Early life.

James Prinsep was the seventh son and the tenth child of John Prinsep (1746–1830) and his wife, Sophia Elizabeth Auriol (1760–1850). John Prinsep went to India in 1771 with almost no money and became a successful indigo planter. He returned to England in 1787 with a fortune of £40,000 and established himself as an East India merchant. He moved to Clifton in 1809 after incurring losses. His connections helped him find work for all his sons and several members of the Prinsep family rose to high positions in India. John Prinsep later became a Member of Parliament. James initially went to study in a school in Clifton run by a Mr. Bullock but learnt more at home from his older siblings. He showed a talent for detailed drawing and mechanical invention and this made him study architecture under the gifted but eccentric Augustus Pugin. His eyesight however declined due to an infection and he was unable to take up architecture as a profession. His father knew of an opening in the assay department at the mint in India and sent him to train in chemistry at Guy's Hospital and later as an apprentice to Robert Bingley, assay master at the Royal Mint in London (1818–19).

Career in India.

Prinsep found a position as an assay master at the Calcutta mint and reached Calcutta along with his brother Henry Thoby on 15 September 1819. Within a year at Calcutta, he was sent by his superior, the eminent orientalist Horace Hayman Wilson, to work as assay master at the Benares mint. He stayed at Benares until the closure of that mint in 1830. He then moved back to Calcutta as deputy assay master, and when Wilson resigned in 1832, he was made assay master (overruling Wilson's nominee for that position, James Atkinson) at the new silver mint designed in Greek revival style by Major W. N. Forbes.  His work as assay master led him to conduct many scientific studies. He worked on means for measuring high temperatures in furnaces accurately. The publication of his technique in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" in 1828 led to his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. He suggested the possibility of visual pyrometric measurement using a calibrated series of mica plates as well as using the thermal expansion of platinum but considered that a practical approach was to use calibrated combinations of platinum, gold and silver alloys placed in a cupel or crucible and observe their melting. He also described a pyrometer that measured the expansion of a small amount of air held within a gold bulb. In 1833 he called for reforms to Indian weights and measures and advocated a uniform coinage based on the new silver rupee of the East India Company. He also devised a balance so sensitive as to measure three-thousandth of a grain (≈0.19 mg).

Architecture.

James Prinsep continued to take an interest in architecture at Benares. Regaining his eyesight, he studied and illustrated temple architecture, designed the new mint building at Benares as well as a church. In 1822 he conducted a survey of Benares and produced an accurate map at the scale of 8 inches to a mile. This map was lithographed in England. He also painted a series of watercolours of monuments and festivities in Benares which were sent to London in 1829 and published between 1830 and 1834 as "Benares Illustrated, in a Series of Drawings". He helped design an arched tunnel to drain stagnant lakes and improve the sanitation of the densely populated areas of Benares and built a stone bridge over the Karamansa river. He helped restore the minarets of Aurangzeb which were in a state of collapse. When he moved to Calcutta, he offered to help complete a canal that had been planned by his brother Thomas but left incomplete by the latter's death in 1830. Thomas's canal linked the River Hooghly with branches of the Ganges further to the east.

Asiatic Society of Bengal.

In 1829, Captain James D. Herbert started a serial called "Gleanings in Science". Captain Herbert, however, was posted as Astronomer to the King of Oudh in 1830, leaving the journal to the editorship of James Prinsep, who was himself the primary contributor to it. In 1832 he succeeded H. H. Wilson as secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal and suggested that the Society should take over "Gleanings in Science" and produce the "Journal of the Asiatic Society". Prinsep became the founding editor of this journal and contributed articles on chemistry, mineralogy, numismatics and on the study of Indian antiquities. He was also very interested in meteorology and the tabulation of observations and the analysis of weather data from across the country. He worked on the calibration of instruments to measure humidity and atmospheric pressure. He continued to edit the journal until his illness in 1838 which led to his leaving India and subsequently his death. Many of the plates in the journal were illustrated by him.

Numismatist.

Coins were Prinsep's first interest. He interpreted coins from Bactria and Kushan as well as Indian series coins, including "punch-marked" ones from the Gupta series. Prinsep suggested that there were three stages; the punch-marked, the die-struck, and the cast coins. Prinsep also reported upon the native punch-marked coinage, noting that they were better known in eastern India.

Brahmi script philologist.

As a result of Prinsep's work as an editor of the Asiatic Society's journal, coins and copies of inscriptions were transmitted to him from all over India, to be deciphered, translated, and published.  The first successful attempts at deciphering Brahmi were made in 1836 by Norwegian scholar Christian Lassen, who used the bilingual Greek-Brahmi coins of Indo-Greek kings Agathocles and Pantaleon to correctly identify several Brahmi letters. The task was then completed by Prinsep, who was able to identify the rest of the Brahmi characters, with the help of Alexander Cunningham.  In a series of results that he published between 1836–38 Prinsep was able to decipher the inscriptions on rock edicts found around India. The edicts in Brahmi script mentioned a King "Devanampriya Piyadasi" which Prinsep initially assumed was a Sri Lankan king. He was then able to associate this title with Ashoka on the basis of Pali script from Sri Lanka communicated to him by George Turnour. These scripts were found on the pillars at Delhi and Allahabad and on rock inscriptions from both sides of India, and also the Kharosthi script in the coins and inscriptions of the north-west. The idea of "Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum", a collection of Indian epigraphy, was first suggested by Prinsep and the work was formally begun by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1877. His studies on inscriptions helped in the establishment of date of Indian dynasties based on references to Antiochus and other Greeks. Prinsep's research and writing were not confined to India. Prinsep also delved into the early history of Afghanistan, producing several works that touched on archaeological finds in that country. Many of the collections were sent by Alexander Burnes. After James Prinsep's death, his brother Henry Thoby Prinsep published in 1844 a volume exploring the numismatist's work on collections made from Afghanistan.

Other pursuits.

A talented artist and draftsman, Prinsep made meticulous sketches of ancient monuments, astronomy, instruments, fossils and other subjects. He was also very interested in understanding weather. He designed a modified barometer that automatically compensated for temperature. He maintained meteorological registers, apart from supplying barometers to volunteers and graphically summarising the records of others. He conducted experiments on practical methods to prevent rusting of iron surfaces.

Personal life.

Prinsep married Harriet Sophia Aubert, elder daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Jeremiah Aubert (grandson of Alexander Aubert) of the Bengal army and his wife Hannah, at the cathedral in Calcutta on 25 April 1835. They had a daughter Eliza in 1837 who was to be the only child to survive.

Death and legacy.

Prinsep literally worked himself to death. From 1838 he began to suffer from recurrent headaches and sickness. It was initially thought to be related to a liver (bilious) condition and he was forced to get away from his studies and left for England in November 1838 aboard the "Herefordshire". He arrived in England in poor condition and did not recover. He died on 22 April 1840 in his sister Sophia Haldimand's home at 31 Belgrave Square of a "softening of the brain". A genus of plant "Prinsepia" was named after him by the botanist John Forbes Royle in 1839 in appreciation of his work.  News of his death reached India and several memorials were commissioned. A bust at the Asiatic Society was to be made by Francis Chantrey but was finished by Henry Weekes. Prinsep Ghat, a Palladian porch on the bank of the Hooghly River designed by W. Fitzgerald in 1843, was erected in his memory by the citizens of Calcutta. Part of his original collection of ancient coins and artefacts from the Indian subcontinent is now in the British Museum, London.

James Prinsep FRS (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) was an English scholar, orientalist and antiquary. He was the founding editor of the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal" and is best remembered for deciphering the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India. He studied, documented and illustrated many aspects of numismatics, metallurgy, meteorology apart from pursuing his career in India as an assay master at the mint in Benares.

James Prinsep (* 20. August 1799 in Chelmsford; † 22. April 1840 in London) war ein englischer Gelehrter und Orientalist. Er war – zusammen mit anderen – Entzifferer der altindischen Kharoshthi- und Brahmi-Schriften; außerdem war er kundiger Numismatiker, Metallurg und leitender Mitarbeiter der Münzprägeanstalten von Kalkutta und Benares.


Early years.

Higgins was born in Collooney, County Sligo, Ireland, and came from a well-known medical family. William was the second child and younger son of Thomas Higgins, a physician educated at the University of Edinburgh. William’s uncle Bryan Higgins was also an eminent chemist. When William was a boy he was sent to London to live with his uncle. Under his uncle’s guidance, William developed a strong liking for and expertise in experimental chemistry.

Beginning experiments.

In the early 1780s William assisted in making all the experiments detailed in his uncle Bryan Higgins’ "Experiments and Observations Relating to Acetous Acid". In 1785 William undertook a mineralogical tour through England, also visiting a number of chemical manufacturers. In 1788 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford but did not complete his degree. His next four years after that were spent in London, where he published two editions of his most important work, the "Comparative View of Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories" which laid out much of Dalton's atomic theory 19 years earlier.

Start of his career.

After a disagreement with his uncle, William left London and went to Dublin to be a chemist at Apothecaries Hall in 1792. William was soon busy equipping the laboratory, attending the Royal Irish Academy, and acting as a part-time chemist to the Irish Linen Board. Unfortunately the company had financial troubles and William lost his job. At the suggestion of Richard Kirwan, William became supervisor of the important Leskean Cabinet of minerals, recently acquired by the Royal Dublin Society. Soon after William became professor of chemistry to the Society.  In 1803, William had a leave of absence from the Dublin Society, which enabled him to sit on a London committee selecting a hydrometer to measure the strength of alcoholic drinks for revenue purposes. It was in London that William met Humphry Davy, a protégé of his uncle Bryan. Davy was one of William’s proposers to the Royal Society in 1806. William and Humphry’s relationship flourished from 1810 on, when Humphry promoted William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory over those of their rival John Dalton. William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory is found in "Comparative View". William sought to make clear the mechanisms of possible reactions between ultimate particles by using diagrams of the reacting particles and the affinity forces between them. Evidence has recently been presented that Dalton may have been aware of the "Comparative View" when he developed his atomic theory.

Death.

In June 1825, William Higgins died at Grafton Street, Dublin.

William Higgins (1763 – June 1825), an Irish chemist, was one of the early proponents of atomic theory. Known mainly for his speculative ideas on chemical combination, William Higgins is popular for the insights his life offers into the emergence of chemistry as a career during the British Industrial Revolution. Despite an evident charm, his erratic behaviour and tendency to indulge personal animosities prevented him from engaging the affections of London society. Instead he found refuge in a succession of government-supported chemical positions in Dublin. Thanks to the combination of such scientific opportunities with family resources, he became a very wealthy man.

William Higgins (* 1763 in Collooney, County Sligo, Irland; † Juni 1825 in Dublin) war ein irischer Chemiker, bekannt als ein früher Proponent der Atomtheorie in der Chemie.


Life.

Day was born in Maresfield, East Sussex, the third son of William and Ann Elliott née Le Blanc. The family estate included two thousand acres with forty tenant farmers during his childhood. William Day was interest in geology, an interest he had inherited from his father, also a William Day who was draper in London who later took to studying and painting minerals and rocks. One of Francis' older brothers took an interest in geology and worked along with Adam Sedgwick. Francis was educated at Shrewsbury, under the Headmaster Dr Kennedy. Taking an interest in medicine, he joined St. George's Hospital in 1849 where he studied under Henry Day, with Francis Trevelyan Buckland as a classmate. He received the MRCS in 1851 and joined as Assistant Surgeon in the Madras Army, British East India Company, in 1852. Service in India took him to Mercara, Bangalore, and Hyderabad and through this period took an interest in natural history.  He returned in England in 1857 for a year on sick leave. During this period he was elected to the Linnean Society and in November he married Emma Covey. Returning to India in 1858 in Hyderabad and then Cochin, he took an interest in the fishes of the region. Day took an interest in the fishes of India. He lived in Cochin from 1859 to 1864 where their daughter Fanny Laura was born (November 1861). In 1864 he returned to England on sick leave which was extended for a further year. During this period he communicated a paper on the Fishes of Cochin at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London. In April 1864, a son Francis Meredith was born in London. In 1865 Day wrote to Thomas C. Jerdon who had also worked on catalogue of the freshwater fishes of southern India. Day published "The Fishes of Malabar" in 1865. On the way back to India in 1866, he went to collect trout eggs in Southampton along with Frank Buckland. He tried to introduce the trout into the streams of Ootacamund but the first attempt failed. A later attempt by W.G. McIvor, who obtained fry from Loch Leven succeeded in introducing them apart from carp and tench. He was then posted to Kurnool and in 1867 was appointed Professor of Materia Medica. Taking leave he returned to Ootacamund to continue his trout introduction experiments. During an outbreak of cholera in Kurnool, he also made studies on the disease. In 1868 he was appointed to head fishery surveys along the Madras and Orissa regions. He also began to catalogue the freshwater fishes of India. Following the death of his wife Emma in 1869, he returned to England in 1870. In the same year he was deputed to inspect fisheries across India and Burma. This included a survey of the Andaman Islands, but an accident forced him to return to England. After recuperating in England he was appointed Inspector-General of Fisheries in 1871, making surveys in the Ganges, Yamuna, Sind and Baluchistan regions. He lived in Calcutta and Simla during this period. He accompanied Allan Octavian Hume (who had supported Day through the Agriculture department) along the Sind river in 1871, making bird collections on his behalf (Day in turn received fish specimens collected by Hume on his bird-collection expeditions). Following the death of his second wife Emily, he returned to England on a two-year leave to write the "Fishes of India" which also required him to visits to museums across Europe. He offered some of his collections to the British Museum, but they refused to purchase them. Throughout his career, he ran into fierce criticism from Albert Günther.  Day also published two volumes on "Fishes" in "The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma" series in which he described over 1400 species. He also wrote on British and Irish Salmonidae, which he illustrated with nine plates, the colouring of which was done by Miss Florence Woolward.  For his work on trout, he received a silver medal from the French Societe d'Acclimatation in 1872. Francis Day was a Fellow of the Linnaean Society and a Fellow of the Zoological Society; he was created a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1885. He was decorated with the Order of the Crown of Italy and granted an honorary LLD by the University of Edinburgh.  Although Day was considered an expert on the fishes of India, Albert Günther of the British Museum repeatedly questioned many of Day's observations. Day found Günther coming in the way of his access to specimens at the museum. One outcome of this professional friction resulted in Day's selling an extensive collection of fishes to the Australian Museum in 1883, ignoring the British Museum, the expected recipient. In 1888 his collection of Indian birds skins was deposited at Cambridge while some fishes went to the British Museum. In 1889 he deposited his drawings of fishes to the Zoological Society of London. After his death, his library was donated to the Cheltenham Public Library.  Day retired in 1877. Day was an active member, and president of the Cheltenham Natural Sciences Society and presented papers to them. He was also an active member of the Cotteswold Naturalists Field Club, where he was vice president.  He died at his residence, Kenilworth House, Cheltenham, on 10 July 1889 of cancer of the stomach and was buried at Cheltenham cemetery.

Family.

Day was married twice: first, on 3 November 1857 to Emma (died 1869), daughter of Dr. Edward Covey of Basingstoke; and, secondly, on 13 April 1872 to Emily (died 1873), youngest daughter of the Rev. Thomas Sheepshanks, vicar of St. John's, Coventry. Day had a son Francis Meredith (born 1864) and a daughter Edith Mary (born 1867) from his first wife Emma.

Legacy.

Day is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Indian lizard, "Laudakia dayana".

Francis Day (2 March 1829 – 10 July 1889) was an army surgeon and naturalist in the Madras Presidency who later became the Inspector-General of Fisheries in India and Burma. A pioneer ichthyologist, he described more than three hundred fishes in the two-volume work on "The Fishes of India". He also wrote the fish volumes of the Fauna of British India series. He was also responsible for the introduction of trout into the Nilgiri hills, for which he received a medal from the French Societe d'Acclimatation. Many of his fish specimens are distributed across museums with only a small fraction deposited in the British Museum (Natural History Museum, London), an anomaly caused by a prolonged conflict with Albert Günther, the keeper of zoology there.

Francis Talbot Day, CIE (* 2. März 1829 in Maresfield, East Sussex; † 10. Juli 1889 in Cheltenham) war ein britischer Ichthyologe (Fischkundler). Er befasste sich hauptsächlich mit den Fischen Britisch-Indiens, wo er als Militärchirurg mehrere Jahre verbrachte. Er war Mitglied der Linnean Society sowie der Zoological Society of London.


History.

Born Françoise De Haes or Dehaes, Fanny Simonsen was a French lyric soprano, who claimed aristocratic parentage and had studied under Manuel Garcia II. She had on occasion shared the Paris stage with Madame Carvalho, and played "prima donna" roles in Brussels and the great French provincial cities. She married the eminent Danish violinist Martin Simonsen, and for nine years restricted her appearances to the concert stage in Europe and California.  The Simonsens arrived in Melbourne from Germany in August 1865 by the mail steamer "Northam" after a successful tour of China and India, and held a series of seven concerts at St George's Hall, Bourke Street, Melbourne, from Saturday 19 August 1865, with a different program every night.  In June 1866 Mme Simonsen joined Lyster's Grand Opera Company as "prima donna", commencing with Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. This was followed by Meyerbeer's "Les Huguenots" (as Marguerite de Valois), the Australian première of "L'Africaine" (alternately with Lucy Escott, playing Selika), perhaps her most celebrated role) and "Roberto il diavolo", perhaps their most popular production (as Isabel/Isabelle). In 1867 she played the name part in "Maritana" (Wallace), Amina in "La Sonnambula" (Bellini) and Auber's comic operas "The Crown Diamonds" as Catarina and "Masaniello" as Elvira. Despite Lyster's alternation of loss-making grand opera productions with crowd-pleasing comic offerings, his attention to detail and the quality of his orchestra and ensemble and stars Simonsen and Lucy Escott, Henry Squires and Armes Beaumont, he was failing in a business sense due to the public demand for novelty. Accordingly, he announced his intention to withdraw from Melbourne, which compounded the problem. After the troupe's tour of country Victoria — Ballarat Geelong and Bendigo — and before they crossed over to Adelaide, the Simonsens made their own farewell tour and returned to San Francisco; Geraldine Warden was Lyster's new soprano.  They returned to Melbourne by the "Marpesia" in July 1869 and held a short series of concerts at the Academy of Music (Princess's Theatre on Spring Street), and the goldfield towns, supported by Rebecca Nordt (soprano), Arthur R. Moule (tenor) and Harcourt Lee (bass and pianist).  Far from quitting the Melbourne musical scene, in 1869 Lyster formed a partnership with John Washington Smith, previously of Lenton & Smith, to establish, in January 1870, an Italian Opera Company with Lucia Baratti, Lucy Chambers, Mariano Neri (tenor), Enrico Dondi (basso). Simonsen and Beaumont were among their first recruits. Another prominent member of the company was Signor Leandro Coy, whose family contributed much to Melbourne's music scene.  Simonsen's first appearance for this season was as Lucia in "Lucia di Lammermoor" on 10 February 1870, followed by "Un Ballo in Maschera", "Maritana", "Il Barbiere di Siviglia", "Martha" (as Lady Harriet) and others. In May 1871 the Simonsens had a farewell tour of the major towns of Victoria and South Australia, having announced their leaving the country. On 19 August 1871 the Simonsen troupe, consisting of Rebecca Nordt, her husband Arthur Moule (tenor), Edward Farley (baritone), Barry O'Neil (comic singer), Henry King (pianist) held a concert at the Lyceum Theatre prior to leaving for Europe. The programme included Offenbach's "The Rose of Auvergne, or, Spoiling the Broth" and the first act of Verdi's "Il Trovatore". Their farewell tour included New Zealand, and dragged on to September 1872.  The Simonsens returned to Melbourne aboard the "Norfolk" in January 1876 and staged a couple of concerts at the Town Hall which were very well received by the few who attended. They also performed at the Metropolitan Liedertafel, held that same week. They assembled an opera company of some 40 or 50 singers to tour Victoria and New Zealand; they had brought with them a full wardrobe and scores for a hundred operas, some new to the colonies. She appeared at Melbourne's new Opera House (on Bourke Street) for Lyster in February 1876, alternating with Ilma De Murska, who appeared in "Lucia" and "Sonnambula" while Simonsen had "The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein" and "Maritana". In March the Simonsens' Royal English Opera Company, of around 40 performers left for a tour of New Zealand. In Dunedin they played "The Hermit's Bell" and Lecocq's "La fille de Madame Angot", and were received well despite having no recognised names apart from Simonsen. At Christchurch they performed "Martha" and at Wellington "Lucia di Lammermoor", "Martha", "La Sonnambula" and Auber's "Carlo Broschi". The highly successful tour concluded at Invercargill in November 1876. The pianist, C. B. Foster (1853–1894), was praised. The Simonsen Opera Company (or Royal English and Opera Bouffe Company) embarked on a tour of south-western Victoria and across the border to Mount Gambier and another extended tour of Tasmania. In May 1877, after a year of frustration in not being able to hire a hall in Melbourne, Martin Simonsen announced his taking over the lease of St George's Hall to establish it as an English Opera House. While noting the unsuitability of the hall for opera — its lack of depth, so most of the audience were too close to the tiny stage, and insufficient volume for decent acoustics — the first offerings, Balfe's opera "Satanella", in which Minna Fischer made her Melbourne "debut", and Flotow's "Martha" were well received. The first season concluded with "The Hermit's Bell", "Maritana", "Giroflé-Girofla", "The Bohemian Girl" and "The Grand Duchess", with smaller audiences. For the 1878 season the Simonsens leased the Prince of Wales Opera House,a much more suitable venue, also on Bourke Street. Works included "Die Fledermaus", "The Hermit's Bell", "Satanella", "The Bohemian Girl", "The Grand Duohess", "Giroflé-Girofla", "Maritana" and "Der Freischütz". Camille Dubois and C. H. Taylor joined Amy Sherwin, Minna Fischer and the rest of the cast. This was Armes Beaumont's last appearance before leaving for Europe and Fanny Simonsen's second announcement of her retirement.  Simonsen's daughters Leonora and Martina made their stage debut at the Mechanics' Institute, Ballarat, in December 1879. In September 1880 Martina joined her mother's Royal English & Italian Opera Company of some 50 members, which included Martin Simonsen as conductor, Carrie Godfrey, Eugenie Dehaes, tenors Pietro Paladini and Gaetano Bianchi, and basses Ernest St Clair and Tom Riccardi. "Frances Saville", whose status as Simonsen's third daughter was not revealed, joined the company in 1882 for a 10-week season at the Gaiety Theatre, Sydney in 1882, when one critic commented on the daughters' German accent. They played at the Theatre Royal, Adelaide, in August and September to good and appreciative houses for ten different works, "Un Ballo" perhaps making the greatest impression. A feature was the company's first staging of Von Suppé's "Boccaccia", translated from the German by Dexter Smith. The newly-reopened Theatre Royal, Hobart, followed in October, and again "Boccaccio" was a "hit". Fanny Simonsen finally quit the stage on 22 September 1884, but continued to give singing lessons at her home in St Kilda.  Martin Simonsen continued concert management, bringing out the New Royal Italian Opera Company in 1886, whose stars included the bassos Tomaso De Alba and Attilio Buzzi and baritones Warwick Gainor and Achille Rebottaro and his sister Alice Rebottaro. In 1888 he brought out a troupe known as the "Spanish Students and Spanish Dancers", whose premiere on 8 September 1888 was described by a newspaper critic as a failure: the large and expectant audience was treated to a concert of mostly unfamiliar tunes and songs in a language which, though performed superbly, was unintelligible to most. The dancers were described as heavy-hoofed and immodestly dressed, an affront to the audience's sense of decency. The critique concluded with "Indeed, most of them appeared to be glad when it was over." Around the same time Martin Simonsen had in Sydney an Italian troupe starring Lilian Tree and Giuseppe Pimazzoni, which had to be disbanded due to personal difficulties. His losses were substantial, and in February 1889 he filed for insolvency, his chief debtor being his wife. In 1891 husband and wife imported the Italian Opera Company, which opened with "Il Trovatore" at the Alexandra Theatre on 8 August. This was poorly attended and the tour cancelled; another financial blow. Inclement weather and the depressed economic climate were blamed, but a more likely cause was the opera's refined artistry and lack of well-known stars, as more prosaic entertainments nearby were doing well.  Henry Bracy, in conjunction with Johnny Solomon, took over many of the Simonsen artists to form his own company.

Last Years.

The Simonsens brought several Italian opera troupes to Australia which lost them a great deal of money. They also lost money on their Spanish Students scheme. Mme Simonsen brought in a little money as a singing tutor at their Carlisle Street, St Kilda, home. She died aged 61, as the result of an apoplectic fit shortly before midnight on 19 September 1896. She had a similar seizure some eleven years earlier but otherwise had enjoyed good health. In her last moments she requested that the score of "Faust" should be buried with her, which was carried out at the St Kilda Cemetery on 20 September 1896.  After Mme Simonsen's death Mr Simonsen lived as a boarder with a Mrs Goulding (another source says Mr. and Mrs. Dunning) at 588 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne. Three years later, nearly deaf and blind and suffering from rheumatism, he died in his upstairs room of a self-inflicted pistol shot.

Students.

A list of Fanny Simonsen's pupils includes Ada Crossley, Lillie Crowle, Ada Prull, Flora Graupner, Julia Simmons, Muriel Walsh, Jeanne Ramsay, Emilie Lambert and her own children Frances Saville, Martina Simonsen and Jules Simonsen, and presumably her granddaughter Frances Alda, whom she brought up from the age of five. Crossley was arguably her most important pupil — she would travel from her country home to St Kilda twice weekly for lessons, until Simonsen agreed to take her as a boarder, a situation which lasted two or three years. Crossley recognised the benefit she gained by living in the musical home after Madame Simonsen's death by contributing £50 towards her headstone.

Martin Simonsen compositions.

Martin Simonsen composed for solo violin:

Family.

Martin Simonsen (30 January 1830 – November 1899) married Françoise Geanine "Fanny" De Haes (c. 1835 – 19 September 1896). Their eleven children, of whom two, perhaps three, were born before arriving in Australia, included: several sons were at the front in WWI. More information is needed.  They had a home "Cambo", on Carlisle Street, St.Kilda, Victoria.

Fanny Simonsen (c. 1835 – 19 September 1896), also written Fannie Simonsen, was a French soprano singer who had a substantial career on the Australian stage, later a concert manager with her violinist husband Martin Simonsen (c. 1829 – 28 November 1899). Several daughters and one grand-daughter, Frances Alda, were first-rate singers.

Francoise "Fanny" Simonsen (* 1835; † 19. September 1896 in Melbourne) war eine australische Sängerin (Sopran) und Musikpädagogin. Simonsen debütierte in Melbourne 1865 in einem Konzert mit ihren Ehemann, dem Geiger Martin Simonsen. Nach einer einjährigen Konzerttournee trat sie mit William Saurin Lysters Operntruppe und Armes Beaumont im Wechsel mit Lucy Escott und Henry Squires in Giacomo Meyerbeers Oper "L’Africaine" auf. In den nächsten Jahren trat sie in Opern wie "Lucia di Lammermoor", "La sonnambula", "Les Huguenots" und "Faust" auf. 1871 spielte sie in Melbourne sehr erfolgreich die Titelrolle in Jacques Offenbachs "Die Großherzogin von Gerolstein".


History.

There have been people living at the site of Bridge Inn since at least 1086, as the dwelling was mentioned in the Doomsday Book. Parts of the present building date from the late 16th century, although the majority was built in the 18th century. It is built of cob with stone, although a later 19th-century addition is built of brick. The roof is slate throughout. Inside there are three public rooms, one of which used to contain a brewery on-site. The interior includes many of the original 19th-century fixtures and fittings. It was designated Grade II listed status on 11 November 1952. The interior has been registered on the Campaign for Real Ale's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. Inside, lager is only served in bottles, regular drinkers leave post-it notes on their favourite barrels of beer to be called when opened, and the pub will serve drinks by the third of a pint to allow for a wider variety of tasting.  The Bridge Inn has been a public house since at least 1797, when it included two dwellings, a quay and a salt refinery. The inn attracted wrestling competitions during the 19th century, and by 1900 there were cattle sales at the site. In 1998, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Bridge Inn, the first time she had officially visited a pub. There she was presented with a crate of commemorative ale, which she remarked that her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, would enjoy. As of 2014, the inn has remained in the hands of the same family for more than a century.

The Bridge Inn is a Grade II listed public house at Bridge Hill, Topsham in the county of Devon, England. Mentioned as a dwelling in the 1086 Domesday Book, the building was largely constructed in the 18th century of cob and stone, with a 19th-century brick addition. Queen Elizabeth II visited the inn on 27 March 1998, her first official visit to a pub.

The Bridge Inn ist ein Listed Building im Grade II und ein Pub am Bridge Hill in Topsham in der Grafschaft Devon, England. Als Siedlung wurde das an der Straße nach Clyst St George gelegene Gasthaus zwar bereits 1086 im Domesday Book erwähnt, doch der Großteil des heutigen Gebäudes wurde im 18. Jahrhundert aus Lehm und Stein gebaut; ein Anbau aus Backsteinen stammt aus dem 19. Jahrhundert. Queen Elizabeth II. besuchte das Gasthaus am 27. März 1998; es war ihr erster offizieller Besuch in einem Pub.


Biography.

Born in Paris, Louis J. Gasnier began his career in the theatre as an actor and director. Accounts vary as to when his film career began; according to Gasnier himself, his association with Pathé Frères commenced in 1899, during the earliest days of the company. Georges Sadoul recognized Gasnier as a member of early French filmmakers known as the 'Vincennes School' which also included Gaston Velle, Georges Hatot, Lucien Nonguet, Lépine, Andre Heuré, Georges Monca, and Albert Capellani. However, Pathé was notoriously stingy with credits in those days, so no credits for Gasnier are known before 1905.  Gasnier's earliest-known credits begin through his association with Max Linder, whom he is said to have discovered. Gasnier helmed many of Linder's earliest films and continued to work – sometimes as co-director with Linder – on projects featuring the comic through 1913. Gasnier also directed some films in Italy for Film d'Arte Italiana, a division of Pathé, with some featuring the legendary Italian film diva Francesca Bertini. Sadoul, writing in 1965, commented that Gasnier directed "100 to 200 films from 1909-1914" alone. No established filmography for Gasnier comes even close to such a figure in the stated period, suggesting that there are many French, and perhaps some Italian, films made by him which remain unidentified.  Pathé Frères established a film production company in the United States in 1910 with its construction of a studio in Jersey City. In 1910, Gasnier agreed to go to the United States to head their facility in Fort Lee, New Jersey.  The worldwide success of Gasnier's serial "The Perils of Pauline", co-directed with Donald MacKenzie and starring Pearl White, elevated Gasnier to the position of executive vice-president within the American division of Pathé. Gasnier resigned this position in 1916 and established a production company, Astra Film, with writer-director George B. Seitz, which continued to distribute through Pathé. In 1919, Astra Film dropped Pathé as distributor and went with Robertson-Cole, the predecessor to Film Booking Offices of America. With Seitz' departure, Astra became Louis J. Gasnier Productions, but only a few films were made by this firm before Gasnier was contracted by producer B. P. Schulberg to direct for his Preferred Pictures firm. These years were the highpoint of Gasnier's career; these films were often marketed with his name above the title and some times as a one-word name – "Gasnier". With the public, Gasnier was associated with high adventure in exotic locales, such as what was endemic to serials, or with social melodrama of the kind that was popular in the early 1920s.  In 1925, Preferred Pictures declared bankruptcy, and Gasnier went to work for Tiffany Pictures, not yet the Poverty Row studio that it would ultimately become, but still far from being in the big leagues. It may have been B. P. Schulberg who rescued Gasnier from Tiffany; despite the bankruptcy, Schulberg had managed to hang onto actress Clara Bow's contract and was now an executive at Paramount Pictures. Gasnier went into the dawn of talking pictures as a Paramount director, though mainly working on their foreign-language productions; his command of the English language – even after living many years in the United States – was at best limited. At Paramount, Gasnier directed foreign versions of mainstream films and piloted fledgling star Cary Grant through two early roles. Gasnier also made five films featuring the ultimately ill-fated "King of the Tango", Carlos Gardel, for release in Argentina. In 1933-34, Gasnier returned to France to direct for Paramount's French division, directing "Topaze" (1933) under the supervision of playwright Marcel Pagnol; this film marked the screen debut of eminent French stage actor Louis Jouvet.  Paramount did not renew Gasnier's contract in 1935, and he was out of work for some time. Gasnier hastily accepted the first project that came his way, offered to him by producer George A. Hirliman, "Tell Your Children", which in time has become known by its reissue title of "Reefer Madness". Hirliman had learned that there was money available to support films promoting pending anti-marijuana legislation. "Reefer Madness" was made at a studio complex that ultimately become the Grand National Pictures facility, and Gasnier elected to stay with Hirliman and Grand National once it went into full-fledged production. Grand National swiftly flopped, and was liquidated in 1939; its studios were taken over by Producers Releasing Corporation; Gasnier did not elect to stay with PRC, but he did remain with Hirliman, finishing out his directorial career with a couple of features at Monogram Pictures and then retiring upon reaching the age of 65.  It proved a long retirement, and in a late interview, Gasnier revealed that he was practically destitute. To make ends meet, Gasnier returned to acting, in small parts, in mainstream features, usually playing an elderly Frenchman. He died at the age of 87 in Hollywood.

Legacy.

Louis J. Gasnier was lucky to find himself at the beginning of several key trends in the development of cinema. "Max Learns to Skate" (1907) could arguably be said to have constituted the beginnings of what would become regarded as classic silent screen comedy. Both "The Perils of Pauline" and "The Exploits of Elaine" (1914) were international successes that established the American film serial as a distinct and viable genre. And while the very working nature of making serials was collaborative—Pearl White and writer George B. Seitz were also indispensable elements—Gasnier's familiarity with serials in Europe helped to infuse the American form with some of the best elements of what he had seen abroad. When Gasnier died in 1963, "The Perils of Pauline" was still frequently seen on television and would have qualified as his best-known film at that time. Gasnier also directed first-rank stars Clara Bow and Cary Grant in some of their earliest roles and helmed nearly half of all of Carlos Gardel's films; despite his strong association with Argentina, Gardel was a native of France.  By the 2010s, "Reefer Madness" has by far outpaced "The Perils of Pauline" in terms of public awareness and critical reception. Re-released theatrically in 1972, it swiftly attracted a devoted cult following among "midnight movie" fans in the 1970s and 1980s through its showings in repertory cinemas and by college film societies. The public domain film has also become a mainstay on home video and is easily accessed online. Of all the films that Gasnier directed, "Reefer Madness" was probably the one he would have least liked to have been remembered for. Actress Thelma White—who played "Mae" in the film—once complained that it was a "bomb" and had ruined her film career. For Gasnier, it was merely a stepping stone to Grand National and, therefore, represented his entry into poverty row.

Controversy.

Louis J. Gasnier's best-known works, and therefore his reputation, are dogged by various streams of controversy. Max Linder compromised forever his considerable comic legacy through his tragic and incomprehensible death in a double suicide (or suicide-homicide) involving himself and his young wife in 1925. Gasnier's poor English was once blamed for the barely literate subtitles in "The Perils of Pauline", but this was debunked in the 1960s by Arthur Charles Miller and William K. Everson.  Although the content of "Reefer Madness" is generally considered so ludicrous as to be harmless, it has been criticized extensively for its complicity in the passage of the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937, which criminalized marijuana. "Reefer Madness" is variously dated; the traditional, "old" date was 1937, which has been pushed ahead as late as 1940 in some sources, though 1936 is the convention currently observed. Bret Wood notes that a movie poster in the background of one scene was also used in the Grand National film "Something to Sing About", which was released in September 1937. So this suggests a production date of mid-1937, but it appears "Reefer Madness" was not distributed until 1938 when Dwain Esper placed it on the roadshow circuit. By that time, the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 had already passed into law, and no print of "Reefer Madness" has ever been found bearing the title "Tell Your Children".  Actor Gary Cooper disliked Gasnier, and his property "Darkened Rooms" (1929), so much that he refused to participate in the picture, despite threats of suspension from Paramount. In the end, however, it was Paramount that backed down, and the role was reassigned to Neil Hamilton. Gasnier's directorial style was not heavily involved in rich visual content or dynamic editing; he was principally interested in basic storytelling and liked to work in a producer-like, supervisory role. Gasnier often worked in collaboration with additional directors, including Linder, MacKenzie and Seitz mentioned above but also with Leopold Wharton, Theodore Wharton, William Parke, James W. Horne, Colin Campbell, Max Marcin, Charles Barton, and the young George Cukor. The two films that resulted from Gasnier's short-lived Louis J. Gasnier Productions brand were both directed by Horne.  Nevertheless, that does not mean that visual dynamics are altogether absent from Gasnier's movies, and praise for Gasnier's work as director does appear amid contemporary reviews of his films. Upon its theatrical re-release in 1972, underground film maker Jack Smith wrote an appreciation of "Reefer Madness" for "The Village Voice" in which he stated that "it is a beautiful film, and everyone in the arts should see it." One reason "Reefer Madness" is so well known in comparison to Dwain Esper's wild, but amateurish "Marihuana" or Elmer Clifton's dull, soap operatic "Assassin of Youth" is that it is a much better-made film than either of those."  Despite being dubbed "consistently mediocre" by the All Movie Guide's Hal Erickson, it remains difficult to evaluate Gasnier's relative strengths and weaknesses as a director based on what survives of his work from the silent period.

Accessibility.

Despite the survival of the films mentioned above and some others—including many of the French comedies starring Max Linder and "The Mystery of the Double Cross" (1917), one of only a few silent American serials to survive complete—losses are heavy amid Gasnier's silent feature productions. There are exceptions; "Kismet" (1920) featuring legendary stage actor Otis Skinner has survived, as does Gasnier's Preferred Pictures features "Poisoned Paradise" (1924), with Clara Bow in a supporting role, and "Parisian Love" (1925), where Bow is the star. Gasnier's version of "Maytime" (1923)—the first screen adaptation of the Romberg operetta, later remade by Robert Z. Leonard into a vehicle for Nelson Eddy and Jeanette MacDonald—was found along with a cache of American films discovered in New Zealand in 2010. A couple of Gasnier's Tiffany features have been preserved, but little else exists, save fragments and single chapters of Gasnier's serials. Most, if not all, of Gasnier's sound films remain extant.

Louis Joseph Gasnier (September 15, 1875 – February 15, 1963) was an American film director, producer, screenwriter and stage actor. A cinema pioneer, Gasnier shepherded the early career of comedian Max Linder, co-directed the enormously successful film serial "The Perils of Pauline" (1914) and capped his output with the notorious low-budget exploitation film "Reefer Madness" (1936) which was both a critical and box office failure.

Louis Joseph Gasnier (* 15. September 1875 in Paris, Frankreich; † 15. Februar 1963 in Hollywood, Kalifornien, Vereinigte Staaten) war ein französischer Filmregisseur, ein Veteran der heimischen und US-amerikanischen Kinematographie.


Study and importance.

Cosmic dust was once solely an annoyance to astronomers, as it obscures objects they wish to observe. When infrared astronomy began, the dust particles were observed to be significant and vital components of astrophysical processes. Their analysis can reveal information about phenomena like the formation of the Solar System. For example, cosmic dust can drive the mass loss when a star is nearing the end of its life, play a part in the early stages of star formation, and form planets. In the Solar System, dust plays a major role in the zodiacal light, Saturn's B Ring spokes, the outer diffuse planetary rings at Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and comets.  The interdisciplinary study of dust brings together different scientific fields: physics (solid-state, electromagnetic theory, surface physics, statistical physics, thermal physics), fractal mathematics, surface chemistry on dust grains) meteoritics, as well as every branch of astronomy and astrophysics. These disparate research areas can be linked by the following theme: the cosmic dust particles evolve cyclically; chemically, physically and dynamically. The evolution of dust traces out paths in which the Universe recycles material, in processes analogous to the daily recycling steps with which many people are familiar: production, storage, processing, collection, consumption, and discarding.  Observations and measurements of cosmic dust in different regions provide an important insight into the Universe's recycling processes; in the clouds of the diffuse interstellar medium, in molecular clouds, in the circumstellar dust of young stellar objects, and in planetary systems such as the Solar System, where astronomers consider dust as in its most recycled state. The astronomers accumulate observational ‘snapshots’ of dust at different stages of its life and, over time, form a more complete movie of the Universe's complicated recycling steps.  Parameters such as the particle's initial motion, material properties, intervening plasma and magnetic field determined the dust particle's arrival at the dust detector. Slightly changing any of these parameters can give significantly different dust dynamical behavior. Therefore, one can learn about where that object came from, and what is (in) the intervening medium.

Detection methods.

Cosmic dust can be detected by indirect methods that utilize the radiative properties of the cosmic dust particles.  Cosmic dust can also be detected directly ('in-situ') using a variety of collection methods and from a variety of collection locations. Estimates of the daily influx of extraterrestrial material entering the Earth's atmosphere range between 5 and 300 tonnes.  NASA collects samples of star dust particles in the Earth's atmosphere using plate collectors under the wings of stratospheric-flying airplanes. Dust samples are also collected from surface deposits on the large Earth ice-masses (Antarctica and Greenland/the Arctic) and in deep-sea sediments.  Don Brownlee at the University of Washington in Seattle first reliably identified the extraterrestrial nature of collected dust particles in the latter 1970s. Another source is the meteorites, which contain stardust extracted from them. Stardust grains are solid refractory pieces of individual presolar stars. They are recognized by their extreme isotopic compositions, which can only be isotopic compositions within evolved stars, prior to any mixing with the interstellar medium. These grains condensed from the stellar matter as it cooled while leaving the star.  In interplanetary space, dust detectors on planetary spacecraft have been built and flown, some are presently flying, and more are presently being built to fly. The large orbital velocities of dust particles in interplanetary space (typically 10–40 km/s) make intact particle capture problematic. Instead, in-situ dust detectors are generally devised to measure parameters associated with the high-velocity impact of dust particles on the instrument, and then derive physical properties of the particles (usually mass and velocity) through laboratory calibration (i.e. impacting accelerated particles with known properties onto a laboratory replica of the dust detector). Over the years dust detectors have measured, among others, the impact light flash, acoustic signal and impact ionisation. Recently the dust instrument on Stardust captured particles intact in low-density aerogel.  Dust detectors in the past flew on the HEOS-2, "Helios", "Pioneer 10", "Pioneer 11", "Giotto", "Galileo" and "Cassini" space missions, on the Earth-orbiting LDEF, EURECA, and Gorid satellites, and some scientists have utilized the "Voyager 1" and "2" spacecraft as giant Langmuir probes to directly sample the cosmic dust. Presently dust detectors are flying on the "Ulysses", Proba, "Rosetta", "Stardust", and the "New Horizons" spacecraft. The collected dust at Earth or collected further in space and returned by sample-return space missions is then analyzed by dust scientists in their respective laboratories all over the world. One large storage facility for cosmic dust exists at the NASA Houston JSC.  Infrared light can penetrate cosmic dust clouds, allowing us to peer into regions of star formation and the centers of galaxies. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope is the largest infrared telescope yet launched into space. It was carried by a Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida on 25 August 2003. During its mission, Spitzer obtained images and spectra by detecting the thermal radiation emitted by objects in space between wavelengths of 3 and 180 micrometres. Most of this infrared radiation is blocked by the Earth's atmosphere and cannot be observed from the ground. Findings from the Spitzer have revitalized the studies of cosmic dust. One report showed some evidence that cosmic dust is formed near a supermassive black hole.  Another detection mechanism is polarimetry. Dust grains are not spherical and tend to align to interstellar magnetic fields, preferentially polarizing starlight that passes through dust clouds. In nearby interstellar space, where interstellar reddening is not intense enough to be detected, high precision optical polarimetry has been used to glean the structure of dust within the Local Bubble.  In 2019, researchers found interstellar dust in Antarctica which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud. The detection of interstellar dust in Antarctica was done by the measurement of the radionuclides Fe-60 and Mn-53 by highly sensitive Accelerator mass spectrometry.

Radiative properties.

A dust particle interacts with electromagnetic radiation in a way that depends on its cross section, the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation, and on the nature of the grain: its refractive index, size, etc. The radiation process for an individual grain is called its "emissivity", dependent on the grain's "efficiency factor". Furthermore, we have to specify whether the emissivity process is extinction, scattering, absorption, or polarisation. In the radiation emission curves, several important signatures identify the composition of the emitting or absorbing dust particles.  Dust particles can scatter light nonuniformly. Forward scattered light is light that is redirected slightly off its path by diffraction, and back-scattered light is reflected light.  The scattering and extinction ("dimming") of the radiation gives useful information about the dust grain sizes. For example, if the object(s) in one's data is many times brighter in forward-scattered visible light than in back-scattered visible light, then we know that a significant fraction of the particles are about a micrometer in diameter.  The scattering of light from dust grains in long exposure visible photographs is quite noticeable in reflection nebulae, and gives clues about the individual particle's light-scattering properties. In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that astronomical X-ray sources would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.

Stardust.

Stardust grains (also called presolar grains by meteoriticists) are contained within meteorites, from which they are extracted in terrestrial laboratories. Stardust was a component of the dust in the interstellar medium before its incorporation into meteorites. The meteorites have stored those stardust grains ever since the meteorites first assembled within the planetary accretion disk more than four billion years ago. So-called carbonaceous chondrites are especially fertile reservoirs of stardust. Each stardust grain existed before the Earth was formed. "Stardust" is a scientific term referring to refractory dust grains that condensed from cooling ejected gases from individual presolar stars and incorporated into the cloud from which the Solar System condensed.  Many different types of stardust have been identified by laboratory measurements of the highly unusual isotopic composition of the chemical elements that comprise each stardust grain. These refractory mineral grains may earlier have been coated with volatile compounds, but those are lost in the dissolving of meteorite matter in acids, leaving only insoluble refractory minerals. Finding the grain cores without dissolving most of the meteorite has been possible, but difficult and labor-intensive (see presolar grains).  Many new aspects of nucleosynthesis have been discovered from the isotopic ratios within the stardust grains. An important property of stardust is the hard, refractory, high-temperature nature of the grains. Prominent are silicon carbide, graphite, aluminium oxide, aluminium spinel, and other such solids that would condense at high temperature from a cooling gas, such as in stellar winds or in the decompression of the inside of a supernova. They differ greatly from the solids formed at low temperature within the interstellar medium.  Also important are their extreme isotopic compositions, which are expected to exist nowhere in the interstellar medium. This also suggests that the stardust condensed from the gases of individual stars before the isotopes could be diluted by mixing with the interstellar medium. These allow the source stars to be identified. For example, the heavy elements within the silicon carbide (SiC) grains are almost pure S-process isotopes, fitting their condensation within AGB star red giant winds inasmuch as the AGB stars are the main source of S-process nucleosynthesis and have atmospheres observed by astronomers to be highly enriched in dredged-up s process elements.  Another dramatic example is given by the so-called supernova condensates, usually shortened by acronym to SUNOCON (from SUperNOva CONdensate) to distinguish them from other stardust condensed within stellar atmospheres. SUNOCONs contain in their calcium an excessively large abundance of Ca, demonstrating that they condensed containing abundant radioactive Ti, which has a 65-year half-life. The outflowing Ti nuclei were thus still "alive" (radioactive) when the SUNOCON condensed near one year within the expanding supernova interior, but would have become an extinct radionuclide (specifically Ca) after the time required for mixing with the interstellar gas. Its discovery proved the prediction from 1975 that it might be possible to identify SUNOCONs in this way. The SiC SUNOCONs (from supernovae) are only about 1% as numerous as are SiC stardust from AGB stars.  Stardust itself (SUNOCONs and AGB grains that come from specific stars) is but a modest fraction of the condensed cosmic dust, forming less than 0.1% of the mass of total interstellar solids. The high interest in stardust derives from new information that it has brought to the sciences of stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis.  Laboratories have studied solids that existed before the Earth was formed. This was once thought impossible, especially in the 1970s when cosmochemists were confident that the Solar System began as a hot gas virtually devoid of any remaining solids, which would have been vaporized by high temperature. The existence of stardust proved this historic picture incorrect.

Some bulk properties.

Cosmic dust is made of dust grains and aggregates into dust particles. These particles are irregularly shaped, with porosity ranging from "fluffy" to "compact". The composition, size, and other properties depend on where the dust is found, and conversely, a compositional analysis of a dust particle can reveal much about the dust particle's origin. General diffuse interstellar medium dust, dust grains in dense clouds, planetary rings dust, and circumstellar dust, are each different in their characteristics. For example, grains in dense clouds have acquired a mantle of ice and on average are larger than dust particles in the diffuse interstellar medium. "Interplanetary dust particles" (IDPs) are generally larger still. Most of the influx of extraterrestrial matter that falls onto the Earth is dominated by meteoroids with diameters in the range 50 to 500 micrometers, of average density 2.0 g/cm3 (with porosity about 40%). The total influx rate of meteoritic sities of most IDPs captured in the Earth's stratosphere range between 1 and 3 g/cm3, with an average density at about 2.0 g/cm3.  Other specific dust properties: in "circumstellar dust", astronomers have found molecular signatures of CO, silicon carbide, amorphous silicate, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, water ice, and polyformaldehyde, among others (in the diffuse interstellar medium, there is evidence for silicate and carbon grains). "Cometary dust" is generally different (with overlap) from "asteroidal dust". Asteroidal dust resembles carbonaceous chondritic meteorites. Cometary dust resembles interstellar grains which can include silicates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and water ice.

Dust grain formation.

The large grains in interstellar space are probably complex, with refractory cores that condensed within stellar outflows topped by layers acquired during incursions into cold dense interstellar clouds. That cyclic process of growth and destruction outside of the clouds has been modeled to demonstrate that the cores live much longer than the average lifetime of dust mass. Those cores mostly start with silicate particles condensing in the atmospheres of cool, oxygen-rich red-giants and carbon grains condensing in the atmospheres of cool carbon stars. Red giants have evolved or altered off the main sequence and have entered the giant phase of their evolution and are the major source of refractory dust grain cores in galaxies. Those refractory cores are also called stardust (section above), which is a scientific term for the small fraction of cosmic dust that condensed thermally within stellar gases as they were ejected from the stars. Several percent of refractory grain cores have condensed within expanding interiors of supernovae, a type of cosmic decompression chamber. Meteoriticists who study refractory stardust (extracted from meteorites) often call it presolar grains but that within meteorites is only a small fraction of all presolar dust. Stardust condenses within the stars via considerably different condensation chemistry than that of the bulk of cosmic dust, which accretes cold onto preexisting dust in dark molecular clouds of the galaxy. Those molecular clouds are very cold, typically less than 50K, so that ices of many kinds may accrete onto grains, in cases only to be destroyed or split apart by radiation and sublimation into a gas component. Finally, as the Solar System formed many interstellar dust grains were further modified by coalescence and chemical reactions in the planetary accretion disk. The history of the various types of grains in the early Solar System is complicated and only partially understood.  Astronomers know that the dust is formed in the envelopes of late-evolved stars from specific observational signatures. In infrared light, emission at 9.7 micrometres is a signature of silicate dust in cool evolved oxygen-rich giant stars. Emission at 11.5 micrometres indicates the presence of silicon carbide dust in cool evolved carbon-rich giant stars. These help provide evidence that the small silicate particles in space came from the ejected outer envelopes of these stars.  Conditions in interstellar space are generally not suitable for the formation of silicate cores. This would take excessive time to accomplish, even if it might be possible. The arguments are that: given an observed typical grain diameter "a", the time for a grain to attain "a", and given the temperature of interstellar gas, it would take considerably longer than the age of the Universe for interstellar grains to form. On the other hand, grains are seen to have recently formed in the vicinity of nearby stars, in nova and supernova ejecta, and in R Coronae Borealis variable stars which seem to eject discrete clouds containing both gas and dust. So mass loss from stars is unquestionably where the refractory cores of grains formed.  Most dust in the Solar System is highly processed dust, recycled from the material out of which the Solar System formed and subsequently collected in the planetesimals, and leftover solid material such as comets and asteroids, and reformed in each of those bodies' collisional lifetimes. During the Solar System's formation history, the most abundant element was (and still is) H. The metallic elements: magnesium, silicon, and iron, which are the principal ingredients of rocky planets, condensed into solids at the highest temperatures of the planetary disk. Some molecules such as CO, N, NH, and free oxygen, existed in a gas phase. Some molecules, for example, graphite (C) and SiC would condense into solid grains in the planetary disk; but carbon and SiC grains found in meteorites are presolar based on their isotopic compositions, rather than from the planetary disk formation. Some molecules also formed complex organic compounds and some molecules formed frozen ice mantles, of which either could coat the "refractory" (Mg, Si, Fe) grain cores. Stardust once more provides an exception to the general trend, as it appears to be totally unprocessed since its thermal condensation within stars as refractory crystalline minerals. The condensation of graphite occurs within supernova interiors as they expand and cool, and do so even in gas containing more oxygen than carbon, a surprising carbon chemistry made possible by the intense radioactive environment of supernovae. This special example of dust formation has merited specific review.  Planetary disk formation of precursor molecules was determined, in large part, by the temperature of the solar nebula. Since the temperature of the solar nebula decreased with heliocentric distance, scientists can infer a dust grain's origin(s) with knowledge of the grain's materials. Some materials could only have been formed at high temperatures, while other grain materials could only have been formed at much lower temperatures. The materials in a single interplanetary dust particle often show that the grain elements formed in different locations and at different times in the solar nebula. Most of the matter present in the original solar nebula has since disappeared; drawn into the Sun, expelled into interstellar space, or reprocessed, for example, as part of the planets, asteroids or comets.  Due to their highly processed nature, IDPs (interplanetary dust particles) are fine-grained mixtures of thousands to millions of mineral grains and amorphous components. We can picture an IDP as a "matrix" of material with embedded elements which were formed at different times and places in the solar nebula and before the solar nebula's formation. Examples of embedded elements in cosmic dust are GEMS, chondrules, and CAIs.

From the solar nebula to Earth.

The arrows in the adjacent diagram show one possible path from a collected interplanetary dust particle back to the early stages of the solar nebula.  We can follow the trail to the right in the diagram to the IDPs that contain the most volatile and primitive elements. The trail takes us first from interplanetary dust particles to chondritic interplanetary dust particles. Planetary scientists classify chondritic IDPs in terms of their diminishing degree of oxidation so that they fall into three major groups: the carbonaneous, the ordinary, and the enstatite chondrites. As the name implies, the carbonaceous chondrites are rich in carbon, and many have anomalies in the isotopic abundances of H, C, N, and O (Jessberger, 2000). From the carbonaceous chondrites, we follow the trail to the most primitive materials. They are almost completely oxidized and contain the lowest condensation temperature elements ("volatile" elements) and the largest amount of organic compounds. Therefore, dust particles with these elements are thought to have been formed in the early life of the Solar System. The volatile elements have never seen temperatures above about 500 K, therefore, the IDP grain "matrix" consists of some very primitive Solar System material. Such a scenario is true in the case of comet dust. The provenance of the small fraction that is stardust (see above) is quite different; these refractory interstellar minerals thermally condense within stars, become a small component of interstellar matter, and therefore remain in the presolar planetary disk. Nuclear damage tracks are caused by the ion flux from solar flares. Solar wind ions impacting on the particle's surface produce amorphous radiation damaged rims on the particle's surface. And spallogenic nuclei are produced by galactic and solar cosmic rays. A dust particle that originates in the Kuiper Belt at 40 AU would have many more times the density of tracks, thicker amorphous rims and higher integrated doses than a dust particle originating in the main-asteroid belt.  Based on 2012 computer model studies, the complex organic molecules necessary for life (Extraterrestrial organic molecules) may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of the Earth. According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other stars that acquire planets.  In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics – "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively". Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains, particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."  In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database for detecting and monitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to NASA scientists, over 20% of the carbon in the Universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are abundant in the Universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.  In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.

Some "dusty" clouds in the universe.

The Solar System has its own interplanetary dust cloud, as do extrasolar systems. There are different types of nebulae with different physical causes and processes: diffuse nebula, infrared (IR) reflection nebula, supernova remnant, molecular cloud, HII regions, photodissociation regions, and dark nebula.  Distinctions between those types of nebula are that different radiation processes are at work. For example, H II regions, like the Orion Nebula, where a lot of star-formation is taking place, are characterized as thermal emission nebulae. Supernova remnants, on the other hand, like the Crab Nebula, are characterized as nonthermal emission (synchrotron radiation).  Some of the better known dusty regions in the Universe are the diffuse nebulae in the Messier catalog, for example: M1, M8, M16, M17, M20, M42, M43.  Some larger dust catalogs are Sharpless (1959) A Catalogue of HII Regions, Lynds (1965) Catalogue of Bright Nebulae, Lynds (1962) Catalogue of Dark Nebulae, van den Bergh (1966) Catalogue of Reflection Nebulae, Green (1988) Rev. Reference Cat. of Galactic SNRs, The National Space Sciences Data Center (NSSDC), and CDS Online Catalogs.

Dust sample return.

The Discovery program's "Stardust" mission, was launched on 7 February 1999 to collect samples from the coma of comet Wild 2, as well as samples of cosmic dust. It returned samples to Earth on 15 January 2006. In the spring of 2014, the recovery of particles of interstellar dust from the samples was announced.

Cosmic dust, also called extraterrestrial dust or space dust, is dust which exists in outer space, or has fallen on Earth. Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and 0.1 μm. Cosmic dust can be further distinguished by its astronomical location: intergalactic dust, interstellar dust, interplanetary dust (such as in the zodiacal cloud) and circumplanetary dust (such as in a planetary ring).

Kosmischer Staub ist Staub im Weltraum. Je nach seinem Ort bzw. Ursprung unterscheidet man Zum kosmischen Staub zählen auch die Wasservorkommen im Universum in Form von fein verteiltem Wassereis (siehe auch Wassersynthese im Weltraum).


Playing career.

Bodnarchuk played junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) with the Halifax Mooseheads. He was drafted by the Bruins in the fifth round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft. After spending most of the 2009–10 season with the Providence Bruins of the American Hockey League (AHL), Bodnarchuk made his NHL debut on April 3, 2010, in a 2–1 overtime victory against the Toronto Maple Leafs.  On July 6, 2012, Bodnarchuk signed as a free agent to a one-year contract with the Los Angeles Kings. He was assigned to the Kings' AHL affiliate, the Manchester Monarchs, with which he later won the Calder Cup with in the 2014–15 season.  On July 2, 2015, Bodnarchuk left the Kings organization as a free agent and signed a one-year, two-way contract with the Columbus Blue Jackets. Following a promising training camp in Columbus, he was assigned to begin the 2015–16 season with Columbus' AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters. In 14 games, Bodnarchuk was leading the Monsters defence on the top pairing, contributing with 8 points, before he was recalled to the Blue Jackets on November 21, 2015. He made his debut with Columbus, playing his first NHL game since 2010, in a 5–3 defeat against the San Jose Sharks the following day. In his 11th career game, Bodnarchuk recorded his first NHL point in a 2–1 shootout loss to the Florida Panthers on December 4, 2015.  Bodnarchuk played in 16 games with the Blue Jackets before he was placed on waivers in order to return to the Monsters. On January 5, 2016, Bodnarchuck was claimed off of waivers by the Colorado Avalanche. He made his debut with the Avalanche playing alongside defensive partner François Beauchemin in a 4–3 victory over the St. Louis Blues on January 6, 2016.  At the conclusion of his contract, Bodnarchuk left the Avalanche as a free agent to sign a two-year, two-way contract with the Dallas Stars on July 1, 2016. Added to the Stars organization to provide a depth option on the blueline, Bodnarchuk was assigned to Dallas' AHL affiliate, the Texas Stars, for the duration of his contract. In the 2017–18 season, he helped Texas reach the Calder Cup finals before losing a Game 7 decider to the Toronto Marlies.  As an impending free agent, Bodnarchuk opted to sign his first contract abroad, agreeing to a two-year deal with reigning three-time defending German champions EHC München of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) on June 18, 2018.

Andrew Scott Bodnarchuk (born July 11, 1988) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing with EHC Red Bull München of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL).

Andrew Scott Bodnarchuk (* 11. Juli 1988 in Drumheller, Alberta) ist ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit Juni 2018 beim EHC Red Bull München in der Deutschen Eishockey Liga unter Vertrag steht.


Independent Paralympic Athletes at the 2016 Summer Paralympics

Sommer-Paralympics 2016/Teilnehmer (Unabhängige Paralympicsteilnehmer)

Participation.

The team was announced on August 5, 2016 by the International Paralympic Committee. Participants were nominated for the team by National Paralympic Committees who were aware of qualified sportspeople. The International Paralympic Committee stepped in to assist with getting athletes ready by doing a number of things, including insuring that athletes were classified.  On 26 August 2016, the IPC announced the two members of the refugee team: Ibrahim Al Hussein of Syria, who will compete in the S10 50 and 100 m freestyle swimming events, and Shahrad Nasajpour of Iran, who will compete in F37 Discus. Tony Sainsbury was the chef de mission of the team; Sainsbury has previously been the chef de mission of the British Paralympic Team at five Paralympics.

Disability classifications.

Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories; amputation, the condition may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; Les autres, any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, for example dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Some sports, such as athletics, divide athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities, other sports, for example swimming, group competitors from different categories together, the only separation being based on the severity of the disability.

The Independent Paralympic Athletes Team, a team consisting of refugee and asylee Paralympic athletes, competed at the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 7 September to 18 September 2016. Its creation was announced on 5 August 2016.

Zum ersten Mal nahm ein Team Unabhängiger Paralympicsteilnehmer, bestehend aus zwei Athleten, an den Paralympischen Sommerspielen teil, die 2016 in Rio de Janeiro stattfanden. Hierbei handelte es sich um Flüchtlinge bzw. Asylsuchende. Als ihr Chef de Mission fungierte der Brite Tony Sainsbury, der bereits fünfmal das britische Paralympics-Team betreut hatte.


History.

In 2014 Bitcointalk forum user known as thankful_for_today forked the codebase of Bytecoin into the name BitMonero, which is a compound of Bit (as in Bitcoin) and Monero (literally meaning "coin" in Esperanto). The release of BitMonero was very poorly received by the community that initially backed it. Plans to fix and improve Bytecoin with changes to block time, tail emission and block reward had all been ignored, and thankful_for_today simply disappeared from the development scene. A group of users led by Johnny Mnemonic decided that the community should take over the project, and five days later they did while also changing the name to Monero.  Due to its privacy features, Monero experienced rapid growth in market capitalization and transaction volume during 2016, faster and bigger than any other cryptocurrency that year. This growth was driven by its uptake in the darknet market, where people used it to buy stolen credit cards, guns, and drugs. Two major darknet markets were shut down in July 2017 by law enforcement. From the beginning, Monero has been used by people holding other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin to break the link between transactions, with the other cryptocoins first converted to Monero, then after some delay converted back and sent to an address unrelated to those used before.  On January 10, 2017, the privacy of Monero transactions was further strengthened by the adoption of Bitcoin Core developer Gregory Maxwell's algorithm "Confidential Transactions", hiding the amounts being transacted, in combination with an improved version of "Ring Signatures".  After many online payment platforms shut down access for white nationalists following the Unite the Right rally in 2017, some of them, including Christopher Cantwell and Andrew Auernheimer ("weev"), started using and promoting Monero.  The operators behind the May 2017 global ransomware incident WannaCry converted their proceeds into Monero. In June, The Shadow Brokers, the group that leaked the code used in WannaCry, started accepting payments in Monero.  Malicious hackers have previously embedded Monero mining code into websites and apps seeking profit for themselves. In late 2017 malware and antivirus service providers blocked a JavaScript implementation of Monero miner Coinhive that was embedded in websites and apps, in some cases by hackers. Coinhive generated the script as an alternative to advertisements; a website or app could embed it, and use website visitor's CPU to mine the cryptocurrency while the visitor is consuming the content of the webpage, with the site or app owner getting a percentage of the mined coins. Some websites and apps did this without informing visitors, and some hackers implemented it in way that drained visitors' CPUs. As a result, the script was blocked by companies offering ad blocking subscription lists, antivirus services, and antimalware services.  In January 2018, Bloomberg suggested the hackers who stole approximately 500 million NEM tokens ($530 million) from Coincheck would find it challenging to launder the stolen tokens by selling them for Monero since at least one exchange, Shapeshift, had blocked NEM addresses associated with the theft.  In the first half of 2018, Monero was used in 44% of cryptocurrency ransomware attacks.  In November 2018, Bail Bloc released a mobile app that mines Monero to raise funds for low-income defendants who can't otherwise cover their own cash bail.

Architecture.

Unlike many cryptocurrencies that are derivatives of Bitcoin, Monero is based on the CryptoNight proof-of-work hash algorithm, which comes from the CryptoNote protocol.  In particular, the ring signatures used in cryptonote mix the spender's input with a group of others, making it exponentially more difficult to establish a link between each subsequent transaction. Since its original development from the cryptonote protocol, Monero has diverged on a number of features.

Security and privacy features.

Enforced privacy.

Monero uses enforced privacy by default for all transactions so that no user can accidentally or deliberately be traceable or insecure. Unlike a public-by-default mechanisms, this ensures users cannot be scrutinised or penalised by outside actors for using private transactions, leading to non-use of privacy features and therefore loss of privacy altogether.

Ring confidential transactions (RingCT).

RingCTs are used to obfuscate the amount sent in a transaction using range proofs and cryptographic commitments.

Bulletproofs.

Bulletproofs are used in Monero. They are a type of non-interactive zero-knowledge proof which allow transactions to be verified without knowledge of the sender, receiver or amount without the need for trusted setup. A secure method for verifying transactions is necessary to prevent senders sending currency they do not possess. Bulletproofs replaced the previous method in October 2018, improving on them by requiring much less data for each transaction, particularly for transactions with multiple outputs (receivers).

Stealth (one-time) Addresses.

Monero requires senders to cryptographically generate a one-time address using the receiver's public address. Although all transactions to a given public address end up in the same central cryptocurrency wallet, an outside party can never know whether two transactions have been sent to the same public address.

Ring signatures.

When sending a Monero transaction, the sender cryptographically "signs" the transaction with an input they own and 10 other inputs to give a total of 11 inputs that might have been used to generate a given transaction. This gives plausible deniability for senders as an external observer cannot be certain exactly which address sent a given transaction.

Mining.

Monero is designed to be resistant to application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) mining, which is commonly used to mine other cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin. It can be mined somewhat efficiently on consumer grade hardware such as x86, x86-64, ARM and GPUs - and so is a favourite of malware-based miners.  Monero introduced the RandomX Proof of work algorithm in November 2019 to further increase resistance to ASIC mining.

Transaction linkability.

In April 2017 research highlighted three major threats to Monero users' privacy. The first relies on leveraging the ring signature size of zero, and ability to see the output amounts. The second, described as "Leveraging Output Merging", involves tracking transactions where two outputs belong to the same user, such as when a user is sending the funds to himself ("churning"). Finally the third threat, "Temporal Analysis", shows that predicting the right output in a ring signature could potentially be easier than previously thought.  The Monero development team had addressed the first concern in January 2017, prior to the actual release of the research paper, with the introduction of Ring Confidential Transactions (RingCT) as well as mandating a minimum size of ring signatures in the March 2016 protocol upgrade. Monero developers also noted that Monero Research Labs, their academic and research arm, already noted and outlined the deficiency in two public research papers in 2014 and 2015.

Monero (; XMR) is an open-source cryptocurrency created in April 2014 that focuses on fungibility, privacy and decentralization. Monero uses an obfuscated public ledger, meaning anybody can broadcast or send transactions, but no outside observer can tell the source, amount or destination. Monero uses a Proof of Work mechanism to issue new coins and incentivize miners to secure the network and validate transactions.

Monero (XMR) ist eine dezentrale, Blockchain-basierte Kryptowährung, vergleichbar mit Bitcoin. Im Gegensatz zu Bitcoin setzt Monero jedoch einen stärkeren Fokus auf die Privatsphäre (Anonymität) seiner Nutzer und verfolgt einen anderen Ansatz in Bezug auf die Skalierbarkeit. Das Wort „monero“ ist der Sprache Esperanto entnommen und bedeutet „Münze“.


Planning.

The project was originally developed by Warwick Energy Limited, who set up a subsidiary called Dudgeon Offshore Wind Limited. The wind farm planning application was filed in April 2009. The application was for between 56 and 168 turbines depending on final chosen design with a nameplate capacity of 560 MW.  In July 2012 the government gave planning approval for Warwick Energy to construct a wind farm to the capacity of 560MW. In October 2012 Statoil and Statkraft acquired the Dudgeon Offshore Wind Farm project through the acquisition of all shares from Warwick Energy. A review of the project was undertaken after the project was acquired by Statoil and Statkraft, and in December 2013 it was announced that the capacity of the wind farm would be reduced from 560MW to 402MW.  In January 2014 it was announced that two contracts had been awarded to Siemens for the engineering, supply, assembly, commissioning and service of 67 6MW wind turbines for the project. The rotor diameter of this turbine is 154 m, the hub height is 110 m and the highest point of the rotor is 187 m. Statoil and Statkraft made the final investment decision on 1 July 2014 and announced that they would proceed with the project.  In September 2014 it was announced that Masdar had purchased 35%, half of Statoil's shares, of Dudgeon Offshore Wind Limited. Statoil now holds a 35% share, Masdar a 35% share and Statkraft a 30% share in Dudgeon Offshore Wind Limited.

Construction.

Work began onshore in Norfolk to install the underground cables and construct the substations on March 26, 2015. The turbine foundations were laid in 2016, with turbine installation occurring in 2017, the first came on line in early February 2017 and last completed by September 2017.  Final commissioning occurred in October 2017.

Service and maintenance.

In late 2014 the Danish company Esvagt was awarded a 5 year contract for service and maintenance. The Service Operation Vessel (SOV) Esvagt Njord will handle the task, and as the first of this kind on a British offshore wind farm, all facilities like workshops, storage facilities and accommodation for up to 40 wind turbine technicians from Siemens and Statoil will be located on the ship. The wind turbine technicians will live on the ship and walk to work on the wind turbines via the norwegian UpTime gangway system. The vessel was delivered to Great Yarmouth on 6 September 2016, from where it is operating. In November 2017 Ryan Burnham was voted by his peers as the face of Equinor for technicians.

Dudgeon Offshore Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm 32 km north of Cromer off the coast of Norfolk, in the North Sea, England. It is owned by Dudgeon Offshore Wind Limited (DOW), a subsidiary of Equinor, Masdar and Statkraft. The site is a relatively flat area of seabed between the Cromer Knoll and Inner Cromer Knoll sandbanks and is one of the furthest offshore sites around the UK.

Dudgeon ist ein seit Oktober 2017 in Betrieb befindlicher Offshore-Windpark im Vereinigten Königreich in der Nordsee. Dudgeon befindet sich 32 Kilometer vor der Küste der Stadt Cromer in North Norfolk auf einer Fläche von ca. 55 km2 bei Wassertiefen von 12 bis 24 Metern. Sein jährliches Regelarbeitsvermögen soll ausreichen um mehr als 410.000 Haushalte mit elektrischer Energie zu versorgen.


19th century.

The term became common in the late 19th century, especially when the newly arrived rich in key cities such as New York City, Boston, and Newport, Rhode Island, built great mansions and sponsored highly publicized parties. The media lavished attention on them, especially when newspapers devoted whole sections to weddings, funerals, parties and other events sponsored by the local high society. In major cities, a Social Register was published that listed the names and addresses of people who properly belonged. Informal identifiers appeared, such as the "upper tens" in mid-19th century New York City, or "the 400," Ward McAllister's late 19th-century term for the number of people Mrs. William Backhouse Astor, Jr's ballroom could supposedly accommodate, although the actual number was 273.  Debutantes are young female members of high society being officially presented for the first time, at debutante balls or cotillions. An example of a high society debutante ball is the prestigious International Debutante Ball at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City.  Gold and silver mining, in the mid 19th century brought enormous wealth overnight to certain small towns such as Central City, Colorado and Leadville, Colorado. The new rich typically build a lavish opera house in the mining town, but then moved to a major city, especially Denver or San Francisco, where their wealth could be more suitably displayed and enjoyed. When the men attended to business affairs, women generally took charge of comings and goings and doings in high society.  Starting with the Stuyvesant luxury apartment house that opened in 1869, and The Dakota in 1884, affluent New Yorkers discovered the advantages of apartment living, where a full-time staff handled the upkeep and maintenance, as well as security.  In most French cities the very rich, often holding an old aristocratic title, maintained an elaborate high society well into the 20th century. Ten to twenty servants demonstrated the taste for conspicuous consumption. The richest households in Paris typically employed 30 servants. After 1945 the supply of servants dried up and there was a move to smaller inner city apartments in elite neighborhoods.

Art.

Art in this time was almost exclusively linked to the possession of money. The art of high society focused greatly on absorbing cultures from around the world, and referencing great architecture from the past, and commissioning artists that were from Europe. The culture was to possess knowledge and artifacts from other cultures or at least replicated it very well.  Acquiring rare and valuable items was another way of high society representing its prestige. Art was also a way of representing taste level and someones ability to commission the right artist or chose the best piece to have installed in their homes.

Portraiture.

Portrait painters were in high demand in London. Meanwhile, the smaller corps of American artists shifted their focus from painting the great landscapes of America to making portraits of great Americans. However art historians generally ignored the society artists such as John Singer Sargent (1856 – 1925) until the late 20th century.  Portraiture became the most common art in order for people in high society to record and have evidence of their accomplishment and valuable possessions.  New York City started its "Great Portrait Exhibition", focused on high society. The exhibition became a place for people to see Who's Who in New York City high society and focused more on the names of the people in the portraits rather than the quality of the portraits. The art community focused on portraiture, and changed art into a circle that created a tight knit between, patronage, artist, and critiques.

Architecture.

Stanford White (1853-1906) was the most influential architect for High Society. High Society was also immortalized through the building of mansions glittered in decadence and detail that were reminiscent of the renaissance, and the Victorian gothic. These massive homes were visible in dense cities like New York, they sprinkled main avenues that belonged to the wealth or middle class and stayed clear of the poor areas that were dense and littered with filth and the poor working class. Richard Morris Hunt played a large role in giving many members of High Society what they were looking for: homes that represented their cosmopolitan outlook and outshine all that was around it. For more on the homes of this time era see List of Gilded Age mansions.

Sociology.

Members of high society depend greatly on the people and social circles they are surrounded by. In many cases an elite member can confirm status by having servants, people who remove a task from everyday life, or artists and performers, whose talent and skills are at their disposal.  Social groups play the most important role in establishing members of high society. Members of high society usually must attend social gatherings throughout the year while also putting together social gatherings in their own homes. The sociological distinction is the use of social capital in order to attend or be invited to certain events. Members of high society tend to be aware of the connections that should be made in order to move up the social ladder.

Recent decades.

High society is less visible in the 21st century—privacy is much more valued, and the very expensive housing is not as conspicuous to ordinary pedestrians as the famous old mansions. There are far fewer servants, but much more attention to security. Remote ski resorts in places like Vail and Aspen are especially popular with high society. The quality of housing remains important.  Philanthropy is a high-prestige activity in high society. Sociologist Francie Ostrower states:  The wealthy take philanthropy and adapt it into an entire way of life that serves as a vehicle for the social and cultural life of their class. This is reflected in the widespread popularity of educational and cultural causes among donors.

High society, also called in some contexts simply "society", is the behavior and lifestyle of people with the highest levels of wealth and social status. It includes their related affiliations, social events and practices. Upscale social clubs were open to men based on assessments of their ranking and role within high society. In American high society, the "Social Register" was traditionally a key resource for identifying qualified members. From a global perspective, see upper class. The quality of housing, clothing, servants and dining were visible marks of membership.

High Society (englisch für „hohe Gesellschaft“) bezeichnet die Personengruppe mit dem größten materiellen Reichtum und dem höchsten sozialen Status innerhalb einer Gesellschaft (vgl. dt.: „Oberschicht“/„Elite“). Der aus dem Französischen entlehnte Terminus Hautevolee ist ein Synonym für die englische Bezeichnung.