Kuratowski's and Wagner's theorems.

The Polish mathematician Kazimierz Kuratowski provided a characterization of planar graphs in terms of forbidden graphs, now known as Kuratowski's theorem:  A subdivision of a graph results from inserting vertices into edges (for example, changing an edge •——• to •—•—•) zero or more times. Instead of considering subdivisions, Wagner's theorem deals with minors:  A minor of a graph results from taking a subgraph and repeatedly contracting an edge into a vertex, with each neighbor of the original end-vertices becoming a neighbor of the new vertex.  Klaus Wagner asked more generally whether any minor-closed class of graphs is determined by a finite set of "forbidden minors". This is now the Robertson–Seymour theorem, proved in a long series of papers. In the language of this theorem, "K" and "K" are the forbidden minors for the class of finite planar graphs.

Other planarity criteria.

In practice, it is difficult to use Kuratowski's criterion to quickly decide whether a given graph is planar. However, there exist fast algorithms for this problem: for a graph with "n" vertices, it is possible to determine in time O("n") (linear time) whether the graph may be planar or not (see planarity testing).  For a simple, connected, planar graph with "v" vertices and "e" edges and "f" faces, the following simple conditions hold for "v" ≥ 3:  In this sense, planar graphs are sparse graphs, in that they have only O("v") edges, asymptotically smaller than the maximum O("v"). The graph "K", for example, has 6 vertices, 9 edges, and no cycles of length 3. Therefore, by Theorem 2, it cannot be planar. These theorems provide necessary conditions for planarity that are not sufficient conditions, and therefore can only be used to prove a graph is not planar, not that it is planar. If both theorem 1 and 2 fail, other methods may be used.

Euler's formula.

Euler's formula states that if a finite, [[Connectivity (graph theory)|connected]], planar graph is drawn in the plane without any edge intersections, and "v" is the number of vertices, "e" is the number of edges and "f" is the number of faces (regions bounded by edges, including the outer, infinitely large region), then  As an illustration, in the [[butterfly graph]] given above, "v" = 5, "e" = 6 and "f" = 3. In general, if the property holds for all planar graphs of "f" faces, any change to the graph that creates an additional face while keeping the graph planar would keep "v" − "e" + "f" an invariant. Since the property holds for all graphs with "f" = 2, by [[mathematical induction]] it holds for all cases. Euler's formula can also be proved as follows: if the graph isn't a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], then remove an edge which completes a [[cycle (graph theory)|cycle]]. This lowers both "e" and "f" by one, leaving "v" − "e" + "f" constant. Repeat until the remaining graph is a tree; trees have "v" = "e" + 1 and "f" = 1, yielding "v" − "e" + "f" = 2, i. e., the [[Euler characteristic]] is 2.  In a finite, [[Connectivity (graph theory)|connected]], "[[simple graph|simple]]", planar graph, any face (except possibly the outer one) is bounded by at least three edges and every edge touches at most two faces; using Euler's formula, one can then show that these graphs are "sparse" in the sense that if "v" ≥ 3:  [[File:Dodecahedron schlegel diagram.png|thumb|A [[Schlegel diagram]] of a regular [[dodecahedron]], forming a planar graph from a convex polyhedron.]] Euler's formula is also valid for [[convex polyhedron|convex polyhedra]]. This is no coincidence: every convex polyhedron can be turned into a connected, simple, planar graph by using the [[Schlegel diagram]] of the polyhedron, a [[perspective projection]] of the polyhedron onto a plane with the center of perspective chosen near the center of one of the polyhedron's faces. Not every planar graph corresponds to a convex polyhedron in this way: the trees do not, for example. [[Steinitz's theorem]] says that the [[polyhedral graph]]s formed from convex polyhedra are precisely the finite [[Connectivity (graph theory)|3-connected]] simple planar graphs. More generally, Euler's formula applies to any polyhedron whose faces are [[simple polygon]]s that form a surface [[homeomorphism|topologically equivalent]] to a sphere, regardless of its convexity.

Average degree.

Connected planar graphs with more than one edge obey the inequality formula_3, because each face has at least three face-edge incidences and each edge contributes exactly two incidences. It follows via algebraic transformations of this inequality with Euler's formula formula_4 that for finite planar graphs the average degree is strictly less than 6. Graphs with higher average degree cannot be planar.

Coin graphs.

[[File:Circle packing theorem K5 minus edge example.svg|thumb|Example of the circle packing theorem on K, the complete graph on five vertices, minus one edge.]] We say that two circles drawn in a plane "kiss" (or "[[Osculating circle|osculate]]") whenever they intersect in exactly one point. A "coin graph" is a graph formed by a set of circles, no two of which have overlapping interiors, by making a vertex for each circle and an edge for each pair of circles that kiss. The [[circle packing theorem]], first proved by [[Paul Koebe]] in 1936, states that a graph is planar if and only if it is a coin graph.  This result provides an easy proof of [[Fáry's theorem]], that every simple planar graph can be embedded in the plane in such a way that its edges are straight [[line segment]]s that do not cross each other. If one places each vertex of the graph at the center of the corresponding circle in a coin graph representation, then the line segments between centers of kissing circles do not cross any of the other edges.

Planar graph density.

The density formula_5 of a planar graph, or network, is defined as a ratio of the number of edges formula_6 to the number of possible edges in a network with formula_7 nodes, given by a planar graph formula_8, giving formula_9. A completely sparse planar graph has formula_10, alternatively a completely dense planar graph has formula_11

Related families of graphs.

Maximal planar graphs.

[[File:Goldner-Harary graph.svg|thumb|240px|The [[Goldner–Harary graph]] is maximal planar. All its faces are bounded by three edges.]] A simple graph is called maximal planar if it is planar but adding any edge (on the given vertex set) would destroy that property. All faces (including the outer one) are then bounded by three edges, explaining the alternative term plane triangulation. The alternative names "triangular graph" or "triangulated graph" have also been used, but are ambiguous, as they more commonly refer to the [[line graph]] of a [[complete graph]] and to the [[chordal graph]]s respectively. Every maximal planar is [[k-vertex-connected graph|3-vertex-connected]].  If a maximal planar graph has "v" vertices with "v" > 2, then it has precisely 3"v" − 6 edges and 2"v" − 4 faces.  [[Apollonian network]]s are the maximal planar graphs formed by repeatedly splitting triangular faces into triples of smaller triangles. Equivalently, they are the planar [[k-tree|3-trees]].  [[Strangulated graph]]s are the graphs in which every [[peripheral cycle]] is a triangle. In a maximal planar graph (or more generally a polyhedral graph) the peripheral cycles are the faces, so maximal planar graphs are strangulated. The strangulated graphs include also the [[chordal graph]]s, and are exactly the graphs that can be formed by [[clique-sum]]s (without deleting edges) of [[complete graph]]s and maximal planar graphs.

Outerplanar graphs.

[[Outerplanar graph]]s are graphs with an embedding in the plane such that all vertices belong to the unbounded face of the embedding. Every outerplanar graph is planar, but the converse is not true: "K" is planar but not outerplanar. A theorem similar to Kuratowski's states that a finite graph is outerplanar if and only if it does not contain a subdivision of "K" or of "K". The above is a direct corollary of the fact that a graph "G" is outerplanar if the graph formed from "G" by adding a new vertex, with edges connecting it to all the other vertices, is a planar graph.  A 1-outerplanar embedding of a graph is the same as an outerplanar embedding. For "k" > 1 a planar embedding is "k"-outerplanar if removing the vertices on the outer face results in a ("k" − 1)-outerplanar embedding. A graph is "k"-outerplanar if it has a "k"-outerplanar embedding.

Halin graphs.

A [[Halin graph]] is a graph formed from an undirected plane tree (with no degree-two nodes) by connecting its leaves into a cycle, in the order given by the plane embedding of the tree. Equivalently, it is a [[polyhedral graph]] in which one face is adjacent to all the others. Every Halin graph is planar. Like outerplanar graphs, Halin graphs have low [[treewidth]], making many algorithmic problems on them more easily solved than in unrestricted planar graphs.

Other related families.

An [[apex graph]] is a graph that may be made planar by the removal of one vertex, and a "k"-apex graph is a graph that may be made planar by the removal of at most "k" vertices.  A [[1-planar graph]] is a graph that may be drawn in the plane with at most one simple crossing per edge, and a "k"-planar graph is a graph that may be drawn with at most "k" simple crossings per edge.  A [[map graph]] is a graph formed from a set of finitely many simply-connected interior-disjoint regions in the plane by connecting two regions when they share at least one boundary point. When at most three regions meet at a point, the result is a planar graph, but when four or more regions meet at a point, the result can be nonplanar.  A [[toroidal graph]] is a graph that can be embedded without crossings on the [[torus]]. More generally, the [[genus (mathematics)|genus]] of a graph is the minimum genus of a two-dimensional surface into which the graph may be embedded; planar graphs have genus zero and nonplanar toroidal graphs have genus one.  Any graph may be embedded into three-dimensional space without crossings. However, a three-dimensional analogue of the planar graphs is provided by the [[linkless embedding|linklessly embeddable graphs]], graphs that can be embedded into three-dimensional space in such a way that no two cycles are [[linking number|topologically linked]] with each other. In analogy to Kuratowski's and Wagner's characterizations of the planar graphs as being the graphs that do not contain "K" or "K" as a minor, the linklessly embeddable graphs may be characterized as the graphs that do not contain as a minor any of the seven graphs in the [[Petersen family]]. In analogy to the characterizations of the outerplanar and planar graphs as being the graphs with [[Colin de Verdière graph invariant]] at most two or three, the linklessly embeddable graphs are the graphs that have Colin de Verdière invariant at most four.  An [[Upward planar drawing|upward planar graph]] is a [[directed acyclic graph]] that can be drawn in the plane with its edges as non-crossing curves that are consistently oriented in an upward direction. Not every planar directed acyclic graph is upward planar, and it is NP-complete to test whether a given graph is upward planar.

Enumeration of planar graphs.

The [[Asymptotic analysis|asymptotic]] for the number of (labeled) planar graphs on formula_12 vertices is formula_13, where formula_14 and formula_15.  Almost all planar graphs have an exponential number of automorphisms.  The number of unlabeled (non-isomorphic) planar graphs on formula_12 vertices is between formula_17 and formula_18.

Other facts and definitions.

The [[Four Color Theorem]] states that every planar graph is 4-[[graph coloring|colorable]] (i.e. 4-partite).  [[Fáry's theorem]] states that every simple planar graph admits an embedding in the plane such that all edges are [[straight line]] segments which don't intersect. A [[universal point set]] is a set of points such that every planar graph with "n" vertices has such an embedding with all vertices in the point set; there exist universal point sets of quadratic size, formed by taking a rectangular subset of the [[integer lattice]]. Every simple outerplanar graph admits an embedding in the plane such that all vertices lie on a fixed circle and all edges are straight line segments that lie inside the disk and don't intersect, so "n"-vertex [[regular polygon]]s are universal for outerplanar graphs.  [[Image:dual graphs.svg|thumb|100px|A planar graph and its [[Dual graph|dual]]]] Given an embedding "G" of a (not necessarily simple) connected graph in the plane without edge intersections, we construct the [[dual graph]] "G"* as follows: we choose one vertex in each face of "G" (including the outer face) and for each edge "e" in "G" we introduce a new edge in "G"* connecting the two vertices in "G"* corresponding to the two faces in "G" that meet at "e". Furthermore, this edge is drawn so that it crosses "e" exactly once and that no other edge of "G" or "G"* is intersected. Then "G"* is again the embedding of a (not necessarily simple) planar graph; it has as many edges as "G", as many vertices as "G" has faces and as many faces as "G" has vertices. The term "dual" is justified by the fact that "G"** = "G"; here the equality is the equivalence of embeddings on the [[sphere]]. If "G" is the planar graph corresponding to a convex polyhedron, then "G"* is the planar graph corresponding to the dual polyhedron.  Duals are useful because many properties of the dual graph are related in simple ways to properties of the original graph, enabling results to be proven about graphs by examining their dual graphs.  While the dual constructed for a particular embedding is unique (up to [[isomorphism]]), graphs may have different (i.e. non-isomorphic) duals, obtained from different (i.e. non-[[homeomorphic]]) embeddings. A "Euclidean graph" is a graph in which the vertices represent points in the plane, and the edges are assigned lengths equal to the Euclidean distance between those points; see [[Geometric graph theory]].  A plane graph is said to be "convex" if all of its faces (including the outer face) are [[convex polygon]]s. A planar graph may be drawn convexly if and only if it is a [[Subdivision (graph theory)|subdivision]] of a [[k-vertex-connected graph|3-vertex-connected]] planar graph.  [[Scheinerman's conjecture]] (now a theorem) states that every planar graph can be represented as an [[intersection graph]] of [[line segment]]s in the plane.  The [[planar separator theorem]] states that every "n"-vertex planar graph can be partitioned into two [[Glossary of graph theory#Subgraphs|subgraphs]] of size at most 2"n"/3 by the removal of O() vertices. As a consequence, planar graphs also have [[treewidth]] and [[branch-width]] O().  For two planar graphs with "v" vertices, it is possible to determine in time O("v") whether they are [[graph theory|isomorphic]] or not (see also [[graph isomorphism problem]]).  The [[meshedness coefficient]] of a planar graph normalizes its number of bounded faces (the same as the [[circuit rank]] of the graph, by [[Mac Lane's planarity criterion]]) by dividing it by 2"n" − 5, the maximum possible number of bounded faces in a planar graph with "n" vertices. Thus, it ranges from 0 for trees to 1 for maximal planar graphs.  [[Word-representable graph|Word-representable]] planar graphs include triangle-free planar graphs and, more generally, 3-colourable planar graphs, as well as certain face subdivisions of triangular grid graphs, and certain triangulations of grid-covered cylinder graphs.

External links.

[[Category:Planar graphs| ]] [[Category:Graph families]] [[Category:Intersection classes of graphs]]

In graph theory, a planar graph is a graph that can be embedded in the plane, i.e., it can be drawn on the plane in such a way that its edges intersect only at their endpoints. In other words, it can be drawn in such a way that no edges cross each other. Such a drawing is called a plane graph or planar embedding of the graph. A plane graph can be defined as a planar graph with a mapping from every node to a point on a plane, and from every edge to a plane curve on that plane, such that the extreme points of each curve are the points mapped from its end nodes, and all curves are disjoint except on their extreme points.

Ein planarer oder plättbarer Graph ist in der Graphentheorie ein Graph, der auf einer Ebene, mit Punkten für die Knoten und Linien für die Kanten, dargestellt werden kann, sodass sich keine Kanten schneiden.


History.

In the pre-modern world, the term "border" was vague and could refer to either side of the boundary, thus it was necessary to specify part of it with "borderline" or "borderland". During the medieval period the government's control frequently diminished the further people got from the capital, therefore borderland (especially impassable terrain) attracted many outlaws, there the outlaws often found sympathizers.

Borders.

In the past, many borders were not clearly defined lines; instead there were often intervening areas often claimed and fought over by both sides, sometimes called marchlands. Special cases in modern times were the Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone from 1922 to 1991 and the Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone from 1922 until 1970. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced by clearly defined and demarcated borders. For the purposes of border control, airports and seaports are also classed as borders. Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country. Under international law, each country is generally permitted to legislate the conditions that have to be met in order to cross its borders, and to prevent people from crossing its borders in violation of those laws.  Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas, or other identity documents, for persons to cross borders. To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.  Moving goods across a border often requires the payment of excise tax, often collected by customs officials. Animals (and occasionally humans) moving across borders may need to go into quarantine to prevent the spread of exotic infectious diseases. Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders. Moving goods, animals, or people illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes smuggling. Controls on car liability insurance validity and other formalities may also take place.  In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures. These can extend inland, as in the United States where the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service has jurisdiction to operate up to 100 miles from any land or sea boundary. On the other hand, some borders are merely signposted. This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border. Borders may even be completely unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions; such borders are often described as "porous". Migration within territorial borders, and outside of them, represented an old and established pattern of movement in African countries, in seeking work and food, and to maintain ties with kin who had moved across the previously porous borders of their homelands. When the colonial frontiers were drawn, Western countries attempted to obtain a monopoly on the recruitment of labor in many African countries, which altered the practical and institutional context in which the old migration patterns had been followed, and some might argue, are still followed today. The frontiers were particularly porous for the physical movement of migrants, and people living in borderlands easily maintained transnational cultural and social networks.  A border may have been:  In addition, a border may be a "de facto" military ceasefire line.

Classification.

Border Art.

Border art is a contemporary art practice rooted in the socio-political experience(s), such as of those on the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, or "frontera". Since its conception in the mid-80's, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race, ethnicity, and national origin(s).  Border art as a conceptual artistic practice, however, opens up the possibility for artists to explore similar concerns of identity and national origin(s) but whose location is not specific to the U.S-México border. A border can be a division, dividing groups of people and families. Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity. In addition to a division, a border can also conceive a borderland area that can create a cohesive community separate from the mainstream cultures and identities portrayed in the communities away from the borders, such as the Tijuana-San Diego border between Mexico and the United States.  Border art can be defined as an art that is created in reference to any number of physical or imagined boundaries. This art can but is not limited to social, political, physical, emotional and/or nationalist issues. Border art is not confined to one particular medium. Border art/artists often address the forced politicization of human bodies and physical land and the arbitrary, yet incredibly harmful, separations that are created by these borders and boundaries. These artists are often "border crossers" themselves. They may cross borders of traditional art-making (through performance, video, or a combination of mediums). They may at once be artists and activists, existing in multiple social roles at once. Many border artists defy easy classifications in their artistic practice and work.

Political borders.

Political borders are imposed on the world through human agency. That means that although a political border may follow a river or mountain range, such a feature does not automatically define the political border, even though it may be a major physical barrier to crossing.  Political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the earth.

Natural borders.

Natural borders are geographical features that present natural obstacles to communication and transport. Existing political borders are often a formalization of such historical, natural obstacles.  Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders are:  Throughout history, technological advances have reduced the costs of transport and communication across the natural borders. That has reduced the significance of natural borders over time. As a result, political borders that have been formalized more recently, such as those in Africa or Americas, typically conform less to natural borders than very old borders, such as those in Europe or Asia, do.

Geometric borders.

Geometric boundaries are formed by straight lines (such as lines of latitude or longitude), or occasionally arcs (Pennsylvania/Delaware), regardless of the physical and cultural features of the area. Such political boundaries are often found around the states that developed out of colonial holdings, such as in North America, Africa and the Middle East. The Canada–United States border from Lake of the Woods Ontario/Minnesota to the Pacific Ocean follows the 49 parallel for roughly.

Fiat borders.

A generalization of the idea of geometric borders is the idea of fiat boundaries by which is meant any sort of boundary that does not track an underlying "bona fide" physical discontinuity ("fiat", latin for “let it be done”, a decision). Fiat boundaries are typically the product of human demarcation, such as in demarcating electoral districts or postal districts.

Relic borders.

A relic border is a former boundary, which may no longer be a legal boundary at all. However, the former presence of the boundary can still be seen in the landscape. For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on the landscape, and it is still a cultural and economic division in Germany.

Lines of Control.

A line of control (LoC) refers to a militarized buffer border between two or more nations that is yet to be resolved or implemented for permanent border status. LoC borders are under military control and are not recognized as an official international border. Formally known as a cease-fire line an LoC was first created as a way to buffer war borders during the Simla Agreement. Similar to a cease-fire line an LoC is the result of war, stalemates and land ownership conflict.

Maritime borders.

A maritime border is a division enclosing an area in the ocean where a nation has exclusive rights over the mineral and biological resources, encompassing maritime features, limits and zones. Maritime borders represent the jurisdictional borders of a maritime nation and are recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.  Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries.  Some maritime borders have remained indeterminate despite efforts to clarify them. This is explained by an array of factors, some of which illustrate regional problems.

Airspace borders.

Airspace is the atmosphere located within a countries controlled international and maritime borders. All sovereign countries hold the right to regulate and protect air space under the international law of Air sovereignty. The horizontal boundaries of airspace are similar to the policies of "high seas" in maritime law. Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection. With international agreement a country can assume the responsibility of protecting or controlling the atmosphere over International Airspaces such as the Pacific Ocean. The vertical boundaries of airspace are not officially set or regulated internationally. However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line. The Kármán line is a peak point at the altitude of 62 mi (100 km) above the earths surface, setting a boundary between the earths atmosphere and outer space. Airspace regulations are set by nations and local governments within an airspace, regulations of airspace differ by country and location.

Types of international borders.

Open borders.

An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions, this does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, examples of this include the United States and Canada. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement. Open borders used to be very common amongst all nations. However post WW1 lead to the regulation of open borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialized nations.

Regulated borders.

Regulated Borders have varying degrees of control on the movement of persons and trade between nations and jurisdictions. Most Industrialized nations have regulations on entry and require one or more of the following procedures: visa check, passport check or customs checks. Most regulated borders have regulations on immigration, types of wildlife and plants, and illegal objects such as drugs or weapons. Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions. Some of the most regulated borders in the world include: Australia, the United States, Israel, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates. These nations have government controlled border agencies and organizations that enforce border regulation policies on and within their borders.

Demilitarized zones.

A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border separating two or more nations, groups or militaries that have agreed to prohibit the use of military activity or force within the borders bounds. A DMZ can act as a war boundary, ceasefire line, wildlife preserve, or a "de facto" international border. An example of a demilitarized international border is the 38th parallel between North and South Korea. Other notable DMZ zones include Antarctica and outer space (consisting of all space 100 miles away from the earth's surface), both are preserved for world research and exploration. The prohibition of control by nations can make a DMZ unexposed to human influence and thus developed into a natural border or wildlife preserve, such as on the Korean Demilitarized Zone, the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, and the Green Line in Cyprus.

Border economics.

The presence of borders often fosters certain economic features or anomalies. Wherever two jurisdictions come into contact, special economic opportunities arise for border trade. Smuggling provides a classic case; contrariwise, a border region may flourish on the provision of excise or of import–export services — legal or quasi-legal, corrupt or legitimate. Different regulations on either side of a border may encourage services to position themselves at or near that border: thus the provision of pornography, of prostitution, of alcohol, fireworks, and/or of narcotics may cluster around borders, city limits, county lines, ports and airports. In a more planned and official context, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) often tend to cluster near borders or ports.  Even if the goods are not perceived to be undesirable, states will still seek to document and regulate the cross-border trade in order to collect tariffs and benefit from foreign currency exchange revenues. Thus, there is the concept unofficial trade in goods otherwise legal; for example, the cross-border trade in livestock by pastoralists in the Horn of Africa. Ethiopia sells an estimated $250 to $300 million of livestock to Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti every year unofficially, over 100 times the official estimate.  Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements. The removal of internal barriers to commerce, as in France after the French Revolution or in Europe since the 1940s, de-emphasises border-based economic activity and fosters free trade. Euroregions are similar official structures built around commuting across boundary.

Politics.

Political borders have a variety of meanings for those whom they affect. Many borders in the world have checkpoints where border control agents inspect persons and/or goods crossing the boundary.  In much of Europe, controls on persons were abolished by the 1985 Schengen Agreement and subsequent European Union legislation. Since the Treaty of Amsterdam, the competence to pass laws on crossing internal and external borders within the European Union and the associated Schengen Area states (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein) lies exclusively within the jurisdiction of the European Union, except where states have used a specific right to opt out (United Kingdom and Ireland, which maintain the Common Travel Area amongst themselves).  The United States has notably increased measures taken in border control on the Canada–United States border and the United States–Mexico border during its War on Terrorism (See Shantz 2010). One American writer has said that the US-Mexico border is probably "the world's longest boundary between a First World and Third World country".  Historic borders such as the Great Wall of China, the Maginot Line, and Hadrian's Wall have played a great many roles and been marked in different ways. While the stone walls, the Great Wall of China and the Roman Hadrian's Wall in Britain had military functions, the entirety of the Roman borders were very porous, which encouraged Roman economic activity with neighbors. On the other hand, a border like the Maginot Line was entirely military and was meant to prevent any access in what was to be World War II to France by its neighbor, Germany; Germany ended up going around the Maginot Line through Belgium just as it had done in World War I.

Cross-border regions.

Macro-regional integration initiatives, such as the European Union and NAFTA, have spurred the establishment of cross-border regions. These are initiatives driven by local or regional authorities, aimed at dealing with local border-transcending problems such as transport and environmental degradation. Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies. In Europe, the European Union provides financial support to cross-border regions via its Interreg programme. The Council of Europe has issued the Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation, providing a legal framework for cross-border co-operation even though it is in practice rarely used by Euroregions.

Border studies.

There has been a renaissance in the study of borders during the past two decades, partially from the creation of Examples of recent initiatives are the Border Regions in Transition network of scholars, the International Boundaries Research Unit at the University of Durham, the Association of Borderlands Studies based in North America, the African Borderlands Research Network (ABORNE) and the founding of smaller border research centres at Nijmegen and Queen's University Belfast.

Images gallery.

The following pictures show in how many different ways international and regional borders can be closed off, monitored, at least marked as such, or simply unremarkable.

Borders are geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities. Borders are established through agreements between political or social entities that control those areas; the creation of these agreements is called boundary delimitation.

Eine Grenze (Lehnwort aus dem Altpolnischen, vgl. altslawisch, (alt-)polnisch "granica" „Grenze“, Abkürzungen: "Gr." und "Grz.") ist der Rand eines Raumes und damit ein Trennwert, eine Trennlinie oder eine Trennfläche.


Name.

The name Carpathian Ruthenia is sometimes used for a contiguous cross-border area of Ukraine, Slovakia and Poland occupied by Ruthenians. The local Ruthenian population has a problem with self-identification and a portion of them consider themselves to be part of bigger Ukrainian family, while the other – a separate and unique Slavic group of Rusyns. Some Carpathian Rusyns consider themselves part of a bigger Russian nation. In regards to the region most Rusyns, however, use the term "Zakarpattia" (Trans-Carpathia; literally "beyond the Carpathian mountains"). This is contrasted implicitly with "Prykarpattia" (Ciscarpathia; "Near-Carpathia"), an unofficial region in Ukraine, to the immediate north-east of the central area of the Carpathian Range, and potentially including its foothills, the Subcarpathian basin and part of the surrounding plains.  From a Hungarian, Slovak and Czech perspective the region is usually described as Subcarpathia (literally "below the Carpathians"), although technically this name refers only to a long, narrow basin that flanks the northern side of the mountains.  During the period in which the region was administered by the Hungarian states it was officially referred to in Hungarian as Kárpátalja (literally: "the base of the Carpathians") or the north-eastern regions of medieval "Upper Hungary", which in the 16th century was

Geography.

Carpathian Ruthenia rests on the southern slopes of the eastern Carpathian Mountains, bordered to the east and south by the Tisza River, and to the west by the Hornád and Poprad Rivers, which borders Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania, and makes up part of

History.

Prehistoric cultures.

During the Late Bronze Age in the 2nd millennium BCE, the region was characterized by Stanove culture, however, it only gained more advanced metalworking skills with the arrival of Thracians from the South with Kushtanovytsia culture in the 6th-3rd century BCE. Subsequently, in 5th-3rd century BCE from the West arrived

Slavic settlement.

By the 8th and 9th century, the valleys of the Northern and Southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains were "densely" settled by Slavic tribe of White Croats, who were closely

Hungarian arrival.

In 896 the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Range and migrated into the Pannonian Basin. Nestor chronicle wrote that Hungarian tribes had to fight against the Volochi and settled among Slavs when on their way to Pannonia. Prince Laborec fell from power under the efforts of the Hungarians and the Kievan forces. According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Hungarians defeated a united Bulgarian and Byzantine army led by Salan in the early 10th century on the plains of Alpár, who ruled over territory that was finally conquered by Hungarians. During the tenth and for most of the eleventh century the territory remained a borderland between the Kingdom of Hungary to the south and the Kievan Rus' Principality of Halych to the north.  Slavs from the north (Galicia) and east – who actually arrived from Podolia via the mountain passes of Transylvania – continued to settle in small numbers in various parts of the Carpathian borderland, which the Hungarians and other medieval writers referred to as the Marchia Ruthenorum – the Rus' March. These new immigrants, from the north and east, like the Slavs already living in Carpathian Ruthenia,

Habsburg, Ottoman and Hungarian administration.

From 1526, the region was divided between Habsburg Monarchy (i.e. its Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary) and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. Beginning in 1570, the region was divided between the Habsburg Monarchy and Principality of Transylvania under Ottoman suzerainty. Part of Transcarpathia under Habsburg administration was included into the Captaincy of Upper Hungary, which was one of the administrative units of the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary. During this period, an important factor in the Ruthenian cultural identity, namely religion, came to the fore. The Unions of Brest-Lytovsk (1595) and of Ungvár (Uzhorod) (1646) were instituted, causing the Byzantine Orthodox Churches of Carpathian and Transcarpathian Rus' to come under the jurisdiction of Rome, thus establishing so-called "Unia", or Eastern Catholic churches in the region, the Ruthenian Catholic Church and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church.  In the 17th century (until 1648) the entire

Transitional period (1918–1919).

After World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and the region was briefly (in 1918 and 1919) claimed as part of the independent West Ukraine Republic. However, the region was, for most of this period controlled by the newly formed independent Hungarian Democratic Republic, with a short period of West Ukrainian control.  On November 8, 1918, the first National Council (the Lubovňa Council, which was later reconvened as the Prešov Council) was held in western Ruthenia. The first of many councils, it simply stated the desire of its members to separate from the newly formed Hungarian state but did not specify a particular alternative — only that it must involve the right

Subcarpathian Rus' (1919–1938).

The Article 53, Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) granted the Carpathian Ruthenians autonomy, which was later upheld to some extent by the Czechoslovak constitution. Some rights were, however, withheld by Prague, which justified its actions by claiming that the process was to be a gradual one; and Ruthenians representation in the national sphere was less than that hoped for. Carpathian Ruthenia included former Hungarian territories of Ung County, Bereg County, Ugocsa County and Máramaros County.  After the Paris Peace Conference, Transcarpathia

Carpathian Ukraine (1938–1939).

In November 1938, under the First Vienna Award—a result of the Munich Agreement—Czechoslovakia ceded southern Carpathian Rus to Hungary. The remainder of Subcarpathian Rus' received, with Andrej Bródy as prime minister of the autonomous government. After the resignation of the government following a local political crisis, Avhustyn Voloshyn became

Governorate of Subcarpathia (1939–1945).

On March 23, 1939, Hungary annexed further parts of eastern Slovakia bordering with the west of the former Carpatho-Rus. The Hungarian invasion was followed by a few weeks of terror in which more than 27,000 people were shot dead without trial and investigation. Over 75,000 Ukrainians decided to seek asylum in the USSR; of those almost 60,000 of them died in Gulag prison-camps. Others joined the Czechoslovak Army.  Upon liquidation of Carpatho-Ukraine, in the territory annexed the Governorate of Subcarpathia was installed and divided into three, the administrative branch offices of Ung (), Bereg () and Máramaros () governed from Ungvár, Munkács and Huszt respectively, having Hungarian and Rusyn language as official languages.  Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population, however

Transition to Soviet takeover and control (1944-1945).

The Soviet takeover of the region started with the East Carpathian Strategic Offensive in the fall of 1944. It consisted of two parts Battle of the Dukla Pass in effort to support the Slovak National Uprising and Battle of Uzhgorod to breakthrough to the Hungarian plains and encircle German troops in Transylvania. On 28 October 1944 upon conclusion of the offensive campaign most territory of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was secured by the Workers-Peasants Red Army (RKKA).  The Czechoslovak government delegation led by minister František Němec arrived in Khust to establish the provisional Czechoslovak administration, according to the treaties between the Soviet and Czechoslovak governments on 8 May 1944. However, after a few weeks, the Red Army and NKVD started to obstruct the delegation's work. According to the Soviet–Czechoslovak treaty, it was agreed that once any liberated territory of Czechoslovakia ceased to be a combat zone of the Red Army, those lands are transferred under a full control of the Czechoslovak state power. Communications between Khust and the government center in exile in London were obstructed and the Czechoslovak officials were forced to use underground radio. On 14 November 1944 the underground radio "Vladislav" has transmitted

Transcarpathian Ukraine - Soviet Union (1945-1991).

On 29 June 1945, Czechoslovakia signed a treaty with the Soviet Union, officially ceding the region. Between 1945 and 1947, the new Soviet authorities fortified the new borders, and in July 1947 declared Transcarpathia as "restricted zone of the highest level", with checkpoints on the mountain passes connecting the region to mainland Ukraine.  As of December 1944 the National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine set up a special people's tribunal in Uzhgorod to try and condemn all collaborationists with the previous regimes - both Hungary and Carpatho-Ukraine. The court was allowed to hand down either 10 years of forced labour, or death penalty. Several Ruthenian leaders, including Andrej Bródy and Shtefan Fentsyk, were condemned and executed in May 1946. Avgustyn Voloshyn also died in prison. The extent of the repression showed to many

Transition to independent Ukraine (1991-).

In July 1991 the Ukrainian SSR adopted a law about referendums that lasted until 2012. Soon after the August Putch in Moscow (19–22), on 24 August 1991 the Verkhovna Rada (Ukrainian parliament) of the Ukrainian SSR proclaimed declaration about its independence and also prohibited the Communist Party in the republic. The local nomenklatura remained in confusion for several days following those events. The local People's Movement of Ukraine (Rukh) and other democratic activists were organizing protests across the whole oblast (region). Everywhere were adopting demands to prohibit the Communist Party. The local council of Uzhhorod city renamed the Lenin Square as People's Square. On 30 August 1991 during the multi-thousand protest in Uzhhorod was removed a monument of Lenin. Some other settlements also removed monuments of Lenin, while other resisted that. So was in Tiachiv the municipality

Demographics.

Religion.

According to a 2015 survey, 68% of the population of Zakarpattia Oblast adheres to Eastern Orthodoxy, while 19% are followers of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church

Issue with self-identity: Ukrainians or Rusyns.

Carpathian Ruthenia is inhabited mainly by people who self-identify as Ukrainians, many of whom may refer to themselves as Rusyns, "Rusnak" or "Lemko"). Places inhabited by Rusyns also span adjacent regions of the Carpathian Mountains, including regions of present-day Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. Ruthenian settlements exist in the Balkans

Hungarians.

The following data is according to the Ukrainian census of 2001. The 1910 Austro-Hungarian census shows 185,433 speakers of Hungarian language, while the Czechoslovak census of 1921 shows 111,052 ethnic Hungarians and 80,132 ethnic Jews, many of whom were speakers of Hungarian language. Much of the difference in these censuses reflects differences in methodology and definitions rather than a decline in the region's ethnic Hungarian (Magyar) or Hungarian-speaking population. According to the 1921 census, Hungarians constituted about 17.9% of the region's total population.  The end of World War II had

Jews.

Germans.

See Carpathian Germans for more information (mainly Germans from Bohemia, Moravia and

Czechs.

Czechs in Carpathian Ruthenia are ethnoculturally distinct from other West Slavic

Romani.

There are approximately 25,000 ethnic Romani in present-day Transcarpathia. Some estimates point to a number as high as 50,000 but a true count is hard to obtain as many Romani will claim to be Hungarian or Romanian when interviewed by Ukrainian authorities.  They are by far the poorest and least-represented ethnic group in the region and face intense

Romanians.

Today some 30,000 Romanians live in this region, mostly in northern

Greeks.

Also known

Armenians.

Descendants of Armenians who came and

Western views.

For urban European readers in the 19th century, Ruthenia was one origin of the 19th century's imaginary "Ruritania" the most rural, most rustic and deeply provincial tiny province lost in forested mountains that could be imagined. Conceived sometimes as a kingdom of central Europe, Ruritania was the setting of several novels by Anthony Hope, especially "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1894).  Recently Vesna Goldsworthy, in "Inventing Ruritania: the imperialism of the imagination" (1998) has explored the origins of the ideas that underpin Western perceptions of the "Wild East" of Europe, especially of Ruthenian and other rural Slavs in the upper Balkans, but ideas that are highly applicable to Transcarpathia, all in all "an innocent process: a cultural great power seizes and exploits the resources of an area, while imposing new frontiers on its mind-map and creating ideas which, reflected back, have the ability to reshape reality."

Carpathian Ruthenia, Carpatho-Ukraine or Zakarpattia (, or, ; ; Slovak and ;, ; ;, ; ) is a historic region in the border between Central and Eastern Europe, mostly located in western Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast, with smaller parts in easternmost Slovakia (largely in Prešov Region and Košice Region) and Lemkivshchyna in Poland. In the Middle Ages it was part of Kievan Rus'. Before World War I most of this region was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. In the interwar period, it was part of the First and Second Czechoslovak Republic. During World War II, the region was annexed by the Kingdom of Hungary once again. After the war, it was occupied by the USSR and became part of Soviet Ukraine.

Die Karpatenukraine, auch "Karpato-Ukraine", oder moderner und häufiger "Transkarpatien" ( "Sakarpatia" oder Карпатська Україна "Karpatska Ukrajina") ist eine historische Region im äußersten Westen der heutigen Ukraine, die an Rumänien, Ungarn, die Slowakei und Polen grenzt. Sie umfasst hauptsächlich das Gebiet um den ukrainischen Teil der Karpaten, die heutige Verwaltungseinheit Oblast Transkarpatien "(Sakarpatska Oblast)". Die größten Städte sind Uschhorod und Mukatschewo.


Family history.

Origin of Bolívar surname.

The surname "Bolívar" originated with aristocrats from La Puebla de Bolívar, a small village in the Basque

16th century.

The Bolívars settled in Venezuela in the 16th century. Bolívar's first South American ancestor was Simón de Bolívar (or Simon de Bolibar; the spelling was not standardized until the 19th century), who lived and worked in Santo Domingo (the present-day Dominican Republic) from 1559 to 1560 and where his son Simón de Bolívar y Castro was born. When the governor was reassigned to Venezuela by the Spanish Crown in 1569, Simón de Bolívar went with him. As an early settler in Spain's Venezuela Province, he became prominent in

17th century.

Toward the end of the 17th century, copper mining became so prominent in Venezuela that the metal became known as "cobre Caracas" ("Caracas copper"). Many of the mines became the property of the Bolívar family. Bolívar's grandfather, Juan de Bolívar y Martínez de Villegas, paid 22,000 ducats to the monastery at Santa Maria de Montserrat in 1728 for a title of nobility that had been

Early life.

Childhood.

Simón Bolívar was born in a house in Caracas, Captaincy General of Venezuela, on 24 July 1783. He was baptized as Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios. His mother was María de la Concepción Palacios y Blanco, and his father was Colonel Don Juan Vicente Bolívar y Ponte. He had two older sisters and a brother: María Antonia, Juana, and Juan Vicente. Another sister, María del Carmen, died at birth.  When Bolívar was an infant, he was cared for by Doña Ines Manceba de Miyares and the family's slave, Hipólita. A couple of years later, he returned to the care of his parents, but this

Youth.

When Bolívar was fourteen, Don Simón Rodríguez was forced to leave the country after being accused of involvement in a conspiracy against the Spanish government in Caracas. Bolívar then entered the military academy of the Milicias de Aragua. In 1800, he was sent to Spain to follow his military

Political and military career.

Venezuela and New Granada, 1807–1821.

Prelude, 1807–1810.

Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1807. After a coup on 19 April 1810, Venezuela achieved "de facto" independence when the Supreme Junta of Caracas was established and the colonial administrators deposed. The

First Republic of Venezuela, 1811–1812.

In 1811, a delegation from the Supreme Junta, also including Bolívar, and a crowd of commoners enthusiastically received Miranda in La Guaira. During the insurgence war conducted by Miranda, Bolívar was promoted to colonel and was made commandant of Puerto Cabello the following year, 1812. As Royalist Frigate Captain Domingo de Monteverde was advancing into republican territory from the west, Bolívar lost control of San Felipe Castle along with its ammunition stores on 30 June 1812. Bolívar then retreated to his estate in San Mateo.  Miranda saw the republican cause as lost

Second Republic of Venezuela (1813–1814) and exile.

This was the beginning of the Admirable Campaign. On 24 May, Bolívar entered Mérida, where he was proclaimed "El Libertador" ("The Liberator"). This was followed by the occupation of Trujillo on 9 June. Six days later, and as a result of Spanish massacres on independence supporters, Bolívar dictated his famous "Decree of War to the Death", allowing the killing of any Spaniard not actively supporting independence. Caracas was retaken on 6 August 1813, and Bolívar was ratified as "El Libertador", establishing the Second Republic of Venezuela. The following year, because of the rebellion of José Tomás Boves and the fall of the republic, Bolívar returned to New

Campaigns in Venezuela, 1816–1818.

In 1816, with Haitian soldiers and vital material support, Bolívar landed in Venezuela and fulfilled his promise to Pétion to free Spanish America's slaves on 2 June 1816.  The Expedition of the Keys was led by Bolivar and fought for Venezuela in the east, while the Guyana Campaign started in the west and was led by Manuel Piar.  In July 1817, on a second expedition, he captured Angostura after defeating the

Liberation of New Granada and Venezuela, 1819–1821.

On 15 February 1819, Bolívar was able to open the Venezuelan Second National Congress in Angostura, in which he was elected president and Francisco Antonio Zea was elected vice president. Bolívar then decided that he would first fight for the independence of New Granada, to gain resources of the viceroyalty, intending later to consolidate the independence of Venezuela.  The campaign for the independence of New Granada, which included the crossing of the Andes mountain range, one of history's great military feats, was consolidated with the victory at the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819. Bolívar returned to Angostura, when congress passed a law forming a greater Republic of

Ecuador and Peru, 1822–1825.

Bolívar followed with the Battle of Bombona and the Battle of Pichincha, after which he entered Quito on 16 June 1822. On 26 and 27 July 1822, Bolívar held the Guayaquil Conference with the Argentine General José de San Martín, who had received the title of "Protector of Peruvian Freedom" in August 1821 after partially liberating Peru from the Spanish. Thereafter, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru.  The Peruvian congress named him dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824, which allowed Bolívar to reorganize completely the political and military administration. Assisted by Antonio José de Sucre, Bolívar decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry at the Battle of

Consolidation of independence, 1825–1830.

Republic of Bolivia.

On 6 August 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, the "Republic of Bolivia" was created. Bolívar is thus one of the few people to have a country named after him. Bolívar returned to Caracas on 12 January 1827, and then back to Bogotá.  Bolívar had great difficulties maintaining control of the vast Gran Colombia.

Struggles inside Gran Colombia.

Bolívar thought that a federation like the one founded in the United States was unworkable in the Spanish America. For this reason, and to prevent a break-up, Bolívar sought to implement a more centralist model of government in Gran Colombia, including some or all of the elements of the Bolivian constitution he had written, which included a lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor (although this presidency was to be held in check by an intricate system of balances).  This move was considered controversial in New Granada and was one of the reasons for the deliberations, which met from 9 April to 10 June 1828. The convention almost ended up drafting a document which would have implemented a radically federalist form of government, which would have greatly reduced the powers of a central administration. The federalist faction was able to command a majority for the draft of a new constitution which has definite federal characteristics despite its ostensibly centralist outline. Unhappy with what would be the ensuing result, pro-Bolívar delegates withdrew from the convention, leaving it moribund.  Two months after the failure of this congress to write a new constitution, Bolívar was declared

Dissolution of Gran Colombia.

For Bolívar, Hispanic America was the fatherland. He dreamed of a united Spanish America and in the pursuit of that purpose he not only created Gran Colombia but also the Confederation of the Andes whose aim was to unite the aforementioned with Peru and Bolivia. Moreover, he promoted a network of treaties keeping the newly liberated South American countries together. Nonetheless, he was unable to control the centrifugal process which pushed outwards in all directions.  On 20 January 1830, as his dream fell apart, Bolívar delivered his final address to the nation, announcing that he would be stepping down from the presidency of Gran Colombia. In his speech, a distraught Bolívar urged the people to maintain the union and to be wary of the intentions of those who advocated for separation. (At the time, "Colombians" referred to the people of Gran Colombia (Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador), not

Aftermath.

For the rest of the 19th century and into the early 20th century, the political environment of Latin America was fraught with civil wars and characterized by a sociopolitical phenomenon known as "caudillismo", which became very common in Venezuela, especially after 1830.  Indeed, such struggles already existed shortly after the patriot victory over the loyalists because the former Spanish colonies created new nations that proclaimed their own autonomous states, which produced military confrontations with political conspirations that sent some of the former independence heroes into exile. Moreover,

Final months and death.

Saying that "all who served the revolution have plowed the sea", Bolívar finally resigned the presidency on 27 April 1830, intending to leave the country for exile in Europe. He had already sent several crates containing his belongings and writings ahead of him to Europe, but he died before setting sail from Cartagena.  It is said that before Simón Bolívar had passed away, he had declared that "America is ungovernable." Bolívar was a man who had seen the negative in things. This negativity had grown from the distances that had separated the large continent or from the differences in the cultures, languages, ethnicities and the races of the people. Another factor could have been from the lack of political unity, but it is unclear what had led him to being pessimistic. These factors had caused Bolívar to put his hope on hold of uniting the sovereign territory. Old colonial cities had been separated and new trading centers had been separated by great geographical features such as mountains, high deserts and arid plains. These were all factors in which played a role and were responsible for the broken states during a time where wars of independence had risen.  On 17 December 1830, at the age of 47,

Private life.

Marriage.

In 1799, following the early deaths of his father Juan Vicente (dead since 1786) and his mother Concepción (who died in 1792), Bolívar traveled to Mexico, France, and Spain, at the age of 16 years, to complete his education. While in Madrid during 1802 and after a two-year courtship, he married, who was to be his only wife. She was related to the aristocratic families of the of Caracas and the marquis de Inicio of Madrid.  Eight months after returning to Venezuela with him, she died from yellow fever on 22 January 1803. Bolívar was so devastated by this loss that his relatives feared for his life. He swore never to marry

Affairs and lovers.

Bolívar had several love affairs. Most of them were ephemeral and did not last long. Historians, scholars and biographers often agree with the names of the most prominent women who stood with Bolívar, such as Josefina "Pepita" Machado, Fanny du Villars and Manuela Sáenz.  Manuela Sáenz was the most important of those women. She was more than a lover in Bolívar's later life; she became a trustworthy confidant and advisor. Moreover, Manuela saved Bolívar's life during the September Conspiracy of 1828 in which Bolívar was about to be killed. During such assassination attempt, Manuela diverted the assassins and thus gave Bolívar enough

Descriptions of Bolívar.

Ducoudray Holstein.

In his "Memoirs of Simón Bolívar", Henri La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein (who himself has been called a "not-always-reliable and never impartial witness") described the young Bolívar as he was attempting to seize power in Venezuela and New Granada in 1814–1816. Ducoudray Holstein joined Bolívar and served on his staff as an officer during this period.  He describes Bolívar as a coward who repeatedly abandoned his military commission in front of the enemy, and also as a great lover of women, being accompanied at all times by two or more of his mistresses during the military operations. He would not hesitate to stop the fleet transporting the

Karl Marx.

According to Beddow and Thibodeaux, Karl Marx dismissed Bolívar as a "falsifier, deserter, conspirator, liar, coward and looter", and a "false liberator who merely sought to preserve the power of the old Creole nobility to which he belonged".  In an unsympathetic biography titled "Bolívar y Ponte, Simón", published in the New American Cyclopedia, Karl Marx criticized much of Bolívar's life. Marx begins by saying that Bolívar was born to a family of "creole nobility in Venezuela" and

Relatives.

Bolívar had no children, possibly because of infertility caused by having contracted measles and mumps as a child. His closest living relatives descend from his sisters and brother. One of his sisters died in infancy. His sister Juana Bolívar y Palacios married their maternal uncle, Dionisio Palacios y Blanco, and had two children, Guillermo and Benigna. Guillermo Palacios died fighting alongside his uncle Simón in the battle of La Hogaza on 2 December 1817. Benigna had two marriages, the first to Pedro Briceño Méndez and the second to Pedro Amestoy. Their great-grandchildren, Bolívar's closest living relatives, Pedro, and Eduardo Mendoza Goiticoa lived in Caracas as of 2009.  His eldest sister, María Antonia, married

Personal beliefs.

Politics.

Simón Bolívar was an admirer of both the U.S. and French Revolutions. Bolívar even enrolled his nephew, Fernando Bolívar, in a private school in Philadelphia, Germantown Academy, and paid for his education, including attendance at Thomas Jefferson's University of Virginia. While he was an admirer of U.S. independence, he did not believe that its governmental system could work in Latin America. Thus, he claimed that the governance of heterogeneous societies like Venezuela "will require a firm hand".  Bolívar felt that the U.S. had been established in land especially fertile for democracy. By contrast, he referred to Spanish America as having been

Freemasonry.

Similarly to some others in the history of American Independence (George Washington, Miguel Hidalgo, José de San Martín, Bernardo O'Higgins, Francisco de Paula Santander, Antonio Nariño, and Francisco de Miranda), Simón Bolívar was a Freemason. He was initiated in 1803 in the Masonic Lodge Lautaro, which operated in Cádiz, Spain. It was in this lodge that

Legacy.

Political legacy.

Due to the historical relevance of Bolívar as a key element during the process of independence in Hispanic America, his memory has been strongly attached to sentiments of nationalism and patriotism, being a recurrent theme of rhetoric in politics. Since the image of Bolívar became an important part to the national identities of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, his mantle is often claimed by Hispanic American

Monuments and physical legacy.

The nations of Bolivia and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, and their respective currencies (the Bolivian boliviano and the Venezuelan bolívar), are all named after Bolívar. Additionally, most cities and towns in Colombia and Venezuela are built around a main square known as Plaza Bolívar, as is the case with Bogotá. In this example, most governmental buildings and public structures are located on or around the plaza, including the National Capitol and the Palace of Justice. Besides Quito and Caracas, there are monuments to Bolívar in the Latin American capitals of Lima, Buenos Aires, Havana, Mexico City, Panama City, Paramaribo, San José, Santo Domingo and Sucre. In Bogotá, the Simón Bolívar Park has hosted many concerts.  Outside of Latin America, the variety of monuments to Simón Bolívar are a continuing testament to his legacy. These include

In popular culture.

Bolívar has been depicted in opera, literature, film, and other media, and continues to be a part of the popular culture in many countries. In 1883, to celebrate 100 years since his birth, the Italian musician Nicolò Gabrielli composed the triumphal march "Simón Bolívar" and dedicated it to then president of Venezuela Antonio Guzmán Blanco. In 1943 Darius Milhaud composed the opera Bolívar. He is also the central character in Gabriel García Márquez's 1989 novel "The General in His Labyrinth", in which he is portrayed in a less heroic but more humane manner than in most other parts of his legacy. In 1969 Maximilian Schell played the role of Simón

References.

Cited sources

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte-Andrade y Blanco (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830), generally known as Simón Bolívar (, ) and also colloquially as "El Libertador", or the Liberator, was a Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the countries of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama to independence from the Spanish Empire.

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Ponte(-Andrade) (y) Palacios y Blanco [], genannt "„El Libertador“" (* 24. Juli 1783 in Caracas, Neugranada; † 17. Dezember 1830 in Santa Marta, Großkolumbien), war ein südamerikanischer Unabhängigkeitskämpfer. Er ist der Nationalheld mehrerer südamerikanischer und karibischer Länder. Er führte die Unabhängigkeitskriege gegen die spanische Kolonialherrschaft in Venezuela, Kolumbien, Panama und Ecuador. Auch in die Unabhängigkeitsprozesse in Peru und in Bolivien, das nach ihm benannt ist, griff er entscheidend ein.


Early life.

Day was born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff on April 3, 1922 in Cincinnati, Ohio, the daughter of Alma Sophia ("née" Welz; 1895–1976) and William Joseph Kappelhoff (1892–1967). Her mother was a homemaker, and her father was a music teacher and choirmaster. Her maternal and paternal grandparents were German; her paternal grandfather Franz Joseph Wilhelm Kappelhoff immigrated to the United States in 1875 and settled in Cincinnati which had a large German community with its own churches, clubs, and German-language newspapers. For most of her life, Day stated she was born in 1924; it was not until her 95th birthday – when the Associated Press found her birth certificate, showing a 1922 date of birth – that she stated otherwise. It was common among actresses in Hollywood to state an age younger than they actually were in reality because youth was everything when it came to casting.  The youngest of three siblings, she had two older brothers: Richard (who died before her birth) and Paul, two to three years older. Due to her father's alleged infidelity, her parents separated. She developed an early interest in dance, and in the mid-1930s formed a dance duo with Jerry Doherty that performed locally in Cincinnati. A car accident on October 13, 1937 injured her right leg and curtailed her prospects as a professional dancer.

Career.

Early career (1938–1947).

While recovering from her car accident, Kappelhoff started to sing along with the radio and discovered a talent she did not know she had. "During this long, boring period, I used to while away a lot of time listening to the radio, sometimes singing along with the likes of Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller", she told A. E. Hotchner, one of Day's biographers. "But the one radio voice I listened to above others belonged to Ella Fitzgerald. There was a quality to her voice that fascinated me, and I'd sing along with her, trying to catch the subtle ways she shaded her voice, the casual yet clean way she sang the words."  Observing her daughter sing rekindled Alma's interest in show business, and she decided Doris must have singing lessons. She engaged a teacher, Grace Raine. After three lessons, Raine told Alma that young Doris had "tremendous potential"; Raine was so impressed that she gave Doris three lessons a week for the price of one. Years later, Day said that Raine had the biggest effect on her singing style and career.  During the eight months she was taking singing lessons, Kappelhoff had her first professional jobs as a vocalist, on the WLW radio program "Carlin's Carnival", and in a local restaurant, Charlie Yee's Shanghai Inn. During her radio performances, she first caught the attention of Barney Rapp, who was looking for a female vocalist and asked if she would like to audition for the job. According to Rapp, he had auditioned about 200 singers when Kappelhoff got the job.  While working for Rapp in 1939, she adopted the stage surname "Day", at Rapp's suggestion. Rapp felt that "Kappelhoff" was too long for marquees, and he admired her rendition of the song "Day After Day". After working with Rapp, Day worked with bandleaders Jimmy James, Bob Crosby, and Les Brown. In 1941, Day appeared as a singer in three Soundies with the Les Brown band.  While working with Brown, Day recorded her first hit recording, "Sentimental Journey", released in early 1945. It soon became an anthem of the desire of World War II demobilizing troops to return home. The song continues to be associated with Day, and she re-recorded it on several occasions, including a version in her 1971 television special. During 1945–46, Day (as vocalist with the Les Brown Band) had six other top ten hits on the "Billboard" chart: "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time", Tain't Me", "Till The End of Time", "You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)", "The Whole World is Singing My Song", and "I Got the Sun in the Mornin. Les Brown said, "As a singer Doris belongs in the company of Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra." (Aljean Harmetz (2019). "Wholesome Box-Office Star and Golden Voice of 'Que Sera, Sera' ". "The New York Times." p. 1 )

Early film career (1948–1954).

While singing with the Les Brown band and for nearly two years on Bob Hope's weekly radio program, she toured extensively across the United States.  Her performance of the song "Embraceable You" impressed songwriter Jule Styne and his partner, Sammy Cahn, and they recommended her for a role in "Romance on the High Seas" (1948). Day was cast for the role after auditioning for director Michael Curtiz. She was shocked at being offered the role in the film, and admitted to Curtiz that she was a singer without acting experience. But he said he liked that "she was honest", not afraid to admit it, and he wanted someone who "looked like the All-American Girl". Day was the discovery of which Curtiz was proudest during his career.  The film provided her with a hit recording as a soloist, "It's Magic", which followed by two months her first hit ("Love Somebody" in 1948) recorded as a duet with Buddy Clark. Day recorded "Someone Like You", before the film "My Dream Is Yours" (1949), which featured the song. In 1950, U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star.  She continued to make minor and frequently nostalgic period musicals such as "On Moonlight Bay" (1951), "By the Light of the Silvery Moon" (1953), and "Tea For Two" (1950) for Warner Brothers.  Her most commercially successful film for Warner was "I'll See You in My Dreams" (1951), which broke box-office records of 20 years. The film is a musical biography of lyricist Gus Kahn. It was Day's fourth film directed by Curtiz. Day appeared as the title character in the comedic western-themed musical, "Calamity Jane" (1953). A song from the film, "Secret Love", won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Day's fourth No. 1 hit single in the United States.  Between 1950 and 1953, the albums from six of her movie musicals charted in the Top 10, three of them at No. 1. After filming "Lucky Me" (1954) with Bob Cummings and "Young at Heart" (1955) with Frank Sinatra, Day chose not to renew her contract with Warner Brothers.  During this period, Day also had her own radio program, "The Doris Day Show". It was broadcast on CBS in 1952–1953.

Breakthrough (1955–1958).

Having become primarily recognized as a musical-comedy actress, Day gradually took on more dramatic roles to broaden her range. Her dramatic star turn as singer Ruth Etting in "Love Me or Leave Me" (1955), with top billing above James Cagney, received critical and commercial success, becoming Day's biggest hit thus far. Cagney said she had "the ability to project the simple, direct statement of a simple, direct idea without cluttering it", comparing her to Laurette Taylor's Broadway performance in "The Glass Menagerie" (1945), one of the greatest performances by an American actor. Day said it was her best film performance. Producer Joe Pasternak said, "I was stunned that Doris did not get an Oscar nomination." The soundtrack album from that movie was a No. 1 hit.  Day starred in Alfred Hitchcock's suspense film "The Man Who Knew Too Much" (1956) with James Stewart. She sang two songs in the film, "Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)" which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and "We'll Love Again". The film was Day's 10th movie to be in the Top 10 at the box office. Day played the title role in the thriller/noir "Julie" (also 1956) with Louis Jourdan.  After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in "The Pajama Game" (1957) with John Raitt. The film was based on the Broadway play of the same name. She worked with Paramount Pictures for the comedy "Teacher's Pet" (1958), alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young. She co-starred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film "The Tunnel of Love" (also 1958), but found scant success opposite Jack Lemmon in "It Happened to Jane" (1959).  "Billboard" annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No. 1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal.

Box-office success (1959–1968).

In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies. This success began with "Pillow Talk" (1959), co-starring Rock Hudson who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall. Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress. It was the only Oscar nomination she received in her career. Day, Hudson, and Randall made two more films together, "Lover Come Back" (1961) and "Send Me No Flowers" (1964).  Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in "Please Don't Eat the Daisies" (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy "That Touch of Mink" (1962). During 1960 and the 1962 to 1964 period, she ranked number one at the box office, the second woman to be number one four times, an accomplishment equalled by no other actress except Shirley Temple. She set a record that has yet to be equaled, receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box office star.  Day teamed up with James Garner starting with "The Thrill of It All", followed by "Move Over, Darling" (both 1963). The film's theme song, "Move Over Darling", co-written by her son, reached in the UK. In between these comedic roles, Day co-starred with Rex Harrison in the movie thriller "Midnight Lace" (1960), an updating of the stage thriller "Gaslight".  By the late 1960s, the sexual revolution of the baby boomer generation had refocused public attitudes about sex. Times changed, but Day's films did not. Day's next film "Do Not Disturb" (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned. Critics and comics dubbed Day "The World's Oldest Virgin", and audiences began to shy away from her films. As a result, she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film "The Glass Bottom Boat" (1966). One of the roles she turned down was that of Mrs. Robinson in "The Graduate", a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft. In her published memoirs, Day said she had rejected the part on moral grounds: she found the script "vulgar and offensive".  She starred in the western film "The Ballad of Josie" (1967). That same year, Day recorded "The Love Album", although it was not released until 1994. The following year (1968), she starred in the comedy film "Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?" which centers on the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965. Her final feature, the comedy "With Six You Get Eggroll", was released in 1968.  From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama. From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama ("Midnight Lace"), one musical ("Jumbo"), and her television series.

Bankruptcy and television career.

After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, a shocked Day discovered that Melcher and his business partner and "adviser" Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt. Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949, when he represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler. Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969, won a successful decision in 1974, but did not receive compensation until a settlement in 1979.  Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series, which became "The Doris Day Show".  Day hated the idea of performing on television, but felt obligated to do it. The first episode of "The Doris Day Show" aired on September 24, 1968, and, from 1968 to 1973, employed "Que Sera, Sera" as its theme song. Day persevered (she needed the work to help pay off her debts), but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son. The successful show enjoyed a five-year run, and functioned as a curtain raiser for the "Carol Burnett Show". It is remembered today for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise.  By the end of its run in 1973, public tastes had changed, as had those of the television industry, and her firmly established persona was regarded as passé. She largely retired from acting after "The Doris Day Show", but did complete two television specials, "The Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff Special" (1971) and "Doris Day Today" (1975), and was a guest on various shows in the 1970s.  In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, "Doris Day's Best Friends", on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN). The network canceled the show after 26 episodes, despite the worldwide publicity it received. Much of that attention came from the episode featuring Rock Hudson, in which Hudson was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS including severe weight loss and admitted fatigue; Hudson would die from the disease a year later. Day later said, "He was very sick. But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'."

1980s and 1990s.

Day's husband and agent, Martin Melcher, had Beverly Hills lawyer Jerome Rosenthal handle his wife's money since the 1940s. "During that period, Rosenthal committed breaches of professional ethics that are difficult to exaggerate", as one court put it.  In October 1985, the California Supreme Court rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment against him for legal malpractice, and upheld conclusions of a trial court and a Court of Appeal that Rosenthal acted improperly. In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment. In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers he claimed cheated him out of millions of dollars in real estate investments. He named Day as a co-defendant, describing her as an "unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained". Rosenthal claimed that millions of dollars Day lost were in real estate sold after Melcher died in 1968, in which Rosenthal asserted that the attorneys gave Day bad advice, telling her to sell, at a loss, three hotels, in Palo Alto, California, Dallas, Texas, and Atlanta, Georgia, plus some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio. He claimed he had made the investments under a long-term plan, and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value. Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million.  Terry Melcher stated that his adoptive father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin. It remains unresolved whether Martin Melcher had himself also been duped. Day stated publicly that she believed her husband innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he "simply trusted the wrong person". According to Day's autobiography, as told to A. E. Hotchner, the usually athletic and healthy Martin Melcher had an enlarged heart. Most of the interviews on the subject given to Hotchner (and included in Day's autobiography) paint an unflattering portrait of Melcher. Author David Kaufman asserts that one of Day's costars, actor Louis Jourdan, maintained that Day herself disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion.  Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, the Best Original Score Oscar at the 61st Academy Awards in March 1989 but she suffered a deep leg cut and was unable to attend. She had been walking through the gardens of her hotel when she cut her leg on a sprinkler. The cut required stitches.  Day was inducted into the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for career achievement in 1989. In 1994, Day's "Greatest Hits" album became another entry into the British charts. Her cover of "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps" was included in the soundtrack of the Australian film "Strictly Ballroom."

2000s.

Day participated in interviews and celebrations of her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon. In July 2008, she appeared on the Southern California radio show of longtime friend and newscaster George Putnam.  Day turned down a tribute offer from the American Film Institute and from the Kennedy Center Honors because they require attendance in person. In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for her achievements in the entertainment industry and for her work on behalf of animals. President Bush stated:  Columnist Liz Smith and film critic Rex Reed mounted vigorous campaigns to gather support for an Honorary Academy Award for Day to herald her film career and her status as the top female box-office star of all time. According to "The Hollywood Reporter" in 2015, the Academy offered her the Honorary Oscar multiple times, but she declined as she saw the film industry as a part of her past life. Day received a Grammy for Lifetime Achievement in Music in 2008, albeit again in absentia.  She received three Grammy Hall of Fame Awards, in 1998, 1999 and 2012, for her recordings of "Sentimental Journey", "Secret Love", and "Que Sera, Sera", respectively. Day was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2007, and in 2010 received the first Legend Award ever presented by the Society of Singers.

2010s.

Day, aged 89, released "My Heart" in the United Kingdom on September 5, 2011, her first new album in nearly two decades since the release of "The Love Album", which, although recorded in 1967, was not released until 1994. The album is a compilation of previously unreleased recordings produced by Day's son, Terry Melcher, before his death in 2004. Tracks include the 1970s Joe Cocker hit "You Are So Beautiful", the Beach Boys' "Disney Girls" and jazz standards such as "My Buddy", which Day originally sang in the film "I'll See You in My Dreams" (1951).  After the disc was released in the United States it soon climbed to No. 12 on Amazon's bestseller list, and helped raise funds for the Doris Day Animal League. Day became the oldest artist to score a UK Top 10 with an album featuring new material.  In January 2012, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association presented Day with a Lifetime Achievement Award.  In April 2014, Day made an unexpected public appearance to attend the annual Doris Day Animal Foundation benefit. The benefit raises money for her Animal Foundation.  Clint Eastwood offered Day a role in a film he was planning to direct in 2015. Although she reportedly was in talks with Eastwood, her neighbor in Carmel, about a role in the film, she eventually declined.  Day granted ABC a telephone interview on her birthday in 2016, which was accompanied by photos of her life and career.  In a rare interview with "The Hollywood Reporter" on April 4, 2019, the day after her 97th birthday, Day talked about her work on the Doris Day Animal Foundation, founded in 1978. On the question of what her favorite film was, she answered "Calamity Jane": "I was such a tomboy growing up, and she was such a fun character to play. Of course, the music was wonderful, too—'Secret Love,' especially, is such a beautiful song."  To commemorate her birthday, her fans gathered each year to take part in a three-day party in her hometown of Carmel, California, in late March. The event was also a fundraiser for her Animal Foundation. During the 2019 event, there was a special screening of her film "Pillow Talk" (1959) to celebrate its 60th anniversary. About the film, Day stated in the same interview that she "had such fun working with my pal, Rock. We laughed our way through three films we made together and remained great friends. I miss him."

Animal welfare activism.

Day's interest in animal welfare and related issues apparently dated to her teen years. While recovering from an automobile accident, she took her dog Tiny for a walk without a leash. Tiny ran into the street and was killed by a passing car. Day later expressed guilt and loneliness about Tiny's untimely death. In 1971, she co-founded Actors and Others for Animals, and appeared in a series of newspaper advertisements denouncing the wearing of fur, alongside Mary Tyler Moore, Angie Dickinson, and Jayne Meadows.  In 1978, Day founded the Doris Day Pet Foundation, now the Doris Day Animal Foundation (DDAF). A non-profit 501(c)(3) grant-giving public charity, DDAF funds other non-profit causes throughout the US that share DDAF's mission of helping animals and the people who love them. The DDAF continues to operate independently.  To complement the Doris Day Animal Foundation, Day formed the Doris Day Animal League (DDAL) in 1987, a national non-profit citizen's lobbying organization whose mission is to reduce pain and suffering and protect animals through legislative initiatives. Day actively lobbied the United States Congress in support of legislation designed to safeguard animal welfare on a number of occasions and in 1995 she originated the annual Spay Day USA. The DDAL merged into The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) in 2006. The HSUS now manages World Spay Day, the annual one-day spay/neuter event that Day originated.  A facility bearing her name, the Doris Day Horse Rescue and Adoption Center, which helps abused and neglected horses, opened in 2011 in Murchison, Texas, on the grounds of an animal sanctuary started by her late friend, author Cleveland Amory. Day contributed $250,000 towards the founding of the center.  A post-humous auction of 1,100 of Day's possessions in April 2020 generated $3 million for the Doris Day Animal Foundation.

Personal life.

After her retirement from films, Day lived in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California. She had many pets and adopted stray animals. She was a lifelong Republican. Her only child was music producer and songwriter Terry Melcher, who had a hit in the 1960s with "Hey Little Cobra" under the name the Rip Chords; he died of melanoma in November 2004. Since the 1980s Day owned a hotel in Carmel-by-the-Sea called the Cypress Inn which she originally co-owned with her son. It was an early pet–friendly hotel and was featured in Architectural Digest in 1999.

Marriages.

Day was married four times. From March 1941 to February 1943, she was married to trombonist Al Jorden, a violent schizophrenic who later took his own life, whom she met in Barney Rapp's Band. They had a son (Melcher, - christened Terence Paul Jorden at birth, 1942–2004). When Doris refused to have an abortion, he beat her in an attempt to force a miscarriage.  Her second marriage was to George William Weidler from March 30, 1946, to May 31, 1949, a saxophonist and the brother of actress Virginia Weidler. Weidler and Day met again several years later during a brief reconciliation, and he introduced her to Christian Science.  Day married American film producer Martin Melcher on April 3, 1951, her 29th birthday, and this marriage lasted until he died in April 1968. Melcher adopted Day's son Terry, who became a successful musician and record producer under the name Terry Melcher. Martin Melcher produced many of Day's movies. They were both Christian Scientists, resulting in her not seeing a doctor for some time for symptoms which suggested cancer.  Day's fourth marriage was to Barry Comden (1935–2009) from April 14, 1976, until April 2, 1982. He was the "maître d'hôtel" at one of Day's favorite restaurants. He knew of her great love of dogs and endeared himself to her by giving her a bag of meat scraps and bones on her way out of the restaurant. He later complained that she cared more for her "animal friends" than she did for him.

Death.

Day died on May 13, 2019, at the age of 97, after having contracted pneumonia. Her death was announced by her charity, the Doris Day Animal Foundation. Per Day's requests, the Foundation announced that there would be no funeral services, grave marker, or other public memorials.

Discography.

Studio albums.

"Source"

Doris Day (born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff; April 3, 1922 – May 13, 2019) was an American actress, singer, and animal welfare activist. She began her career as a big band singer in 1939, achieving commercial success in 1945 with two No. 1 recordings, "Sentimental Journey" and "My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time" with Les Brown & His Band of Renown. She left Brown to embark on a solo career and recorded more than 650 songs from 1947 to 1967.

Doris Day (* 3. April 1922 als "Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff" in Cincinnati, Ohio; † 13. Mai 2019 in Carmel Valley Village, Monterey County, Kalifornien) war eine US-amerikanische Filmschauspielerin und Sängerin.