History.

Background.

Before World War II, the west coast of the U.S. hosted a bustling music scene, though its activity remained largely localized. In 1917, Jelly Roll Morton moved to California and remained in Los Angeles until 1922, when he left for Chicago. Kid Ory formed a band in Los Angeles after moving to California in 1919. In 1944, Norman Granz began staging Jazz at the Philharmonic shows at Philharmonic Auditorium in Los Angeles. In 1946, Ross Russell established Dial Records in Hollywood to record Charlie Parker during his sojourn in Los Angeles. Meanwhile, a thriving jazz scene had appeared along Los Angeles's Central Avenue, featuring Dexter Gordon, Wardell Gray, Teddy Edwards, Charles Mingus, and Buddy Collette. Central Avenue's activity rivaled that of the earlier Kansas City jazz scene, but at the time it was little-known outside Los Angeles.  In 1947, Woody Herman organized a new band, the Second Herd, in Los Angeles. The group included tenor saxophonists Stan Getz, Zoot Sims, and Herbie Steward, and baritone saxophonist Serge Chaloff. The resulting "Four Brothers" sound (named for the Jimmy Giuffre composition, "Four Brothers," which highlighted this group) was a precursor of the cool style.

Development.

In 1949–1950 baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan participated in the Miles Davis band, contributing arrangements to the recordings that became "Birth of the Cool" (1957). In 1952 Mulligan, who had moved to California, formed an innovative and successful piano-less quartet with trumpeter Chet Baker, drummer Chico Hamilton, and bassist Bob Whitlock. Mulligan would later form a decet based on the "Birth of the Cool" nonet.  In 1950 Stan Kenton disbanded his Innovations Orchestra in Los Angeles. Many of the musicians, some of whom had also played in Woody Herman's band, chose to remain in California. Trumpeter Shorty Rogers and drummers Stan Levey and Shelly Manne were central figures among this group of musicians. Much of this activity centered on the Hermosa Beach Lighthouse Café, where bassist Howard Rumsey led a house band, the Lighthouse All-Stars.  Manne suggested that these musicians' relaxed lifestyle in California was reflected in a laid-back, relaxed approach to jazz. Bob Rusch concurs:  The West coast sound perhaps didn't have the gravitas that the East coast had, but, after all, these were Californians enjoying the sun and the surf and the extent that celebrity offered itself through the studio work that the entertainment industry was offering. So I think, you know, you think of California as sun and surf, you think of New York City as cement and grit, and the music somewhat reflected that. One better than the other? Depends what you want.  During the 1950s, Chico Hamilton led an ensemble that (unusual for a jazz group) included a cellist, Fred Katz. Tanner, Gerow, and Megill liken Hamilton's music to chamber music, and have noted that Hamilton's "subtle rhythmic control and use of different drum pitches and timbres" were well-suited for this style of music.  In 1951, pianist Dave Brubeck hired alto saxophonist Paul Desmond, forming a quartet. Desmond's playing style ran counter to bebop, as he seldom used blues elements, and was influenced by Pete Brown and Benny Carter rather than Charlie Parker.  The Pacific Jazz and Contemporary record labels were two of the best known that carried West Coast jazz, just as Blue Note Records was the biggest hard-bop label. Some of the major pioneers of West Coast jazz were Shorty Rogers, Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, Stan Getz, Bud Shank, Bob Cooper, Jimmy Giuffre, Shelly Manne, Russ Freeman, Bill Holman, André Previn, and Dave Brubeck with Paul Desmond. In 1952–1962 jazz singer Anita O'Day recorded 17 albums for Norman Granz's Norgran and Verve labels.  While many Los Angeles area jazz musicians, particularly the former members of the Herman and Kenton bands, found regular employment in broadcast and motion picture studios, most of these musicians were white, leading to accusations that the studios deliberately excluded African Americans. The situation was a contributing factor toward the integration of the Los Angeles chapters of the American Federation of Musicians during the early 1950s. Pianist Marl Young recalled that in 1950,  as far as I knew, there were no blacks working regularly in the industry, especially on the networks – ABC, CBS and NBC. [Estelle Edson] asked me if the fact that the Musicians Unions were segregated contributed to the scarcity of blacks in the industry. It certainly could have been a contributing factor in that all the contracts for employment of musicians in the broadcast and motion picture studios were negotiated by the then all-white union, Local 47. The black union, Local 767, merely adopted the scales negotiated by Local 47, if and when a black musician got a studio call.  Young, who also held a law degree, worked with Local 767 musicians (including Buddy Collette, Red Callender, and Benny Carter) along with Local 47 members (including Roger Segure) to integrate the union. Josephine Baker supported the local integration effort.

California Hard.

Although West Coast jazz is often compared to the cool style, Los Angeles musicians locally known as "hard swingers," "blew bop as tough as anything emerging out of Detroit and New York..." In later years, their music was known as "California Hard." Roy Carr notes that this is not surprising. By the late 1940s, the Central Avenue scene had the most bebop musicians outside New York. Max Roach and Clifford Brown, Shelly Manne, and Curtis Counce established harder-sounding bands in Los Angeles.

Sound.

West Coast jazz sometimes featured a rhythm section that omitted the use of a piano, guitar, or any chordal instrument, tending to a more open and freer sound, as exemplified by the Gerry Mulligan collection "The Original Quartet with Chet Baker" (Blue Note, 1998). Another characteristic is the inclusion of non-standard jazz instruments such as the French horn and tuba. Gil Evans's arrangement on the "Birth of the Cool" album featured these instruments at a time when the West Coast style was emerging.

Reception.

Tanner, Gerow, and Megill are largely dismissive of the term "West Coast jazz". As it often refers to Gerry Mulligan and his associates in California, "West Coast" merely becomes synonymous with "cool jazz", although Lester Young, Claude Thornhill, and Miles Davis were based in New York. At the same time, many musicians associated with West Coast jazz "were much more involved in a hotter approach to jazz. Communication being what it is, it is hardly likely that any style of jazz was fostered exclusively in one area."  Some observers looked down upon West Coast jazz because many of its musicians were white, and because some listeners, critics, and historians perceived that the music was too cerebral, effete, or effeminate, or that it lacked swing. However, African American musicians played in the style, including Curtis Counce, John Lewis, Chico Hamilton, Harry "Sweets" Edison, Buddy Collette, Red Callender, Harold Land, Charles Mingus, Eugene Wright and Hampton Hawes.

West Coast jazz refers to styles of jazz that developed in Los Angeles and San Francisco during the 1950s. West Coast jazz is often seen as a subgenre of cool jazz, which consisted of a calmer style than bebop or hard bop. The music relied relatively more on composition and arrangement than on the individually improvised playing of other jazz styles. Although this style dominated, it was not the only form of jazz heard on the American West Coast.

Als West-Coast-Jazz (in der einschlägigen Literatur fast immer als West Coast Jazz) gilt eine Form von Jazzmusik, die sich in Kalifornien während der 1950er Jahre entwickelte. Sie wird im Allgemeinen nicht als eigener Stil, sondern als eine spezielle, zunächst regional charakterisierte Variante des Cool Jazz aufgefasst.


Names.

Over its history, the NAS Ukraine has had these 5 names.

History.

Establishment of the Academy.

The direct institutional predecessors of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences were the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lemberg (Lviv) and the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev that due to various circumstances did not developed into national academy. The initiative to create such an institution came from the Ukrainian Science Society in April 1917, eight months before the beginning of the Soviet-Ukrainian War. However it was finally materialized during the time of the Ukrainian State, when on the proposal of the Minister of Education and Arts Mykola Vasylenko a special commission was formed. Headed by academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Volodymyr Vernadskyi, the commission has drafted a bill about creation of the Ukrainian Academy of Science in Kiev with its National Library, National Museum, and other scientific institutions. At the end of June of 1918 the issue on creation of the Academy was raised at the Ukrainian Science Society Extraordinary General Assembly (June 23 and 28). During July 9 - September 17, 1918 the commission based on the proposed by Vernadskyi a model of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (UAS) as an academy with universal characteristics has developed a bill for the creation of the Academy, a draft of its statute and staff, estimate. Based on them on November 14, 1918 Hetman of Ukraine Pavlo Skoropadsky signed the Law of Ukrainian State about establishing of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev, and also approved the UAS statute, the UAS staff and its institutions and the order of Ministry of National Education about appointing the first 12 full members (academicians) of the UAS.  According to its original statute, the Academy consisted of three research departments in history and philology (1st department), physics and mathematics (2nd department), as well as social studies (3rd department). Its structural units became permanent commissions and institutes. There were planned 15 institutes, 14 permanent commissions, 6 museums, 2 offices, 2 laboratories, botanical and acclimatization gardens, astronomical observatory, biology station, printing house and national library. All publishing of academy was to be printed in the Ukrainian language. Its statute emphasized the all-Ukrainian nature: the members could be not only citizens of the Ukrainian State, but also the Ukrainian scientists of the West Ukraine (at that time citizens of Austria-Hungary). Foreigners could become academicians as well, but on the resolution of the 2/3 of the active members' composition. The presidium of newly created academy and its first academicians (three to each department) were appointed by the Ukrainian government, while the future members were expected to be elected by those academicians (as an active members). Among the first academicians were historians Dmytro Bahaliy and Orest Levytsky, economists Mykhailo Tuhan-Baranovsky and Volodymyr Kosynsky, eastern studies Ahathanhel Krymsky and Nikolai Petrov, linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky, geologists Volodymyr Vernadsky and Pavlo Tutkovsky, biologist Mykola Kashchenko, mechanic Stepan Tymoshenko, law studies Fedir Taranovsky. For the post of the President of the Academy, the Hetman of Ukraine (head of state) Pavlo Skoropadsky invited Mykhailo Hrushevsky who at that time was the president of the Ukrainian Science Society and before the World War I served as the president of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lemberg, neighboring Austria-Hungary, but Hrushevsky declined the invitation yet later (sometime after 1923) became a major figure in the Ukrainian Academy of Science (UAS) in Kyiv.  Its official operations the academy started at the end of November 1918 with having several sessions of General Assembly and assemblies of its departments. The first General Assembly (Constituent) that took place on November 27, 1918 academician Volodymyr Vernadsky was elected the President of academy, while the permanent secretary became Ahathanhel Krymsky. The same day, at the sessions of the 2nd and the 3rd departments there were elected as chairmen respectively Mykola Kashchenko and Mykhailo Tuhan-Baranovsky, on 8 December 1918 the chairman of the 1st department was elected Dmytro Bahaliy. All appointments were approved by Hetman Skoropadskyi. The first institutions of the UAS established in December 1918 were such commissions:  Next month there were added following commissions:

First years.

During its first years the academy operated during the period of political instability and economical ruin (Ukrainian–Soviet War, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War). The leadership of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences sought its recognition by each new power and principally emphasizing on non-political background of the main science center. Despite the financial hardship, famine, arrests, and emigration of some of its members, the UAS has not only survived as an institution, but developed its structure and directions of research, began to prepare for publication its scientific works.  On 3 January 1919 the Direktoria of the Ukrainian People's Republic has adopted legislatively changes to the UAS statute, according to which there were made provisions concerning printing of works in Ukrainian and foreign languages (volume of publications in foreign language should not exceeded the 1/4 amount of the Ukrainian language), all the UAS officials had to freely possess the Ukrainian language, and full members upon their approval would swear in allegiance to the Ukrainian People's Republic. The Supreme power also has left after itself the right to approve the newly elected members at the UAS General Assembly. Following occupation of Kiev by Bolshevik forces, on 11 February 1919 to the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was handed over as its own property the mansion and former boarding house of countess Levashova on the order of People's Commissar of Education of the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, Volodymyr Zatonskyi. The next day on 12 February 1919 there took place an extraordinary UAS General Assembly, during which Ahatanhel Krymsky passed on the order of Zatonskyi immediately to start the work. Since the late 1920s, in the Soviet historiography that day was considered as the day of establishing the Academy of Sciences contrary to 14 February 1918 when Hetman Skoropadskyi signed the law on creation of the academy.  After several change of powers and withdrawal of the Denikin's forces in December 1919 the Bolsheviks permanently established themselves in Kiev. With the second arrival of Bolsheviks Vernadsky resigned. Orest Levytskyor was elected President of the Academy for the next couple of years. In 1921 Levytsky was replaced by a newly elected Mykola Vasylenko, however he was not approved by the authorities and soon was replaced with Levytsky. Vasylenko after that was arrested in 1923 and convicted (later released on amnesty).  On June 14, 1921, the Council of People's Commissars of Ukrainian SSR adopted a decree "Resolution on the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences", according to which the Academy was recognized as the highest scientific state institution and subordinated to the Narkom of Education. The Academy was renamed from UAS to VUAN () as the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences underlining its meaning for the Ukrainian territories under Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia and declaring its intentions to unite within one organization the scientific intelligentsiya of all Ukrainian lands. The relationship between the members of VUAN and the Soviet authorities soured, while the relationships with the Ukrainian scientists abroad had completely diminished. After the historian Orest Levytsky the President of the Academy became the botanist Volodymyr Ipolytyovych Lypsky. Between 1919-1930 to the Academy were elected 103 academicians. In 1924-5, the Academy held its first election for foreign members. However, none of the candidates were approved by the Narkom of Education. In 1929, two of its members (Serhiy Yefremov and Mykhailo Slabchenko) and 24 corresponding agents (such as Osip Hermaize, Hryhoriy Holoskevych, Andriy Nikovsky, and others) were arrested in accusation to belonging to the non-existing (as later it was established) "Union for the Freedom of Ukraine". None of the arrested have ever been released.

Chief executive posts.

Presidents.

The NASU has had only nine (9) different presidents:

Structure and administration.

The National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine according to its official status is a higher scientific self-governed organization of Ukraine and was founded on a state property. The self-government of the Academy is kept in independent determination of its research's thematic and forms of its organization and realization, formation of its organizational structure, solving own issues with administration of research, its financing, and professional cadres, fulfillment of its international scientific relations, free election and collegiality of its governing authority. The Academy brings together full members, corresponding members, and its foreign members, all scientists of its institutions, organizes and conducts fundamental and applied scientific research in the most important issues of natural, technical, social, and humanitarian sciences.

Administration.

The highest body of self-government of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine is its General Assembly (, Zahalni zbory) that consists of full members (academicians) and corresponding members. Except for issues relating to election of full members, corresponding members and foreign members of the Academy, at the General Assembly sessions take part with the right of decisive vote scientists who were delegated by work collective of the Academy's scientific institutions and with the right of advisory vote foreign members, directors of the Academy's scientific institutions, and representatives of scientific community.  In period between the General Assembly sessions the Academy's activities are being administered (supervised) by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Presidium which is elected by General Assembly on the term of 5 years. The NASU Presidium that was lastly elected in April of 2015 consists of 32 persons including president, 5 vice-presidents, Chief Scientific Secretary, 14 department secretaries-academicians, 11 other members. In the Presidium's sessions take part with the right of advisory vote 5 acting Presidium members and 14 NASU Presidium advisers. The presidium meets in the former building of Countess Levashova that the Academy owns since its establishment in 1918. The presidium also directs operations of the Academy's publishing institutions as well as some selected science and other institutions among which are own exposition center, Grand Conference Hall, etc.  In the NASU function 3 sections with 14 departments within them. There also are 6 regional science centers in various regions of the country, which have dual subordination also to the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine. The basic elements of the NASU's structure are scientific research institutes and other scientific institutions such as observatories, botanic gardens, arboreta, nature preserves, libraries, museums, other. In 2006 the Academy accounted for 43,613 employees including 16,813 researchers; among them, 2,493 with degree of Doktor Nauk (Doctor of Sciences) and 7,996 with degree of Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences, Ph.D.).  The NASU is responsible for over 90% of all discoveries made in Ukraine, including the transmutation of lithium into helium, the production of heavy water, and the development of a 3-D radar that operates in the decimeter range.

Regional centers.

Regional science centers (SCs) are: The most of institutions of the Academy (212) are placed in the city of Kiev, following by Kharkiv (39) and Lviv (27). The Academy is represented at least by one institution in most of the oblasts in Ukraine, except Volyn, Rivne, Ternopil, Khmelnytsky, Vinnytsia, and Kirovohrad.

Scientific institutions of the NASU.

Libraries.

There are 2 national libraries affiliated with the NASU:

Parks and nature reserves.

The department of General Biology includes a number of parks and nature reserves.

Publishers.

The NASU has two publishing houses:  The NASU has made major contributions to most of the major fields of science.

Awards.

Bogolyubov Prize.

The Bogolyubov Prize is an award offered by the Academy for scientists with outstanding contribution to theoretical physics and applied mathematics. The award is issued in the memory of theoretical physicist and mathematician Nikolay Bogolyubov.

Vernadsky Gold Medal.

The Academy has awarded its Vernadsky Gold Medal annually since 2004 to the most distinguished academicians.

The National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU;, "Natsional’na akademiya nauk Ukrayiny", abbr: NAN Ukraine) is a self-governing state-funded organization in Ukraine that is the main center of development of science and technology by coordinating a system of research institutes in the country. It is the main research oriented organization along with the five other academies in Ukraine specialized in various scientific disciplines. NAS Ukraine consists of numerous departments, sections, research institutes, scientific centers and various other supporting scientific organizations.

Die Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften der Ukraine (; ;, abgekürzt НАН bzw. "NAS") ist eine ukrainische Wissenschaftseinrichtung in Kiew.


Biography.

Otacilio is a youth product of Santa Cruz. In April 2006, he left for Série B club Remo and in January 2007 he joined 2. Bundesliga club Eintracht Braunschweig. The team was relegated at the end of season. Otacilio then left for São Caetano of Campeonato Brasileiro Série B in August 2007. He made his club debut on 7 September (round 24), replacing Gláucio in 72nd minute, winning Paulista FC 1–0.  In January 2008, he transferred to Náutico of Campeonato Pernambucano, but was released in May. In August he left for Gama of Série B. He just started once and collected three more substitute appearances for the club. Gama was relegated to 2009 Campeonato Brasileiro Série C at the end of season.  In February 2009, he was signed by Vila Nova on a one-year contract.  In February 2010, he was re-signed by Remo, agreeing a contract until the end of 2010 Campeonato Paraense or 15 June.  After being without a club for six months, he was signed by Mirassol on 7 December 2010. He was released prior the start of the 2011 Brazilian fourth division, for which the team qualified as São Paulo state championship second best team (seventh) that not played in any superior division above fourth division. The team also finished as the losing semi-finalists (first round) of 2011 Campeonato Paulista do Interior.  In July 2011, he joined the third division club Campinense but was released again in September, as the club failed to qualify to the stage two of the tournament.

Otacilio Jales da Silva Neto, known as Otacilio Jales or just Otacilio (born 2 January 1984) is a Brazilian footballer.

Otacilio Jales, auch kurz Otacilio genannt (* 2. Januar 1984; eigentlich "Otacilio Jales da Silva Neto"), ist ein brasilianischer Fußballspieler. Er ist Offensiv-Allrounder, kann also sowohl als Mittelfeldspieler agieren. Er gilt als ein guter Techniker.


History of the American Tobacco Company.

Origins.

James Buchanan Duke's entrance into the cigarette industry came about in 1879 when he elected to enter a new business rather than face competition in the shredded pouched smoking tobacco business against the Bull Durham brand, also from Durham, North Carolina. In 1881, two years after W. Duke, Sons & Company entered into the cigarette business, James Bonsack invented a cigarette-rolling machine. It produced over 200 cigarettes per minute, the equivalent of what a skilled hand roller could produce in one hour, and reduced the cost of rolling cigarettes by 50%. It cut each cigarette with precision, creating uniformity in the cigarettes it rolled. Public stigma was attached to this machine-rolled uniformity, and Allen & Ginter rejected the machine almost immediately. Duke set a deal with the Bonsack Machine Company in 1884. Duke agreed to produce all cigarettes with his two rented Bonsack machines and in return, Bonsack reduced Duke’s royalties from $0.30 per thousand to $0.20 per thousand. Duke also hired one of Bonsack’s mechanics, resulting in fewer breakdowns of his machines than his competitors’. This secret contract resulted in a competitive advantage over Duke's competitors; he was able to lower his prices further than others could.  In the 1880s, while Duke was beginning to machine-roll all his cigarettes, he saw that growth rates in the cigarette industry were declining. His solution was to combine companies and found “one of the first great holding companies in American history.” Duke spent $800,000 on advertising in 1889 and lowered his prices, accepting net profits of less than $400,000, forcing his major competitors to lower their prices and, in 1890, join his consortium by the name of the American Tobacco Company. The five constituent companies of American Tobacco: W. Duke & Sons, Allen & Ginter, W.S. Kimball & Company, Kinney Tobacco, and Goodwin & Company – produced 90% of the cigarettes made in 1890, the first year the American Tobacco Company was listed on the NYSE. Within two decades of its founding, the American Tobacco company absorbed about 250 companies and produced 80% of the cigarettes, plug tobacco, smoking tobacco, and snuff produced in the United States. With Duke's market control, American Tobacco grew its equity from $25,000,000 to $316,000,000.

The "Tobacco Trust".

American Tobacco Company quickly became known as the “Tobacco Trust” upon its founding. Duke controlled the cigarette market, and his trust caught the attention of legislators in the United States, a country with historical aversion to monopolies.  American Tobacco Company focused solely on making and selling cigarettes, leaving growing of tobacco and retail distribution to independent entrepreneurs. Nonetheless, Duke aimed to eliminate inefficiencies and middlemen through vertical consolidation. The American Tobacco Company began to expand to Great Britain, China, and Japan. The company also maintained an interest in producing other tobacco products in case fads shifted; Duke wanted to be sure that he would be prepared with a multitude of tobacco styles. The Tobacco Trust's international expansion in conjunction with its consolidation of all types of tobacco “ultimately made the Trust so vulnerable to regulation and judicial dissolution”.  The Sherman Antitrust Act was passed in 1890, and in 1907, the American Tobacco Company was indicted in violation of it. In 1908, when the Department of Justice filed suit against the company, 65 companies and 29 individuals were named in the suit. The Supreme Court ordered the company to dissolve in 1911 on the same day that it ordered the Standard Oil Trust to dissolve. The ruling in "United States v. American Tobacco Co." stated that the combination of the tobacco companies “in and of itself, as well as each and all of the elements composing it whether corporate or individual, whether considered collectively or separately [was] in restraint of trade and an attempt to monopolize, and a monopolization within the first and second sections of the Anti-Trust Act.”

Dissolution.

Dissolution proved complicated. The American Tobacco Company had combined many prior companies and processes. One department would manage a certain process for the entire organization, producing brands previously owned by other companies. “Plants had been assigned specific products without regard for previous ownership.” Over the course of eight months, a plan for the dissolution, meant to assure competition among the new companies, was negotiated.  The trust needed to dissolve in such a way that no manufacturer had a monopoly on any type of tobacco product. Investors, holding millions of dollars of securities, also needed to be considered. A large question was how to distribute trademarks and brands between the resulting companies.  The American Tobacco Company's assets were split off into: American Tobacco Company, the existing R. J. Reynolds, Liggett & Myers, and Lorillard. The monopoly became an oligopoly. The main result of the dissolution of American Tobacco Trust and the creation of these companies was an increase in advertising and promotion in the industry as a form of competition.

Liggett & Myers.

Liggett & Myers kept control of these plants: Liggett and Myers, St. Louis; Spaulding and Merrick, Chicago; Allen and Ginter, Richmond; smoking tobacco factory in Chicago; Nall and Williams, Louisville; John Bollman Company, San Francisco; Pinkerton Company, Toledo; W. R. Irby, New Orleans; two cigar factories in Baltimore and Philadelphia, and the Duke-Durham branch of the American Tobacco Company.

P. Lorillard.

P. Lorillard retained the Lorillard properties in addition to S. Anargyos; the Luhrman and Wilburn Tobacco Company; plants in Philadelphia, Wilmington, Brooklyn, Baltimore, and Danville; and the Federal Cigar Company.

More recent history.

At the same time as the antitrust action in 1911, the company's share in British American Tobacco (BAT) was sold. In 1994, BAT acquired its former parent, American Tobacco Company (though reorganized after antitrust proceedings). This brought the Lucky Strike and Pall Mall brands into BAT's portfolio as part of BAT's American arm, Brown & Williamson. B&W later merged with R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company in 2004.  American Tobacco left Durham in the late 1980s. Brown & Williamson took over the Reidsville, North Carolina operation in 1995 and closed it, costing 1000 people their jobs, but Commonwealth Brands took it over in a deal completed in October 1996, when the plant had 311 employees, and kept 100 of them. ITG Brands announced November 1, 2018 that the plant would close in 2020.

Redevelopment.

In 2004, the previously abandoned American Tobacco Campus (ATC) in Durham was reopened as a complex of offices, shops, and restaurants. Developed by Capitol Broadcasting and reopened as the American Tobacco Historic District, phase 1 consisted of the Fowler, Crowe, Strickland, Reed, and Washington Buildings, and included the construction of two new parking garages and a waterfall feature through the center of the campus designed by Smallwood, Reynolds, Stewart, Stewart of Atlanta, Georgia and constructed by W. P. Law, Inc. based in Lexington, South Carolina. Phase 2, consisting of the remaining buildings and expansion of the water feature at the north end of the site, was under construction as of late 2006. Many office spaces in the ATC are now used by Duke University. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 as the American Tobacco Company Manufacturing Plant. The nearby Watts and Yuille Warehouses were listed in 1984 and the Smith Warehouse in 1985.  The American Tobacco Trail, named for the company, is a multi-use rail-trail that begins just south of the Durham complex and runs towards Chatham and Wake Counties. It follows the route of the railroad (Norfolk Southern Railway (former) Durham Branch) that once served the factories, but was later abandoned when these facilities were shut down.

Advertising.

Between 1875 and the 1940s, cigarette companies often included collectible trading cards with their packages of cigarettes. Cigarette card sets document popular culture from the turn of the century, often depicting the period's actresses, costumes, and sports, as well as offering insights into mainstream humor and cultural norms.  In the golden age of radio, as well as early television, American Tobacco was known for advertisements featuring a fast-talking tobacco auctioneer named L. A. "Speed" Riggs. His rapid-fire and song-like patter would always end with the exclamation, "SOLD, American!" Another famous tobacco auctioneer, F. E. Boone, was often heard in tandem with Riggs.

The American Tobacco Company was a tobacco company founded in 1890 by J. B. Duke through a merger between a number of U.S. tobacco manufacturers including Allen and Ginter and Goodwin & Company. The company was one of the original 12 members of the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1896. The American Tobacco Company dominated the industry by acquiring the Lucky Strike Company and over 200 other rival firms. Antitrust action begun in 1907 broke the company into several major companies in 1911.

Die American Tobacco Company war einer der weltgrößten Hersteller von Tabakprodukten. Gegründet wurde das Unternehmen 1890 von James Buchanan Duke durch den Zusammenschluss mehrerer US-amerikanischer Tabakwarenhersteller, darunter Allen and Ginter und Goodwin & Company. Bereits bei der Gründung des Aktienindex "Dow Jones Industrial Average" im Jahr 1896 war American Tobacco eines von 12 Mitgliedern. Durch die Übernahme von über 200 Konkurrenten, darunter der Lucky Strike Company, erlangte der Konzern eine marktbeherrschende Stellung. Dies führte 1907 schließlich zur Eröffnung eines Verfahrens auf Basis des Sherman Antitrust Act, das 1911 in die Entflechtung des Konzerns mündete. Im Zuge dessen wurde der Anteil am Joint-Venture British American Tobacco veräußert sowie unter anderem die Tochterunternehmen Liggett & Myers Tobacco Company und Lorillard abgespalten. Aufgrund des zunehmenden Ausbaus von Aktivitäten abseits der Tabakverarbeitung wurde 1986 die Holding American Brands gegründet, die 1997 wiederum in Fortune Brands umbenannt wurde. Diese verkaufte ihre Keimzelle American Tobacco 1994 an die frühere Tochtergesellschaft British American Tobacco (BAT).


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Canning Town, East London, Noble played for Barking Colts and moved to Arsenal's academy at age 11. His father, however, who would drive him to training, could not always arrange the time to get Noble to training sessions due to the distance from their home in Beckton. Local side West Ham United showed an interest and Noble signed as a youth player. He became the youngest player ever to appear in their reserve team, aged 15. He became a trainee in July 2003 and made his debut in the senior team at the age of just 17 in the League Cup in August 2004 in a 2–0 win against Southend United. He made his league debut in the Championship in January 2005, in a 4–2 defeat away at Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 30 May 2005, Noble played in the 2005 Football League Championship play-off Final which saw West Ham beat Preston North End 1–0 to secure a return to the Premier League. He had entered the game as an 82nd-minute substitute for Shaun Newton.  Noble won the Young Hammer of the Year and the runner-up to the Hammer of the Year awards despite making his debut only four months previously.  Upon West Ham's return to the Premier League, he featured in only five League games in the 2005–06 season, including those against Tottenham Hotspur on 20 November 2005 and against Manchester United on 27 November, but after a game against Blackburn Rovers on 10 December, he found regular playing time harder to come by and was sent out on loan. He did not play for West Ham at all in 2006.

Loan periods.

Noble was subsequently loaned to Hull City where he made five appearances. His Hull debut came on 18 February 2006 in a 1–0 away defeat by Cardiff City. Noble's loan ended early after he suffered an injury to his lower back.  Noble signed a three-month loan with Ipswich Town in August 2006 in the hope of gaining necessary first-team experience. He played 13 games in the Championship and scored his first professional goal on 12 September in a 2–1 home win over Coventry City.

Return to West Ham.

Noble scored his first goal for West Ham against Brighton & Hove Albion, the side's first of three in a 3–0 home win in January 2007 in the third round of the FA Cup, from an assist by Carlos Tevez. On 4 March, he scored his first Premiership goal and the opening goal of the game, against Tottenham at Upton Park in a game West Ham eventually lost 4–3 in the final seconds. He played 11 games in all competitions, scoring three goals in the 2006–07 season.

2007–08 season.

Noble established his place in Alan Curbishley's side during the 2007–08 season, starting nearly all games when fit. He scored his first penalty for the club on 18 August 2007 in a 1–0 away win against Birmingham City after Colin Doyle had fouled Craig Bellamy. He was out for several weeks in November 2007 after he had played through an injury for the last several months without letting the medical staff know. In January 2008, Noble scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Liverpool from the penalty spot, after Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher had brought down Freddie Ljungberg in the last few seconds of second-half added time. His performance in the match was described as "exceptional".

2008–09 season.

The 2008–09 season did not start well for Noble, as he was sent off for two bookable offences in a 3–0 loss away at Manchester City, the first away game of the season. After serving his suspension he came back to score an equaliser against West Bromwich Albion after West Ham went a goal down with West Brom coming back to win 3–2. This was one of five goals he scored in the season with three coming from the penalty spot. After Alan Curbishley left in September, he remained in the first team under new manager Gianfranco Zola. He celebrated his 100th appearance for the Hammers by scoring against Blackburn at Ewood Park on 21 March 2009 to secure a 1–1 draw. In April, he signed a contract extension tying him to the club until 2013.

2009–10 season.

Noble began the 2009–10 season well, scoring West Ham's first goal of the new season, in a 2–0 win over Premier League newcomers Wolves. Under Gianfranco Zola, Noble established himself in central midfield in a diamond that included Scott Parker as his partner and Jack Collison and Valon Behrami on the wings. He would only score one other goal during the season – a penalty after Habib Beye had fouled Zavon Hines – in a 2–1 home win against Aston Villa on 4 November 2009.

2010–11 season.

With West Ham now managed by Avram Grant, Noble continued to be a regular member of the first team. He played 26 of a possible 38 games in the Premier League missing a month of the season after an appendectomy as West Ham were relegated after finishing in 20th and bottom place. He scored four league goals; all were penalties including two in one game. On 2 April 2011 against Manchester United his two penalties had put West Ham 2–0 up only for Wayne Rooney to score a hat-trick which, with another goal by Javier Hernández, won the game 4–2 for Manchester United.

2011–12 season.

During the 2011–12 season with West Ham now back in the Championship, Noble scored eight goals, seven of which were penalties, his only goal from open play coming in a 4–0 away win against Barnsley. Having twice previously been runner-up, Noble was named Hammer of the Year for the 2011–12 season. In May 2012 Noble played in the 2012 Football League Championship play-off Final at Wembley Stadium against Blackpool which West Ham won 2–1 to return to the Premier League after a one-year absence. By the end of the season, he had played 49 games in all competitions, missing just one of their Championship games.

2012–13 season.

In September 2012, Noble signed a new three-year contract with an option for a further two years. In February 2013, he was out injured after having been diagnosed with a compression of the thoracic outlet. He did not return until 17 April 2013 in a 2–2 home draw against Manchester United. The missing games saw Noble's tally for the season at 31 games in all competitions with four goals scored. Three goals were penalties with his one-goal from open play coming in a 4–1 home win against Southampton on 20 October 2012.

2013–14 season.

Noble scored three goals in the 2013–14 season, the only one from open play being the second goal in a 2–0 away win over Cardiff City in January, despite the team being down to ten men after a James Tomkins sending off. On 6 May 2014, Noble received his second Hammer of the Year, beating runner up Adrián and third-placed James Tomkins. On the same awards night, Noble also won the Players' Player of the Year accolade.

2014–15 season.

Noble missed a penalty in a 0–1 home defeat by Tottenham on 16 August 2014, the opening game of the season, but scored his first goal of the season in the next home game, on 30 August, a 1–3 home defeat by Southampton. On 29 November 2014, Noble became West Ham's record appearance maker in the Premier League with his appearance against Newcastle United being his 205th Premier League game, overtaking Steve Potts. Noble signed a contract extension which would keep him at West Ham until 2020, with an option for a further year, on 26 February 2015.

2015–16 season and testimonial.

Noble's first goal of the season came from the penalty spot in a 3–4 home defeat by Premier League newcomers, AFC Bournemouth on 22 August 2015. The following week, he scored the second goal in a 3–0 away win against Liverpool; this was West Ham's first win at Anfield since 1963. Noble made his 350th senior appearance for West Ham on 6 February 2016, in a 1–0 defeat away at Southampton. The following week, he scored his third goal of the season, netting West Ham's equalizer in the 77th minute of their 2–2 draw away at Norwich City. On 22 December 2015, it had been announced that Noble was to be granted a testimonial by West Ham following his long service to the club. The game was played on 28 March 2016 between a West Ham XI and a West Ham United all-stars team made up of former players, with all proceeds going to charity. The game was won 6–5 by the West Ham XI in front of 36,000 spectators and featured a goal by Paolo Di Canio and two by Dean Ashton, including a bicycle kick described as "stunning".  On 10 May 2016, Noble became the final man to lead a West Ham United team out at Upton Park, as the Hammers went on to win their final game at their former home 3–2 against Manchester United.

2016–17 season.

In March 2017 sections of West Ham supporters called for him to be dropped from the team. Noble described the season as "the most difficult of his career". On 8 April 2017, having played against Swansea City, Noble marked his 400th appearance for West Ham becoming the 19th player to pass this number. He played 35 games in all competitions for West Ham in the 2016–17 season scoring five goals, two in the Europa League and three in the Premier League. His season finished early with two games remaining for West Ham as he required an abdominal operation.

2017–18 season.

Noble marked his 300th Premier League appearance with a goal from the penalty spot against Stoke City on 16 December 2017. In March 2018, there were protests against David Sullivan and the West Ham United board at the London Stadium during a 3–0 home defeat to Burnley. There were four pitch invasions with one fan approaching Noble on the pitch. In scenes described as "horrific", Noble grappled with the supporter, throwing him to the ground. On 5 May 2018, he scored the second goal in a 2–0 away win at Leicester City, a result which ensured West Ham's survival in the Premier League. Noble described the goal, a volley from the edge of the penalty area, as "the best of his career".

2018–19 season.

Noble scored his first goal of the season on 9 February 2019, a penalty past Vicente Guaita of Crystal Palace after he had fouled Michail Antonio in the area. The game finished 1–1.

2019–20 season.

Noble missed the first two games of the season due to injury, but started in the third game of the season, against Watford, scoring a third-minute penalty in a 3–1 win, the Hammers' first win of the season. This was his 25th successful Premier League penalty, with only Shearer (56), Lampard (43) and Gerrard (32) scoring more.

International career.

Noble captained the England U18 team. He was a member of the England U19 team that beat Serbia and Montenegro U19s 3–1 in the 2005 European Championship semi-finals, although they subsequently lost the final to France.  Noble made his debut for the England U21 team on 11 June 2007, coming on as substitute in the 82nd minute for Tom Huddlestone in England's 0–0 draw with the Czech Republic during the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, held in the Netherlands. He established himself in the starting XI for the remaining matches and scored twice in a dramatic semi-final penalty shootout against the Netherlands where England lost 13–12. On 11 September 2007, Noble scored his first international goal for the under-21 team against Bulgaria in a 2–0 victory, followed by two more against the Republic of Ireland on 16 October.  Noble captained the U21s at the 2009 European Championships as regular captain Steven Taylor had to withdraw due to injury. The Young Lions ended the tournament as runners-up, losing 4–0 to Germany, with Noble playing his last match for the U21s.  Noble is also eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland national side through his Cork-born grandparents. In August 2014, despite stating on numerous occasions about his ambition of playing for England at senior level, it was reported by the "Irish Independent" that he could be willing to make himself available for the Irish national team.  Although in February 2017 he rejected a call up to the Republic of Ireland national side in which he said "There are young Irish kids playing well that deserve and would appreciate an Irish cap more than I would. I played through all the age groups as a youth international (with England), went to tournaments and sang the national anthem. But obviously I’ve never got a senior cap.  So for me to turn up to play for Ireland without it having been a dream of mine, and there’s an Irish kid out there who might miss out when it’s their dream to play for Ireland. I couldn’t do that"

Personal life.

In May 2016, Noble was granted freedom of the Borough of Newham for his services to the borough.  Noble has been married to childhood sweetheart Carly since 2012. The couple have a son and a daughter.  In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Noble donated £35,000 to help vulnerable people in Essex.

Honours.

West Ham United  Individual

Mark James Noble (born 8 May 1987) is an English footballer who plays as a central midfielder and is captain of West Ham United. His loyalty and services to the club have earned him the nickname "Mr. West Ham". He has played almost all of his youth and first team football for the club apart from two short loan spells at Hull City and Ipswich Town in 2006.

Mark James Noble (* 8. Mai 1987 in Newham, London) ist ein englischer Fußballspieler. Der Mittelfeldspieler steht aktuell bei West Ham United in der Premier League unter Vertrag.


History.

The Ledenhof, located close to the Baroque Schloss Osnabrück (Osnabrück Castle) and the late Gothic Katharinenkirche (St. Catherine’s Church), was first mentioned in records in 1499. The wine merchant Johann Leden had established himself on the fringes of the Osnabrück Altstadt (old town) during the mid-14th century, where he had built a half-timbered residential house and a wine store. The third Heinrich von Leden, who in 1499 had been given extensive privileges by then-German King and later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, built a great hall on the rests of this house.  The Ledenhof remained an enclosed area through to the late 18th century; the “Du Plat’sche Karte” map from 1787 displays it as a rectangular courtyard with a gatehouse. It is likely that the Ledenhof was once the location of a mint. The building complex was referred to as the “Alte Münze” up to the early 20th century; it was only after 1930, when Rudolf vom Bruch published “Die Rittersitze im Fürstentum Osnabrück” (Manor Houses of the Principality of Osnabrück”), when the name “Ledenhof” came back into fashion. During the 19th century the ownership of the Ledenhof changed multiple times. Parts of the premises belonged to manufacturer Heinrich Wilhelm Storck, others remained the property of the counts of Münster until 1781. In the late 19th century, Friedrich August Koch and Ernst Conrad Kromschröder used the Ledenhof for business purposes.  Since 1930 the Ledenhof has belonged to Osnabrück City Council. Throughout World War II and its aftermath, the remaining buildings of the Ledenhof were under serious threat of collapsing. Between 1964 and 1976 the stone structure and great hall underwent extensive renovation. In 1980 Osnabrück City Council received the Europa Nostra Award for its exemplary restoration of the Ledenhof. Before it became the head office of the Deutsche Stiftung Friedensforschung in 2002, the Musikbibliothek (music library) was located here.

Sections.

Stone structure.

The most prominent of the Ledenhof’s buildings is the Steinwerk made from quarried stone and featuring a saddle roof. It is one of Osnabrück’s most distinctive medieval buildings. The Steinwerk dates from the 14th century and has exterior dimensions of 9.15 by 9.13 m. Unlike other Steinwerk buildings it did not function as a castle tower as the construction style seems to suggest, rather as a warehouse. The entrance to the cellar – vaulted unlike usual castle towers – is situated at ground level and was therefore easier to access than the castle tower with its higher lying entrance, which was easier to defend. Originally the Steinwerk did not have a chimney. In the 15th century the Steinwerk became a keep with seven floors and hatchways on the south side. The third Heinrich von Leden, who had the great hall built, created an entry point between the two buildings and also had a lavatory added.

Great hall.

The great hall with two pediments was built in the 15th century by Heinrich von Leden – the third consecutive bearer of this name – as a prestigious residence. The ground floor consists of a four-metre high hallway whose other dimensions are 9.64 by 8.18 m; this used to serve as a combined kitchen and living room and had a parlour situated at the back measuring 3.84 by 8.18 m, which can be accessed by two doors next to the fireplace. The parlour was presumably the bedroom of Heinrich von Leden and his wife Margarete von Bar. A flight of stairs – replaced in the late 16th century with a polygonal spiral staircase tower made from oak – led to the upper floor, which includes a ballroom. This features much valuable ornamentation upon its beamed ceiling and used to be attached to a gallery room on its east side. This was removed when the stair tower was added. There was also an entrance to the Steinwerk building on this floor. The great hall was furnished with decorative paintings from diamond-shaped bands on plaster in white and gold; these were restored during the renovation works.

Other information.

During the time the building complex was referred to as the “Alte Münze”, the name “Ledenhof” was used to denote the area on which the Marienstätte monastery had once stood. The name “Ledenhof” is also used to refer to an underground garage right next to the Ledenhof itself. There is a street around the area of the Ledenhof which today bears the name “Alte Münze”.

The Ledenhof (formerly known also as the "Alte Münze") is a historic building in the city of Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, Germany. During the medieval period it was the city residence of the noble von Leden family. Having initially been an extensive courtly building complex, today only the seven-storey Steinwerk (stone structure) building and the great hall with stair tower remain. Since 2002 the Ledenhof has been the main office of the Deutsche Stiftung Friedensforschung (German Foundation for Peace Research).

Der Ledenhof (früher auch "Alte Münze") ist ein historisches Gebäude in der Stadt Osnabrück in Niedersachsen. Er war im Mittelalter der Stadtsitz des Patrizier- und Adelsgeschlechts von Leden. Von der einst umfangreichen Hoflage sind das siebengeschossige Steinwerk und ein Palas mit Treppenturm erhalten. Der Ledenhof ist seit 2002 Sitz der Deutschen Stiftung Friedensforschung.


History.

SSIH.

SSIH (Société Suisse pour l'Industrie Horlogère), originated in 1930 with the merger of the Omega and Tissot companies. Swiss watch quality was high, but new technology, such as the Hamilton Electric watch introduced in 1957 and the Bulova Accutron tuning fork watch in 1961, presaged increasing technological competition.  In the late 1970s, SSIH became insolvent due in part to a recession and in part to heavy competition from inexpensive Asian-made quartz crystal watches. These difficulties occurred even though it had become Switzerland's largest, and the world's third largest, producer of watches. Its creditor banks assumed control in 1981.

ASUAG.

ASUAG (Société Générale de l'Horlogerie Suisse SA), formed in 1931, was the world's largest producer of watch movements and the parts thereof (balance wheels, balance springs (spiral), assortments, watch stones ("rubis"). ASUAG had also integrated an array of watch brands in 1972 into a sub-holding company, General Watch Co. ASUAG failed similarly in 1982.

The Swatch Group.

The Swatch Group was formed in 1983 as ASUAG/SSIH from the two financially-troubled predecessor companies, ASUAG and SSIH. Taken private in 1985 by then-CEO Nicolas Hayek, with the understanding of the Swiss banks and the financial assistance of a group of Swiss private investors (in particular Stephan Schmidheiny and Esther Grether), it was renamed SMH (Société de Microélectronique et d'Horlogerie) in 1986, and ultimately Swatch Group Ltd in 1998.  The launch of the new "Swatch" brand of watch in 1983, by the then ETA SA CEO Ernst Thomke and his young team of engineers, was marked by bold new styling and design. The quartz watch was redesigned for manufacturing efficiency and fewer parts. This combination of marketing and manufacturing expertise restored Switzerland as a major player in the world wristwatch market.

Brands.

Over the years, the Swatch Group has acquired several watchmaker companies, such as Blancpain S. A. (founded 1735, bought by Swatch in 1992), Breguet S. A. (founded 1775, bought in 1999), and Glashütte Original (Germany, bought in 2000). All three brands are prominent members of its range of products today.  The most recent acquisition was HW Holding Inc., owner of Harry Winston, Inc. in New York, USA, a jewellery and luxury watch company. The transaction closed on 26 March 2013 for 711 million Swiss Francs. Nayla Hayek became CEO. The company bought the world's biggest flawless blue diamond, The Winston Blue, on 15 May 2014.  The following list includes the brands owned by the Swatch Group.

Watch manufacturing.

ETA movement.

Swatch subsidiary ETA SA, which is based in Grenchen, Switzerland, furnishes many OEM brands, such as LVMH (which markets TAG Heuer, Hublot and Zenith watch lines) and Richemont (which markets amongst others, Baume & Mercier, IWC, Jaeger-LeCoultre, Montblanc, Officine Panerai, Piaget SA and Vacheron Constantin).

Electronic systems.

The Swatch Group Electronic System includes:

Swatch Internet Time.

In 1998, Swatch invented "Swatch Internet Time", intended as a global time system, which divides the day into 1000 "beats" in a single worldwide time zone.  In October 2004, Swatch introduced its first smart watch, the Paparazzi, based on Microsoft Corporation's SPOT (Smart Personal Objects Technology.)

Watchmaking school.

The Swatch Group started offering their first class in the "Nicolas G. Hayek Watchmaking School" for aspiring watchmakers in September 2005, and this school is located in Miami, Florida, USA. Other watchmaker schools situated in Glashütte, Germany; Okmulgee, USA; Pforzheim, Germany; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Shanghai, China.

Sponsorship.

Sport and event timing.

Swiss Timing, under brands such as Omega, Longines, and Tissot, provide timing services for sporting events such as Formula One, Olympic Games, Tour de France, and Equestrian events. In 2018, it was announced that The Swatch Group will be holding its own watch fair in Zurich, during Baselworld 2019.

Ventures.

In 1994, Swatch entered into a joint venture with Germany's Daimler AG to produce the "Smart" car, but they later withdrew from this project.  Swatch subsidiary "Belenos Clean Power AG" entered into a joint venture with the Paul Scherrer Institut in May 2008 to develop a hydrogen fuel cell for a fuel cell powered car. Swatch began test drives of the car in Switzerland in 2012. However, the Swatch Group decided to abandon the project for a fuel cell powered car in June 2015 and concentrate instead on a new type of battery with high storage capacity.

The Swatch Group Ltd is a Swiss manufacturer of watches and jewellery. The company was founded in 1983 by Nicolas Hayek from the merger of Allgemeine Gesellschaft der Schweizerischen Uhrenindustrie (ASUAG) and Société Suisse pour l'Industrie Horlogère (SSIH), in order to cope with the quartz crisis and save the Swiss watchmaking industry.

The Swatch Group SA ist ein weltweit tätiges Unternehmen, das auf die Herstellung und den Verkauf von Fertiguhren und Schmuck sowie von Uhrwerken und -komponenten spezialisiert ist. Darüber hinaus ist die Swatch Group auch in der Herstellung und im Verkauf von elektronischen Systemen und Komponenten sowohl für die Uhrenindustrie wie auch für weitere Branchen tätig. Das Unternehmen hat seinen rechtlichen Sitz in Neuenburg, die Verwaltung befindet sich in Biel/Bienne.


Early life and education.

The youngest of four children, Andrew Phillip Cunanan was born August 31, 1969, in National City, California, to Modesto "Pete" Cunanan, a Filipino American, and Mary Anne Schillaci, an Italian American. Modesto was serving in the United States Navy in the Vietnam War at the time of his son's birth. After leaving the Navy, where he had served as a chief petty officer, Modesto worked as a stockbroker.  In his youth, Cunanan lived with his family in National City and attended Bonita Vista Middle School. In 1981, his father enrolled him in The Bishop's School, an independent day school located in the affluent La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego. There Cunanan met his lifelong best friend Elizabeth Cote. At school, he was remembered as being bright and very talkative, and testing with an IQ of 147.  As a teenager, Cunanan developed a reputation as a prolific liar, given to telling fantastic tales about his family and personal life. He was adept at changing his appearance according to what he felt was most attractive at a given moment. Cunanan identified as gay in high school, when he began having liaisons with wealthy older men. He was voted "least likely to be forgotten." After graduating from high school in 1987, Cunanan enrolled at the University of California, San Diego (UC San Diego), where he majored in American history.  In 1988, when Cunanan was 19, his father deserted his family and moved to the Philippines to evade arrest for embezzlement. That same year, Cunanan had begun frequenting local gay clubs and restaurants, and his mother, who was deeply religious, learned about his sexual orientation. During an argument, Cunanan threw his mother against a wall, dislocating her shoulder. Later examination of his behavior indicates that he may have suffered from antisocial personality disorder, characterized by a lack of remorse and empathy. In 1989, Cunanan dropped out of UC San Diego and settled in the Castro District of San Francisco, a center of LGBTQ culture, moving in with Cote and her boyfriend, Phil Merrill.

Adult life.

In San Francisco, Cunanan continued his practice of befriending wealthy older men, and also reportedly began creating violent pornography. He also socialized in the Hillcrest and La Jolla neighborhoods of San Diego, as well as in Scottsdale, Arizona, "apparently living off the largesse of one wealthy patron or another." Cunanan is also believed to have been dealing drugs, including prescription opioids, cocaine, and marijuana. He used several aliases: Andrew DeSilva, Lt. Cmdr. Andy Cummings, Drew Cunningham, and Curt Matthew Demaris.  Cunanan first met fashion designer Gianni Versace in San Francisco in October 1990, when Versace was in town to be feted for the costumes he had designed for the San Francisco Opera production of Richard Strauss's opera "Capriccio". Versace's family has always denied that the two men ever met. In December 1995, Cunanan met David Madson, a Minneapolis architect, in a San Francisco bar. They began a long-distance relationship shortly after, but Madson ended the relationship in the spring of 1996, telling friends he sensed something "shady" about Cunanan. Cunanan told friends that Madson was the "love of my life."  In September 1996, Cunanan broke up with John Blatchford, a wealthy older man who had been hosting and financially supporting him. He soon maxed out his credit cards. Cunanan's close friend Jeffrey "Jeff" Trail, a former Navy officer working as a district manager for a propane delivery company in Minneapolis, had told his former roommate Michael Williams that Cunanan had resumed selling drugs. Cunanan also was known to regularly consume these drugs, especially methamphetamine.  By April 1997, friends reported Cunanan was abusing painkillers and was drinking alcohol "like there was no tomorrow." Later that month, Cunanan told friends he was leaving San Diego for Minneapolis to "take care of some business matters" with Trail, who had recently distanced himself from Cunanan. Trail expected Cunanan to move to San Francisco upon leaving Minneapolis. Before Cunanan's visit, Trail told his sister that he "did not want Andrew to come." A week before his death, Trail told Williams that he had had a "huge falling out" with Cunanan and, "I made a lot of enemies this weekend... I've got to get out of here. They're going to kill me."  On April 24, Cunanan and four friends attended a going-away party at Hillcrest's California Cuisine, a rare occasion when Cunanan did not cover the tab. He had reached the credit limit on both his credit cards, and had to ask for a credit extension to afford his plane ticket to Minneapolis. Upon arriving in Minneapolis the next day, Cunanan stayed with Madson, a mutual friend of his and Trail's, in Madson's loft apartment. That night, Cunanan and Madson dined at Nye's Restaurant and visited The Gay 90's nightclub. On April 26, Cunanan stayed in Trail's apartment while he was out of town with his boyfriend, Jon Hackett. The following afternoon, Trail told Hackett that he needed to have a "pretty important" conversation with Cunanan. When Trail and Hackett later arrived at Trail's apartment, there was no sign of Cunanan or his belongings. Trail left his apartment to see Cunanan shortly after 9pm and was likely let into Madson's apartment at 9:45pm.

Murders.

Jeffrey Trail.

Cunanan's killings began in Minneapolis on April 27, 1997, with the murder of his close friend, 28-year-old Jeffrey Trail. After an argument in Madson's apartment, Cunanan beat Trail to death with a hammer. On April 29, two of Madson's coworkers, concerned about his absence from work, visited his apartment to check on him. They discovered Trail's body rolled in a rug and placed behind a sofa. Trail's watch had stopped at 9:55pm, believed by authorities to be the time of the killing.

David Madson.

33-year-old Madson was Cunanan's second murder victim. Authorities believe Madson remained in his apartment with Cunanan two days after Trail's murder, as one neighbor witnessed both men in the apartment elevator on April 28, and another neighbor witnessed the pair walking Madson's Dalmatian on April 29. Investigators initially treated Madson as a suspect in Trail's murder, but Madson's family insisted he was held hostage by Cunanan. On May 2, Madson and Cunanan were seen north of Minneapolis, driving in Madson's Jeep and eating lunch together in a bar. The following morning, Madson's body was found on the east shore of Rush Lake near Rush City, Minnesota with gunshot wounds to the head and back from a.40-caliber Taurus PT100 semi-automatic pistol Cunanan had taken from Trail's home.

Lee Miglin.

On May 4, Cunanan drove to Chicago, Illinois and killed 72-year-old Lee Miglin, a prominent real estate developer. He bound Miglin's hands and feet and wrapped his head with duct tape. Cunanan stabbed Miglin more than twenty times with a screwdriver, slit his throat with a hacksaw, and stole his car. Miglin's family maintain that the killing was random, but former FBI agent Gregg McCrary argues it's unlikely that Cunanan would have bound and tortured Miglin without some motive.  Investigators noted Miglin's 1994 green Lexus LS sedan missing from his garage, and found Madson's red Jeep parked on the street near Miglin's house. Miglin's Lexus was equipped with a car phone, which, according to Ameritech Cellular records, was activated on May 4 in Union County, Pennsylvania. Authorities began monitoring this phone's activity, and found it was also activated on May 8 in Philadelphia, and again on May 9 near Penns Grove and Carney's Point, New Jersey.

William Reese.

On May 9, in Pennsville Township, New Jersey, at Finn's Point National Cemetery, Cunanan shot and killed 45-year-old caretaker William Reese. Later that day, when Reese didn't return home for dinner, his wife visited the cemetery to check on him, and found the caretaker's office door ajar with the radio playing inside. She then called the police, who found Reese shot in the head by the same Taurus pistol Cunanan used to murder Madson. Unlike Cunanan's other victims, whom he killed for seemingly personal reasons, authorities believe Cunanan murdered Reese simply for his 1995 red Chevrolet pickup truck. Cunanan used this truck to drive to Florida.  On May 12, Cunanan began staying at the Normandy Plaza Hotel in Miami Beach, Florida, where he paid $29 per night in cash. On June 12, he was listed on the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. While the manhunt unsuccessfully focused on Reese's stolen truck that Cunanan was using, the killer "hid in plain sight" for two months. Cunanan used his own name to pawn a stolen item on July 7, despite knowing that police routinely review pawn shop records. On July 14, seemingly out of money, Cunanan checked out of his hotel without paying for his last night there.

Gianni Versace.

On July 15 at around 8:45am, Cunanan murdered 50-year-old Gianni Versace on the front stairway of his mansion in Miami Beach, Casa Casuarina. Versace was returning from a visit to the News Cafe, where he picked up coffee and magazines, when he was shot twice in the back of the head with the same Taurus pistol Cunanan used to murder Madson and Reese. A witness pursued Cunanan but was unable to catch him as he fled into an nearby parking garage. Versace was pronounced dead at Jackson Memorial Hospital at 9:21 a.m.  Responding police found Reese's stolen vehicle in a nearby parking garage. It contained Cunanan's clothes and clippings of newspaper reports of Cunanan's murders.

Death.

On July 23, 1997, Cunanan's body was found in a luxury houseboat in Miami Beach, after a caretaker reported hearing a gunshot to police. He had shot himself in the head with the Taurus pistol stolen from Trail; it was the same weapon he used to kill Madson, Reese, and Versace.  Cunanan's cremated remains are interred in the mausoleum at Holy Cross Cemetery in San Diego.

Motive.

Cunanan's motivation remains unknown; at the time of the murders there was extensive public and press speculation linking the crimes to Cunanan's alleged discovery that he was HIV positive, although an autopsy revealed he was HIV negative.  Although police searched the houseboat where Cunanan died, he left no suicide note and few personal belongings. Investigators noted Cunanan's reputation for acquiring money and expensive possessions from wealthy older men. Police considered few of the findings to be of note, except multiple tubes of hydrocortisone cream and a fairly extensive collection of fiction by C. S. Lewis.

In popular culture.

Cunanan was portrayed by Shane Perdue in the film "The Versace Murder" (1998), Jonathan Trent in the film "Murder in Fashion" (2009), Luke Morrison in the television film "House of Versace" (2013), and Darren Criss in (2018), the second season of the television series "American Crime Story".  Cunanan has also been the subject of several true crime television series' episodes: "Mugshots" on Court TV, with "Andrew Cunanan – The Versace Killer", and "Six Degrees Of Murder", with "The Body in the Rug". He has also been featured on ABC's news television series "20/20".

Andrew Phillip Cunanan (August 31, 1969 – July 23, 1997) was an American serial killer known to have murdered five people during a three-month period in mid-1997. His victims included Italian fashion designer Gianni Versace and Chicago real estate developer Lee Miglin. Cunanan died of suicide by gunshot on July 23.

Andrew Phillip Cunanan (* 31. August 1969 in National City, Kalifornien; † 23. Juli 1997 in Miami Beach, Florida) war ein Serienmörder aus den Vereinigten Staaten, der zeitweise auf der Liste der zehn meistgesuchten Flüchtigen des FBI geführt wurde. Seine Mordserie kostete fünf Menschen das Leben. Hauptsächlich bekannt wurde er nach seinem Mord an Modedesigner Gianni Versace.


Biography.

He was born in Paraná, Entre Ríos Province, Argentina on 31 March 1856 and baptised on 3 April 1856 as José Mariano Benjamín Zubiaur Pujato at the Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. His parents were Mariano Zubiaur and Dolores Pujato. Zubiaur completed his secondary education at the Concepción del Uruguay College. In 1877 he was promoter and first president of the Educationist Association "The Fraternity", composed by students of the college.  In 1879, when he was 23 years old, one year after receipt of bachelor, he founded the "Benjamin Franklin" School in order to implement their innovative ideas in education.  He obtained the title of attorney at the Buenos Aires University. In 1886, he founded with other educators and students the magazine "La Educación".  In 1889 the Argentine government appointed him, along with Alejo Peyret, to represent his country at the Paris Exposition. He participated in the International Congress for the Propagation of Physical Exercise in Education, which organizer was the Baron Pierre de Coubertin, future inspirer of the modern Olympic Games. There, Zubiaur met Baron de Coubertin, who appointed him to integrate in 1894 the first International Olympic Committee, the unique representative of a Spanish-American country, a position in which he served until 1907.  Baron Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the modern Olympic Games mentioned him in his "Olympic Memories": In 1892 he was appointed rector of the Concepción del Uruguay College, serving in that role until 1899. During his chancellorship, enabled the registration of women and created practical activities matters, such as cardboard, bookbinding and photography, which were a novelty in education in Argentina. In 1894 he obtained a doctorate degree in Law with a thesis entitled "The protection of children."  He also prompted the establishment of rural schools in the then territory of La Pampa and the Misiones Province. In 1913 he was the first vice president of the National League of Education.

José Benjamín Zubiaur (1856–1921) was an Argentine educator. Promoter of sport, physical education, and the modern Olympic movement. He was one of the thirteen original members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). He was the rector of the Concepción del Uruguay College and Director at the Escuelas de la provincia de Corrientes. After 1915 he was Director of Education, Ministry of Education. He was characterized by their innovative teaching ideas to expand education to all social sectors, including content such as physical education, industrial education, practical activities, etc. as well as methods like night school, rural schools, education both sexes combined, and so on.

José Mariano Benjamin Zubiaur (* 31. März 1856, Paraná, Entre Ríos, Argentinien; † 6. September 1921, Buenos Aires) war ein argentinischer Pädagoge und wird als Erneuerer des argentinischen Schulsystems bezeichnet. Sein internationaler Bekanntheitsgrad ist verbunden mit seinem Amt als Gründungsmitglied des Internationalen Olympischen Komitees.


The Termination of Honda joint venture and the renaming.

The termination of Honda Joint venture  By December 2010, the board of directors of the Hero Honda Group had decided to terminate the joint venture between Hero Group of India and Honda of Japan in a phased manner. The Hero Group would buy out the 26% stake of the Honda in JV Hero Honda. Under the joint venture Hero Group could not export to international markets (except Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) and the termination would mean that Hero Group could now export. From the beginning, the Hero Group relied on their Japanese partner Honda for the technology in their bikes.  The Japanese auto maker exited the joint venture through a series of offmarket transactions by giving the Munjal family—which held a 26% stake in the company—an additional 26%. Honda, wanting to focus only on its independent fully owned two-wheeler subsidiary—Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India (HMSI)—, exited Hero Honda at a discount and get over for its stake. The discount was between 30% and 50% to the current value of Honda's stake as per the price of the stock after the market closed on 16 December 2010.  The rising differences between the two partners gradually emerged as an irritant. Differences had been brewing for a few years before the split over a variety of issues, ranging from Honda's reluctance to fully and freely share technology with Hero (despite a 10-year technology tie-up that expired in 2014) as well as Indian partner's uneasiness over high royalty payouts to the Japanese company. Another major irritant for Honda was the refusal of Hero Honda (mainly managed by the Munjal family) to merge the company's spare parts business with Honda's new fully owned subsidiary, HMSI.  As per the arrangement, it was a two-leg deal. In the first part, the Munjal family, led by Brijmohan Lal Munjal group, formed an overseas-incorporated special purpose vehicle (SPV) to buy out Honda's entire stake, which was backed by bridge loans. This SPV was eventually thrown open for private equity participation, and those in the fray included Warburg Pincus, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR), TPG, Bain Capital, and Carlyle Group.  Formation of the new company  The name of the company was changed from Hero Honda Motors Limited to Hero MotoCorp Limited on 29 July 2011. The new brand identity and logo of Hero MotoCorp were developed by the British firm Wolff Olins. The logo was revealed on 9 August 2011 in London, to coincide with the third test match between England and India.  Hero MotoCorp can now export to Latin America, Africa and West Asia. Hero is free to use any vendor for its components instead of just Honda-approved vendors.  On 21 April 2014, Hero MotoCorp announced their plan on a joint venture with Bangladesh's Nitol-Niloy Group in the next five years to set up manufacturing plant in Bangladesh. The plant started production in 2017 under the name "HMCL Niloy Bangladesh Limited". Hero MotoCorp owns the 55% of the manufacturing company and rest 45% is owned by Niloy Motors (A subsidiary of Nitol-Niloy Group). Hero also updated its 100cc engine range in 2014 for 110cc bikes except Hero Dawn.

Equity Investments.

In July 2013, HMC acquired 49.2% shareholding in Erik Buell Racing, a motorcycle sport company which produced street and racing motorcycles based in East Troy, Wisconsin, United States. EBR filed for bankruptcy in 2015 and Hero Motocorp proceed to acquire certain assets for.  HMC invested US$30.5 million (2.05 billion) as Series B round of funding in October 2016 and gained a 32.31% stake in Ather Energy, a startup company manufacturing electric scooters. It invested a further US$19 million (1.3 billion) in 2018.

Operations.

Hero MotoCorp has five manufacturing facilities based at Dharuhera, Gurgaon, Neemrana, Haridwar and Halol under Green Field stage. These plants together have a production capacity of over 7.6 million 2-wheelers per year. Hero MotoCorp has a sales and service network with over 6,000 dealerships and service points across India. It has a customer loyalty program since 2000, called the Hero Honda Passport Program which is now known as Hero GoodLife Program.  It is reported that Hero MotoCorp has five joint ventures or associate companies, Munjal Showa, AG Industries, Sunbeam Auto, Rockman Industries and Satyam Auto Components, that supply a majority of its components.  The company has a stated aim of achieving revenues of and volumes of 1 million two-wheelers by 2016–17. This in conjunction with new countries where they can now market their two-wheelers following the disengagement from Honda. Hero MotoCorp hopes to achieve 10 per cent of their revenues from international markets, and they expected to launch sales in Nigeria by end-2011 or early-2012. Hero motocorp launched XPulse 200 adventure motorcycle in India on May 1, 2019 along with the XPulse 200T touring motorcycle.

Company performance.

The company has sold over 70 million 2-wheelers since its inception in 1984 till March 2013. It sold 6.07 million 2-wheelers in 2012, out of which 5.5 million were motorcycles. Hero Motocorp sells more two wheelers than the second, third and fourth placed two-wheeler companies put together. Its most popular bike Hero Honda Splendor sells more than one million units per year.  In 2013, Hero MotoCorp registered best ever calendar year performance of more than 6.1 million unit sales. By selling 625,000 units in the month of October, it became the first-ever manufacturer to cross landmark 600,000 unit sales in a month. In the last quarter of the year (in the festive season), the company sold more than 1.6 million units, while in non festive time in April–May 2013, it managed to sell 1.1 million units.

Listings and shareholding.

The equity shares of Hero Motocorp are listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index, and the National Stock Exchange of India, where it is a constituent of the S&P CNX Nifty.  As on 31 December 2013, the promoters Munjal Family held around 40% equity shares in Hero Motocorp. Over 61,000 individual shareholders hold approx. 7.44% of its shares. Foreign Institutional Investors hold approx. 30% shares in the company.

Employees.

As on 31 March 2014, the company had 6,782 employees, out of which 66 were women (1.1%). It also had approx. 13,800 temporary employees on that date. The company had an attrition rate of 5.1% in the FY 2012–13. The company spent on employee benefits during the FY 2012–13.

Initiatives.

The company started Raman Kant Munjal Foundation (RKMF), in 1992 when it was known as Hero Honda Motors Ltd., that looks after:  During the financial year, the company spent ₹1.4 crore on corporate social responsibility.

Sponsorship.

Currently a Sponsor of the Caribbean Premier League Twenty-20 Cricket Franchise 2018, Hero also sponsors both of India's top-tier men's football leagues, the I-League and the Indian Super League, men's second-tier league I-League 2nd division, women's top-tier league Indian Women's League and also the domestic football tournament Super Cup. They are also the principal sponsors of Indian football team's training kit and the developmental team Indian Arrows. Since 2014, Hero has sponsored the Hero World Challenge golf tournament.

Hero Motocorp Ltd., formerly Hero Honda, is an Indian motorcycle and scooter manufacturer based in New Delhi, India. The company is the largest two-wheeler manufacturer in the world, and also in India, where it has a market share of about 46% in the two-wheeler category. The 2006 Forbes list of the 200 World's Most Respected Companies has Hero Honda Motors ranked at #108. On 31 March 2013, the market capitalisation of the company was.

Hero MotoCorp Ltd. (vormals Hero Honda Motors Ltd.) ist ein großes indisches Unternehmen mit Firmensitz in Neu-Delhi, das Motorräder herstellt. Im Geschäftsjahr 2013/14 wurden 6.075.583 Motorräder verkauft, womit das Unternehmen nach Stückzahlen einer der größten Motorradhersteller Indiens ist.


Life.

Otto Hermann Richard Oehring was born in Düsseldorf. His father was a senior official with the post office. While he was growing up he attended schools successively in Düsseldorf, Hamburg and Berlin. He successfully completed his schooling in 1909 in Berlin. By this time he was a member of the circle of youthful left wing intellectuals surrounding the poet Henriette Hardenberg and her brother Hans. A period of study in Munich followed and Richard Oehring, along with his brother Fritz joined the informal so-called "Tat" (""Deed[s]"") group of left-leaning politically aware liberal writers and artists: fellow members included Oskar Maria Graf, Franz Jung and Georg Schrimpf. Following his return to Berlin, Richard Oehring took to contributing as a business and economics journalist to the "Buchwald Börsenberichte" newspaper. From 1912 he was providing pieces for "Die Aktion", a newly launched magazine with its focus on literature and left-wing politics in which he also published some of his poetic and lyrical creations. One of these was his essay "Der Käfig" which appeared in 1913/1914. During 1913/1914 he actively promoted "Die Aktion Authors' Evenings" at the magazine, together with the likes of Gottfried Benn, Paul Boldt, Alfred Lichtenstein and Franz Pfemfert.  His brother Fritz was an early victim of the war which broke out in July 1914. Richard Oehring took part in the war, being stationed in Brussels where he undertook medical work. Falling ill, he returned home to Berlin, but was re-assessed and declared fit for military service. He was reconscripted and deserted, eventually achieving his dismissal by refusing to accept either food or wages. In March 1915 he married Cläre Otto, later described by as "the soul and muse of their little [Berlin based artists' and writers'] circle". Starting in 1915 they produced "" "(The Free Street)", an Anarchist-Dadaist journal appearing at irregular intervals and of which, by the end of 1917, six editions had been produced. Other members of the production team were Franz Jung, Otto Gross and Georg Schrimpf. A feature of "Die freie Straße" was that the team took turns to take responsibility for production. Richard Oehring was the producer for editions 3 and 4.  Oehring's marriage to Cläre Otto ended in divorce in 1917, and by 1918 she was living with Franz Jung, although it was only in 1924 that the two of them married. The affair put an end to the friendship between Richard Oehring and Franz Jung. Following the divorce Oehring traveled to Vienna to visit Otto Gross. In Vienna he met Margarethe Kuh, a sister of Gross's friend, the writer Anton Kuh: Margarethe became Oehring's second wife. Their daughter, Aurora Miriam "Mimi" Oehring, was born in Berlin in March 1918. Richard Oehring now took work with Alfons Goldschmidt on the Berlin-based "Räte-Zeitung" (newspaper). During the period of acute austerity and turbulence on the streets that followed the end of the First World War Oehring also belonged, with his comrades Ernst Jacobi und Friedrich M. Minck, to the so-called "Co-operative Council for Economic Reconstruction" (""Rätegenossenschaft für wirtschaftlichen Aufbau"").  In 1922 Oehring moved to the Soviet Union. By May 1923 he was back in Berlin, possibly on account of his wife's health. That month he wrote in a letter to "Comrade", then in Konstanz, describing Margarethe's illness which he believed would be cured by plenty of rest and good food. In Berlin he worked as a trade representative for the Soviet Union, also participating in the film production unit of the Soviet sponsored Workers' International Relief ("IAH – Internationale Arbeiter-Hilfe / Международная рабочая помощь") organisation in Berlin. In 1931 he became a member of the "Arplan". Fellow members included Arvid Harnack, Georg Lukács, and Karl August Wittfogel. The commentator believes that Oehring probably accompanied the "Arplan" delegation that travelled to the Soviet Union in 1932, although his name is not included in the official list of delegates.  January 1933 brought régime change to Germany. Richard Oehrling and his family left the country the same year, relocating to the Netherlands where he worked for "Exportchleb", the Soviet trade organisation in the Netherlands, and at the same time undertaking work for the Soviet security services. While in the Netherlands he was in close contact with Ignace Reiss, a Soviet spy who fell foul of Moscow's shifting power structures and was shot by an NKVD assassin in Lausanne a few weeks after sending a letter to Party general secretary Stalin in which he announced his "defection", and support for Trotsky (who by this time had become a high-profile opponent of the Soviet dictator). While in the Netherlands Oehring recruited, the foreign correspondent of the "Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant (NRC)" (newspaper), to work for Soviet intelligence. It is not clear whether Oehring's resignation from "Exportchleb" in 1939 was connected with the killing of Reiss. As an Economics advisor for the NRC, he provided the Rotterdam newspaper with Economics reports from the Soviet Union that were published in its business section. Huijts later recalled that Oehring was much troubled by his failure to obtain Soviet citizenship during the count-down to the Second World War.  In May 1940 the German army invaded the Netherlands and Richard Oehrling responded by committing suicide on 14 May, the day on which the Netherlands formally surrendered. During the German occupation Margarethe Oehrling was arrested and imprisoned, but both she and their daughter survived the war. Margarethe was still alive in 1977.

Richard Oehring (16 June 1891 – 14 May 1940) was a German economist, writer and poet who became a political activist.

Richard Oehring (* 16. Juni 1891 in Düsseldorf; † 14. Mai 1940) war ein deutscher politischer Aktivist, Schriftsteller und Wirtschaftswissenschaftler.


History.

The first settlement on the territory of present Rakovica was mentioned in the Ottoman 1560 population census as a village called "Vlaha". Tradition has it that the place got its name after the crayfish (Serbian: "rak", "rakovica"), which allegedly inhabited the Rakovički potok which streamed through the village. The first mention of the monastery, already under the name of Rakovica, was from the 17th century. The village gradually turned into a suburb and then the neighborhood of Belgrade, one of the most heavily industrialized areas of Belgrade. According to the 1981 census, the neighborhood (local community, "mesna zajednica") of Rakovica had a population of 17,871, about one fifth of the municipal population. However, the local community was later split into several smaller ones, and those strictly comprising the area of the neighborhood of Rakovica had a population of 9,901 in 2002.  From June 1945 to December 1946, Rakovica was one of 5 administrative neighborhoods within Belgrade’s Raion VII. Municipality of Rakovica was created in 1952, after the previous division of Belgrade into raions, from 1945 to 1952, ended. In 1960 the municipality was annexed to the neighboring Čukarica, but split again in 1974. The Day of the Municipality is October 14, the patron day of the Shroud of the Most Holy Virgin.  During NATO bombing of FR Yugoslavia, Rakovica was the only Belgrade municipality, that has been targeted almost every night, and eventually every day. The most heavy attacks suffered the hill "Strazevica" (under which was the Yugoslavian underground base), as well as "Monastery forest", most probably because anti-aircraft was located there. Although not whole Rakovica was under direct attacks, the largest part of the municipality suffered the collateral damage.

Geography.

Rakovica is located in the valley of the Topčiderka river, where the brook of Rakovički potok flows into the river Sava, 9-10 kilometers (~6 mi) from Terazije, downtown Belgrade. The neighborhood developed between two large woods, Košutnjak on the north and "Manastirska šuma", on the south, north of the Rakovica monastery. It is bordered by the neighborhoods of Kanarevo Brdo on the north-east, Miljakovac on the east, Kneževac on the south and Vidikovac and Skojevsko Naselje on the west. As in many cases, the boundaries between the neighborhoods are not firmly set, so in some parts Rakovica overlaps with Kneževac or Miljakovac, for example. The neighborhood of Selo Rakovica (Village Rakovica) is some 6-7 kilometers (~4 mi) further to the east, belongs to the municipality of Voždovac and is generally not associated with the term Rakovica.  Rakovica covers an area of. It is located in a hilly area, with numerous hillocks out of which many got urbanized and developed into Belgrade neighborhoods: Miljakovac (193 m/633 ft), Petlovo Brdo (205 m/673 ft; the top of the hill is in the municipality of Čukarica), Kanarevo Brdo, Labudovo Brdo, Straževica, Košutnjak, Vidikovac, etc.  The municipality mostly lies in the valley of the Topčiderka river. There are numerous other streams in the area, most of which flow into the Topčiderka: Rakovički potok, Jelezovac, Zmajevac, Pariguz, Kijevski potok, etc.  Central and northern sections of the municipalities are wooded areas. Entire northern section actually covers the southern part of the large park-wood Košutnjak, while the woods of Miljakovac and Manastir ("Miljakovačka šuma" and "Manastirska šuma") are located in the central parts, on the slopes of the hills of Miljakovac and Straževica, respectively.

Demographics.

According to the 2011 census population of municipality was 108,641 inhabitants. Previously one of the urban Belgrade's municipalities with highest population growth, since the 1990s the growth slowed. However, Rakovica remains one of the most densely populated municipalities of Belgrade with.

Ethnic groups.

The ethnic composition of the municipality:

Administration.

Recent presidents of the municipal assembly:

Economy.

Rakovica is one of the most industrialized parts of Belgrade. Some of the factories in the area include: Industrija Motora Rakovica (engine factory), "Rekord" (tire factory), "21 Maj" (tractors and other agricultural vehicles factory), "Frigostroj" (coolers and air conditioners factory), "IMP" (foundry), "Tehnogas MESSER" (oxygen and acetylene factory), etc. Most of these factories suffered badly in the transition process. Another industrialized area of the municipality is the neighborhood of Kijevo with the quarry which supplies the entire Belgrade's building industry with stone and slates. The remaining industry is also mostly into construction and building (building companies and cement plants "Komgrap", "Graditelj", etc.).  Rakovica is located on important traffic routes. The valley of Rakovički potok is a route to the "Kružni put", suburban road of Belgrade and the future part of the projected Belgrade beltway, and a Belgrade-Požarevac railway, while the valley of Topčiderka is a route to the Belgrade-Niš railway. The other important roads in the municipality are "Patrijarha Dimitrija" street which goes through the middle of the urbanized area and "Ibarska magistrala" on the western edge of the municipality.  MOC, Machines educational center and the Institute for the engines are located in Rakovica.  On 19 October 2017, a large shopping mall "Kapitol park" ("Capitol Park") was open in Rakovica, on the location of the former "Rekord" tire factory. A €30 million investment, it has a total floor area of. After a delay from June 2016, the construction began in March 2017. It is the largest retail park in Belgrade..  The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Rakovica (, ) is a municipality of the city of Belgrade. According to the 2011 census results, the municipality has 108,641 inhabitants.

Rakovica () ist eine Stadtgemeinde von Belgrad. Der Name Rakovica wird erstmals 1560 in der türkischen Volkszählung als Dorf Vlaha erwähnt. Nach Überlieferungen erhielt der Ort seinen Namen nach den Krebsen (rak = Krebs), den Bewohnern des Flüsschens, das durch die Siedlung plätscherte. Bis 1952 gehörte Rakovica verschiedenen Rayons an und war von 1952 bis 1960 eine Gemeinde für sich. Seit 1960 gehörte Rakovica zum Stadtbezirk Čukarica und ab 1974 wurde es eine selbständige Stadtgemeinde.