Early life.

Although of New England ancestry, Joseph Wheeler was born near Augusta, Georgia and spent most of his early life growing up with relatives in Derby, Connecticut. His parents were Joseph Wheeler and Julia Knox Hull Wheeler. He was the grandson of Brigadier General William Hull, a veteran of the American Revolution who was court-martialed for surrendering at Detroit early in the War of 1812.  Despite his northern upbringing, he was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point from the state of Georgia and always considered himself a Georgian and Southerner. Wheeler entered West Point in July 1854, barely meeting the height requirement at the time for entry. He graduated on July 1, 1859, placing 19th out of 22 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Dragoons. He attended the U.S. Army Cavalry School located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and upon completion was transferred on June 26, 1860, to the Regiment of Mounted Rifles stationed in the New Mexico Territory.  It was while stationed in New Mexico and fighting in a skirmish with Indians that Joseph Wheeler picked up the nickname "Fighting Joe." On September 1, 1860, he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant.

Civil War.

Early service.

At the start of the Civil War, Wheeler entered the Confederate Army on March 16 as a first lieutenant serving in the Georgia state militia artillery, and then was assigned to Fort Barrancas off of Pensacola, Florida, reporting to Maj. Gen. Braxton Bragg. His resignation from the U.S. Army was accepted on April 22, 1861. He was ordered to Huntsville, Alabama, to take command of the newly formed 19th Alabama Infantry Regiment and was promoted to colonel on September 4.  Wheeler and the 19th Alabama fought well under Bragg at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862. During the Siege of Corinth in April and May, Wheeler's men on picket duty clashed repeatedly with Union patrols. Serving as acting brigade commander, Wheeler burned the bridges over the Tuscumbia River to cover the Confederate withdrawal to Tupelo, Mississippi.

Middle Tennessee.

Wheeler transferred to the cavalry branch and commanded the 2nd Cavalry Brigade of the Left Wing in the Army of Mississippi from September to October. During the Kentucky Campaign, Wheeler aggressively maintained contact with the enemy. He began to suffer from poor relations with the Confederacy's arguably greatest cavalryman, Nathan Bedford Forrest, when Bragg reassigned most of Forrest's men to Wheeler, sending Forrest to Murfreesboro to recruit a new brigade. Wheeler fought at the Battle of Perryville in October and after the fight performed an excellent rearguard action protecting the army's withdrawal. He was promoted to brigadier general on October 30 and led the cavalry belonging to the Second Corps of the Army of Tennessee from November to December. During action at La Vergne, Tennessee, on November 27, Wheeler was wounded by an artillery shell that exploded near him.  In December 1862, the Union Army of the Cumberland began to advance from Nashville against Bragg's army and Wheeler, now commanding all of the Army of Tennessee's cavalry, skirmished aggressively to delay their advance. He drove into the rear of the Union army, destroying hundreds of wagons and capturing more than 700 prisoners. After the Battle of Stones River, as Bragg's army withdrew to the Duck River line, Wheeler struck the Union supply lines at Harpeth Shoals on January 12–13, burning three steamboats and capturing more than 400 prisoners. Bragg recommended that Wheeler be promoted as a "just reward" and he became a major general on January 20, 1863.  Wheeler led the army's Cavalry Corps from January to November 24, then again from December to November 15, 1864. For his actions on January 12–13, 1863, Wheeler and his troopers received the Thanks of the Confederate Congress on May 1, 1863.  In February 1863, Wheeler and Forrest attacked Fort Donelson at Dover, Tennessee, but they were repulsed by the small Union garrison. Forrest angrily told Wheeler "Tell [General Bragg] that I will be in my coffin before I will fight again under your command." Bragg dealt with this rivalry in the Tullahoma Campaign by assigning Wheeler to guard the army's right flank while Forrest guarded the left. A Union cavalry advance on Shelbyville on June 27 trapped Wheeler and 50 of his men on the north side of the Duck River, forcing Wheeler to plunge his horse over a 15-foot embankment and escape through the rain-swollen river.

Chickamauga and Chattanooga.

Wheeler and his troopers guarded the army's left flank at Chickamauga in September 1863, and after the routed Union Army collected in Chattanooga, Gen. Bragg sent Wheeler's men into central Tennessee to destroy railroads and Federal supply lines in a major raid. On October 2 his raid at Anderson's Cross Roads (also known as Powell's Crossroads) destroyed more than 700 Union supply wagons, tightening the Confederates siege on Chattanooga. Pursued by his Union counterparts, Wheeler advanced to McMinnville and captured its 600-man garrison. There were more actions at Murfreesboro and Farmington, but by October 9 Wheeler had safely crossed the Tennessee River at Muscle Shoals, Alabama. The extensive raid and a subsequent northern movement to assist Longstreet in his siege of Knoxville, would cause the mounted arm of the army to miss the battles for Chattanooga (November 23–25). Wheeler covered Bragg's retreat from Chattanooga following the Union breakthrough at Missionary Ridge on November 25 and received a wound in his foot as his cavalry and Maj. Gen. Patrick Cleburne's infantry fought at the Battle of Ringgold Gap on November 27.

Georgia and the Carolinas.

During Union Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman's Atlanta Campaign Wheeler's cavalry corps screened the flanks of the Army of Tennessee as Gen. Joseph E. Johnston drew back from several positions toward Atlanta. In July, Sherman sent two large cavalry columns to destroy the railroads supplying the defenders of Atlanta. With fewer than 5,000 cavalrymen, Wheeler defeated the enemy raids, resulting in the capture of one of the two commanding generals, Maj. Gen. George Stoneman (the highest ranking Union prisoner of war). In August, Wheeler's corps crossed the Chattahoochee River in an attempt to destroy the railroad Sherman was using to supply his force from Chattanooga. Wheeler's men captured the town of Dalton, but he was unable to defeat the Union garrison, which was protected in a nearby fort. Wheeler then took his men into East Tennessee, crossing the Tennessee River above Knoxville. His raid continued to the west, causing minor interruptions in the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad and then continued south through Franklin until he recrossed the Tennessee at Tuscumbia. Wheeler's raid was described by historian Ed Bearss as a "Confederate disaster" because it caused minimal damage to the Union while denying Gen. John Bell Hood, now in command of the Army of Tennessee, the direct support of his cavalry arm. Without accurate intelligence of Sherman's dispositions, Hood was beaten at Jonesborough and forced to evacuate Atlanta. Wheeler rendezvoused with Hood's army in early October after destroying the railroad bridge at Resaca.  In late 1864, Wheeler's cavalry did not accompany Hood on his Franklin–Nashville Campaign back into Tennessee and was virtually the only effective Confederate force to oppose Sherman's March to the Sea to Savannah. However, his resistance to Sherman did little to comfort Georgia civilians, and lax discipline within his command caused great dissatisfaction. Robert Toombs was quoted as saying, "I hope to God he will never get back to Georgia." Maj. Gen. D. H. Hill wrote that "the whole of Georgia is full of bitter complaints of Wheeler's cavalry."  Wheeler and his men continued to attempt to stop Sherman in the 1865 Carolinas Campaign. He defeated a Union cavalry force under Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick in South Carolina at the Battle of Aiken on February 11. He was replaced as cavalry chief by Lt. Gen. Wade Hampton and fought under him at the Battle of Bentonville on March 19–20. While attempting to cover Confederate President Jefferson Davis's flight south and west in May, Wheeler was captured at Conyer's Station just east of Atlanta. He had intended to reach the Trans-Mississippi and Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith, still resisting out west, and had with him three officers from his staff and 11 privates when he was taken. Wheeler was imprisoned for two months, first at Fort Monroe and then in solitary confinement at Fort Delaware, where he was paroled on June 8.  During his career in the Confederate States Army, Wheeler was wounded three times, lost 36 staff officers to combat, and a total of 16 horses were shot from under him. Military historian Ezra J. Warner believed that Wheeler's actions leading cavalry in the conflict "were second only to those of Bedford Forrest".

U.S. Congress.

After the war, Wheeler became a planter and a lawyer near Courtland, Alabama, where he married and raised a family. His home, Pond Spring, in an area now known as Wheeler, Alabama, is a historic site owned by the Alabama Historical Commission.  In 1880, Wheeler was elected from Alabama as a Democrat to the United States House of Representatives. Wheeler's opponent, Greenback incumbent William M. Lowe, contested the election, and after a contentious legal battle which lasted over a year, Lowe was declared the winner and assumed the seat on June 3, 1882. Lowe, however, served only four months before dying of tuberculosis. Wheeler won a special election to return and serve out the remaining weeks of the term.  Wheeler supported the election of Luke Pryor in 1882 and did not run for reelection, but was elected again in 1884, and re-elected to seven subsequent terms before resigning in 1900. While in Congress, Wheeler strove to heal the breach between the North and the South, and championed economic policies that would help rebuild the Southern states.

Spanish–American War.

In 1898, Wheeler, now aged 61, volunteered for the Spanish–American War, receiving an appointment to major general of volunteers from President William McKinley. He assumed command of the cavalry division, which included Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, and was nominally second-in-command of the Fifth Army Corps. He sailed for Cuba and was charged with scouting for the U.S. advance by General William Rufus Shafter, overall commander of V Corps. He was ordered not to engage the enemy on his own until the American troop disembarkation had been completed.  Approaching Las Guasimas de Sevilla on June 24, American reports suggested the Spaniards were digging in with a field gun; however, Cuban scouts contradicted these, revealing the Spaniards were preparing to abandon their position. In fact, the Spanish troops at the position had received orders to fall back on Santiago. Wheeler requested the assistance of the attached Cuban forces in an immediate attack, but their commander, Col. Gonzales Clavel, refused. Wheeler decided to attack anyway, rushing his men forward with two guns to the front, with Colonel Young's brigade leading the advance against the Spanish columns in what came to be called the Battle of Las Guasimas, the first major engagement of the war.  During the excitement of the battle, Wheeler is said to have called out "Let's go, boys! We've got the damn Yankees on the run again!" Wheeler's forces moved to encircle the Spaniards' first battle line, assaulting its front and right flank, but were repelled. During a pause in the fighting, both sides reinforced their positions. The Spaniards sent forward two companies of the "San Fernando Battalion", along with the artillery. After midday the U.S. attack was renewed, but Spanish Comandante Andrés Alcañiz, leading the "Provisional de Puerto Rico Battalion", once again checked the American assault.  After halting the American advance, the Spanish resumed their ongoing withdrawal towards Santiago's outer defenses according to their original plans. The battle had cost U.S. forces 17 dead and 52 wounded, while Spanish forces suffered seven dead and seven wounded.  Wheeler fell seriously ill during the campaign and turned over command of the division to Brig. Gen. Samuel S. Sumner. Wheeler was still incapacitated in July when the Battle of San Juan Hill began but once he heard the sound of guns, the "War Child" returned to the front despite his illness. Being the senior officer present at the front he first issued orders to the 1st Division, under Jacob F. Kent, before returning to his own command. Upon taking the heights, Wheeler assured General William R. Shafter that the position could be held against a possible counterattack. He led the division through the Siege of Santiago and was a senior member of the peace commission.  Wheeler's youngest son died shortly after his return from serving in Cuba; he drowned while swimming in the ocean. When back in the United States, Wheeler commanded the convalescent camp of the army at Montauk Point, now a state park in New York.

Philippine–American War.

Wheeler sailed for the Philippines to fight in the Philippine–American War, arriving in August 1899. He commanded the First Brigade in Arthur MacArthur's Second Division during the Philippine–American War until January 1900. During this period, Wheeler was mustered out of the volunteer service and commissioned a brigadier general in the regular army, both on June 16, 1900. After hostilities he commanded the Department of the Lakes until his retirement on September 10, 1900, and moved to New York.  Supposedly while serving in the Philippines, Wheeler encountered an infantryman who was complaining about the heat and being tired. Wheeler promptly dismounted, took the man's rifle and pack, told him to mount his horse, and marched the rest of the way with the infantry.

Later life.

Wheeler was the author of several books on military history and strategy, as well as about civil subjects. His first was "A Revised System of Cavalry Tactics, for the Use of the Cavalry and Mounted Infantry, C.S.A." in 1863, a manual that saw use by the Confederacy. His other works include: "Fitz-John Porter" in 1883, "The Santiago Campaign" in 1898, "Confederate Military History: Alabama" in 1899, and "Report on the Island of Guam" in 1900. Wheeler also co-wrote several more books throughout the rest of his life, the last of which, "The New America and the Far East: A Pictureque and Historic Description of These Lands and Peoples", was published in 1907, after his death.  Wheeler also appeared in an early film called "Surrender of General Toral" (1898) with William Rufus Shafter.  While attending the hundredth anniversary celebration of the U.S. Military Academy (West Point, New York) in 1902, Wheeler approached the old West Point hotel, where his Confederate comrades James Longstreet and Edward Porter Alexander were seated on the porch. At the festivities Wheeler wore his dress uniform of his most recent rank, that of a general in the U.S. Army. Longstreet recognized him coming near, and reportedly said, "Joe, I hope that Almighty God takes me before he does you, for I want to be within the gates of hell to hear Jubal Early cuss you in the blue uniform." (Longstreet did in fact predecease Wheeler, dying in January 1904.)  General Wheeler was a member of the District of Columbia Society of the Sons of the American Revolution (joined in 1898) and the Society of Colonial Wars.  After long illness, Wheeler died in Brooklyn on January 25, 1906, at the age of 69. He is one of the few former Confederate officers to be buried within Arlington National Cemetery.

Legacy.

In 1925, the state of Alabama donated a bronze statue of Joseph Wheeler to the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol. Additionally, several locations in Alabama are named after Wheeler including Joe Wheeler State Park, Wheeler Lake and Dam, and the Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge. Also, Joseph Wheeler High School in Marietta, Georgia, and Wheeler County, Georgia are named after him. During World War II, the United States Navy named a Liberty Ship in honor of Wheeler. Wheeler Road, a main thoroughfare through west Augusta is named after him as well. Furthermore, Joe Wheeler Electric Cooperative in northwest Alabama also honors him. Also Camp Wheeler, near Macon, Georgia (which served as an army base during both World Wars) was named for Wheeler.  The City of Derby, Connecticut, where Wheeler grew up, named him as one of the first members of its Hall of Fame in 2007.

Joseph "Fighting Joe" Wheeler (September 10, 1836 – January 25, 1906) was an American military commander and politician. He is known for having served both as a cavalry general in the Confederate States Army in the 1860s during the American Civil War, and then as a general in the United States Army during both the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War near the turn of the twentieth century. For much of the Civil War he served as the senior cavalry general in the Army of Tennessee and fought in most of its battles in the Western Theater.

Joseph Wheeler (* 10. September 1836 in Augusta, Georgia; † 25. Januar 1906 in Brooklyn) war ein General der Konföderierten im Amerikanischen Bürgerkrieg und Abgeordneter im US-Repräsentantenhaus für den Staat Alabama.


History.

The history of civil aviation in Podgorica began on 26 May 1928, when an Aeroput Potez 29/2 landed on a grass runway at a small airfield located near the city's current train station. The plane was on an experimental Belgrade-Skopje-Podgorica-Mostar-Sarajevo-Belgrade line, organized to determine the viability of linking Belgrade with southern Yugoslavia by air. On 5 May 1930, scheduled passenger service began on a Belgrade-Sarajevo-Podgorica line. Aeroput used Farman F.300 aircraft on this line.  World War II brought an end to passenger traffic at the airfield. In 1943 and 1944, the airfield was used by the Luftwaffe in then German-occupied Montenegro. It was a frequent target in the now infamous bombing of Podgorica, which resulted in significant German losses.  After the war, passenger service resumed on 8 April 1947, with newly formed JAT flights to Belgrade on a Douglas C-47 converted for passenger use. A cargo line to Belgrade was later established in 1957.  The airport was moved to its present location south of the city in 1961. It featured a asphalt runway and was modernized and refurbished in 1977. The majority of traffic in this period consisted of scheduled flights to Belgrade, mostly with McDonnell Douglas DC-9 aircraft. Špiro Mugoša Airport now occupies the former site.  On 23 April 2003, the ownership of the airport was transferred from JAT Airways to Airports of Montenegro, a public company owned by the Government of Montenegro. Along with the formation and growth of Montenegro Airlines, this contributed to an increase in services from the airport. The decades-long practice of the airport being largely a feeder airport for Belgrade was dropped in favor of a more diverse network of scheduled passenger flights.  A major renovation and expansion took place in 2006, with refurbishment and extension of the apron and improvements to the taxiways system, airfield lighting system, and power supply. An entirely new passenger terminal was opened on 14 May 2006, while the old passenger terminal underwent reconstruction and refurbishment in 2009.  The improved taxiway system allowed for wide-body aircraft to be serviced at the airport. Thus, the airport began servicing Il-86s and first the Boeing 747 freighter arrived at the airport in April 2008.

Facilities.

Terminals.

As air traffic in Montenegro saw a rapid increase in the 2000s, the old passenger terminal, a small cobblestone building, was retired after the new terminal was built, except for servicing small-volume charter flights. The new passenger terminal, comprising, opened on 14 May 2006. It has eight departure and two arrival gates, and is able to handle up to 1 million passengers annually. The terminal does not feature jetways, as the number of passengers at the airport is not high enough to necessitate them.  The main (new) terminal building is a modern aluminium and glass structure, featuring contemporary architectural solutions such as indirect lighting throughout the building. Since its opening, it has featured a Costa Coffee outlet, two newspaper stalls, a duty-free shop, rent-a-car posts, and a bank outlet. Although the airport is considered low-risk, security screening has been visibly increased since the construction of the new terminal. Security measures and monitoring that are standard for European airports are applied in the terminal.  The old terminal building was completely renovated and reopened on 15 September 2009 and is now intended for VIP use and general aviation.

Runway.

Standard runway 36 approach includes a spectacular 200° low-level steep turn over Lake Skadar to align with the runway, only above the water surface. The airport has ICAO classification 4E ILS Cat I, though ILS landing is only possible on runway 36; the northern approach to runway 18 is visual only, possible under perfect VMC. This is due to the proximity of the Dinaric Alps in the north.

Military usage.

Podgorica Airport is a public international airport, but shares the main runway with Podgorica's military airbase. Military facilities include an airbase area adjacent to the main runway, as well as the "Šipčanik" complex.  The "Šipčanik" complex consisted of an underground aircraft shelter tunneled into the eponymous hill, and an adjacent narrow 08/26 runway, which could be used to scramble jets stored in the shelter. This runway is connected to the main airport complex via a taxiway cut through surrounding vineyards. The complex was seriously damaged during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and was subsequently converted into a wine cave by the Plantaže company.  In early December 1999, the airport was briefly seized by the Army of Yugoslavia in a standoff between the central government and the Montenegrin authorities after Montenegro tried to control the airport independently of Belgrade. When Montenegro became independent on 3 June 2006, the newly formed Military of Montenegro announced that it would not maintain a combat air force. Nine G-4 Super Galebs are currently sitting unused at the base.

Airlines and destinations.

The following airlines serve scheduled and charter services to and from Podgorica Airport:

Statistics.

Busiest routes.

! Rank|| Airport || Passengers 2019

Podgorica Airport (Montenegrin: "Aerodrom Podgorica", ) is an international airport serving the Montenegrin capital of Podgorica and the surrounding region. It is one of two international airports in Montenegro, the other being Tivat Airport. Both are operated by the state-owned company Airports of Montenegro (Аеродроми Црне Горе / "Aerodromi Crne Gore").

Der Flughafen Podgorica (Aerodrom Podgorica) ist nach Passagieren der kleinere der zwei montenegrinischen Flughäfen. Er wird von den montenegrinischen Luftstreitkräften auch als Militärflugplatz genutzt und nach seiner Lage "Podgorica-Golubovci" genannt. Die IATA-Abkürzung lautet noch heute "TGD", da die montenegrinische Hauptstadt Podgorica von 1946 bis 1992 zu Ehren des ehemaligen jugoslawischen Staatspräsidenten Josip Broz Tito den Namen "Titograd" trug.


Early Life.

Mazlum was raised by his mother, Kebre, and his father, Kazim Doğan, in the village of Teman village in the Karakoçan/Elâzığ Province of Turkey. He had three older sisters, Arife, Hatice, and Bircan; and two brothers Fevzi and Delil. Delil was killed by special operation teams on October 7, 1980.

Education.

Doğan began his high school studies in Eskişehir and Balıkesir. After successfully passing the entrance exams, he enrolled at the prestigious University of Hacettepe in Ankara, Department of Economics, in 1974. While studying at university, he met other young Kurds who familiarized him with politics. He developed a passion for reading. Those who knew him well have said that he would read up to five-hundred pages or more a day. Through his readings, he became informed on oppression against Kurds. Determined to fight discrimination even if it meant with his own life, Doğan left the university in 1976 and went back to the Kurdish region to organize politically. There he joined the Kurdish student movement, which was the precursor of the Kurdistan Workers' Party.

Founding of the Kurdistan Workers' Party.

The PKK's origins can be traced back to 1974 when Abdullah Öcalan and a small group of leftist students, including Doğan, from the underground student movement Revolutionary Youth Federation of Turkey ("Dev Genç") decided to develop a Kurdish-based left wing organization. In 1971 Öcalan joined the underground movements trying to overthrow the government, which he saw as an oppressive and fascist; this occurred when he was a student at the Ankara University Political Sciences Faculty. There, Öcalan met Mazlum Doğan who was studying economics. Öcalan and Doğan used the skills and the social network that they had developed during this period to become youth leaders. Like "Dev-Genç", Apocus was a splinter organization of Dev-Genç. The core of the organization was established with sixteen members and led by Öcalan. The original sixteen members became known as the Ankara Democratic Association of Higher Education (ADYÖD). During this period, Öcalan, Doğan, and the rest of their supporters were generally known as Apocus (or Turkish "Apocular"). What made Apocus, later the PKK or Kurdistan Workers' Party, different was that it decided to move its activities from Ankara, the capital city, to the southern border towns of Turkey. Unlike most Kurdish political parties, which adopted a rather conservative outlook and were organized around tribal leaders and structures, they had strong convictions and a disciplined but decentralized organization which contributed to a steady rise and growing effectiveness. Much of the early development was inspired by the rise of decolonization movements and their potential to be adapted to the Kurdish question. Transferring to southern border towns with a radical left rhetoric gave the Apocus movement initial resources during a time when Turkey had problems with Syria. Mazlum Doğan and other leftist actors under the lead of Abdullah Öcalan who were participating in the Kurdish student movement continued to organize and eventually developed into an official political party on November 25, 1978 in the village of Fis near Lice. As a result of his determination and devotion, Doğan became a member of the Central Committee of the party. The official name of the party, Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê, or Kurdistan Workers' Party, was decided on later, in April 1979, during a meeting of the central committee. The meeting in Fis is also later referred to as the First Congress of the PKK. Doğan also became the first chief editor of the party's newspaper Serxwebûn. Shortly after the founding of the party in 1978, forecasting the military coup d’état of Turkey in 1980, thousands of Kurdish and Turkish left-revolutionaries were jailed, leading many of the existing groups to lose their organizational structures. However, the PKK was able to withstand despite suffering many arrests including Mazlum Doğan. But following imprisonment, the captured PKK members set up an elaborate resistance organization that would operate even behind bars. This organization became famous for their hunger strikes. They also smuggled in guns and communication equipment into prison. Recruitment and training became commonplace for imprisoned PKK members.

Arrest.

In the fall of 1979, Mazlum Doğan had gone to Viransehir, Şanıurfa, Turkey to assemble the Kurds for political rights activism. He had planned on leaving Turkey and head towards Syria, but was arrested on September 30 over accusations of founding and leading the Kurdistan Workers' Party, what the Turkish coup d'etat labeled a terrorist organisation, taking part in the liberation of a comrade from a state hospital in Diyarbakır, and identity document forgery. While facing the court board during his trial, Doğan lashed out expressing his beliefs, something his father urged him not to do. He shrieked in front of the Turkish military court explaining that he will never surrender to them, and that he will never stop asking for Kurdish rights. Doğan began screaming, ""Serhildan jiyan e Berxwedan jiyan e"", meaning, "resistance means I am alive". Following his trial, Turkish military police began beating and torturing him. As the military police beat him, Doğan repeated his words, "Serhildan e Berxwedan ", until he collapsed and fell unconscious. As a political prisoner, he was required to wear a prison uniform but he continuously refused. He was beaten and told it would stop only if he sung the Turkish national anthem but he refused to sing leading to further beating and torture.

Suicide.

On March 21, 1982, the day the Kurds celebrate Newroz by igniting bonfires, Mazlum Doğan set his prison cell on fire and hanged himself in protest against the Turkish government and the relentless conditions inside Diyarbakir prison and other penitentiaries across Turkey. Prior to taking his life, he lit three matches, placing them on the table in his cell leaving the message, "Surrender is Betrayal, Resistance Brings Victory". With the inhumane conditions of the prison-torture system of Diyarbakir prison, where prisoners were subject to horrifying forms of abuse, such as, sexual violence, rape, psychological terror, beatings, electro-shocks, and being forced to eat dog excrement, the state tried to break all belief in the prisoners’ ideals, dreams and utopias. The headline 'Diyarbakir Cezaevinde Katliam' (Massacre in Diyarbakir Prison) was used by Serxwebûn to announce the death of Doğan in June 1982. His death sparked the Diyarbakir prison resistance movement. This triggered popular support and prompted the PKK’s definite decision to take up guerrilla warfare against the state on August 15, 1984. Following Mazlum Doğan’s action, four inmates, Ferhat Kurtay, Eşref Anyık, Necmi Önen and Mahmut Zengin lit themselves on fire in protest.

Commemoration.

After Doğan's death, the PKK magazines "Serxwebûn" and "Berxwedan" published an obituary in 1982. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, "Serxwebûn" and "Berxwedan" continued to publish commemoration articles regarding the acts of resistance from Doğan as well as other important figures such as Gülnaz Karataş and Zekiye Alkan. PKK articles remembering Mazlum Doğan and other influential Kurdish figures are not uncommon even today. Doğan is honored in the form of many commemoration days by the Kurdish Movement. Since 1997, every year a Kurdish youth festival bearing his name is held.  In a statement regarding her son, Doğan's mother explained that he lived not just for the Kurds, but for all of humanity. He dreamed of a Middle East that was free of oppression. He had visualized an idea of a confederation of the Middle Eastern community along with Kemal Pir.

Mazlum Doğan (born 1955 in the village of Teman, Karakoçan/Elâzığ Province, Turkey; died 21 March 1982 in Diyarbakır, Turkey) was a journalist and a founding member of the Kurdistan Workers' Party. He was a Kurdish Alevi Muslim.He has been the first chief editor of the party's newspaper Serxwebûn. In 1979, he had planned to leave Turkey towards Syria, but was arrested and after serving time in the infamous Diyarbakir No. 5 prison. Mazlum Doğan committed suicide in protest of the Turkish coup d'etat and the inhumane conditions he and other prisoners were facing inside of the penitentiary. Today he is seen as a hero and a martyr for the Kurdish resistance movement.

Mazlum Doğan (* 1955 in Karakoçan; † 21. März 1982 im Gefängnis Diyarbakır) war ein hochrangiger kurdischer PKK-Kader und Mitglied des Zentralkomitees der PKK.


Etymology.

The word "salad" comes to English from the French "salade" of the same meaning, itself an abbreviated form of the earlier Vulgar Latin "herba salata" (salted greens), from the Latin "salata" (salted), from "sal" (salt). In English, the word first appears as "salad" or "sallet" in the 14th century. Salt is associated with salad because vegetables were seasoned with brine (a solution of salt in water) or salty oil-and-vinegar dressings during Roman times. The phrase "salad days", meaning a "time of youthful inexperience" (based on the notion of "green"), is first recorded by Shakespeare in 1606, while the use of salad bar, referring to a buffet-style serving of salad ingredients, first appeared in American English in 1976.

History.

The Romans, ancient Greeks and Persians ate mixed greens with dressing, a type of mixed salad. Salads, including layered and dressed salads, have been popular in Europe since the Greek and Roman imperial expansions. In his 1699 book, "Acetaria: A Discourse on Sallets", John Evelyn attempted with little success to encourage his fellow Britons to eat fresh salad greens. Mary, Queen of Scots, ate boiled celery root over greens covered with creamy mustard dressing, truffles, chervil, and slices of hard-boiled eggs.  Oil used on salads can be found in the 17th-century colony of New Netherland (later called New York, New Jersey and Delaware). A list of common items arriving on ships and their designated prices when appraising cargo included "a can of salad oil at 1.10 florins" and "an anker of wine vinegar at 16 florins". In a 1665 letter to the Director of New Netherland from the Island of Curaçao there is a request to send greens: "I request most amicably that your honors be pleased to send me seed of every sort, such as cabbage, carrots, lettuce, parsley, etc. for none can be acquired here and I know that your honor has plenty...".  Salads may be sold in supermarkets, at restaurants and at fast food chains. In the United States, restaurants will often have a salad bar with salad-making ingredients, which the customers will use to put together their salad. Salad restaurants were earning more than $300 million in 2014. At-home salad consumption in the 2010s was rising but moving away from fresh-chopped lettuce and toward bagged greens and salad kits, with bag sales expected to reach $7 billion per year.

Types of salads.

A salad can be a composed salad (with the ingredients specifically arranged on the serving dish) or a tossed salad (with the ingredients placed in a bowl and mixed). An antipasto plate, the first dish of a formal Italian meal, is similar to a composed salad, and has vegetables, cheese, and meat.

Green salad.

A green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket (arugula). If non-greens make up a large portion of the salad it may instead be called a vegetable salad. Common raw vegetables (in the culinary sense) used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, carrots, celery, radishes, mushrooms, avocado, olives, artichoke hearts, heart of palm, watercress, parsley, garden beets, and green beans. Nuts, berries, seeds, and flowers are less common components. Hard-boiled eggs, bacon, shrimp, and cheeses may be used as garnishes, but large amounts of animal-based foods would be more likely in a dinner salad.

Wedge salad.

A wedge salad is a specific type of green salad made from a head of lettuce (often iceberg), halved or quartered, with other ingredients on top.

Fruit salads.

Fruit salads are made of fruit (in the culinary sense), which may be fresh or canned. Examples include fruit cocktail.

Rice and pasta salads.

Rice and pasta may be used as the key ingredient to making a salad. Pasta salads are more common. Some examples of rice salads come from Thai cuisine, like Nasi ulam.

Bound salads.

Bound salads are assembled with thick sauces such as mayonnaise. One portion of a bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with a scoop. Examples of bound salad include tuna salad, chicken salad, egg salad, coleslaw, and potato salad. Some bound salads are used as sandwich fillings. Some pasta salads, i.e. macaroni salad, are bound salads. They are popular at picnics and barbecues.

Dinner salads.

Main course salads (known as dinner salads or as entrée salads in the United States) may contain small pieces of poultry, seafood, or steak. Caesar salad, Chef salad, Cobb salad, Chinese chicken salad and Michigan salad are dinner salads.  A wider variety of cheeses are used in dinner salads, including Roquefort blue cheese (traditional for a Cobb salad), and Swiss, Cheddar, Jack, and Provolone (for Chef and Cobb salads).

Dessert salads.

Dessert salads rarely include leafy greens and are often sweet. Common variants are made with gelatin or whipped cream; e.g. jello salad, pistachio salad, and ambrosia. Other forms of dessert salads include snickers salad, glorified rice, and cookie salad.

Dressings.

Sauces for salads are called "dressings".  In Western culture, there are two basic types of salad dressing:  In the United States, buttermilk-based ranch dressing is most popular, with vinaigrettes and Caesar-style dressing following close behind. Traditional dressings in France are vinaigrettes, typically mustard-based, while sour cream (smetana) and mayonnaise are predominant in Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia. In Denmark, dressings are often based on crème fraîche. In southern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, salad is generally dressed by the diner with olive oil and vinegar. In Asia, it is common to add sesame oil, fish sauce, citrus juice, or soy sauce to salad dressings. Other condiments sometimes used as salad dressing include lemon juice, lime juice, and pumpkin seed oil.  Other salad dressings include:

Salad records.

On 4 September 2016, the largest recorded salad, weighing, was created in Red Square, Moscow, Russia, by Mouzenidis Travel. It was a Greek salad consisting of tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, olives, feta cheese, olive oil, oregano and salt.

A salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, usually vegetables or fruit. However, different varieties of salad may contain virtually any type of ready-to-eat food. Salads are typically served at room temperature or chilled, with notable exceptions such as south German potato salad which can be served warm.

Ein Salat ist eine Speise der Kalten Küche und wird entweder als Vorspeise, Sättigungsbeilage, als Hauptspeise oder Dessert gereicht. Salate können pikant oder fruchtig sein und werden fast immer kalt serviert (bis auf wenige Ausnahmen). Zum Zubereiten von Salaten werden Salatsaucen verwendet. Traditionelle Mayonnaise-Ableitungen werden zunehmend von den energiereduzierten Dressings (Joghurtsauce, Essig-Öl-Kräuter-Saucen, Tomatensaucen) verdrängt. Innerhalb eines Menüs nehmen Salate weniger die Stelle eines Extragangs ein, sondern vielmehr als Beilage sowie als Vorspeise oder Zwischengericht.


History.

The Capricorn district is the traditional home of the Darumbal Aboriginal people. The Darumbal (Tarumbul, Tharoombool) language region includes the city of Rockhampton extending south towards Raglan Creek and north towards the Styx River and inland along the Broad Sound Ranges. The Gangulu (Kangulu, Kanolu, Kaangooloo, Khangulu) language region includes the towns of Clermont and Springsure extending south towards the Dawson River, and includes parts of Rockhampton and South Rockhampton.  The British settlement of the area began in 1853, when the Archer brothers, Charles and William, who were seeking grazing lands arrived in the Rockhampton area. They were acting on information from earlier expeditions by Ludwig Leichhardt and Thomas Mitchell, who had explored the area in 1844 and 1846 and noted suitable land for grazing then.  In January 1854, the New South Wales government proclaimed two new districts: Port Curtis and Leichhardt (roughly today's Fitzroy Region), and the Archer brothers returned in August 1855 to set up their pastoral run at Gracemere. The Fitzroy River provided a convenient waterway for shipping of supplies and produce, and the Archer brothers constructed a wool shed just downstream of a bar of rocks that prevented further upstream navigation from the coast. These rocks were incorporated with the traditional English term for a village, and the name "Rockhampton" was first coined by Charles Archer and the local Commissioner from Crown Lands, William Wiseman.  In 1856, the Elliott brothers arrived at Gracemere and soon after, took up landholdings at Canoona, north of present-day Yaamba. There, Philip Elliott and his party came under attack from the Darumbals, possibly of the Taroomball tribe. Elliott was seriously wounded by a spear and one of his men was killed. However, Elliott had brought with his party a contingent of Native Police, who turned near-certain loss into victory. It was the first of many battles.  Permanent British settlement at the Rockhampton township began in July 1856, when Richard Palmer travelled from Gladstone with an escort of Native Police under sub-Lieutenant Walter Powell to set up a store. Powell arrived at the site first and constructed the Native Police barracks. This was the first habitable British building established at Rockhampton and it was located on the south bank of the Fitzroy River at the end of Albert Street. With abundant grazing lands and waters from the Fitzroy River and its many tributaries and lagoons, the region continued to expand rapidly. In 1858, the town of Rockhampton was officially proclaimed. The town was surveyed at this time and the first sales of building allotments were held that year. In 1859, gold was discovered at Canoona. Miners rushed to the new field, using the site of Rockhampton on the Fitzroy River as the nearest navigable port. The Canoona field proved to be very disappointing and thousands of would-be gold seekers were left stranded at Rockhampton. Although many returned south, others stayed, adding to the new town's population.  By 1861, the town boasted a regular newspaper, banks, court house, and school of arts. Direct shipments of imported goods and migrants from the United Kingdom began to be received during the 1860s. In 1862, land in the Kensington Estate, described as

Geography.

The town lies on the Fitzroy River, approximately from where the river enters the Coral Sea, and some north of the state capital, Brisbane. Rockhampton has a north and south side with three bridges connecting the two sides, one for trains and two for vehicles and people.  Rockhampton lies just north of the Tropic of Capricorn in Central Queensland. A sculpture originally marking the latitude was later moved into town to be more accessible to tourists. Although the Tropic of Capricorn is represented on maps as a "dotted line" that lies at 23° 26' 22", there is actually a bio-geographical overlap of Tropical and Temperate zones more than wide; Rockhampton is roughly at its centre on the East Coast of Australia.  The city is located on the banks of the Fitzroy River, approximately from the river mouth. The Berserker Range lies on the eastern side of the city, with the Athelstane Range to the west. The coastal area to the east of the city is known as the Capricorn Coast, with the rapidly growing town of Yeppoon its major centre.

Climate.

Rockhampton experiences a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa/Cwa"). The city is situated on the Tropic of Capricorn and lies within the southeast trade wind belt, too far south to experience regular north west monsoonal influence, and too far north to gain much benefit from cold fronts sweeping in from the Southern Ocean. Typical temperature ranges are in the summer/wet season and in the winter/dry season. The city receives 116.3 days of clear skies annually.  Rockhampton lies within the cyclone risk zone and has experienced several

Heritage listings.

Rockhampton has a number of heritage-listed sites.

Governance.

Rockhampton is governed by the Rockhampton Regional Council. The Council consists of a mayor and seven councillors. The Mayor is elected by the public, and the Councillors are elected from seven single-member divisions using an optional preferential voting system. Elections are held every four years.  Margaret Strelow is the current mayor, having won the mayoral elections in 2013 and 2016. Strelow had also served as Mayor of the former City of Rockhampton from 2000–2008.  The present Rockhampton Regional Council area was formed as a result of the 2008 amalgamation of four local government areas. These were the original City of Rockhampton

Economy.

Agriculture.

The agricultural sector, specifically the cattle trade, is a dominant industry in Central Queensland. The latter has been visually represented around Rockhampton City with a set of seven large statues of bulls known as the 'Big Bulls'.  Two large abattoirs are located on the south-eastern outskirts of Rockhampton provides employment for people living in Rockhampton and also for refugees from overseas who are recruited when the companies experience difficulty finding local workers to fill vacancies.  One meat processing plant is located at Lakes Creek, operated by Teys Australia (a Cargill joint venture) while the JBS meatworks is located at Nerimbera.  The Teys Australia meatworks at Lakes

Military.

There is a permanent military presence in Rockhampton with members of the Australian Defence Force based at the Western Street Army Barracks located near the Rockhampton Airport. To the north of the city lies the extensive Shoalwater Bay Military Training Area where large scale ground, air and amphibious operations are regularly conducted.  Due to its close proximity to the training area, the city regularly sees military movements between the Western Street Army Barracks and Shoalwater Bay, and hosts service personnel from overseas when joint military

Tourism.

Tourism is increasingly playing a role in the economic development of city and surrounds. The city is a convenient distance north from Brisbane to provide an overnight stop for tourists, who can then branch out to visit local attractions and spend money at local businesses including eateries, entertainment facilities or on recreational activities. The Capricorn Coast is a 30-minute drive from Rockhampton, with the islands

Other industry.

Other industries in the Rockhampton area include the transport, manufacturing, mining and energy sectors. Rail group Aurizon (previously known as QR National) has a large workforce in the city, which is the meeting point for the main north coast rail line and the line to the major coalfields to the west. However, the company announced in October 2015 that it was closing its locomotive and maintenance depots in Rockhampton with forty jobs lost from the Rockhampton site. Management of Aurizon's Rockhampton site was criticised by the

Population.

According to the of

Culture, events and festivals.

Many local concerts, performances, events, festivals are held at the Rockhampton's numerous venues throughout the city each year.

Pilbeam Theatre.

The Pilbeam Theatre, which seats 1200 people, frequently plays host to national and international music and comedy shows, as well as sporting and trade shows.  Since its opening in 1978, the theatre has been a centre of entertainment and performing arts, providing an environment to further develop the performing arts in Rockhampton and the region. One of the more memorable shows at the Pilbeam Theatre was a concert in 1980 by Australian performer Peter Allen who sparked a furore when he caused damage to the special surface of the theatre's Steinway grand piano when he got up and danced on it during his show. After the incident, Rockhampton City Council withheld $1000 from

Kershaw Gardens.

A local attraction that has undergone many changes, expansions and renovations over the years, it suffered major damage after Cyclone Marcia in 2015 and has gone through major improvements before re-opening in Autumn of 2018. The most recent developments have included an ample carpark and a whole range of amenities for visitors and locals including but not limited to: fountains for social interaction and kids play, chill out kiosks, barbecue

Rockhampton Heritage Village.

The Rockhampton Heritage Village located at Parkhurst on the northern outskirts of the city is used for a number of local events held throughout the year.  The annual Rockhampton Cultural Festival held each August at the Rockhampton Heritage Village features a variety of market stalls, displays,

Rockhampton Music Bowl.

Opened in 1985, closed in 2011 and then re-opened in 2015 the Rockhampton Music Bowl regularly plays host to events including the annual Carols by Candlelight every December.  The inaugural Rocky Rocks concert, featuring well known Australian musicians such as Daryl Braithwaite, Russell Morris and Richard Clapton, was also held at the Rockhampton Music Bowl in 2016.  In

Rockhampton Showgrounds.

The Rockhampton Showgrounds plays host to numerous events each year. Most notably, the three-day Rockhampton Show is held in June each year.  The annual Rocky Swap has been held at the venue each

Fitzroy Riverbank and CBD.

The inaugural Rockhampton River Festival was first held in July 2015 on the Fitzroy River, which was initially planned to be a substitute for two previous annual events, Big River Jazz and Fire in the Sky, with additional cultural elements.  The three-day Capricorn Food & Wine Festival, previously held near Yeppoon, is now held on the Fitzroy Riverbank in Rockhampton in September each year.  Each November, local East Street businesses come together to hold the annual CBD Christmas Fair. The evening features market stalls, rides and amusements, reptile displays, live music and the traditional lighting of the Christmas Tree which is erected in the

Anzac Day.

Like many Australian communities, Rockhampton commemorates Anzac Day on 25 April each year. Thousands usually attend the commemorations in Rockhampton including a dawn service at the heritage-listed war memorial at the Rockhampton Botanic Gardens, followed by an Anzac Day procession through the

Annual Christmas Parade.

The local branch of Cancer Council Queensland in conjunction with Stockland Rockhampton holds an annual Christmas Parade each November to mark the commencement of the Christmas retail period, and the arrival of Santa at Stockland. Local businesses, community organisations and

Beef Australia Expo.

The tri-annual Beef Australia Exposition is held every third May at the Rockhampton Showgrounds. In 2009 as part

Royal visits.

Duke of Gloucester.

Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester visited Rockhampton on 12 June 1946. Although his wife Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester was scheduled to accompany him, she had to temporarily withdraw from the tour due to ill health.  Preparations for the Duke of Gloucester's visit began in April 1946, when Rockhampton mayor Henry Jeffries announced that the Duke, who was also serving as the 11th Governor-General of Australia, would visit Rockhampton with his wife. It was revealed that they would stay in Rockhampton overnight after they arrived on the afternoon of 11 June 1946. They would then depart the following afternoon. In a letter to Mayor Jeffries, the Duke's "Aide-de-camp" indicated that the Duke was looking forward to the visit as they had been disappointed that they'd been unable to visit the previous year.  After a public holiday had been gazetted for a national holiday on 10 June for

Queen Elizabeth II and Duke of Edinburgh.

Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited Rockhampton on 15 March 1954.  Plans for another royal visit to Rockhampton commenced in October 1951 when Minister in Charge of the Royal Visit Eric Harrison confirmed Rockhampton was included as a city that Princess Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip would visit during their royal tour of Australia in 1952.  In November 1951, the general committee of the Rockhampton Agricultural Society appointed a sub-committee to delegate with Rockhampton City Council on any matter regarding the royal visit. When the sub-committee was appointed, it was decided a special rodeo would be held on 26 and 28 April the following year to commemorate Princess Elizabeth's visit to Rockhampton.  The state director of the proposed 1952 royal tour arrived in Rockhampton in December 1951 to make arrangements for Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh's visit. It was announced that they were expected to arrive in the city on 28 April 1952 where they would meet with Rockhampton mayor Henry Jeffries and Queensland Premier Ned Hanlon, before proceeding to City Hall. A visit to Rockhampton General Hospital was also scheduled.  However, the death of Princess Elizabeth's father, King George VI on 6 February 1952 resulted in the tour of Australia being postponed. It was eventually rescheduled and Elizabeth II intended to make her way to Australia in 1954 with her husband, but this time as Queen instead

Princess Alexandra.

Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy visited Rockhampton on 1 September 1959.  During her visit to the city, the Princess stayed at Clancholla Estate.  It was reported in the national media that during her tour of Rockhampton, she ordered her driver to stop the car when she

Nightclub bombings.

Shark Nightclub.

At 3:05 am on the morning of 10 November 1989, a bomb exploded inside the Shark Nightclub on the corner of Fitzroy and Bolsover Street in the Rockhampton CBD, causing extensive structural damage to the building.  While first responders attended the scene, another bomb exploded causing serious injuries to a fire officer and police officer. A further two devices that had failed to detonate were later discovered, along with ten unexploded sticks of gelignite.  It was reported at the time that Gerard Falzon was part-owner of the club. Falzon was a witness used in the Fitzgerald Inquiry and he had also given evidence

Factory Nightclub.

At 4:10 am on the morning of 28 June 1990, an explosion occurred at the Factory Nightclub in the John M Headrick & Co Building in East Street, in the Rockhampton CBD.  Investigations revealed one of the timing devices attached to the bomb failed to detonate.  Police maintain that if the second device had detonated, the entire building would have been destroyed.  Twenty-nine sticks of unexploded gelignite were found in the nightclub during the investigation,

Earthquakes.

Since European settlement, Rockhampton has experienced shaking associated with several earthquakes.

1883.

At approximately 3 am on the morning of 29 August 1883, there were reports of shaking in Rockhampton and the surrounding area. A local man reported seeing two flashes of "lightning" during the

1918.

Strong shaking was felt in Rockhampton when the "Great Queensland Earthquake of 1918" occurred on 7 June 1918. The earthquake was felt from Mackay in the north, to Grafton in New South Wales, and west to Charleville. The earthquake has been estimated to have been a 6.0 magnitude quake with its epicentre located offshore between Rockhampton and Gladstone.  It was reported that

2016.

On the afternoon of 18 August 2016 many parts of Central Queensland,

Meteorite sightings.

1903.

On 2 August 1903, many people in Rockhampton reported seeing a meteorite. Between eight and ten

2016.

Central Queensland residents, including in Rockhampton, Yeppoon and Gladstone, reported seeing a bright orange light in the sky on the night of 31 October 2016. Many residents in the Gladstone area south of Rockhampton, particularly those living in the Boyne Island and

Attractions.

The Rockhampton Art Gallery collection, also owned by the Rockhampton Regional Council, is situated next to the Pilbeam Theatre and consists mainly of works by Australian artists from the 1940s to the 1970s. Established in 1869, the Rockhampton Botanic Gardens are located on Spencer Street in South Rockhampton. Excellent specimens of palms, cycads and ferns are found throughout the manicured grounds. Some specimens are over 100 years old.  Rockhampton Zoo is located between the Botanic Gardens and Murray Lagoon. Animals and birds include koalas, chimpanzees, saltwater crocodiles, freshwater crocodiles, red kangaroos and the rare cassowary.  A second public garden, the Kershaw Gardens, was officially opened in 1988 on the site of the former Rockhampton rubbish dump. Located on the Bruce Highway in North Rockhampton, these gardens specialise in Australian native plants, especially those of Central Queensland. The most striking feature of the gardens is the imitation waterfall constructed on the northern boundary of the site (adjacent to the highway),

Health.

The Rockhampton Base Hospital is situated in the suburb of The Range, and is located around from Rockhampton CBD, and is the major hospital for the Central Queensland Region. The smaller Hillcrest and Mater private

Shopping.

Rockhampton is home to 11 shopping centres, all of which include

Facilities.

The Rockhampton Regional Council operates the Rockhampton Regional Library Administration and History Centre in Rockhampton on

Education.

The first school, The Rockhampton National School was opened in 1859. Rockhampton is a major education centre for the region and has numerous state and private primary and high schools.  CQUniversity Australia was founded in Rockhampton in 1967, however the university now has more than 30,000 students spread across 24 campuses and locations Australia-wide. The university has

Transport.

Rockhampton is an important transport hub in the Central Queensland region. Rockhampton provides important transport links between the Central Highlands and Capricorn Coast regions and the areas to the north and south of the state. Rockhampton Airport is essential to the viability of the tourism industry.  The Rockhampton region is well serviced by the national and state highway systems, with the city being located at the main junction of the coastal highway, the Bruce Highway, the central western highway, the Capricorn Highway, and the Rockhampton Hinterland is serviced by the Burnett Highway. Driving time is seven and a half hours from Brisbane to Rockhampton.  Rockhampton is also served by long-distance coaches to Brisbane in the south, and as far as Cairns in the north. Daily services operate into Rockhampton with Greyhound Australia. The Hinterland and Central Highlands are also serviced daily by Rothery's Coaches, Pacific Coaches and Emerald Coaches.  Bus services

Infrastructure.

Water.

The catchment area of the Fitzroy River is approximately 145,000 square kilometres (almost the size of England). It contains six major rivers, and Rockhampton and Central Queensland accordingly enjoy abundant

Power.

Central Queensland's major generating facilities, including the Stanwell, Gladstone and Callide power stations, produce the majority of the State's power. Queensland's newest and most technologically

Media.

Newspapers.

Rockhampton has had a number of newspapers published in the city since European settlement.  "The Morning Bulletin" is the only surviving daily newspaper, first published in 1861 as the "Rockhampton Bulletin and Central Queensland Advertiser". The title was changed to the "Rockhampton Bulletin" in 1871 before finally becoming "The Morning Bulletin" in 1878. "The Morning Bulletin" is a member of the Australian Regional Media network of newspapers, now owned by News Corporation. "The Morning Bulletin" has also previously complimented their main daily newspaper with a free home-delivered community newspaper, with previous incarnations including titles such as the "Capricorn Local News", "Rockhampton and Fitzroy News" and "The Rocky Mirror".  In 2012, a new Rockhampton newspaper

Radio.

Rockhampton is serviced by a number of commercial, community and ABC stations  4RO is Rockhampton's local AM station, owned by Grant Broadcasters. 4RO broadcasts local breakfast and morning programs from its local studios each weekday with all other programming sourced from elsewhere. The music played on 4RO is of the classic hits genre. 4RO broadcasts a local news service in the morning, although the bulletins are prepared and read by journalists based at Grant's Sunshine Coast hub, especially for 4RO and its sister station, 4CC.  4CC also owned by Grant Broadcasters, is an AM commercial station servicing Rockhampton on a local AM frequency, although its local

Television.

Rockhampton is served by three commercial stations and two public broadcasters.  Each broadcasts television services in digital formats.  SBS offers digital high-definition simulcasts of their main channel, SBS ONE on SBS HD. There are also ten other main channels available: ABC2, ABC3, ABC News 24, SBS Two, One, Eleven, 7Two, 7mate, 9Gem and 9Go!. Austar Limited provides subscription satellite television services.  All three main commercial networks produce local news coverage - Seven Queensland and WIN Television both

Film.

Rockhampton has played quite an important role in the production and exhibition of films in Central Queensland.  The Australian cinema chain Birch Carroll and Coyle, now trading as BCC Cinemas as part of the Event Cinemas group, grew from a small operation established in Rockhampton by George Henry Birch in September 1910. Birch then entered into a partnership with Brisbane brothers, Edward and Dan Carroll before Townsville's Virgil Coyle finally joined the company in 1923.  The final scenes of the 1927 silent film "The Kid Stakes" were filmed at the Rockhampton Showgrounds. The movie was about goat racing and the producers were unable to film scenes in New South Wales, were most of the movie was filmed, as goat racing in that state was illegal. Therefore, they moved

Indigenous language.

Yumplatok (also known as Torres Strait Creole and Broken) is a contemporary Torres Strait Island language originating in the Torres Strait. The contact with missionaries and others since the 1800s has led to the development of a pidgin language, which transitioned into a creole language and now has its own distinctive sound system, grammar, vocabulary, usage and meaning. Torres Strait Creole is spoken by most Torres Strait Islanders and is a mixture of Standard Australian English and traditional languages. It is an English-based creole; however, each island has its own version of creole. Torres Strait Creole is also spoken on the Australian mainland, including Northern Peninsula Area Region and coastal communities such as Cairns, Townsville, Mackay, Rockhampton and Brisbane.

Rockhampton is a city in the Rockhampton Region of Central Queensland, Australia. The population of Rockhampton in June 2018 was 78,592, making it the fourth-largest city in the state outside of the cities of South East Queensland, and the 22nd-largest city in Australia.

Rockhampton ist eine mittelgroße Stadt in Queensland, Australien. Die ständig wachsende Stadt hat eine Fläche von 95 km2 und rund 61.000 Einwohner. Sie ist der Sitz des gleichnamigen lokalen Verwaltungsgebiets (LGA) Rockhampton Regional Council.


Early life.

Henry was born in Silsbee, Texas. As a child, he was a big wrestling fan and André the Giant was his favorite wrestler. While attending a wrestling show in Beaumont, Texas, young Henry tried to touch André as he was walking down the aisle, but tripped over the barricade. André picked him up out of the crowd and put him back behind the barricade. When Henry was 12 years old,

Powerlifting career.

By the time Mark Henry was in the fourth grade, he was and weighed. His mother bought a set of weights for him when he was 10 years old. During Henry's freshman year at Silsbee High School, he was already able to squat, which was well over school record. As an 18-year-old high school senior, Henry was called "the world's strongest teenager" by the "Los Angeles Times", and made it into the headlines in early 1990 for winning the National High School Powerlifting Championships and setting teenage lifting world records in the squat and total. By the time Henry finished high school, he was a three-time Texas state champion with state and national records in all four powerlifting categories—the squat at, bench press at and deadlift at as well as the total at.  At the Texas High School Powerlifting Championships in April 1990, Terry Todd, a professor of kinesiology at the University of Texas at Austin and former weightlifter, spotted Henry and persuaded him to go to Austin after he graduated to train in the Olympic style of weightlifting. In July 1990 at the USPF Senior National Powerlifting Championships, 19-year-old Henry came second only to the legendary six-time World Powerlifting Champion Kirk Karwoski. While powerlifting relies primarily on brute strength and power, which Henry obviously possessed, Olympic weightlifting is considered more sophisticated, involving more agility, timing, flexibility and technique. There have been few lifters in history who have been able to be successful in both lifting disciplines. Mastering the technique of weightlifting usually takes many years of practice, but Henry broke four national junior records in weightlifting after only eight months of training. In April 1991, he won the United States National Junior Championships; 20 days later he placed fourth at the U.S. Senior National Championships, and finished sixth at the Junior World Weightlifting Championships in Germany two months later. Only few weeks afterwards, he became 1991's International Junior Champion in Powerlifiting as well. In Henry's first year in competitive weightlifting, he broke all three junior (20 and under) American records 12 times, and became the United States' top Superheavyweight, surpassing Mario Martinez.  At the age of 19, Henry had already managed to qualify for the weightlifting competition at the 1992 Summer Olympics, where he finished tenth in the Super- Heavyweight class. Ten months before the 1992 Olympics, Henry had begun training with Dragomir Cioroslan, a bronze medalist at the 1984 Summer Olympics, who said that he had "never seen anyone with Mark's raw talent". After the Olympics, Henry became more determined to focus on weightlifting and began competing all over the world. In late 1992 he took the win at the USA Weightlifting American Open and further proved his dominance on the American soil by winning not only the U.S. National Weightlifting Championships, but also the U.S. Olympic Festival Championships in 1993 and 1994. At the 1995 Pan American Games Henry won a gold, silver and bronze medal.  Having reached the pinnacle of weightlifting on a National and continental level, he competed again in powerlifting and shocked the world by winning the ADFPA U.S. National Powerlifting Championships in 1995 with a 2314.8 lb raw Powerlifting Total. Despite competing without supportive equipment in contrast to the other competitors, Henry managed to outclass the lifter in second place by 286 lb, defeating not only five-time IPF World Powerlifting Champion and 12 time USAPL National Powerlifting Champion Brad Gillingham, but also America's Strongest Man of 1997 Mark Philippi. In the process he set all-time world records in the raw deadlift at 903.9 lb (410 kg) and the squat without a squat suit at 948.0 lb (430 kg) as well as the all-time drug tested raw total at 2314.8 lb (1050 kg). Later that same year in October, he competed in the drug-free Powerlifting World Championships and won again, even though he trained on the powerlifts only sparingly—due his main focus still being on the two Olympic lifts. He not only become World Champion by winning the competition but also bettered his previous all-time squat world record to 953.5 lb (432.5 kg) and his all-time drug tested world record total to 2336.9 lb (1060 kg).  In 1996 Henry became the North America, Central America, Caribbean Islands (NACAC) Champion. He earned the right to compete at the Olympics by winning the U.S. National Weightlifting Championships in the Spring of 1996 for a third time. During his victory Henry became Senior US American record holder (1993–1997) in the Snatch at 180.0 kg (396.8 lb), Clean and jerk at 220.0 kg (485.0 lb), and Total at 400.0 kg (881.8 lb), improving all of his three previous personal bests. This 400 kg total, in the opinion of many experts in track field of international lifting—including Dragomir Cioroslan, the '96s coach of the U.S. team—was the highest ever made by an athlete who had never used anabolic steroids—who was lifetime drugfree. By that time, at the age of 24, Henry was generally acknowledged as the strongest man in the world, even by many of the Eastern Bloc athletes who outrank him in weightlifting. No one in the history of the sports had ever lifted as much as him in the five competitive lifts—the snatch and the clean and jerk in weightlifting—the squat, bench press and deadlift in powerlifting. To this day, his five lift total is still the greatest in history by a fair amount—making him arguably one of the strongest men that ever lived and stamp him, according to lifting statistician Herb Glossbrenner, as history's greatest lifter.  In the months prior to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, Henry received more attention and publicity than any lifter in recent United States history. He guested at Jay Leno, Conan O'Brien and The Oprah Winfrey Show and was featured on HBO Inside Sports and The Today Show. He was also featured in dozens of magazines including U.S. News & World Report, People Vanity Fair, ESPN The Magazine and "Life" where he was photographed nude by famed artist Annie Lebowitz. During this period he connected with WWE owner Vince McMahon for the first time, which led to him signing a 10-year deal as professional wrestler.  Henry improved his lifts to 407 lb in the snatch and 507 lb in the clean-and-jerk during his final eight weeks of preparation for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Henry at 6-foot-4-inches tall and 414 lb bodyweight, became the largest athlete in Olympic history and was voted captain of the Olympic weightlifting team. Unfortunately, he suffered a back injury during the competition and was unable to approach his normal performance level. Due to the injury he had to drop out after his first clean and jerk attempt and finished with a disappointing 14th place. His appearance at the Olympics proved to be his last official competition in Olympic weightlifting, as he retired from weightlifting, vowing never to return unless the sport is "cleaned up" of anabolic steroid use.  Since his career start as a professional wrestler shortly after the Olympics, he broke his leg in the Fall of 1996. But by the summer of the following year he had rehabilitated it enough to be able to compete at the USAPL National Powerlifting Championships 1997, where he won the competition to become the U.S National Powerlifting Champion in the Super Heavyweight class again. He had planned to continue heavy training in powerlifting, although his travel schedule as a professional wrestler with the WWF (now WWE) has made sustained training difficult. Mark's WWF contract was unique in many ways, allowing him at least three months off each year from wrestling, so he can train for the national and world championships in weightlifting or powerlifting. Barring injury, Mark had originally hoped to return to the platform in late 1998, to lift for many more years, and to eventually squat at least 1100 lb without a “squat suit” and to deadlift 1000 lb.  Although in early 1998 he was still able to do five repetitions in the bench press with 495 lb, three repetitions in the squat with 855 lb (with no suit and no knee wraps), and three repetitions in the standing press with 405 lb in training, while traveling with the World Wrestling Federation, he never returned to compete again in official championships in favor of his wrestling career. He weighed 380 lb at that time, and his right upper arm was measured at 24” by Terry Todd. By basically ending his lifting career at the age of 26, it is probable that he never reached his full physical potential as a professional lifter. Henry remains the youngest man in history to squat more than 900 pounds without a squat suit as well as the youngest to total more than 2,300 pounds raw – he's the only person ever to have accomplished any of these feats at under 25 years of age. "done in official Powerlifting full meets"

Professional wrestling career.

World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE.

Early career (1996–1997).

At the age of 24, Henry made his first appearance on World Wrestling Federation (WWF) programming on the March 11, 1996 episode of "Monday Night Raw", where he press slammed Jerry Lawler, who was ridiculing Henry while interviewing him in the ring. After Henry competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics, the WWF signed him to a ten-year contract. Trained by professional wrestler Leo Burke, his first feud in the WWF was with Lawler. At the pay-per-view event, SummerSlam in August 1996, Henry came to the aid of Jake Roberts who was suffering indignity at the hands of Lawler. His debut wrestling match was at on September 22, 1996, where he defeated Lawler.

Nation of Domination and Sexual Chocolate (1998–2000).

Henry joined the faction with Farooq, The Rock, Kama Mustafa, and D'Lo Brown on January 12, 1998. After The Rock usurped Farooq's position as leader, Henry switched loyalties to The Rock. He also competed at WrestleMania XIV in a tag team Battle Royal with Brown as his partner, but they did not win. After short feuds against Ken Shamrock and Vader, Henry participated in his faction's enmity against D-Generation X, which included a romantic storyline with DX member Chyna. When The Nation disbanded, he engaged in a short feud with The Rock, defeating him at with help from Brown, and then forming a permanent team with Brown, gaining Ivory as a manager.  During the next year, Henry gave himself the nickname "Sexual Chocolate", adopting a ladies' man character. He first resumed his storyline with former enemy Chyna, but it ended with

Ohio Valley Wrestling and strongman competitions (2000–2002).

In 2000, Henry was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) to improve his conditioning and wrestling skills. In OVW, he teamed with Nick Dinsmore to compete in a tournament for the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship in mid-2001. Later that year, Henry's mother died, causing him to go on hiatus from wrestling. He felt he had to compete in the "Super Bowl of weight lifting"—the Arnold Strongman Classic—in honor of his mother, who gave him his first weight set when he was a child.  Four months prior to the contest, Henry began lifting the heaviest of weights and trained for the first time since 1997 for a major lifting competition. He had never been a professional strongman before, but in the coming contest he was to face the very best of the best of professional strongmen, such as the #1 ranked strongman in the world, and defending World's Strongest Man competition winner of 2001 Svend Karlsen, World's Strongest Man winner of 2006 Phil Pfister, World Powerlifting Champion of 2001

Various feuds (2002–2005).

Henry returned to the WWE the next month and was sent to the SmackDown! brand, where he developed an in-ring persona of performing "tests of strength" while other wrestlers took bets on the tests, but the gimmick met with little success. During this time he competed against such superstars as Chris Jericho and Christian. After being used sporadically on WWE (formerly WWF) television during 2002, as he was training for a weightlifting contest, and suffering a knee injury, Henry was sent back to OVW for more training.  In August 2003, Henry returned to WWE television on the Raw roster as a heel where he found some

World championship pursuits (2005–2008).

During the December 30 episode of "SmackDown!", Henry made his return to television, as he interfered in a WWE Tag Team Championship match, joining with MNM (Joey Mercury, Johnny Nitro, and Melina), to help them defeat Rey Mysterio and Batista for the championship. A week later on "SmackDown!", Henry got in a confrontation with the World Heavyweight Champion, Batista, and went on to interfere in a steel cage match between MNM and the team of Mysterio and Batista, helping MNM to retain their titles. Henry then had another match with Batista at a live event where Batista received a severely torn triceps that required surgery, forcing him to vacate his title. On the January 10, 2006 episode of "SmackDown!", Henry was involved in a Battle Royal for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship. He was finally eliminated by Kurt Angle, who won the

ECW Champion and various storylines (2008–2010).

As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft, Henry was drafted to the ECW brand. At Night of Champions, Henry defeated Kane and Big Show in a Triple Threat match to capture the ECW Championship in his debut match as an ECW superstar. Upon winning the title, it was made exclusive to the ECW brand once again. Henry's title win came nearly a full decade after he was awarded the European Championship, which was back in 1999 and the only title he held in WWE. A few weeks later, Hall of Famer Tony Atlas returned to WWE to act

Hall of Pain and World Heavyweight Champion (2011–2012).

On the April 25, 2011 episode of "Raw", Henry was drafted back to SmackDown as part of the 2011 WWE draft. In the main event of the night, Henry attacked his teammates John Cena and Christian, turning heel in the process. On the May 27 episode of "SmackDown", Henry participated in a Triple Threat match against Sheamus and Christian to decide the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by Sheamus. On the June 17 episode of "SmackDown", Henry was scheduled to face an angry and emotionally unstable Big Show, who warned Henry not to get into the ring; Henry ignored the warning and Big Show assaulted him before the match could begin. This act ignited a feud between the two; Henry attacked Big Show both backstage and during matches while on the July 1 episode

Later career and retirement (2013–2017).

After a nine-month absence, Henry made his return on the February 4, 2013 episode of "Raw", brutally attacking Daniel Bryan, Rey Mysterio and Sin Cara. Four days later on "SmackDown", Henry defeated Randy Orton to earn a spot in the number one contenders' Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Elimination Chamber. At the pay-per-view on February 17, Henry eliminated Daniel Bryan and Kane before being eliminated by Randy Orton. After his elimination, Henry attacked the three remaining participants before being escorted out by WWE officials. Henry then began a feud with Ryback after several non-verbal confrontations. On the March 15 episode of "SmackDown", Henry was defeated by Ryback via disqualification, following interference from The Shield. Afterward, Henry delivered the World's Strongest Slam to Ryback three times in a row. On April 7 at WrestleMania 29, Henry defeated Ryback in a singles match. Later that month, Henry reignited a feud with Sheamus by repeatedly attacking Sheamus backstage. Henry and Sheamus then challenged each other in tests of strength, but with Sheamus unable to best Henry, he resorted to attacking Henry with "Brogue Kicks".

Backstage roles and WWE Hall of Famer (2017–present).

Following WrestleMania 33, Henry retired and transitioned into a backstage producers role. He later made his return in a backstage cameo at the "Raw 25 Years" event in January 2018. On March 19, 2018, it was announced that Henry would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame. On April 27, at the Greatest Royal Rumble, Henry participated in the event's Royal Rumble match, scoring 3 eliminations, but was himself eliminated by Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler. In early 2019, Henry took on a backstage mentoring role helping talent work on their off-air attitude, including cleanliness and respect in the locker room.

Personal life.

Henry has an older brother named Pat. He lives in Austin, Texas with his wife Jana, son Jacob, and daughter Joanna. He also has a two-foot ferret named Pipe. He

Filmography.

Video games.

Henry appears in

Mark Jerrold Henry (born June 12, 1971) is an American powerlifter, Olympic weightlifter, strongman, and retired professional wrestler, who is currently signed to WWE under a Legends contract. He also works backstage as a producer. He is a two-time Olympian (1992 and 1996) and a gold, silver, and bronze medalist at the Pan American Games in 1995. As a powerlifter, he was WDFPF World Champion (1995) and a two-time U.S. National Champion (1995 and 1997) as well as an all-time raw world record holder in the squat and deadlift. Currently, he still holds the WDFPF world records in the squat, deadlift and total and the USAPL American record in the deadlift since 1995. He is credited for the biggest raw squat and raw powerlifting total ever performed by a drug tested athlete, regardless of weight class, as well as the greatest raw deadlift by an American citizen.

Mark Jerrold Henry (* 12. Juni 1971 in Silsbee, Texas) ist ein US-amerikanischer Kraftdreikämpfer, Gewichtheber, Strongman und Wrestler bei der Wrestlingorganisation WWE. Henry trat dort in deren wöchentlichen Fernsehsendungen sowie bei Großveranstaltungen auf.


Design and development.

Background.

Throughout the First World War both the Allied Powers and the Central Powers made increasingly sophisticated use of new technologies in their attempts to break through the effective stalemate of trench warfare. One key advance made during the conflict was in the use of fixed-wing aircraft, which were at that time rapidly advancing in capability and ability, for combat purposes. On 23 July 1917, in response to a bombing raid performed by German bombers on London, the Air Board, having determined that existing projects were not ambitious enough, decided to cancel all orders for experimental heavy bombers then underway. A week later, following protests from the Controller of the Technical Department, the Air Board placed an order for 100 Handley Page O/100 bombers, which was accompanied by orders for prototype heavy bombers being placed with both Handley Page and Vickers Limited. On 16 August 1917 Vickers was issued with a contract for three prototype aircraft and Rex Pierson, chief designer of Vickers' aviation division, started designing of a large twin-engine biplane bomber, to be powered by either a pair of RAF 4d or 200 hp (150 kW) Hispano Suiza engines. Pierson discussed the proposed aircraft with Major J. C. Buchanan of the Air Board to establish the rough configuration of the aircraft, which was expected to meet the requirement for a night bomber which could attack targets within the German Empire.

Design.

The Vickers F.B.27 Vimy is an equal-span twin-engine four-bay biplane, with balanced ailerons on both upper and lower wings. The engine nacelles were positioned mid-gap and contained the fuel tanks. It has a biplane empennage with elevators on both upper and lower surfaces and twin rudders. The main undercarriage consists of two pairs of wheels, each pair carried on a pair of tubular steel V-struts. There is a tail-skid and an additional skid mounted below the nose of the fuselage to prevent nose-overs.  The aircraft was designed to accommodate a three-man crew and a payload of 12 bombs. In addition to the pilot's cockpit, which was positioned just ahead of the wings, there were two positions for gunners, one behind the wings and the other in the nose, each with a pair of Scarff ring-mounted Lewis guns; the rear cockpit mounting was commonly not fitted during the interwar period. Provision for a maximum of four spare drums of ammunition were present in the nose position, while up to six drums could be carried in the rear position.  The majority of the Vimy's payload of 250 lb bombs were stowed vertically inside the fuselage between the spars of the lower centre section; a typical load consisted of 12 bombs. In some variants further bombs could be stowed externally for a total of 18 bombs, if the particular engine used provided enough power. For anti-surface warfare in the maritime environment, the Vimy could also be armed with a pair of torpedoes. To improve bombing accuracy, the Vimy was equipped with the High Altitude Drift Mk.1a bombsight. Standard equipment also included two Michelin-built Mk.1 flare carriers.  The Vimy was powered by a range of different engines. Owing to engine supply difficulties, the prototype Vimys were tested with a number of different engine types, including Sunbeam Maoris, Salmson 9Zm water-cooled radials, and Fiat A.12bis engines, before production orders were placed for aircraft powered by the 230 hp (170 kW) BHP Puma, 400 hp (300 kW) Fiat, 400 hp (300 kW) Liberty L-12 and the 360 hp (270 kW) Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engines, with a total of 776 ordered before the end of the First World War. Of these, only aircraft powered by the Eagle engine, known as the Vimy IV, were delivered to the RAF. Due to the number of engine types used there are multiple conflicting official reports on the production numbers of each sub-variant of the Vimy.  Design and production of the prototypes was extremely rapid; the detailed design phase of what had become internally designated as the Vickers F.B.27 and the manufacture of the three prototypes was completed within four months.

Prototypes.

By the time the first prototype had been completed the RAF 4D was not sufficiently developed, so it was fitted with the alternative Hispano Suiza engine. On 30 November 1917 the first prototype, flown by Captain Gordon Bell, made its maiden flight from Royal Flying Corps Station Joyce Green, Kent. In January 1918 the first prototype was dispatched to RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, for the official trials of the type. Reportedly, the F.B.27 quickly made a positive impression: it was able to take off with a greater payload than the Handley Page O/400 despite having about half the effective engine power. Unfortunately, the engines proved to be unreliable during these trials, leading to the aircraft's return to Joyce Green on 12 April 1918.  The first prototype was extensively modified, receiving new Salmson water-cooled aero-engines in place of the Hispano Suizas; other changes included the adoption of an alternative exhaust stack configuration, a 3-degree dihedral on the mainplanes, and a modified tail unit. Following these modifications, the prototype was used for several years, surviving the war and being allocated a civil registration. In August 1919 the prototype was flown from Brooklands to Amsterdam, the Netherlands as part of Vicker's exhibit at the Eerste Luchtverkeer Tentoonstelling Amsterdam.  During early 1918 the second prototype was completed. Unlike the first, it had plain elevators and ailerons which had an inverse taper; the tops of the wings and tailplanes also differed. The defensive armament was increased, giving the rear gunner two separate guns; these changes would be standardised on production aircraft. The second prototype was powered by a pair of Sunbeam Maori engines, which were found to have an unreliable cooling system during initial testing at Joyce Green. On 26 April 1918 the aircraft was dispatched to RAF Martlesham Heath for official tests; however, testing was interrupted by its loss in a crash following an engine failure.  During the first half of the 1918 the third prototype was also completed. It was powered by a pair of 400 hp (300 kW) Fiat A.12 engines, and had a redesigned nose section and nacelles which were similar to production aircraft. On 15 August 1918 the third prototype was sent to RAF Martlesham Heath for performance tests; testing was delayed by the need to replace a cracked propeller. On 11 September 1918 it was lost when its payload of bombs detonated owing to a hard landing, the result of a pilot-induced stall.  It was decided to construct a fourth prototype to test the Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engine. On 11 October 1918 this was flown from Joyce Green to Martlesham Heath to conduct official trials. Aside from being powered by the Eagle engine, it was identical to the earlier prototypes except for having a greatly increased fuel capacity and reshaped and enlarged rudders. By the time the fourth prototype commenced flying trials, mass production of the Vimy had already begun.

Production.

Since the performance of the first prototype was satisfactory it was decided to start production before the evaluation of either of the other prototypes. On 26 March 1918 the first production contract, for 150 aircraft, was issued; these were built at Vickers' works in Crayford in the Bexley. Production of the type by additional manufacturers was envisaged early on; in May 1918 follow-up contracts were issued to Clayton & Shuttleworth, Morgan & Co, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), in addition to a separate production line at Vickers' Weybridge complex. At one point over 1,000 aircraft had been ordered under wartime contracts. The type had received the official name of "Vimy", after the Battle of Vimy Ridge.  By the end of 1918 a total of 13 aircraft had been completed by Vickers; 7 at Crayford and 6 at Weybridge. Production continued after the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918, which led to Vickers ultimately completing 112 aircraft under wartime contracts. The majority, if not all, of Vimys ordered from Morgan & Co were completed, while Westland Aircraft manufactured 25 of the 75 units that they were contracted for. The numbers produced by the RAE are obscured by changes in serial number allocation and the apparent adoption of a piecemeal approach to manufacturing, which came into effect shortly after the end of the war; in February 1920, the RAE completed their final Vimy.  Production aircraft used several different types of engines, leading to various mark numbers being applied to the Vimy to distinguish between the emerging subtypes. The use of different engines was often because of availability; relatively few engines from Rolls-Royce Limited were used in the Vimy during 1918 owing to low output levels from that manufacturer, while other manufacturers also struggled to keep up with engine demand that year. At one point, there was considerable enthusiasm for powering the Vimy with American Liberty L-12 engines, because of their plentiful supply at the time; while specified for production aircraft all orders for the Liberty-equipped Vimy were terminated in January 1919 and no examples were ever completed. The BHP Puma was another engine that had been intended for use on the Vimy, but the Puma was cancelled without any aircraft being fitted with the engine.  Use of the Vimy extended beyond its original use as a bomber. A model with greater internal space was developed, known as the "Vimy Commercial" within the civil market. The Vimy Commercial saw service with the RAF; known as the Vickers Vernon, it became the first dedicated troop transport to be operated by the service. The Vimy was also used as an air ambulance for transporting wounded troops to medical facilities, while some examples were configured to perform record-breaking long distance flights. From 1923 to 1925 limited production batches of the Vimy were manufactured by Vickers. Additionally, between 1923 and 1931, at least 43 early production aircraft were reconditioned in order to extend their service lives; at least one Vimy was reconditioned four times.  By October 1918 only three aircraft had been delivered to the Royal Air Force (RAF), one of which had been deployed to France for use by the Independent Air Force. It had been envisioned that the Vimy would be able to conduct long range bombing missions into Germany, having the ability to reach Berlin from bases in France; however, the Armistice of 11 November 1918 had brought an end to the conflict before the Vimy could be used on any offensive operations. Following the end of the conflict, the RAF rapidly contracted in size, which slowed the introduction of the Vimy. The Vimy only reached full service status in July 1919 when it entered service with 58 Squadron in Egypt, replacing the older Handley Page 0/400.

Operational history.

RAF service.

On 12 June 1918, according to aviation publication Flight International, the Air Board were to initially deploy the first production Vimy units as maritime patrol aircraft, equipped for anti-submarine warfare, and once this requirement had been satisfied, subsequent aircraft would be allocated to performing nighttime bombing missions from bases in France. This had been due to a recently introduced policy under which the number of land-based aircraft allocated to anti-submarine patrols was to be vastly expanded, from 66 landplanes in November 1917 to a projected force of 726 landplanes, in which the newly-available Vimy would be a key aircraft due to its long range capabilities. During August 1918, the application of floats to the Vimy was studied, but it is not known if any aircraft were ever so fitted.  Throughout the 1920s, the Vimy formed the main heavy bomber force of the RAF; for some years, it was the only twin-engine bomber to be stationed at bases in Britain. On 1 April 1924, No. 9 Squadron and No. 58 Squadron, equipped with the Vimy, stood up, tripling the home-based heavy bomber force. On 1 July 1923, a newly formed Night Flying Flight, based at RAF Biggin Hill, equipped with the Vimy, was formed; during the general strike of 1926, this unit performed aerial deliveries of the British Gazette newspaper throughout the country. Between 1921 and 1926, the type formed the backbone of the airmail service between Cairo and Baghdad. The Vimy served as a front line bomber in the Middle East and in the United Kingdom from 1919 until 1925, by which point it had been replaced by the newer Vickers Virginia.  Despite the emergence of the Virginia, which numerous Vimy squadrons were soon re-equipped with, the Vimy continued to equip a Special Reserve bomber squadron, 502 Squadron, stationed at Aldergrove in Northern Ireland until 1929. The Vimy continued to be used in secondary roles, such as its use as a training aircraft; many were re-engined with Bristol Jupiter or Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar radial engines. The final Vimys, used as target aircraft for searchlight crews, remained in use until 1938.

Long-distance Flights.

The Vimy was used in many pioneering flights.

Vimy Commercial.

The Vimy Commercial was a civilian version with a larger-diameter fuselage (largely of spruce plywood), which was developed at and first flew from the Joyce Green airfield in Kent on 13 April 1919. Initially, it bore the interim civil registration "K-107", later being re-registered as "G-EAAV".  The prototype entered the 1920 race to Cape Town; it left Brooklands on 24 January 1920 but crashed at Tabora, Tanganyika on 27 February.  A Chinese order for 100 is particularly noteworthy; forty of the forty-three built were delivered to China, but most remained in their crates unused; only seven were put into civilian use.  Fifty-five military transport versions of the Vimy Commercial were built for the RAF as the Vickers Vernon.

Role in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War.

After the First Zhili–Fengtian War, 20 aircraft were secretly converted into bombers under the order of the Zhili clique warlord Cao Kun, and later participated in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War.  During the war these bombers were initially highly successful due to the low-level bombing tactics used, with the air force chief-of-staff of the Zhili clique, General Zhao Buli (趙步壢) personally flying many of the missions. However, on 17 September, returning from a successful bombing mission outside Shanhai Pass, General Zhao's aircraft was hit by ground fire from the Fengtian clique in the region of Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九門口) and had to make a forced landing. Although General Zhao made a successful escape back to his base, the bombers subsequently flew at much higher altitude to avoid ground fire, which greatly reduced their bombing accuracy and effectiveness.  After numerous battles between Chinese warlords, all of the aircraft fell into the hands of the Fengtian clique, forming its "First Heavy Bomber Group". These were in the process of being phased out at the time of the Mukden Incident and therefore were subsequently captured by the Japanese, who soon disposed of them.

Replicas.

Apart from a replica transatlantic Vimy cockpit section built by Vickers for the London Science Museum in the early 1920s, three full-size replicas have also been built. The first was a taxiable replica commissioned by British Lion Films from Shawcraft Models Ltd of Iver Heath, Bucks; the planned film about Alcock & Brown's transatlantic flight was never made, but the model was completed and paid for. Its fate remains a mystery although it appeared on static display at the Battle of Britain air display at RAF Biggin Hill in 1955 and may have been subsequently stored dismantled in East London until at least the late 1980s. The engine nacelles appear in the mine scene from the film 'Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.', so it may not have been in good condition by then.  In 1969 an airworthy Vimy replica (registered G-AWAU) was built by the Vintage Aircraft Flying Association at Brooklands; this was first flown by D. G. 'Dizzy' Addicott and Peter Hoar but was badly damaged by fire that summer and was displayed until February 2014 at the RAF Museum, Hendon, London). It is currently stored dismantled at the RAF Museum storage facility in Stafford.  A second flyable Vimy replica, NX71MY, was built in 1994 by an Australian-American team led by Lang Kidby and Peter McMillan, and this aircraft successfully recreated the three great pioneering Vimy flights: England to Australia flown by Lang Kidby and Peter McMillan (in 1994), England to South Africa flown by Mark Rebholz and John LaNoue (1999) and in 2005, Alcock and Brown's 1919 Atlantic crossing was recreated, flown by Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz. The aircraft was donated to Brooklands Museum in 2006 and was kept airworthy in order to commemorate the 90th anniversaries of the Transatlantic and Australian flights until retired in late 2009. Its final flight was made by John Dodd, Clive Edwards and Peter McMillan from Dunsfold to Brooklands on 15 November 2009 and four days later, in just 18 hours, the aircraft was dismantled, transported the short distance to the Museum and reassembled inside the main hangar by a dedicated volunteer team. Two days later a special Brooklands Vimy Exhibition was officially opened by Peter McMillan, and this unique aircraft is now on public display there.

The Vickers Vimy was a British heavy bomber aircraft developed and manufactured by Vickers Limited. Developed during the latter stages of the First World War to equip the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), the Vimy was designed by Reginald Kirshaw "Rex" Pierson, Vickers' chief designer.

Die Vickers F.B.27 Vimy war ein schwerer britischer Bomber des Ersten Weltkriegs. Das von R. K. Pierson entwickelte und bei Vickers gebaute Flugzeug war für Luftangriffe auf Ziele in Deutschland vorgesehen. Mit einer Vimy gelang zwei Piloten im Juni 1919 erstmals die Nonstop-Überquerung des Atlantiks. Sie flogen in 16 Stunden 12 Minuten 3667 km, also mit einer Durchschnittsgeschwindigkeit von etwa 225 km/h über Grund.