Rainbow Serpent and are used in rituals to invoke it. The identification with quartz crystal presumably results from its prism-like appearance.

Serpent stories.

Stories about the Rainbow Serpent have been passed down from generation to generation. The Serpent story may vary however, according to environmental differences. Tribes of the monsoonal areas depict an epic interaction of the sun, Serpent, and wind in their Dreamtime stories, whereas tribes of the central desert experience less drastic seasonal shifts and their stories reflect this. It is known both as a benevolent protector of its people (the groups from the country around) and as a malevolent punisher of law breakers. The Rainbow Serpent's mythology is closely linked to land, water, life, social relationships, and fertility. The Rainbow Serpent often takes part in transitions from adolescence to adulthood for young men and swallows them to vomit them up later.  The most common motif in Rainbow Serpent stories is the Serpent as creator, with the Serpent often bringing life to an empty space.  The most common Rainbow Serpent myth is the story of the Wawalag or Wagilag sisters. According to legend, the sisters are traveling together when the older sister gives birth, and her blood flows to a waterhole where the Rainbow Serpent lives. In another version of the tale, the sisters are traveling with their mother, Kunapipi, all of whom know ancient secrets, and the Serpent is merely angered by their presence in its area. The Rainbow Serpent then traces the scent back to the sisters sleeping in their hut, a metaphor for the uterus. The Rainbow Serpent enters, a symbolic representation of a snake entering a hole, and eats them and their children. However, the Rainbow Serpent regurgitates them after being bitten by an ant, and this act creates Arnhem Land. Now, the Serpent speaks in their voices and teaches sacred rituals to the people living there.  Another story is from the Great Sandy Desert area in the northern part of Western Australia. This story explains how the Wolfe Creek Crater, or Kandimalal, was created by a star falling from heaven, creating a crater in which a Rainbow Serpent took up residence, though in some versions it is the Serpent which falls from heaven and creates the crater. The story sometimes continues telling of how an old hunter chased a dingo into the crater and got lost in a tunnel created by the Serpent, never to be found again, with the dingo being eaten and spat out by the Serpent.  Another legend from Western Australia tells of how Rainbow Serpents, or Wagyls, smashed and pushed boulders around to form trails on Mount Matilda, along with creating waterways such as the Avon River.  A myth from the Northern Territory tells of how a great mother arrives from the sea, traveling across Australia and giving birth to the various Aboriginal tribes. In some versions, the great mother is accompanied by the Rainbow Serpent (or Lightning Snake), who brings the wet season of rains and floods.  Some Aboriginals in the Kimberley regions believe that it was the Rainbow Serpent who deposited spirit-children throughout pools in which women become impregnated when they wade in the water. This process is sometimes referred to as "netting a fish".  A more children-friendly version of the Rainbow Serpent myth tells of how a serpent rose through the Earth to the surface, where she summoned frogs, tickled their bellies to release water to create pools and rivers, and is now known as the mother of life. Another children-friendly tale is told in Dick Roughsey's children's book, which tells how the Rainbow Serpent creates the landscape of Australia by thrashing about and, by tricking and swallowing two boys, ends up creating the population of Australia by various animal, insect, and plant species.

Possible origins in nature.

The Carpet snake is considered a form that the Rainbow Serpent can take by the Walmadjari people. Furthermore, four snakes may have served as inspiration for the Rainbow Serpent. These include the Scrub or Amethystine python, the Taipan, and the File snake, each of which possesses a characteristic that was associated with the Rainbow Serpent, however the most likely inspiration for the Rainbow Serpent is speculated to be the Water python ("Liasis fuscus") In Queensland, a fossil of a snake was found, and they believe that it came from the prehistoric family of large snakes that may have inspired the original Rainbow Serpent. "Wonambi" is a genus that consisted of two species of very large snakes. These species were not pythons, like Australia's other large constrictors of the genus "Morelia", and are currently classified in the extinct family Madtsoiidae that became extinct elsewhere in the world 55 million years in the past. Aboriginal people describe this serpent as having "hair" around its head and face.

Role in traditional culture.

In addition to stories about the Rainbow Serpent being passed down from generation to generation, the Rainbow Serpent has been worshiped through rituals and has also inspired cultural artifacts such as artwork and songs, a tradition which continues today. There are many ancient rituals associated with the Rainbow Serpent that are still practiced today. The myth of the Wawalag sisters marks the importance of the female menstruation process and led to the establishment of the Kunapipi blood ritual of the goddess, in which the indigenous Australians allegorically recreate the Rainbow Serpent eating the Wawalag sisters through dance and pantomime, and can be regarded as a fertility ritual.  Female menstruation is sacred to many indigenous Australian cultures because it distinguishes the time when a female is capable of bringing life into the world, putting a woman on the same level of creative abilities as the Rainbow Serpent. It is for this reason that men will attempt to mimic this holy process by cutting their arms and/or penises and letting their blood run over their own bodies, each other's bodies, and even into a woman's uterus. Men will sometimes mix their blood with a women's menstrual blood, letting them flow together in a ceremonial unification of the sexes.  The earliest known rock drawings of the Rainbow Serpent date back to more than 6,000 years ago. Because of its connections with fertility, the Rainbow Serpent is often illustrated as a vagina, and vice versa. Some rock art has been discovered in which the Rainbow Serpent was drawn mouth open and tongue out to represent the vaginal opening and streaming menstrual blood.  The Rainbow Serpent is also identified as a healer and can pass on its properties as a healer to humans through a ritual.

Influence in modern culture.

The Rainbow Serpent, in addition to the continuation of traditional beliefs (which can be the subject of religious controversy), is often referenced in modern culture by providing inspiration for art, film, literature, music, religion, and social movements. For example, The Rainbow Serpent Festival, an annual music festival in Australia, and the Rainbow Serpent Project, a series of films which document the filmmaker's journey to various sacred sites around the Earth, are both inspired and named after the creature.  Furthermore, the Rainbow Serpent is used in art as a subject, even as an assignment in art classes. For children, it is often used to teach colors and symbolism; for older art students, it is used to teach painting techniques. Many Aboriginal Australian artists continue to be inspired by the Rainbow Serpent and use it as a subject in their art.  The Rainbow Serpent has also appeared as a character in literature. The Lardil people's Dreaming story of the Rainbow Serpent was retold in Dick Roughsey's award-winning Australian children's book "The Rainbow Serpent"; the Rainbow Serpent has also appeared as a character in comic books such as Hellblazer.  The Rainbow Serpent can still serve a religious role today, particularly for Aboriginal Australians, but some Aboriginal Australians who are Christians reject the belief and resent its identification with Aboriginal culture. Some New Age religions and spirituality movements around the world have now also adopted the Rainbow Serpent as an icon.  Similarly, the Rainbow Serpent can inspire social movements. Art historian Georges Petitjean has suggested that the identification of the Rainbow Serpent with various genders and sexualities helps to explain why the rainbow flag has been adopted as the symbol of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities. Politically, for example, the Rainbow Serpent was adopted as the symbol of an anti-uranium mining campaign in Australia, using the notion that the mining would disturb the Serpent and cause it to seek revenge as a metaphor for environmental destruction.

The Rainbow Serpent or Rainbow Snake is a common deity often seen as a creator god, known by numerous names in different Australian Aboriginal languages, and a common motif in the art and religion of Aboriginal Australia. Not all of the myths of the ancestral being link a rainbow with the snake and not all describe the being as a snake, but there is usually a link with water or rain. Some scholars have suggested that the link between the two suggests the cycle of the seasons, for example blue (winter), red (summer), yellow (spring) and orange (autumn), and the importance of water in human life. When the rainbow is seen in the sky, it is said to be the Rainbow Serpent moving from one waterhole to another and the divine concept explained why some waterholes never dried up when drought struck.

Die Regenbogenschlange (engl. "Rainbow Serpent") ist eine zentrale Figur der Mythologie der Aborigines, der australischen Ureinwohner. Sie ist zweigeschlechtlich und ein wichtiges Wesen der Traumzeit. Die Regenbogenschlange formt in ihrer Erscheinung als weiblicher Erdgeist auf der Erde Berge, Täler und Wasserlöcher. In ihrer männlichen Erscheinung als Sonne schafft sie den Regenbogen. Das Motiv findet sich auch in der modernen australischen Kunst.


History and origins.

Early years.

The Fringe started life when eight theatre companies turned up uninvited to the inaugural Edinburgh International Festival in 1947. With the International Festival using the city's major venues, these companies took over smaller, alternative venues for their productions. Seven performed in Edinburgh, and one undertook a version of the medieval morality play "Everyman" in Dunfermline Abbey, about 20 miles north, across the River Forth in Fife. These groups aimed to take advantage of the large assembled theatre crowds to showcase their own alternative theatre. Although at the time it was not recognised as such, this was the first Edinburgh Festival Fringe.  This meant that two defining features of the future Fringe were established at the very beginning – the lack of official invitations to perform and

1960s and 1970s.

In the 60s and 70s, the Fringe began to establish its reputation for size and variety and the tension between it and the more formal International Festival became of mutual benefit.  The artistic credentials of the Fringe were established by the creators of the Traverse Theatre, John Calder, Jim Haynes and Richard Demarco, in 1963. While their original objective was to maintain something of the Festival atmosphere in Edinburgh all year round, the Traverse Theatre quickly and regularly presented cutting-edge drama to an international audience at both the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe during August. It set a standard to which other companies on the Fringe aspired. The Traverse is occasionally referred

1980s.

The early 1980s saw the arrival of the "super-venue" – locations that contained multiple performing spaces. By 1981 when William Burdett-Coutts set up the Assembly Theatre in the empty Georgian building Assembly Rooms on George Street (formerly the EIF Festival Club), the investment in staging, lighting and sound meant that the original amateur or student theatricals were left behind. In the same year, the YMCA in South St Andrew Street, which had been an important venue since the early days, closed. However, the subsequent rise in prominence of the Assembly Rooms meant there was now a balance in the Fringe between the Old Town and the New Town, with Princes Street in the middle.  Fringe Sunday started in the High Street in 1981 and moved, through pressure of popularity, to Holyrood Park in 1983. Fringe Sunday was held on the

1990s and 2000s.

Acts such as The Jim Rose Circus who performed in 2008 and Tokyo Shock Boys who performed in 1994.  The Fringe Club ceased operation in 2004, but various venues still provide "the Best of the Fest" and similar.  A computerised booking system was first installed in the early 1990s, allowing tickets to be bought at a number of locations around the city. The internet began to have an impact in 2000 with the launch of the Fringe's official website, which sold over half a million tickets online by 2005. The following year, a Half Price Ticket Tent, run in association with "Metro" newspaper, started offering special ticket prices for different shows each day. This sold 45,000 tickets in its first year.  In 2008, the Fringe faced the biggest crisis in its history when the computerised ticketing system failed. The events surrounding the failed box office software led to the resignation of Fringe Director Jon Morgan after only one full year in post. The resultant financial loss suffered by the Fringe Society was estimated at £300,000, which it was forced to meet from its reserves, although other sources report this at £900,000.

The Fringe today.

In 2016, Shona McCarthy, who had led Derry-Londonderry's term as UK City of Culture, took over

Venues.

Fringe venues come in all shapes and sizes, with use being made of nearly any viable space that is available, from regular theatres (e.g. the Traverse or Bedlam Theatre), function rooms (e.g. the Assembly Rooms), churches and church halls (e.g. the Quaker Meeting House, Paradise in Augustines), lecture theatres (including the notable George Square Theatre), conference centres, other university rooms and spaces, bars and pubs, temporary structures (The Famous Spiegeltent and the Udderbelly), schools, a public toilet, the back of a taxi, a double-decker bus and even in the audience's own homes.  The groups that operate the venues are also diverse: some are commercial and others not-for-profit; some operate year-round, while others exist only to run venues at the Fringe. Some are local, others are based in London and elsewhere and transfer to Edinburgh for

Shows.

Notable shows.

Many notable original shows originated at the Fringe and it has helped establish the careers of many writers and performers, including Rowan Atkinson, Steven Berkoff, Jo Brand, Billy Connolly, Ben Elton, Eddie Izzard, Stephen Fry, Tim Minchin, and Tadeusz Kantor.  In 1960, Alan Bennett, Dudley Moore, Peter Cook and Jonathan Miller performed at the Royal Lyceum Theatre in "Beyond the Fringe", introducing a new wave of British satire and heralding a change in attitudes towards politicians and the establishment. Ironically, this show was put together by the Edinburgh International Festival as a rebuff

People.

Veteran performers.

Arthur Smith, Paul Merton, Barry Cryer and Richard Herring are among the comedians who have performed at more Edinburgh Fringe festivals than anyone else. Arthur Smith has performed regularly at the Festival for over 40 years (since 1977), Paul

Officials and administrators.

The first chair of the board of directors was Lord Grant, a High Court judge, who gave way in 1970 to the actor Andrew Cruickshank. He was succeeded in 1983 by Jonathan Miller, and then by Elizabeth Smith, Baroness Smith (widow of former Labour Leader John Smith). The current chair is Professor Sir Timothy O'Shea, who succeeded Baroness Smith in 2012.  The first full-time Fringe chief was John Milligan, who had worked for the Arts Council and been a researcher with BBC Scotland. He left in 1976 to run the Craigmillar Festival, and was succeeded by Alistair Moffat, who had been involved in running the first St Andrews Festival in 1971 and had organised a small festival

Promoters and artistic directors.

The Fringe has made the careers of many on the artistic and organisational side of the Fringe. William

Ethos.

The Fringe is an open access festival. The role of the Fringe Society is solely to facilitate the festival, concentrating mainly on the challenging logistics of organising such a large event. Alistair Moffat (Fringe administrator 1976–1981) summarised the role of the Society when he said, "As a direct result of the wishes of the participants, the Society had been set up to help the performers that come to Edinburgh and to promote them collectively to the public. It did not come together so that groups could be invited, or in some way artistically vetted. What was performed and how it was done was left entirely to each Fringe group". This approach is now sometimes referred to as an "unjuried festival", "open access arts festival" or a "fringe festival."  Over the years, this approach has led to adverse criticism about the quality of the Fringe. Much of this criticism comes from individual arts critics in national newspapers, hard-line aficionados of the Edinburgh International Festival, and occasionally from the Edinburgh International Festival itself.  The Fringe's own position on this debate may be summed up by Michael Dale (Fringe Administrator 1982–1986)

Influence.

The concept of fringe theatre has been copied around the world. The largest and most celebrated of these spawned festivals are Adelaide Fringe (established 1960 and second biggest in the world), National Arts Festival in Machanda, formerly Grahamstown, South Africa (1973), and Edmonton International Fringe Festival (1982). The number of such events continues to grow, particularly in the US and Canada. (In the case of Edinburgh, the Fringe is an addition to the Festival proper, being officially known as the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Where there is no pre-existing Festival to be added to, such as New York International Fringe Festival (est. 1997), the word comes before the word "festival".)  In August 2016, the Adelaide Fringe began an official partnership with Edinburgh Fringe.  In the field of drama, the Edinburgh Fringe has premièred several plays, most notably "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead" by Tom Stoppard (1966) and "Moscow Stations" (1994), which starred Tom Courtenay. Over the years, it has

Controversies.

Subject matter.

The freedom to put on any show has led periodically to controversy when individual tastes in sexual explicitness or religion have been contravened. This has brought some into conflict with local city councillors. There have been the occasional performing groups who have deliberately tried

Ticket prices.

In the mid-1990s, only the occasional top show charged £10 per seat, while the average price was £5–£7; in 2006, prices were frequently over £10, and reached £20 for the first time in 2006, for a one-hour show. Reasons people put forward for the increases include: increasing costs of hiring large venues, theatre licences and related costs—and the price of accommodation, which is expensive for performers as well as for audiences.  In the

Costs to performers.

Putting on a show at the Fringe with the big venues can be costly to performers, due to registration fees, venue hire, cost of accommodation, and travel to Edinburgh. In recent years venue costs and the need

Costs to venues.

Putting on shows is costly to venues as well, due to theatre licence fees which by 2009 had risen 800% in the preceding three years, and were eight times as high as fees in English cities, starting at £824 for

Pay-To-Play.

In 2012, there was criticism of the increasing commercialism of the Pay-To-Play fringe venues who charge acts to perform in advance of the Fringe. In many cases venue costs such as: venue rents / guarantees, compulsory marketing and various deductions mean that performers are being charged more than they can

Domination by comedy.

The comedy section has grown over recent decades to become the biggest section of the programme. The 2008 Fringe marked the first time that comedy has made up the largest category of entertainment. This has led to criticism that it has changed the nature of the

Work and pay conditions.

In July 2017, a campaign was set up to raise awareness of and challenge alleged poor working conditions during the Fringe. The campaign received

Reviews and awards.

Sources of reviews.

For many groups at the Fringe, the ultimate goal is a favourable review—which, apart from the welcome kudos, may help minimise financial losses from putting on the show.  Edinburgh based newspaper "The Scotsman" has been integral to the Fringe since the start, and has become known for its comprehensive festival coverage in August. Originally, it aimed to review every show on the Fringe. Now they are more selective, as there are simply too many shows to cover, although they do see almost every new play being staged as part of the Fringe's theatre programme, because of their Fringe First awards. For many years, the Scotsman's Arts Editor, Allen Wright was a familiar figure at the Fringe and today, the young critics' award is named in his honour.  Other Scottish media outlets that provide coverage include: "The Herald", "Scotland on Sunday", "Sunday Herald" and the Scottish edition of "Metro". Scottish arts and entertainment magazines "The List", "The Skinny"

Awards.

There are a growing number of

Statistics.

The first Fringe featured eight companies performing in five venues. By 1959, there were 19 companies; by 1969, 57; by 1979, 324. In 1981, there were 494, and the growth of the festival began to slow. But by 1999, there were over 600 companies giving 15,000 performances and in 2010, 1,900 giving 40,000.  Statistics for 2011 Edinburgh Festival Fringe concluded that it was the largest on record: there were over 40,000 performances of over 2,500 different shows in 258 venues. Ticket sales amounted to around 1.8 million. There are now 12 full-time members of staff.  Of the shows, theatre had been the largest genre in terms of number of shows until 2008, when it was overtaken by comedy, which has been the major growth area over the last 20 years. At the 2015 Fringe comedy was the biggest artform by number of shows, followed by theatre. The exact breakdown was: 34% comedy, 27% theatre, 14% music, 5% children's shows, 4% each cabaret/variety, dance/circus/physical theatre, spoken word, events, 3% musicals/opera, 2% exhibitions.  The 2015 Fringe issued an estimated 2,298,090 tickets for 50,459 performances of 3,314 shows in 313 venues over 25 days; the 2016 Fringe issued an estimated 2,475,143 tickets for 50,266 performances of 3,269 shows; and the 2017 Fringe 2,696,884 tickets for 53,232 performances of 3,398 shows.  In addition to ticketed, programmed events, the Fringe Street Events hosted by Virgin Money run each day of the festival, primarily on the Royal Mile and at the Mound Precinct.

The Edinburgh Festival Fringe (also referred to as The Fringe or Edinburgh Fringe, or Edinburgh Fringe Festival) is the world's largest arts festival, which in 2018 spanned 25 days and featured more than 55,000 performances of 3,548 different shows in 317 venues. Established in 1947 as an alternative to the Edinburgh International Festival, it takes place annually in Edinburgh, Scotland, in the month of August. The Edinburgh Festival Fringe has become a world-leading celebration of arts and culture, surpassed only by the Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in terms of global ticketed events. As an event it "has done more to place Edinburgh in the forefront of world cities than anything else".

Das Edinburgh Festival Fringe (auch "Edinburgh Fringe" oder nur "The Fringe") ist das weltweit größte Kulturfestival und findet jährlich im August in Edinburgh statt. 2015 bot es über eine Dauer von 25 Tagen 50.459 Aufführungen von 3.314 Shows.


Personnel.

The Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS) was founded on 12 May 1992 from the remnants of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from which Bosnia and Herzegovina had seceded the same year. When the Bosnian War erupted, the JNA formally discharged 80,000 Bosnian Serb troops. These troops, who were allowed to keep their heavy weapons, formed the backbone of the newly formed Army of the Republika Srpska.  Aside from being made up almost entirely of ethnic Serb officers and recruits from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the VRS also included ca. 4,000 foreign Orthodox Christian volunteers. 1,000-1,500 of these came from Russia, and Bulgaria, with 700 volunteers originating from Russia specifically. 100 Greeks also volunteered to fight on the side of the Bosnian Serbs, forming the Greek Volunteer Guard which allegedly participated in the Srebrenica massacre.

Post-war status and abolishment.

After the war, the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina had two armies, that of the VRS and the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (AFBiH). AFBiH was itself composed out of two elements, the ARBiH and HVO. The two armies functioned without a common command, on the principle of "non-intervention in the affairs of the other". Bisera Turković noted that it was 'therefore questionable whether in say a foreign attack on Sarajevo [...the VRS] would defend this capital city'. The existence of the two separate armies was one of the factors impeding civil-military relations development. The VRS conducted demining.  In 2003 the army began to integrate into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2005 a fully integrated unit of Serbs, Bosniaks, and Croats was deployed to augment the US-led coalition forces in Iraq. On 6 June 2006, it was fully integrated into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina controlled by the Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Leadership.

The supreme commander of the VRS was General Ratko Mladić, now indicted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for genocide, as are other high-ranking Serb officers. Mladić was arrested in Serbia on 26 May 2011.

Organization.

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia stated that: "In July 1995, the Armed Forces of the Republika Srpska were under the command and control of the Commander-in-Chief, Radovan Karadzic. His headquarters was in Pale.  Within the framework of the VRS, immediately subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief, was the Main Staff of the VRS, headquartered in Han Pijesak and commanded by General Ratko Mladic. It was the responsibility of the Commander of the Main Staff to issue regulations, orders and instructions regarding the implementation of orders by the Commander-in-Chief, and to discharge the command duties delegated to him by the Commander-in-Chief. The Main Staff of the VRS consisted of staff officers and staff support personnel, as well as some specialised military units such as: the 65th Protection Regiment, designed to provide protection and combat services for the Main Staff; and the 10th Sabotage Detachment, a unit trained for operations behind enemy lines and other special combat assignments.  The vast majority of the fighting force of the VRS itself was divided into six geographically-based Corps, all subordinate to, and under the command of, General Mladic and, in turn, the Commander-in-Chief, Radovan Karadzic. In July 1995, the six Corps were the Drina Corps, the 1st Krajina Corps, the 2nd Krajina Corps, the Sarajevo-Romanija Corps, the Hercegovina Corps and the East Bosnia Corps."

Republika Srpska Air Force.

Formerly known as "Ratno Vazduhoplovstva i Protiv Vazdušna Odbrana Vojske Republike Srpske" or "RV i PVO RS". Beginning on 1 June 2004, the Republika Srpska Air Force was officially called, "Prvi Puk Vazduhoplovstva i Protiv Vazdušna Odbrana Vojske Republike Srpske", also known as 1st Aviation Regiment and Air Defence Force of the Republic of Srpska's Army.

The Army of Republika Srpska (; ВРС/VRS), commonly referred to in English as the Bosnian Serb Army, was the military of Republika Srpska (RS), the self-proclaimed Serb secessionist republic, a territory within the newly independent Bosnia and Herzegovina (formerly part of Yugoslavia), which it defied. Active during the Bosnian War (1992–95), it continued to exist as the armed forces of RS, one of two entities making up Bosnia and Herzegovina, until 2006 when it was integrated into the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Forces of the VRS perpetrated the Srebrenica massacre in 1995.

Die Armee der Republika Srpska (, kurz BPC/"VRS") umfasste von 1992 bis 2006 die Streitkräfte der Republika Srpska innerhalb von Bosnien und Herzegowina.


Overview.

Development history.

Motorsport division of BMW headed by Jochen Neerpasch had been wanting to compete in motorsports using a car developed for competition racing in order to compete with arch rival Porsche in Group-5 racing, thus the development of the M1 was initiated. Neerpasch, who was head of the development program stressed that the car was to be strictly mid-engine in order to outclass its competitors. As BMW wasn't able to build 400 road going examples of the car in the required time period as stipulated by the rules, the company partnered with Lamborghini to work out the details of the car's chassis, assemble prototypes and manufacture the vehicles. The tubular steel space frame chassis was the work of Gianpaolo Dallara but soon Lamborghini's financial position and the possibility of the car's production by the Italian manufacturer became bleak and BMW reassumed control over the project in April 1978, after seven prototypes were built. The delay in production and the changes in Group 5 rules forced the company to compete in Group 4 racing with the car.  The M1 coupé was hand-built between 1978 and 1981 under the motorsport division of BMW as a homologation special for sports car racing. The fibre glass body was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, taking inspiration from the 1972 BMW Turbo concept car. Since the engineering of the car was still incomplete, a group of former Lamborghini engineers had founded a company named Italengineering which offered to complete the car's design. Less than 10 miles away from the Lamborghini shop, the engineering for the M1 was finished.

Engine and transmission.

The BMW M1 is the first car to be solely developed by BMW M and employs a M88/1 petrol six-cylinder engine with Kugelfischer-Bosch mechanical fuel injection and Magneti-Marelli ignition system. The engine was developed by Paul Rosche, who was also responsible for the S14 inline-4 engine and the S70/2 V12 engine. A version of this engine was later used in the South African version of the 745i, of which 209 examples were built between 1984 and 1986, as well as the E24 M6/M635CSi and E28 M5. The engine has six separate throttle bodies, twin-cams, 4 valves per cylinder, and generates a power output of at 6,500 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm in the road version, giving the car a top speed of. The engine was mated to a 5-speed manual transmission made by ZF Friedrichshafen equipped with a 40% locking limited slip differential.

Steering, suspension and brakes.

The M1 has an unassisted rack and pinion steering, double wishbone suspension system with adjustable coil springs and Bilstein gas filled dampers. The road car had softer suspension bushings to have better ride quality and tractability.  The ventilated brakes of the car measured at the front and at the rear and were constructed from steel. The M1 used special Campagnolo alloy wheels measuring 7x16-inches at the front and 8x16-inches at the rear fitted with Pirelli P7 tyres (having sizes of 205/55 VR15 at the front and 225/50 VR15s at the rear).

Interior.

The M1 has a half-leather and half-cloth interior. Its motorsport roots meant that the car had a basic interior layout with many parts sourced from other BMW models. The interior had amenities such as air-conditioning, power windows and a stereo but had unadjustable seats and only had a left hand drive configuration.

Production.

The fibre glass body of the M1 was manufactured by Italian firm Italina Resina which was located in Modena, Italy. The chassis was manufactured by another Modenese firm, Marchesi. The body of the car was completed by Italdesign at their manufacturing facility located in Turin along with the interior.  The partly finished cars were then delivered to German specialist manufacturer Baur where final assembly took place by hand. The hand-built M88/1 engines were supplied by BMW from Munich to be installed in the cars. The completed cars were shipped to BMW Motorsport in Munich for final inspection and delivery. Only 453 production cars were built, making it one of BMW's rarest models. Out of the 453, 399 were road going units while 53 were made for motorsport.

Accolades.

The M1 had various successes in motorsports. In 2004, "Sports Car International" placed the car at number ten on their list of top sports cars of the 1970s.

Note.

The M1 is not related to BMW's 1 Series compact executive car which started production in the 2004 model year, nor is it related to the BMW 1 Series M Coupé which started production in the 2010 model year and is a high performance variant of the 1 Series.

Motorsport.

In 1979 the head of BMW Motorsport, Jochen Neerpasch, devised a one-make championship using racing modified M1s. The series was created to aid BMW in building enough cars to enter the group 4 classification in the World Championship for Makes. The new series, known as the "Procar BMW M1 Championship", served as a support series for Formula One, and included many Formula One drivers in identical cars.  The series ran for two years, with Niki Lauda winning the 1979 season, and Nelson Piquet the 1980 season. After BMW met the standards for group 4, the Procars were used by various teams in the world championship as well as other national series.  The M1 was also campaigned at the 24 Hours of Le Mans from 1981 to 1986 where it proved competitive. The car was classified as a Group B car for Le Mans purposes, as Group B was also planned for GT class for road races, but were instead eclipsed by Group C prototypes.  A M1 Pro Car was also converted to Group B rally spec by BMW France for the 1982 season. The car was campaigned for the 1983 season as well before the car was entered solely by the Motul privateer racing team for the 1984 season. The 1984 season proved to be the most successful for the M1 as former ERC champion Bernard Béguin won back-to-back at Rallye de La Baule and Rallye de Lorraine that season, and even claimed an outright ERC podium at Rally d’Antibes four months later. The car was not campaigned further after 1984.

Commemorative cars and spiritual successor.

M1 Homage concept.

In April 2008, BMW unveiled the M1 Homage concept, to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the M1. The concept vehicle uses a mid-engine layout that borrows styling cues from both the original M1 and the BMW Turbo show car.  The M1 Homage concept was first shown to the public at the of 2008. The design was penned by Giorgetto Giugiaro who got his idea from the BMW Turbo concept designed by Paul Bracq. The BMW Turbo had many technical and advanced innovations from BMW that were part of the inspiration of the M1 Homage concept. The front of the car differs the most from the other parts of the car. The front sports double head lights which are not the same as pop-up type that are on the original M1, but the usual trademark of the kidney grilles is present. The M1 Homage also incorporates the double badge on the back of the car like the original M1. There are no photos of the interior of the car or of the car in action, nor have the specifications of the car been released as the car was meant only to be a design exercise.

Vision EfficientDynamics concept and the BMW i8.

After the M1, BMW designed some mid engined concept cars but none of them inspired a production car until 2013, when the Vision EfficientDynamics concept led to the production of the i8. The BMW i8 is based on the Vision EfficientDynamics concept, which is a range-extender electric car with a three-cylinder turbocharged petrol engine. The production car was designed by Benoit Jacob. Series production of customer vehicles began in April 2014. It is also the first mass-produced mid-engine BMW automobile since the M1.

Vision M Next concept.

The Vision M Next is a plug-in hybrid concept sports car that was showcased in June 2019. The design is partially inspired from the M1, such as louvered rear windows and BMW roundels that is positioned inside the taillamps. It is powered by the "Power PHEV" drivetrain system that offers the choice between all-wheel-drive and rear-wheel-drive, with either all-electric propulsion or the power of a turbocharged four-cylinder petrol engine. The total system output is claimed at. It also has a claimed 0 to acceleration time of 3 seconds and top speed of. The maximum range when driving in all-electric mode is claimed to be.

The BMW M1 (model code E26) is a mid-engined sports car produced by German automotive manufacturer BMW from 1978 to 1981.

Der BMW M1 (interne Bezeichnung E26) war ein Supersportwagen von BMW mit längs eingebautem Mittelmotor und Hinterradantrieb. Von Herbst 1978 bis Ende 1981 wurden 460 Fahrzeuge hergestellt.


Tennis career.

Costa began playing tennis at the age of five. He first came to the tennis world's attention as an outstanding junior player. In 1993, he reached the French Open junior final and won the Orange Bowl. He turned professional later that year and quickly established a reputation as a strong clay court player. Spanish former player and commentator for Spanish television Andrés Gimeno used to call him "the man with two forehands", because he could hit with the same accuracy and strength both forehand and backhand. In 1994, he won two challenger series events and was named the ATP's Newcomer of the Year.  Costa won his first top-level singles title in 1995 at Kitzbühel, beating the "King of Clay", Thomas Muster, in a five set final, and it was Muster's first of his only 2 losses on clay in 1995. Costa ended Muster's streak of 40 consecutive clay match wins and his 11 consecutive final wins. Costa won three further titles in 1996. In 1997, he won another two singles titles and was part of the Spanish team that won the World Team Cup. He won another two singles titles in 1998, including the Tennis Masters Series event in Hamburg and played at magnificent level at the French Open, only a brilliant Marcelo Rios could stop him at fourth round, but he established the bases for his future winning in 2002. Three further titles followed in 1999.  In 2000, Costa helped Spain win its first Davis Cup. Despite being knocked out in the first round in men's singles, he also captured a bronze medal in the men's doubles at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, partnering Álex Corretja.  Going into the French Open in 2002, Costa had not won a tour title of any kind since 1999 and was not considered to be among the favorites. Seeding 20th, he defeated Richard Gasquet, Nikolay Davydenko and Andrea Gaudenzi to reach the fourth round, where he defeated two time defending-champion and former world No. 1 Gustavo Kuerten in straight sets. He followed up with a five-set victory over Argentina's Guillermo Cañas in a quarterfinal. He then defeated fellow-Spaniard, former world No. 2 and long-time friend Àlex Corretja in a four-set semifinal. In the final, Costa came up against another Spaniard, future world No. 1, Juan Carlos Ferrero. Ferrero had been in fine form in the run-up to the event and most observers considered him to be the heavy favourite going into the final. But Costa won in four sets, 6–1, 6–0, 4–6, 6–3, to claim his first Grand Slam title. Costa destroyed Ferrero, who could only win nine points during Costa's service games in the first 2 sets. The win propelled him to his career-high singles ranking of World No. 6 in July 2002.  Coming into the French Open as defending-champion in 2003, Costa spent a total of 21 hours and 15 minutes on court, winning four five-setters before eventually being knocked-out in a semifinal by Ferrero (who went on to win the title).  During his career, Costa won 12 top-level singles titles. In 2005, he captured his first tour doubles title (in Doha, partnering Rafael Nadal).  Citing recurring injuries and lack of desire, he officially announced his retirement from competitive professional tennis on 21 April 2006, at the completion of the Open Seat 2006 in his hometown in Barcelona. In his last tournament, Costa defeated American Vincent Spadea and Slovakian Dominik Hrbatý before losing 6–1, 5–7, 7–5 to Ferrero in the third round.  In December 2008, Costa was named Spain's Davis Cup captain, replacing Emilio Sánchez Vicario. Costa became the most successful Spanish Davis Cup captain to date as he led Spain to two Davis Cup titles in 2009 and 2011, before handing the captaincy over to Àlex Corretja.  Costa was coaching ATP pro Feliciano López.

Personal life.

He grew up with John McEnroe as his idol. Besides tennis, he enjoys playing cards, table tennis, golf, and soccer. He is also a fan of Barcelona and his hometown team UE Lleida. He also admires Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Ronaldo.  Less than a week after his triumph at the 2002 French Open, Costa married his long-time girlfriend Cristina Ventura. Àlex Corretja was the best man at the wedding. The couple have twin daughters, Claudia and Alma, who were born on 21 April 2001.

Albert Costa i Casals (; born 25 June 1975) is a former professional tennis player from Spain. He is best remembered for winning the Men's Singles title at the French Open in 2002.

Albert Costa i Casals (* 25. Juni 1975 in Lleida) ist ein ehemaliger spanischer Tennisspieler. Oft wird er fälschlich als "Alberto Costa" geführt. In seiner Karriere gewann er 12 Turniere im Einzel, alle auf Sand. Sein größter Erfolg war der Gewinn der French Open im Jahr 2002.


History.

FC Sion were founded in 1909 by Robert Gilliard, who became club captain, and played their first match the same year, a 3–2 win against FC Aigle. The club grew thanks to contributions from locals, and played their first competitive league fixture in 1914, again a 3–2 victory, against FC Monthey. In 1919, Sion formally organised its managerial structure, with Gilliard becoming vice-president and Charles Aymon taking the presidency.  From 1932, Sion played in the fourth tier of Swiss football, where they spent much of the next 20 years, briefly interrupted by promotion to the third tier in 1944, quickly followed by relegation in 1946. In 1952, Sion returned to the third tier. Five years later, Sion gained promotion again to the National League B, followed five years later by promotion to the National League A (now the Swiss Super League) in 1962. 1965 saw the first of Sion's Swiss Cup wins following a 2–1 victory over Servette.  The 16,263 capacity Stade Tourbillon was officially opened in August 1968, but the club was relegated in 1969. Sion returned to the National League A at the first attempt and secured a second victory in the Swiss Cup, winning 3–2 against Neuchâtel Xamax in 1974. Sion would go on to consistently perform well in the Swiss Cup, with victories in 1980 (against Young Boys), 1982 (against Basel), 1986 (against Servette) and 1991 (against Young Boys). This period of success also saw the renovation and expansion of the Tourbillon in 1989, and was crowned with Sion's first Swiss League Championship in 1992.  More success in the Swiss Cup followed, winning the tournament in three consecutive years from 1995 with victories over Grasshopper, Servette and Luzern. Their win against Luzern in 1997 secured Sion their only domestic double, having also won the Swiss League.  However, the club quickly fell into financial trouble, and having narrowly avoided bankruptcy due to its purchase by Gilbert Kadji, the club suffered relegation in 1999. Despite returning to the top division the following season, financial problems plagued the team, culminating in relegation in 2001, the departure of Kadji and a denial of a professional license in 2003. The club was saved by architect and former footballer Christian Constantin, and they were re-instated into the second division in October 2003.  Constantin spent the following seasons rebuilding the club, with the club going through 20 managers in the following eight years, including taking the role himself twice, in a bid to financially stabilize. He was rewarded in 2006 with promotion back to the Super League, as well as a victory in the Swiss Cup, becoming the first second tier team to achieve this, with a 5–3 penalty shoot-out victory over Young Boys after a 1–1 draw.

Transfer ban saga.

In 2008, controversy came to Sion when they signed Essam El Hadary, leading to a two-year "registration period" ban for Sion from June 2009, and an international playing ban for El Hadary for four months, due to El-Hadary still being under contract at his former club Al Ahly. Sion appealed this action, but the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland confirmed the FIFA, DRC and Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) decisions in 2009 and 2010 respectively. However, the lengthy legal battle (including the temporary reprieve) meant the ban was only practically instituted beginning in the winter transfer window of the 2010–11 season.  Although gaining a place in the qualifying round of the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League by winning the previous season's Swiss Cup, Sion were excluded from the Europa League by UEFA after fielding ineligible players in their play-off victory against Celtic. On 2 September, the Swiss Football League (SFL) rejected the registration of one more player, Brian Amofa.  On 30 September 2011, the SFL decided to provisionally qualify the six new signings, namely Stefan Glarner, Billy Ketkeophomphone, Mario Mutsch, Pascal Feindouno, José Gonçalves and Gabri, to comply with the ongoing legal process. Sion also sued the SFL and UEFA respectively in the Tribunal Cantonal de Valais and the Tribunal in Vaud, however both actions were dismissed. The club's earlier appeal was dismissed by UEFA Appeals Body on 13 September. Sion also sued the SFL and UEFA in the CAS, but withdrew the former claim. The hearing of the latter claim was set on 24 November.  On 25 October, the Discipline Commission (fr: "Commission de discipline") of SFL suspended all six players for five matches. It was reported that each player filed their legal claim in civil court instead of using the Swiss FA and CAS "sports court" system, which the ban was requested by FIFA. On 27 October, as a "provisional and super-provisional measures", UEFA invited Sion to a match schedule consultation once UEFA lost the legal battle.  On 31 October 2011, Sion sent a complaint to the European Commission. FIFA also won the legal battle in civil court in November. Previously, the civil court of Martigny and Saint-Maurice (both of the city of Valais) ordered FIFA to confirm the signing of those six players on 3 August, a consequence of lawsuit brought out by the players. On 16 November, FIFA and the SFL appeal was upheld in the Valais canton court.  On 15 December, the CAS upheld the complaints by UEFA, affirming its right to discipline Sion according to previous agreements. The CAS also lifted the provisional measures ordered by the Tribunal Cantonal of Vaud (Cour civile) on 5 October 2011. After the ruling, FIFA threatened to suspend Swiss national and club teams from international competition if Sion were not appropriately penalized for its ostensible rules violations. In late December 2011, the Swiss Football Association complied with FIFA's demands and penalized Sion 36 standings points (based on how many matches ineligible players were involved), moving the club to last place in the league standings and putting the club at risk of relegation if the ruling stood.  Sion finished the 2011–12 season in ninth place, which qualified them to the relegation matches against Aarau, whom they defeated 2–1 on aggregate to stay in the Swiss Super League. But for their 36-point deduction, Sion would have finished in the third place, which would have qualified them into the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League. Prior to the start of the 2012–13 season, they made a major coup by signing Gennaro Gattuso and Kyle Lafferty, both via free transfers. However, the club had a disappointing season which saw them change coaches three times before settling on Gattuso to finish the season, ending in third place.

Honours.

Sion held the distinction of having never lost a domestic cup final, with 13 wins in 13 appearances in the Swiss Cup, until a defeat by Basel in the 2017 edition.  Swiss Super League Swiss Cup

Stadium.

Sion play their home matches at the multi-purpose Stade Tourbillon, which has a capacity of 14,500. It was originally constructed in 1968, and was renovated in 1989 and 2012. The club also has a training centre near its office in Martigny and a youth development center in nearby Riddes.

Football Club de Sion, commonly known as simply FC Sion or Sion, is a Swiss football team from the city of Sion. The club was founded in 1909, and play their home matches at the Stade Tourbillon. They have won the Swiss Super League twice, and the Swiss Cup in 13 of their 14 appearances in the final, the most recent being in 2015. The first team of the club was also known as their incorporated name Olympique des Alpes SA.

Der FC Sion ist ein Schweizer Fussballclub aus Sitten im Kanton Wallis. Analog dem deutschsprachigen Städtenamen ist auch die Bezeichnung FC Sitten verbreitet. Er ist zweimaliger Schweizer Meister (1992 und 1997) und dreizehnmaliger Cupsieger. Der Klub wurde 1909 gegründet und spielt im Stade de Tourbillon.


Life.

Following the First World War, Albrecht's grandfather King Ludwig was deposed. Albrecht and the family moved from Bavaria to the Austrian Tyrol.  Prior to the Second World War, his family, the House of Wittelsbach, were opposed to the regime of Nazi Germany and refused to join the Nazi Party. The decision meant that Prince Albrecht, who had been studying forestry, was unable to complete his studies. In 1940 Albrecht took his family to his estate at Sárvár, Vas, Hungary. In October 1944, after Germany had occupied Hungary in March, the Wittelsbachs were arrested and imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp at Oranienburg, Brandenburg. In April 1945 they were moved to the Dachau concentration camp, where they were liberated by the United States Army.  Albrecht became head of the deposed royal family of Bavaria with the death of his father on 2 August 1955. As the eldest son of the eldest son of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este (1849–1919), recognized by Jacobites as "Queen Mary IV (of England) and III (of Scotland)", he was also the dynastic representative and heir-general of England, Scotland and Ireland's last Stuart king, James II and VII, deposed in 1688.  In 1959 Albrecht, in an official ceremony, returned the Greek crown jewels (originally made for a Bavarian prince who reigned as Greece's first modern monarch, King Otto) to the Greek nation, accepted by King Paul of Greece.  In 1980 Albrecht presided over sumptuous ceremonies in Bavaria celebrating the 800th anniversary of the founding of the House of Wittelsbach.  Albrecht was a prolific hunter and deer researcher, collecting 3,425 sets of antlers, now partially shown in a permanent exhibition on his research activities in the former royal castle at Berchtesgaden. He also wrote two books on "the habits of deer" for which he (and his second wife) received honorary doctorates by the biological faculty of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. While visiting Brazil in 1953 he encountered Brazilian Mastiffs and took some to Germany, introducing the dog breed to Europe.  Albrecht died on 8 July 1996, aged 91, at Berg Castle, southwest of Munich, where he had lived reclusively for decades. His funeral at Theatine Church, Munich was conducted by Friedrich Wetter, the Archbishop of Munich. He was buried on a family graveyard he himself had installed in 1977 at Andechs Abbey.

Marriages and children.

Albrecht married Countess Maria Draskovich of Trakostjan (8 March 1904 in Vienna – 10 June 1969 in Wildbad Kreuth) on 3 September 1930 in Berchtesgaden. Daughter of Count Dionys Maria Draskovich von Trakostjan and Princess Juliana Rose von Montenuovo (a great-granddaughter of Marie-Louise of Austria, sometime Empress of the French), she belonged to a family of the Croatian nobility known since 1230 and made Imperial counts in 1631. Although Albrecht's father allowed the wedding, a Wittelsbach family council concluded that the marriage was non-compliant with the dynasty's marital tradition as set out in its historical house laws, and the names of the couple's four children were excluded from the "Almanach de Gotha". In 1948, however, a juridical consultation advised that the head of the house has sole authority to determine the validity of marriages within the House of Wittelsbach, prompting Crown Prince Rupprecht to recognize Albrecht's marriage as dynastic on 18 May 1949.  On 21 April 1971 in Weichselboden, Albrecht married Countess Marie-Jenke Keglevich of Buzin (23 April 1921 in Budapest – 5 October 1983 in Weichselboden), daughter of Count Stephan Keglevich de Buzin and Countess Klára Zichy of Zich and Vásonkeö. They had no children.  At the time of his death, Albrecht had four children from his first marriage, fifteen grandchildren and twenty-six great-grandchildren. His children are:

Albrecht, Duke of Bavaria (Albrecht Luitpold Ferdinand Michael; 3 May 1905 – 8 July 1996) was the son of the last crown prince of Bavaria, Rupprecht, and his first wife, Duchess Marie Gabrielle in Bavaria. He was the only child from that marriage that reached adulthood. His paternal grandfather was Ludwig III of Bavaria, the last king of Bavaria, who was deposed in 1918.

Albrecht Herzog von Bayern (* 3. Mai 1905 in München; † 8. Juli 1996 auf Schloss Berg) war ein Sohn des Kronprinzen Rupprecht von Bayern und seiner ersten Frau Herzogin Marie Gabriele in Bayern. Er war das einzige überlebende Kind dieser Ehe. Sein Adelstitel war bis 1918 "Erbprinz Albrecht Luitpold Ferdinand Michael, Herzog von Bayern, Franken und Schwaben, Pfalzgraf bei Rhein". Er war der Enkel des letzten Königs von Bayern, Ludwig III., der 1918 abgesetzt wurde. Von 1919 bis 1955 war Albrecht weiterhin als "Erbprinz von Bayern" bekannt. Danach nannte er sich "Herzog von Bayern."


Lexicology.

The pronunciation of the word within the English-speaking world varies, with some pronouncing it (rhymes with "swan"), and others (rhymes with "tone"). The dominant pronunciation differs by area. The pronunciation rhyming with "tone" is strongest in the Midlands and southern Ireland, though seems to have less prominent patches in Cornwall and Essex. The pronunciation rhyming with "swan" is strongest in Northern England and Scotland, although also seems to be the favoured pronunciation in Southern England, Wales, the Home Counties, and East Anglia. Natives of the Republic of Ireland and the United States mainly use the pronunciation. British dictionaries usually show the /ˈskɒn/ form as the preferred pronunciation, while recognising the /ˈskoʊn/ form.  The difference in pronunciation is alluded to in a poem:  <poem> I asked the maid in dulcet tone To order me a buttered scone; The silly girl has been and gone And ordered me a buttered scone. </poem>  The "Oxford English Dictionary" reports that the first mention of the word was in 1513. Origin of the word "scone" is obscure and may, in fact, derive from different sources. That is, the classic Scottish "scone" and the Dutch "schoonbrood" or "spoonbread" (very similar to the drop scone); and possibly other, similar and similarly named quick breads, may have made their way onto the British tea table, where their similar names merged into one.  Thus, "scone" may derive from the Middle Dutch "schoonbrood" (fine white bread), from "schoon" (pure, clean) and "brood" (bread), or it may derive from the Scots Gaelic term "sgonn" meaning a shapeless mass or large mouthful. The Middle Low German term "schöne" meaning fine bread may also have played a role in the origination of this word. And if the explanation put forward by Sheila MacNiven Cameron be true, the word may also be based on the town of Scone () (, ) in Scotland, the ancient capital of that country – where Scottish monarchs were still crowned, even after the capital was moved to Perth, then to Edinburgh (and on whose Stone of Scone the monarchs of the United Kingdom are still crowned today).

History.

It is believed that historically scones were round and flat, usually as large as a medium-sized plate. It was made and baked on a griddle (or "girdle", in Scots), then cut into triangular sections for serving. Today, many would call the large round cake a bannock. In Scotland, the words are often used interchangeably.  When baking powder became available to the masses, scones began to be the oven-baked, well-leavened items we know today. Modern scones are widely available in British bakeries, grocery stores, and supermarkets. A 2005 market report estimated the UK scone market to be worth £64m, showing a 9% increase over the previous five years. The increase is partly due to an increasing consumer preference for impulse and convenience foods.  Scones sold commercially are usually round, although some brands are hexagonal as this shape may be tessellated for space efficiency. When prepared at home, they may take various shapes including triangles, rounds and squares. Baking scones at home is often closely tied to heritage baking. They tend to be made using family recipes rather than recipe books, since it is often a family member who holds the "best" and most-treasured recipe.

Varieties.

British scones are often lightly sweetened, but may also be savoury. They frequently include raisins, currants, cheese or dates. In Scotland and Ulster, savoury varieties of scone include "soda scones", also known as soda farls, and potato scones, normally known as "tattie scones", which resemble small, thin savoury pancakes made with potato flour. Potato scones are most commonly served fried in a full Scottish breakfast or an Ulster fry.  The griddle scone (or "girdle scone" in Scots) is a variety of scone which is cooked on a griddle (or girdle) on the stove top rather than baked in the oven. This usage is also common in New Zealand where scones of all varieties form an important part of traditional colonial New Zealand cuisine.  Other common varieties include the "dropped scone", or "drop scone", like a pancake, after the method of dropping the batter onto the griddle or frying pan to cook it, and the "lemonade scone", which is made with lemonade and cream instead of butter and milk. There is also the fruit scone or fruited scone, which contains currants, sultanas, peel and glacé cherries, which is just like a plain round scone with the fruit mixed into the dough. To achieve lightness and flakiness, scones may be made with cream instead of milk.  In some countries one may also encounter savoury varieties of scone which may contain or be topped with combinations of cheese, onion, bacon, etc.  Scones can be presented with various toppings and condiments, typically butter, jam and cream. Strawberries are also sometimes used.

Regional variations.

Australia.

Pumpkin scones, made by adding mashed cooked pumpkin to the dough mixture, had increased exposure during the period when Florence Bjelke-Petersen was in the public eye. Date scones, which contain chopped dried dates, can also be found in Australia. Another old style of cooking scones, generally in the colder months, is to deep-fry or deep pan-fry them in dripping or oil, when they are called "puftaloons".

Europe.

In Hungary, a pastry very similar to the British version exists under the name "pogácsa". The name has been adopted by several neighbouring nations' languages. (E.g. Pogatsche in German.) Pogácsa is almost always savoury and served with varied seasonings and toppings, like dill and cheese.

New Zealand.

Cheese scones are a popular snack sold in cafes or tea shops, where they are commonly served toasted with butter. They are featured in the "Edmonds Cookery Book" and make up a part of kiwiana.

South Africa.

Scones are commonly served with clotted cream and jam; grated cheddar cheese is another popular accompaniment.

South America.

Scones are quite popular in Argentina as well as Uruguay. They were brought there by Irish, English and Scottish immigrants and by Welsh immigrants in Patagonia (Britons are the third largest foreign community in Argentina). They are usually accompanied by tea, coffee or mate.

United States.

Round British scones superficially resemble North American biscuits in appearance, but they have a very different history that is unrelated to the Scottish bannock, and actually North American biscuits have hardtack as a direct ancestor, also known as a "seabiscuit" : this was a type of cracker made of lard and flour that became standard issue to the British Navy under the reign of Elizabeth I. The word "biscuit" is used in part because of its ancestor's name of "seabiscuit," but also because American English already has a word for a dry, sweet baked good, taken from Dutch: "cookie." It was very common for emigrants from England in the 17th century, those who bought passage to the New World through indentured servitude, to have simple meals of wheat warmed over with a milk based gravy. In both cases, liquid was used to soften the often hard-as-nails comestible that would keep for long periods of time, the Royal Navy typically using grog or straight rum.. The hardtack would have been traded in the Thirteen Colonies along with other finished goods, and over time it evolved.  The present day recipe is some combination of buttermilk or milk, plain flour, salt, and butter, margarine, or shortening. They can either be rolled into a dough and cut into rounds to create a flaky texture or, provided more liquid is added, can become a batter that creates "drop biscuits." Other recipes include cheddar cheese to make cheese biscuits. Unlike British scones, in all Southern biscuits, the butter or shortening is room temperature, not cold, and shortening based on cotton seed ( traditionally Crisco) or margarine are acceptable. Either baking powder or bicarbonate soda are the leavening agents and no recipe for Southern biscuits has ever included yeast.  British scones are frequently (but not always) sweet, and served with coffee and tea. For Southern biscuits, however, they were never intended for tea time as there was no such thing as afternoon tea or high tea even in the middle of the Victorian Era for most of the population: the majority of Americans worked sunrise to sunset as farmers, ranch hands, and slaves in the countryside. The rest worked as shopkeepers, tradesmen, or labourers in the cities, with no city yet large enough in population to rival the much more powerful London; Atlanta itself had a population of less than 10,000. New York's population was under a million and would not match the population of London in 1860 until 1900.  Any sugar added is inauthentic and not true to the biscuit's history. During the American Civil War, the nation was hugely divided with the eleven states of the South and the Midwest, Northeast, and California at each other's throats ideologically and quite literally, evidenced by fortification of rivers where many states had natural borders and both Richmond and Washington DC themselves heavily barricaded along the Potomac and James Rivers. Union strategy was to blow up railroad tracks to stymie Confederate supply lines. Getting sugar of any kind was nearly impossible and yeast to leaven bread became scarce; at one point, because of the actions of General Sherman, large swathes of Georgia faced starvation as he burned most of the crops to terrorize the people into yielding to the Union soldiers (and the enormous following of freed slaves) on the march. Improvisation was a must, and so bicarbonate of soda or baking powder became the sole leavening agents used in the recipe for Southern biscuits and forevermore the door was slammed shut on them ever being sweetened.  Today, Southern biscuits are a staple of the cuisine of the American South, served warm and sliced horizontally for breakfast with butter, fruit jam or honey, with tupelo honey or clover honey being the favourites. Southern biscuits are essential to a variation on the breakfast roll that often involves scrambled eggs with tomato, streaky bacon or salty country ham. They are a component of biscuits and gravy, a direct descendant of the same English dish for the poor and eaten for breakfast with bits of breakfast sausage. Biscuits are also eaten at lunch or dinner as an accompaniment to nearly all kinds of American barbecue, fried chicken, Lowcountry cuisine, and are a necessary part of the Southern version of Thanksgiving.  In recent years, scones under that name have begun to appear in. They may be sweet, often containing fruit such as blueberries or sultanas, or else such flavorings as cinnamon or chocolate chips. US "scones" are usually actually closer to British Rock cakes. They are heavy, dry and crumbly, usually in a triangular or irregular shape.  In Utah and southern Idaho, the bread products locally called "scones" are similar to Native American frybread or New Orleans beignets and are made from a sweet yeast dough, with buttermilk and baking powder or soda added, and they are fried rather than baked. They are customarily served with butter and either honey or maple syrup.

Cultural references.

The plot of Season 10, Episode 3 of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" involves a heated dispute about the proper texture for scones.

Other usage.

In Scots the verb "scon" means to crush flat or beat with the open hand on a flat surface, and "scon-cap" or "scone-cap" refers to a man's broad flat cap or "bunnet".  In Australia, scone can be a slang term for the head, usually referring to the crown region.

A scone ( or ) is a baked good, usually made of wheat, or oatmeal with baking powder as a leavening agent and baked on sheet pans. A scone is often slightly sweetened and occasionally glazed with egg wash. The scone is a basic component of the cream tea. It differs from teacakes and other types of sweets that are made with yeast. Scones were chosen as the Republic of Ireland representative for Café Europe during the Austrian Presidency of the European Union in 2006, while the United Kingdom chose shortbread.

Ein Scone ([] oder []) ist ein von den britischen Inseln stammendes Gebäck, das oft zur Tea Time gereicht wird.


Playing career.

Born in Katrineholm and raised in Ovansjö, Medelpad, in his youth, Lagerbäck played for Alby FF. When he was 13 years old, he began playing for their P16 team.  After completing his upper secondary school studies at the end of the 1960s, Lagerbäck studied political science and economics at Umeå University in northern Sweden. On the side of his studies, he also played football for Gimonäs CK under the guidance of Calle Lindelöf. He continued to play there until 1974 and worked as a club clerk from 1970. Over the course of the following years, he played twice for the club in the qualifying rounds to division two in the Swedish League without success. Lagerbäck himself played midfielder, but was often an unused substitute.  In 1974, he attended the Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, where he was a classmate of current assistant coach Roland Andersson.

Managing career.

Club-level.

In 1977, he was called up to the senior team. It was former teammate Kjell Pettersson that recommended him to Kilafors. He coached the Division IV team until 1982. In 1983, he moved to Arbrå IK until 1985. In 1987, he took over Hudiksvall ABK but left in 1989.

Sweden.

In 1990, Lagerbäck took a job with the Swedish Football Association. He began as a coach for the junior levels which included Freddie Ljungberg. He helped Tommy Svensson and Tord Grip with the Swedish national team.  In 1996, Lagerbäck took over the Sweden B national team, until 1997. In 1998, Tommy Söderberg chose him to be the assistant coach for the Swedish national team. In 2000, he was promoted to dual-coach, a responsibility he shared with Söderberg until 2004. Under his guidance, the Swedish national team qualified for the Euro 2000 but was eliminated in the group stages.  In 2002, he led Sweden to the World Cup, where Sweden were drawn in the 'group of death', together with England, Argentina and Nigeria. Sweden won the group but subsequently lost against Senegal in the first knockout round. In 2004, Sweden qualified for their third straight championship. In the Euro 2004, Sweden made it to the quarter-finals where they lost to the Netherlands. That same year, Tommy Söderberg left the Swedish national team to coach the U21 team.  After the departure of Söderberg, Lagerbäck appointed Roland Andersson as assistant coach. In 2006, Lagerbäck took Sweden to their fourth consecutive championship, the first time in Swedish history. He led Sweden to the 2006 World Cup, losing against Germany 2–0 in the knockout stage. Under Lagerbäck, Sweden also qualified for UEFA Euro 2008, however they were eliminated in the group stage after losing 2–0 against Russia. The team's early dismissal from the tournament led sport columnists to ask Lagerbäck to be sacked. Despite this, he signed an extension, which kept him until the end of the 2010 FIFA World Cup campaign. After Sweden's unsuccessful qualification campaign, Lagerbäck resigned and was replaced by Erik Hamrén.

Iceland.

On 4 October 2011, KSÍ's chief executive Geir Þorsteinsson reported that talks had begun over the appointment of Lagerbäck as the new manager of the Icelandic national team. The appointment was then confirmed ten days later. Under Lagerbäck, Iceland qualified for the play-off stage of the qualification tournament for the 2014 World Cup, but Croatia were the victors over two legs. Shortly thereafter Lagerbäck signed a new contract, this time as joint manager with his former Iceland assistant Heimir Hallgrímsson, who took over as sole manager with Lagerbäck's retirement following Euro 2016, where Iceland famously reached the quarter-finals, beating England in the last 16. They went out to France in the quarter-finals.

Norway.

On 1 February 2017, Lagerbäck was announced as the new manager for Norway, signing a contract lasting until the end of 2019. On 26 March 2017, Lagerbäck took charge of his first game as manager of Norway, which resulted in a 2-0 defeat to Northern Ireland in Belfast.

Managerial statistics.

As of 18 November 2019

Honours.

Manager.

Sweden U21  Sweden  Nigeria

Lars Edvin "Lasse" Lagerbäck (; born 16 July 1948) is a Swedish football manager and former player. He is the manager of the Norway national football team. Lagerbäck has managed a number of national teams prior to his current position. He managed the Swedish national team from 1998 until 2009, leading Sweden to five consecutive championships. He resigned as manager in 2009 after Sweden's failure to qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. After a short stint as manager of Nigeria, he led Iceland to unprecedented success as they qualified for their first finals competition, Euro 2016, and reached the quarter-finals, beating England in the last 16. Apart from his coaching duties, Lagerbäck has in recent years been a pundit for Premier League and UEFA Champions League broadcasting on Swedish television. He currently holds the record for managing a team in the finals of the European Championships with 4 appearances.

Lars Lagerbäck (* 16. Juli 1948 in Katrineholm) ist ein schwedischer Fußballtrainer. Er ist vor allem für seine Tätigkeit als Trainer der schwedischen und der isländischen Nationalmannschaft bekannt.