Early life and career.

Born in Russia on August 17, 1905, Brown emigrated to the U.S. with his parents at the age of three months, though the exact date of his birth remains in some dispute. Raised in Sioux Falls, Iowa, he learned to fight while selling newspapers on street corners like many young immigrant boxers. According to Brown, he weighed only 95 pounds when he first got into boxing. He began boxing professionally around 1922, and early in his career used the name David Montrose. In one of his early fights, he acquired the name "Newsboy Brown" when a ring announcer introduced him without being certain of his name. His first eight fights ended in no decisions, but then Brown registered his first official win with a third-round knockout of John Walker in April 1924.

Professional career highlights.

NYSAC World Fly title attempt.

In August of 1925, as part of the inaugural card for the famous Olympic Auditorium, he defeated Frankie Grandetta by points in six rounds. Brown had two famous bouts against future World Flyweight Champion Corporal Izzy Schwartz. Brown beat him in 1925 but lost in a title bout to Schwartz for the NYSAC flyweight title on December 16, 1927. One newspaper summarizing the bout wrote, "Corporal Izzy Schwartz...outscored Newsboy Brown of Sioux City, Iowa throughout to win recognition in New York as the holder of the Flyweight Championship vacated recently by Fidel LaBarba." Apparently Schwartz demonstrated superior scientific boxing skills and was better trained for the bout, likely because he was five years older than Brown who had not yet reached the peak of his boxing skills at twenty-two. The "Norwalk Hour," perhaps showing some local bias, wrote of the well attended bout in Madison Square Garden, that Schwartz was "too fast, shifty, and resourceful, for the plodding Brown, and won hands down." A more objective source noted that Brown had previously defeated Schwartz, and that he "entered as a slight favorite and forced the fighting throughout", despite losing in a unanimous decision. Although it was a NYSAC World Title match, the bout was not the headliner for the night but merely a semi-final. This was probably due to the greater popularity of other weight classes and the dispute over who held the World Flyweight Title at the time. Schwartz would receive his fair share of recognition for taking the Flyweight title and holding it for two years, but Brown would never reach the same level of notoriety holding the title for only eight months and only in the state of California.

World Fly champ, 1928 (California).

In his next fight Brown won his most important and historic victory by beating Johnny McCoy on January 3, 1928 in a ten round bout for the flyweight world title as recognized in California. According to one source, "The Newsboy had lost only one fight in his last 15 in Los Angeles, and his last appearance–a defeat of Johnny Vacca–had been heralded as one of the best fights ever seen in the Olympic Auditorium." Brown won five rounds, McCoy only three, with two rounds even. Brown led in the first seven rounds, before McCoy came back in the last three, knocking Brown to the canvas in the tenth, but it was too late to take the victory. Nonetheless, the results demonstrated that the boxers were evenly matched. Considering the decision, McCoy had waited too long to take control of the bout.

Flyweight Title loss.

Brown defended the Flyweight title once by beating Filipino Speedy Dado but lost it in when Johnny Hill won a decision over him on August 29, 1928 at the Orient Football Ground in London, becoming the first Scottish boxer to hold a world title. Brown continued to show promise after losing the title, defeating Flyweight world champion Midget Wolgast in Los Angeles in a non-title fight on August 19, 1930 in a decisive ten round bout. Had Wolgast consented to fight the bout for a title, Brown's fame and recognition in the sport would have taken a positive turn. It would not be the first time a title holder would dodge a title match with Brown. New London's "The Day" wrote, "Midget Wolgast recognized flyweight champ in New York and Pennsylvania, took a severe beating at the hands of Newsboy Brown, Los Angeles veteran trial horse, in a ten round non-title bout here."  Brown defeated Filipino Pablo Dano, a future holder of the World bantam title, on May 20 1930 in a close ten round points decision unpopular with the audience at Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, but correct in the view of the "Lost Angeles Times". Both boxers skilled defense prevented many shots to the head, making blows to the midsection more common in the match. Brown had lost to Dano five months earlier in San Francisco.  Tommy Gardner, who held the Pacific Coast and Northwest Bantam titles, fell to Brown on June 13, 1930 at Hollywood's Legion Stadium in a ten round points decision. In a fast paced match, Gardner started with some well placed blows but Brown adjusted to his style, and showed superior speed over the course of the bout. Brown was scheduled to meet Frankie Genaro for a second time on September 9, 1930 at the Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles, but Genaro scheduled to fight Midget Wolgast instead, perhaps fearing that Brown could take back the National Boxing Association World Flyweight Title he held at the time or aware that a fight with champion Wolgast would be bring a bigger audience and be more lucrative. According to the "Prescott Evening Courier", "The Olympic Auditorium (where the bout was to take place) has requested the New York Commission to force Genaro to meet Brown here according to a telegraphic agreement...and the New York Athletic Commission has signified it may take similar action if Brown defeats Laredo." Whatever the reason, Brown defeated Mexican boxer Chato Laredo on September 9, 1930, in a decisive ten round match at the Olympic Auditorium but never again met Genaro, nor had a chance at the NBA Flyweight World Title. One explanation may be that Brown was beginning to move up in weight as he had originally scheduled to box Wolgast on September 9 over the flyweight limit. Brown would soon move up a weight class with considerable success.  Brown met Archie Bell in an eight round draw at Queensboro Stadium in Queens on August 18, 1931 in a fast match where much of the action occurred in the last round. Bell was a recognized contender for both the World bantam and featherweight titles in his career.

California Bantam state champion.

He took the USA California Bantamweight State Championship on November 24, 1931, defeating Filipino boxer Young Tommy in a ten round points decision in Olympic Stadium in Los Angeles. He successfully defended it again facing Young Tommy on January 30, 1932 in Los Angeles.

Win over Bantam champ Al Brown.

Though giving up ten inches in height, Newsboy Brown defeated "Panama" Al Brown, the reigning Bantamweight champion of the world on December 15, 1931 in a ten round main event at Los Angeles' Olympic Stadium. Though it was a non-title bout, the Newsboy was said to "carry the fight all the way to the decision", in a surprising upset. Most sources gave the Newsboy six rounds, with only three to Al Brown and one even.

World Feather title attempt.

He fought Speedy Dado twice in 1931, losing one bout and winning the second in a third round knockout in Los Angeles on March 3 for the California State bantam title. In 1932 he fought his last title fight, losing a ten-round decision to Baby Arizmendi for the world featherweight title. According to one source Brown won only one round, explaining his reluctance to continue his career. He retired from boxing in 1933.  His managers included Leo Flynn, Pop Nealis, Joe Levy, and by 1929, Tom Kennedy. In 1931-1932, he was managed by Emmett Ledwith.

Achievements.

He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2012.

Retirement and work in Hollywood.

After his boxing retirement, he broke into the motion picture business by coaching cowboy star Tom Mix in his fight scenes. As a result of his association with Mix, he landed a job in the properties department of one of the Hollywood studios, where he worked in his later years.  He helped with props for Columbia Picture's 1947 movie "Johnny O'Clock" directed by Robert Rossen.  He died on February 18, 1977 in Los Angeles, California where he had conducted both his boxing and acting careers.

David Montrose (August 17, 1905 – February 18, 1977), better known as Newsboy Brown, was an American boxer who held the World Flyweight Title for eight months in 1928.

Newsboy Brown (* 17. August 1905 in Russland, als "David Montrose"; † 1. Februar 1977 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien, USA) war ein US-amerikanischer Boxer russischer Herkunft im Fliegengewicht.


History.

The property, one of the earliest Z-plan castles in the North East, has been owned by members of the Ogilvy, Gordon, Lyon, Buchan and Grant families.  In 1545 George Gordon purchased the land from the Earl of Huntly, and the castle was built before he died in 1575. Two wings were built to the west in 1679, while the original entrance was replaced. The castle was acquired by Alexander Gordon in 1713 and he remodelled it, including first-floor rooms formed from the hall which have since been removed. An interesting wall painting of a woman playing the lute was among paintings discovered during this restoration. The work included introducing bolection-moulded chimney-pieces and coved ceilings.  Thomas Buchan of Auchmacoy bought the Beldorney estate in 1807 from Charles Gordon of Wardhouse, the last of the line of Gordons of Beldorney. Buchan sold the castle and estate to Sir William Grant, Master of the Rolls and MP for Banffshire. On his death it passed to his brother, Major John Grant of Dawlish, Devon.  In 1830 a north wing was added. Subsequently there has been restoration work in 1890, remodelling other floors under the supervision of Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, and in the early 1980s.

Structure.

The main block of the castle lies north to south. At the north-west angle is a smaller square tower, which contains the main stair, named the Dog Tower, and having a dog finial.  At the south-east angle is a large drum tower, which has a rounded gable. The original entry was in the re-entrant angle with the square tower.  The basement, which contains a kitchen and two cellars, is vaulted. From one of the cellars – the wine-cellar – a mural stair led to the Hall. Fragments of the painting of the Hall ceiling survive. It appears that the second floor also had a Hall, and a tower room. There is a mural stair in the turret in the re-entrant angle of the south gable; this gave access to the second floor room and the third-floor watch-room.  The two 1679 wings to the west enclose a courtyard, the entrance to which is an arched gateway, marked with the initials of John Gordon and Anne, and the date, on the inner side. It has renaissance detail, a semi-circular tympanum above entablature with ball finials. The south wing is a single storey high.  The replacement entrance, decorated with an ogee-headed panel containing a winged angel’s head, is in the centre of the west face.  It is a category A listed building.

Beldorney Castle is a Z-plan castle dating from the mid-16th century, about two miles south of Glass, in hilly country in the valley of the Deveron, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland.

Beldorney Castle ist ein Wohnturm mit Z-Förmigem Grundriss etwa 3 km südlich des Dorfes "Glass" im Hügelland des Deverontals in der schottischen Grafschaft Aberdeenshire. Das Gebäude stammt aus der Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts.


Biography.

Early life and education.

Fu Xiqiu was born in 1968 in Shandong province and started studying English literature at Liaocheng University in 1987. During his time at university, Fu engaged in political activism and started the process of joining the Communist Party of China, with the intention of becoming a government official. His American professors would preach to students from a pocket bible after class. Fu organized a group of students from his university to participate in the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 in Beijing. When he returned to Shandong, he was investigated but not detained, and ultimately decided not to join the Party. That year, an American English teacher gave him a biography of Xi Shengmo, a 19th-century Chinese Christian convert. After reading the book, Fu decided to convert to Christianity as well.  After completing his studies, Fu taught English at the Central Party School in Beijing while his wife Bochun Cai (b. 1966) studied at the Renmin University of China. The couple evangelized widely, starting a campus church and secret bible school in Fangshan District, Beijing. On May 9, 1996, the couple was detained for running a Christian training center in Fangshan District, Beijing and for illegal evangelizing. On July 8, they left detention in good health, having been reportedly treated well but warned not to engage with foreigners. Authorities said that Fu could keep his job and stay in the dormitory at the Communist Party school, and would not have to pay any fines.

Emigration and activism.

That same year, Fu's wife became pregnant in violation of the one-child policy. Rather than face the penalty, they emigrated to the then-British colony of Hong Kong, where Cai gave birth to Daniel Fu (). The National Association of Evangelicals successfully lobbied the Clinton White House to get Fu political asylum in the United States, where he immigrated in 1997, settling in Philadelphia and attending nearby Westminster Theological Seminary. In July 1998, Fu and Cai moved to neighboring Glenside, Pennsylvania to live with another Chinese family in a house purchased by an anonymous donor. They adopted the names "Bob" and "Heidi" at this time.  Fu founded the evangelical China Aid Association in 2002 in response to a crackdown on the Hubei-based unauthorized "South China Church" (). He and other Christians raised enough money for 58 lawyers for the defense, seeding prominent stories about the trial in "The New York Times" and "The Wall Street Journal". The legal charge of "undermining enforcement of the law" was dropped due to insufficient evidence. China Aid enlists thousands of volunteers in China who are available to carry out activities called on by Fu through the internet, telephone, and letters. It also pays the salaries of 30 defense lawyers.  Fu has also taught at Oklahoma Wesleyan University.

Midland operations.

After being invited to visit Midland, Texas by a fellow pastor, he moved his operations there in 2004. According to "The New York Times", Fu maintains "close association with Republicans and evangelical Christians". He has prayed in English in American churches, and has cultivated contacts in evangelical groups in Texas. In 2008, Fu arranged for Republican House representative Frank Wolf to meet with an unauthorized house church leader in China. In 2009, Fu persuaded the Bush National Security Council and State Department to grant asylum to the family of Gao Zhisheng, a lawyer known for his defense of house Christians and other sensitive groups.  In May 2012, Fu translated legal activist Chen Guangcheng's appeal to travel to the US in a special congressional hearing convened by representative Chris Smith (R-NJ). Fu criticized President Barack Obama of "abandoning" Chen for his handling of the case.  In America, New York University (NYU) technicians mistakenly announced that they had found spyware installed on an iPad and iPhone that Fu had given to Chen via his wife Heidi Cai. Jerome A. Cohen of NYU accused Fu of giving Chen a trojan horse "enabl[ing Fu] to monitor his communications secretly", although Fu denied this, saying his technicians only installed Skype for Chen. Cohen and NYU later rescinded these accusations, which they said were based on a misunderstanding of the technology, and clarified that iPad and iPhone given to Mr. Chen by China Aid did not contain spyware.

Bob Fu () is a Chinese American pastor. He is the founder and president since 2002 of China Aid, which provides legal aid to Christians in China. Bob Fu was born in Shandong in 1968 and studied English literature at Liaocheng University in the 1980s. He converted to Christianity after an American teacher gave him a biography of a Chinese Christian convert. After his studies, Fu taught English at the Central Party School in Beijing while participating in the house church movement. In 1996, Bob Fu and his family emigrated to Hong Kong and then the United States, after his wife became pregnant without the government permission to have a child. Fu founded the China Aid Association in Philadelphia in 2002, but moved its headquarters to Midland, Texas in 2004. Fu is also known for his role in helping negotiate barefoot lawyer Chen Guangcheng's immigration to the United States; in this sense, has been described as a "liaison" between oppressed groups in China and foreign governments or media that can help them.

Bob Fu (chinesisch: 傅希秋; Pinyin: Fù Xīqiū; * 1968) ist ein chinesisch-amerikanischer Pfarrer. Fu ist der Gründer und seit 2002 Präsident von China Aid (eine gemeinnützige Nichtregierungsorganisation), die Christen in China Rechtsbeistand bietet. Fu wurde 1968 in Shandong geboren und studierte in den 1980er Jahren Englische Literatur an der Universität in Liaocheng. Fu trat dem Christentum bei, nachdem ein amerikanischer Lehrer ihm eine Biografie eines chinesischen konvertierten Christen gegeben hatte. Nach seinem Studium unterrichtete Fu Englisch an der Zentralen Parteihochschule der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas in Peking, während er an der Chinesischen Hauskirchen-Bewegung teilnahm.


Early life and background.

Tsitsipas was born on 12 August 1998 to Apostolos Tsitsipas and Julia Apostoli (née Salnikova) in Athens. His father is Greek and his mother is Russian. Both of his parents are experienced tennis players, and his mother in particular was a world No. 1 junior who had a career-high professional ranking inside the top 200 and represented the Soviet Union in Fed Cup. His parents had been working as tennis instructors at the Astir Palace resort hotel in Vouliagmeni at the time of his birth. They originally met at a WTA tournament in Athens where his mother was competing and his father was a line judge. Stefanos has three younger siblings: two brothers Petros and Pavlos (Paul), and a sister Elisavet who is the youngest. All of his siblings are also tennis players.  With their strong backgrounds in tennis, Tsitsipas's parents got their oldest son started on tennis at a very young age. Stefanos has said, "My first memory is to be three and to hit balls with my father in the gap between lessons. I remember watching games on TV, as a baby, I can not tell you who was playing, but I remember watching." He also participated in other sports as a kid, including football and swimming. His father said Stefanos made the decision to become a tennis player himself, recalling that his son "woke up in the middle of the night" after a tournament in France at age nine and told him "Dad, I have to tell you something: I want to become a tennis player, I like the competition, I like the challenge."  Tsitsipas began taking lessons at Tennis Club Glyfada near Athens at the age of six, and has long since continued to train there. His father has always served as his primary coach, and he formally studied tennis coaching at the University of Athens to help train his children. In 2015, Tsitsipas also began training at the Patrick Mouratoglou Academy, splitting time between France and Greece during this period.

Junior career.

Tsitsipas is a former world No. 1 junior. He began playing on the ITF junior circuit in 2013 at the age of 14. He did not play in any high-level Grade A tournaments until the Abierto Juvenil Mexicano in November 2014, but was able to make it all the way to the final of his second career Grade A event at the Orange Bowl a month later. Tsitsipas had entered the tournament ranked outside of the top 100 in the junior rankings. In 2015, Tsitsipas got his first opportunity to play in the junior Grand Slam tournaments. In these four events, a quarterfinal at the Australian Open was his best result. He did not win any singles finals that year, but he did have another runner-up finish at the Orange Bowl, this time losing to Miomir Kecmanović in a third set tiebreak. He finished the season as the No. 14 ranked junior in the world.  In 2016, Tsitsipas had a breakout year, reaching at least the quarterfinals of all eight tournaments that he played, including all four Grand Slams. He became the top-ranked junior in the world after winning his first Grade A title at the Trofeo Bonfiglio. Tsitsipas also won the European Junior Championships later in the year. Tsitsipas's biggest title of the season came in doubles, when he partnered with Estonian player Kenneth Raisma to win his only junior Grand Slam event at Wimbledon. He became the first male Greek to win a junior Grand Slam in the Open Era, and the second overall after Nicky Kalogeropoulos won both the French Open and Wimbledon in 1963. Besides his doubles triumph, Tsitsipas also had his two best finishes in the Grand Slam singles events that year, making the semifinals of both Wimbledon and the US Open. He ended the year as the No. 2 ranked junior in the world, behind only Kecmanović who had played several more events.

Professional career.

2013–17: Top 100, ATP semifinal, top 10 victory.

Tsitsipas began playing low-level ITF Futures events in Greece in 2013 shortly after turning 15, not long after he started competing on the junior tour. He qualified for his first event on the ATP Challenger Tour at the Burnie International in early 2015 while still 16 years old, but lost his only main draw match to Benjamin Mitchell. Tsitsipas won his first Futures title later that year and would go on to win a total of eleven such titles, five in singles and six in doubles, through the end of 2016. He also won his first Challenger match near the end of 2015 in Mohammedia in Morocco. Tsitsipas returned to Morocco a year later and reached his first two Challenger finals in back-to-back weeks at Mohammedia and Casablanca. This success in Africa helped him crack the top 200 later that October. Towards the end of that month, Tsitsipas was granted a qualifying wild card into the Swiss Indoors in Basel, his first ATP Tour appearance. He defeated Rajeev Ram in the opening round, but was unable to qualify after a loss to Robin Haase.  Tsitsipas played in his first ATP main draw at the 2017 Rotterdam Open, where he lost his debut match to the eventual champion Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He also made his Grand Slam debut later that year as a qualifier at the French Open, but lost to Ivo Karlović in his first match. After losing in qualifying at the US Open, Tsitsipas won his first Challenger title in Genova. Overall, he qualified for a tour-best eight events during the season, including Wimbledon and the Shanghai Masters. However, he did not win a tour-level match until the very end of the season when he defeated fellow Next Gen player Karen Khachanov in Shanghai. At the European Open in Belgium the following week, Tsitsipas reached his first ATP semifinal as a qualifier. During the event, he upset hometown favorite and world No. 10 David Goffin for his first career top 10 victory. With this run, Tsitsipas became the first Greek player to be ranked in the top 100 of the ATP rankings, accomplishing the feat at the age of 19. He also reached a high enough ranking to be named an alternate for the Next Gen ATP Finals. Tsitsipas closed out the season with another Challenger final, this time in Brest.

2018: Breakthrough, Masters final, Next Gen ATP Finals champion.

Tsitsipas started the year at the Qatar Open where he lost in the quarterfinals to world No. 5 Dominic Thiem, again as a qualifier. After losing in the opening round in his Australian Open debut, his best result in the rest of the early-year hard court season was another quarterfinal at the Dubai Tennis Championships. Tsitsipas's first breakthrough of the year came at the Barcelona Open during the clay court season, where he reached his first career ATP final without dropping a set. During the ATP 500 Series tournament, he defeated three top 20 players including No. 7 Thiem, before losing to world No. 1 Rafael Nadal in a lopsided match. With this result, Tsitsipas moved into the top 50 and became the second Greek to reach an ATP final after Nicky Kalogeropoulos in 1973. His performance also gained national attention in Greece, where tennis is not a widely popular sport. The following week at the Estoril Open, he reached another semifinal. He also picked up a third career top ten victory over No. 8 Kevin Anderson.  Tsitsipas closed out the clay court season by winning his first career Grand Slam match at the French Open against Carlos Taberner before losing to Thiem, the eventual runner-up. He played the next Grand Slam at Wimbledon seeded for first time at No. 31. He took advantage of the seed and produced his best result at a major tournament at the time, a fourth round loss to No. 10 John Isner. Tsitsipas had his second big breakthrough of the year in the lead up to the US Open. After reaching the semifinals in Washington, he reached his second final of the season and first career Masters final at the Canadian Open. During the tournament, he became the youngest player to record four top ten wins in a single event, defeating No. 8 Dominic Thiem, No. 10 Novak Djokovic, No. 3 Alexander Zverev, and No. 6 Kevin Anderson in succession. He also saved match points in the latter two matches. Tsitsipas lost the final to Nadal on his 20th birthday in a closer match than their first encounter. He also climbed to No. 15 in the world.  At the US Open, Tsitsipas made his main draw debut, but was upset in the second round by fellow Next Gen player Daniil Medvedev. He cited fatigue as a factor in the loss and proceeded to exit before the quarterfinals at three of his next four tournaments as well. However, Tsitsipas was able to recover at the Stockholm Open. Playing as the third seed, he defeated second seed and No. 14 Fabio Fognini in the semifinals before winning in the final against veteran qualifier Ernests Gulbis. With the victory, he became the first Greek player to win an ATP title. Tsitsipas closed out his season at the Next Gen ATP Finals. He was the top seed at the event and was drawn with Frances Tiafoe, Hubert Hurkacz, and Jaume Munar. Tsitsipas swept his group and defeated Andrey Rublev to advance to the final against second seed Alex de Minaur. He defeated de Minaur in four sets to win the Next Gen Finals. At the end of the year, Tsitsipas was named the ATP Most Improved Player for his breakthrough season.

2019: ATP Finals champion, Australian Open semifinal, world No. 5.

Tsitsipas began the season at the Hopman Cup alongside Maria Sakkari, making them the first team to represent Greece at the event in 17 years. They finished in a three-way tie for first in their round-robin group, having won their ties against the United States and Switzerland after being upset in their opening tie against Great Britain. They were ranked second on the tiebreak criteria and did not advance out of the group. Tsitsipas's only singles win was against Frances Tiafoe, while one of his losses was against Roger Federer. At the Australian Open, Tsitsipas reached his first major semifinal, despite having won just five Grand Slam singles matches in total the previous year. All five of his wins at the event came in four sets. He upset world No. 3 Roger Federer in the fourth round, saving all twelve of the break points he faced in a rematch of their Hopman Cup encounter earlier in the month. After continuing his run against Roberto Bautista Agut, he easily lost to No. 2 Rafael Nadal, only winning six games. Nonetheless, his performance helped him climb to a career-best ranking of No. 12 in the world to become the highest-ranked Greek player in history.  Tsitsipas built on his Grand Slam success by reaching two finals in February in back-to-back weeks. He won his second career title at the Open 13 in Marseille over Mikhail Kukushkin before finishing runner-up to Federer at the Dubai Tennis Championships. His performance in Dubai put him in the top 10 of the ATP rankings for the first time. Tsitsipas closed out the early year hard court season with a career-best result in doubles, finishing runner-up to the Bryan brothers at the Miami Open with Wesley Koolhof. Tsitsipas also had an excellent clay court season. He won his first career clay court title a month later at the Estoril Open after defeating Pablo Cuevas in the final. The following week, he made another Masters final at the Madrid Open. During the event, he defeated No. 4 Alexander Zverev and No. 2 Rafael Nadal in the quarterfinals and semifinals respectively before finishing runner-up to No. 1 Novak Djokovic. This was his first win over Nadal in four attempts. Nadal defeated Tsitsipas a week later at the Italian Open. Nonetheless, Tsitsipas rose to No. 6 in the world after this series of tournaments. At the French Open, Tsitsipas was upset by Stan Wawrinka in a tight five set match that ended 6–8 in the final set.  Despite a strong first half of the season, Tsitsipas began to struggle following the French Open. He lost his opening round matches at Wimbledon, the US Open, and both Masters tournaments in August. Despite this, he reached a career-best ranking of No. 5 in early August. Tsitsipas ultimately rebounded beginning in October. He defeated Zverev again at the China Open en route to finishing runner-up to No. 5 Dominic Thiem. He then made two semifinals at the Shanghai Masters and the Swiss Indoors, losing to other top five players again in No. 4 Daniil Medvedev and No. 3 Roger Federer. At the end of the season, Tsitsipas qualified for the ATP Finals for the first time, where he was placed in a round-robin group with Nadal, Zverev, and Medvedev. He defeated both Medvedev and Zverev to advance to the knockout stages after two matches. He lost his last group match to Nadal. In the semifinals, Tsitsipas defeated Federer to setup a final against Thiem. Tsitsipas won the championship in a tight match that ended in a third set tiebreak to become the youngest winner of the year-end championship since Lleyton Hewitt in 2001. He finished the season at No. 6 in the world.

2020: 5th ATP title.

He entered the 2020 Australian Open seeded 6th in the mens bracket, but failed to repeat his success of 2019, losing in the 3rd round to Milos Raonic. He then entered the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament seeded second, but failed to live up to his seed as he lost in the round of 16 to Aljaž Bedene. He recovered quickly to defend his title at the Open 13 tournament, winning his 5th ATP title, recording in the process 4 wins in a row without dropping a set, and defeating Félix Auger-Aliassime in the final. The following week he entered the Dubai Tennis Championships, as the second seed, behind Novak Djokovic. He recorded 4 wins in a row, reaching the final, where he lost in straight sets to the World No. 1.  Tsitsipas is currently ranked No. 6 at the ATP Rankings.

Playing style.

Tsitsipas is an aggressive baseliner capable of an all-court player style as well. He aims to hit powerful groundstroke winners and has a particularly strong forehand using an eastern grip. His forehand is particularly useful in finishing points off of the first serve, as combined with his big serve, he uses his high topspin rate to pull opponents off the court for winners, or go to the net more often than typical baseline players. One of his weaknesses is to overhit and make unforced errors while trying to hit winners.. He also struggles returning serve against players with strong kick serves on the backhand side, a weakness he has worked to improve through usage of blocked and slice returns on his backhand.  His favourite shot is his one-handed backhand, a rarity in modern tennis. His forehand is still his stronger wing, however. He experimented with both one-handed and two-handed backhands in his youth, but chose to go with the former at around eight years old because both of his parents as well as his idol Roger Federer all use a one-handed backhand, and also because it felt more natural. His favorite shot is the backhand down-the-line.  Tsitsipas is regarded as having an all-court game. His favorite surface is grass and Wimbledon is his favorite tournament. Tsitsipas also excels on clay, having grown up playing on that surface in Greece. He has said, "I feel very confident when I step on the dirt. I always show my best tennis on this surface." Tsitsipas has also done well on hard courts, reaching a Masters final and an Australian Open semifinal.  Former British No. 1 players Greg Rusedski and Annabel Croft have both praised Tsitsipas's on-court demeanor in conjunction with his style of play. Rusedski in particular has said that "[Tsitsipas] reminds me a little bit of Björn Borg. He does all the right things, he is spectacular as a tennis player and was just sensational with the way he was so calm and composed and he didn't blink when it came to the crunch. He has the competitive nature of Andy Murray, but he also has a calmness which reminds me of Roger Federer."

Personal life.

Tsitsipas studied at an English-language school as a kid. He can speak English, Greek, and Russian. He is a supporter of Greek football club AEK Athens. Tsitsipas's hobbies include vlogging. He hosts his own YouTube channel where he posts videos of his travels.  Tsitsipas credits his mother's twin sister, who was also a professional tennis player in the Soviet Union, for helping with the family's finances so that he could afford to travel with his father to train and compete during his junior career. His maternal grandfather Sergei Salnikov was an Olympic gold medal-winning member of the Soviet national football team and a former manager of FC Spartak Moscow.  During a Futures tournament in Crete, Tsitsipas nearly drowned while swimming at sea on an off-day. After a current carried him away from the shore, his father noticed what had happened and helped save his life. He attributes his confident approach of "[feeling] absolutely zero fear on the court" to the perspective he gained from this experience.  Tsitsipas has expressed interest in promoting the sport of tennis in Greece, where he has said "tennis is not very popular." After his finals appearance at the 2018 Barcelona Open, he commented that his success was helping him achieve this goal. Of his performance and the attention it received, he stated, "Many people were talking about [the final] and I had plenty of interviews that I did on big channels in Greece for big media centres. It got people's attention... It makes me motivated to do even better in the future, and become even more popular... I hope to inspire more people to play tennis in Greece."

Career statistics.

Singles performance timeline.

"Current through the 2020 Australian Open."

Stefanos Tsitsipas (, ; born 12 August 1998) is a Greek professional tennis player. He is the youngest player ranked in the top 10 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) and has a career-high ranking of No. 5 in the world, making him the highest-ranked Greek player in history. Tsitsipas is the reigning champion at the ATP Finals, and is the youngest winner of the year-end championships in eighteen years. He has won five singles titles and reached ten finals on the ATP Tour.

Stefanos Tsitsipas (; * 12. August 1998 in Athen) ist ein griechischer Tennisspieler. 2019 gewann er mit den ATP Finals die inoffizielle Tennis-Weltmeisterschaft, was seinen bislang größten Erfolg darstellt.


Education.

Joseph DeSimone received his BS in Chemistry in 1986 from Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania and his Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1990 from Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia.

Career.

DeSimone is a member of the National Academy of Medicine (2014), National Academy of Sciences (2012), and the National Academy of Engineering (2005). He is also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2005). In the 1990s he developed an environmentally friendly manufacturing process that relies on supercritical carbon dioxide instead of water and bio-persistent surfactants for the creation of fluoropolymers or high-performance plastics, such as Teflon. In 2002 DeSimone, along with Dr. Richard Stack, a cardiologist at Duke University, co-founded Bioabsorbable Vascular Solutions (BVS) to commercialize a fully bioabsorbable, drug-eluting stent. BVS was acquired by Guidant in 2003. The technology is now marketed by Abbott Vascular for the treatment of coronary artery disease.  In recent years DeSimone’s academic research group has been heavily focused on learning how to bring the precision, uniformity and mass production techniques associated with the fabrication of nanoscale features found in the microelectronics industry to the nanomedicine field for the fabrication and delivery of vaccines and therapeutics for the treatment and prevention of diseases. Developed in the DeSimone laboratory, the PRINT technology (Particle Replication in Non-Wetting Templates) is central to the group's work.  DeSimone’s academic laboratory and the PRINT technology became a foundation for the Carolina Center for Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence funded by the National Cancer Institute. DeSimone also co-founded Liquidia Technologies in 2004 based on PRINT.  Currently, DeSimone is on sabbatical leave from the University of North Carolina and is the co-founder and CEO of American technology company and manufacturer, Carbon, which develops printers with the Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP) technology.

Awards and honors.

DeSimone was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation, the highest honor in the U.S. for achievements related to technological progress, by President Barack Obama at the White House in May 2016. In 2017, Dr. DeSimone received the 22nd Annual Heinz Award in Technology, the Economy, and Employment.  He is also the recipient of the 2015 Kabiller Prize in Nanoscience and Nanomedicine; the 2014 IRI Medal; the 2014 Dickson Prize in Science; the 2014 American Chemical Society Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success; the 2012 Walston Chubb Award for Innovation, presented by Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, to honor and promote creativity in science and engineering; the 2010 AAAS Mentor Award in recognition of his efforts to advance diversity in the chemistry PhD workforce; the 2009 NIH Director's Pioneer Award; the 2009 North Carolina Award, the highest honor the State of North Carolina can bestow to recognize notable achievements of North Carolinians in the fields of Literature, Science, the Fine Arts and Public Service; the 2008 Tar Heel of the Year by the Raleigh News & Observer; the 2007 Collaboration Success Award from the Council for Chemical Research; the 2005 American Chemical Society Award for Creative Invention; the 2002 John Scott Award presented by the Board of Directors of City Trusts, Philadelphia, given to "the most deserving" men and women whose inventions have contributed in some outstanding way to the "comfort, welfare and happiness" of mankind; the 2002 Engineering Excellence Award by DuPont; the 2002 Wallace H. Carothers Award from the Delaware Section of the American Chemical Society; and the 2000 Oliver Max Gardner Award from the University of North Carolina. In 2019, DeSimone received the Wilhelm Exner Medal in "Polymer Manufacturing".

Joseph M. DeSimone (born May 16, 1964) is an American chemist, inventor and entrepreneur, best known as the 2008 recipient of the $500,000 Lemelson–MIT Prize and as the co-founder and CEO of Carbon, an American technology company.

Joseph DeSimone (* 16. Mai 1964 in Morristown (Pennsylvania)) ist ein US-amerikanischer Chemiker. DeSimone besuchte das Ursinus College in Collegeville (Pennsylvania) mit dem Bachelor-Abschluss 1986 und promovierte 1990 bei James E. McGrath in Polymerchemie am Virginia Tech. Ab 1990 war er Assistant Professor an der University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, an der er 1999 eine volle Professur erhielt. Er ist dort "William R. Kenan Jr. Distinguished Professor" (auch für Chemieingenieurwesen an der North Carolina State University) und "Chancellor's Eminent Professor".


Education.

Solomon received an Associate of Sydney Technical College, (equivalent to a Diploma of Chemistry) in 1950 and went on to complete a Bachelor of Science (BSc (Hons)) in 1952 from the New South Wales University of Technology (now the University of New South Wales), a Master of Science (MSc) from the same university in 1955, and a PhD from the University of New South Wales in 1959 with a thesis entitled "Studies on the Chemistry of Carbonyl Compounds". In 1968 he was awarded a DSc from the University of New South Wales for his thesis "Studies on the Chemistry of Coating Compounds". He also received an Honorary Doctorate in Applied Science from the University of Melbourne in 2005, one of only seven awarded in the University's history.

Career.

Solomon joined British Australian Lead Manufacturers Pty Ltd (BALM, which later became Dulux Australia Ltd) as a trainee chemist in 1946 at the age of 16. It was here that he developed his lifelong interest in polymers, and made important observations that the current theories on polymers did not match with what was actually happening in the industrial processes.  Solomon's strong interest in polymer research drew him to join CSIRO as a Senior Research Scientist in the Division of Applied Mineralogy in 1963. In 1970 Solomon transferred to the Division of Applied Chemistry where he established the Polymer Research Group, before going on to become Chief of the Division of Applied Organic Chemistry during a reorganisation in 1974, a position he held for the next 17 years.  In 1990 he accepted an invitation to become the ICI Australia – Masson Professor and Head of the School of Chemistry at the University of Melbourne. Here he started the Polymer Science Group, his third internationally acclaimed polymer research group. After ‘retirement’ in 1995 David took up the position of Honorary Professorial Fellow in the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the University, moving the Polymer Science Group, to which he still acts as Senior Advisor. In 2015 he was awarded the title of Professor Emeritus at the University of Melbourne.  Solomon is often referred to as the father of polymer research in Australia, having established three internationally acclaimed polymer research groups in industry (Dulux, 1960), in Australia's peak scientific research organisation, CSIRO (1970) and at the University of Melbourne (1990).

Research achievements.

Solomon is well known for several of his research achievements. In particular his work on free radical polymerization revolutionized the field through the development of the first living free-radical polymerization technique; Nitroxide Mediated Polymerization (NMP). He also led the team, and was principle inventor of the world's first polymer banknote.

Free Radical Polymerization.

Solomon's ground-breaking work on free radical polymerization was initiated through observations made in industry. For example, anomalies that were not explained by polymerization theory at the time, and the observation that during the production of polymer/mineral composites some batches underwent spontaneous combustion. This led to discoveries that had significant influence on the future directions of radical chemistry. It led to the development of Nitroxide Mediated Polymerization (NMP), the first example of a controlled, or living, radical polymerization technique. This research also produced early examples of what was to become known as RAFT, or Reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization. Solomon's work rewrote the theory on free radical polymerization, and he was co-author with Graeme Moad on the definitive reference book: The Chemistry of Radical Polymerization (Moad & Solomon, 2006). Previous theories attempted to explain radical polymerization on the basis of thermodynamic stability controlling structure. Solomon's work showed that kinetics was the major factor in controlling the way polymer chains formed.

Polymer banknotes.

Following a major forgery of Australia's newly introduced $10 notes in 1967, Solomon was invited to a meeting about how to make more secure bank notes. Given his background in polymer science Solomon's idea was to print the notes on a plastic substrate rather than the traditional paper, and incorporate optically variable devices – defined as a device that changes its appearance when something external is done to the note.  Solomon went on to lead the research team and was the principal inventor of the world's first polymer banknote, with the first note issued into circulation in 1988: the Australian bicentennial $10. He has chronicled the history of the development of polymer banknotes in "The Plastic Banknote: From Concept to Reality", co-authored with Tom Spurling (published in 2014).

Selected honours.

Solomon has been the recipient of numerous prestigious awards throughout his career. A selected list is outlined below.

Professional societies.

Solomon's considerable contributions to science have been recognised by his peers through election to the following Academies: Solomon has always been active in these societies, in particular the Royal Australian Chemical Institute (RACI). In 2001 the RACI established the Solomon Lecture Series in recognition of his contribution to the field and to the RACI. A biennial series presented by an invited leading international polymer researcher, this Lecture Series recognizes the importance of promoting the exchange of ideas and expertise and to expose young scientists to the best in their field internationally.

Publications.

Solomon is co-author of nine books including an historical account of the development of plastic banknotes (The Plastic Banknote: From Concept to Reality) and several text books (incl: The Chemistry of Radical Polymerization). He is also co-author of over 250 journal papers and 45 patents.

David Henry Solomon (born 19 November 1929 in Adelaide, South Australia) is an Australian polymer chemist. He is best known for his work in developing Living Radical Polymerization techniques, and polymer banknotes.

David Henry Solomon, genannt Dave Solomon, (* 19. November 1929 in Adelaide) ist ein australischer Chemiker (Makromolekulare Chemie). Solomon studierte Chemie am Sydney Technical College mit dem Abschluss 1950 (Associate Diploma) und an der New South Wales University of Technology mit dem Bachelor-Abschluss 1952 und dem Master-Abschluss 1955. Er wurde dort 1959 promoviert (Studies in the Chemistry of Carbony Compounds) und 1968 erhielt er zusätzlich einen D.Sc. der University of New South Wales (Studies in the chemistry of coating compounds). Noch während des Studiums arbeitete er beim Farbenhersteller Dulux Australia (damals Balm Paints). Dort leitete er 1955 bis 1963 die Forschung für neue Anstreichfarben. Dabei wurde er auch 1959/60 zu ICI in Slough in England abgesandt. Ab 1963 ging er in die Polymerforschung bei der nationalen australischen Forschungsorganisation CSIRO, bei der er noch in den 1960er Jahren Senior Principal Research Scientist wurde. Damals befasste er sich mit der Wechselwirkung von organischen Polymeren und mineralischen Füllstoffen und war deshalb 1968/69 zur Georgia Kaolin Company in New Jersey abgesandt. 1970 wurde er Chief Research Scientist bei der CSIRO. 1974 wurde er nach einer Umorganisation der CSIRO erster Direktor der Division of Applied Organic Chemistry, was er bis 1991 blieb.


Background.

Blehr was born Randi Nilsen in 1851 in Bergen to ship broker, Andreas Rasmussen Nilsen 1822–98) and Margrethe Andrea Tornøe (1827–1909); she was the oldest of eleven children. She received no formal education but pursued the arts from a young age, including drawing, theatre and music. When she was 17 years old, she joined "Vestmannalaget", Norway's oldest language association. She was involved in the establishment of Den Nationale Scene, Bergen's oldest and largest theatre, in 1876, and in the same year she married Otto Blehr, a lawyer and a politician for the left-wing Liberal Party who would later become the Prime Minister of Norway.

Career.

Blehr became involved in the Norwegian feminist movement in the 1880s. She joined Skuld, a discussion group for female students, in 1883, and was one of the co-founders of the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights ("Kvindesagsforening") in 1884. She later became the chairperson of the organisation for over two periods: 1895 to 1899, and from 1903 to 1922. As chair of the Association for Women's Rights, Blehr fought for improvement of the social and economic conditions for housewives, working class and lower-middle class women. She petitioned the parliament to formalise vocational education for women by creating training courses for maids, seamstresses, cooks and housewives. Under Blehr's leadership, the association also advocated for equal pay and for children born out of wedlock to have their paternity recognised legally.  In 1885, since the Association for Women's Rights decided not to include women's suffrage on its agenda, Blehr co-founded the Women's Suffrage Association ("Kvinnestemmerettsforeningen") under Gina Krog's leadership. A year later, she also helped to establish the Norwegian Women's Public Health Association ("Norske Kvinners Sanitetsforening"). In 1903 she was elected the chair of the Norwegian Women's Peace Association ("Norske Kvinners Fredsforbund"). During periods where her husband's political career required them to leave their home in Oslo and live in Sweden, she worked as a hostess at the Norska Ministerhotellet in Stockholm.  Blehr was awarded the King's Medal of Merit in Gold ("Kongens fortjenstmedalje") on her 70th birthday in 1921. She died during 1928 and was buried at the Cemetery of Our Saviour in Oslo.

Randi Marie Blehr (née Nilsen; 12 February 1851 – 13 June 1928) was a Norwegian feminist, suffragist and women's rights activist. She was married to Prime Minister of Norway Otto Blehr, and was the mother of Eivind Blehr. She was a co-founder of the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights, and chaired the association from 1895 to 1899, and again from 1903 to 1922.

Randi Blehr (* 12. Februar 1851; † 13. Juni 1928) war eine norwegische Frauenrechtlerin, Pazifistin und liberale Politikerin. Sie war Präsidentin der Norsk Kvinnesaksforening (NKF) von 1895 bis 1899 und erneut von 1903 bis 1922 und war Mitbegründerin der humanitären Organisation Norske Kvinners Sanitetsforening (NKS). Sie wurde auch Präsidentin der Norske Kvinners Fredsforbund in 1903. Randi Blehr war mit dem norwegischen Ministerpräsidenten Otto Albert Blehr verheiratet und nahm repräsentative Aufgaben für Norwegen wahr. Zeit ihres Lebens galt sie als eine der einflussreichsten politischen Lobbyisten ihres Landes.


Etymology and Nomenclature.

The word "Navaratri" means 'nine nights' in Sanskrit, "nava" meaning nine and "ratri" meaning nights.

Dates & Celebrations.

According to some Hindu texts such as the Shakta and Vaishnava Puranas, Navaratri theoretically falls twice or four times a year. Of these, the Sharada Navaratri near autumn equinox (September–October) is the most celebrated and the Vasanta Navaratri near spring equinox (March–April) is the next most significant to the culture of the Indian subcontinent. In all cases, Navaratri falls in the bright half of the Hindu lunisolar months. The celebrations vary by region, leaving much to the creativity and preferences of the Hindu.  The other two Navratris are observed regionally or by individuals:  The Sharada Navaratri commences on the first day ("pratipada") of the bright fortnight of the lunar month of Ashvini. The festival is celebrated for nine nights once every year during this month, which typically falls in the Gregorian months of September and October. The exact dates of the festival are determined according to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, and sometimes the festival may be held for a day more or a day less depending on the adjustments for sun and moon movements and the leap year.  The festivities extend beyond goddess Durga and god Rama. Various other goddesses such as Saraswati and Lakshmi, gods such as Ganesha, Kartikeya, Shiva, and Krishna are regionally revered. For example, a notable pan-Hindu tradition during Navaratri is the adoration of Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music, and arts through Ayudha Puja. On this day, which typically falls on the ninth day of Navaratri after the Good has won over Evil through Durga or Rama, peace and knowledge is celebrated. Warriors thank, decorate and worship their weapons, offering prayers to Saraswati. Musicians upkeep their musical instruments, play and pray to them. Farmers, carpenters, smiths, pottery makers, shopkeepers and all sorts of tradespeople similarly decorate and worship their equipment, machinery, and tools of trade. Students visit their teachers, express respect and seek their blessings. This tradition is particularly strong in South India, but is observed elsewhere too.

Significance of Each Day.

The festival is associated to the prominent battle that took place between Durga and demon Mahishasura and celebrates the victory of Good over Evil. These nine days are solely dedicated to Goddess Durga and her nine Avatars - the Navadurga.. Each day is associated to an incarnation of the goddess:  Known as Pratipada, this day is associated with Shailaputri (literally "Daughter of Mountain"), an incarnation of Parvati. It is in this form that the Goddess is worshiped as the consort of Shiva; she is depicted as riding the bull, Nandi, with a trishula in her right hand and lotus in her left. Shailaputri is considered to be the direct incarnation of Mahakali. The color of the day is red, which depicts action and vigor.  On Dwitiya, Goddess Brahmacharini, another incarnation of Parvati, is worshiped. In this form, Parvati became Sati, her unmarried self. Brahmacharini is worshiped for emancipation or moksha and endowment of peace and prosperity. Depicted as walking bare feet and holding a "japamala" and "kamandal" in her hands, she symbolizes bliss and calm. Blue is the color code of this day. Blue color depicts tranquility yet strong energy.  Tritiya commemorates the worship of Chandraghanta - the name derived from the fact that after marrying Shiva, Parvati adorned her forehead with the "ardhachandra" (lit. half-moon). She is the embodiment of beauty and is also symbolic of bravery. Yellow is the color of the third day, which is a vivacious color and can pep up everyone's mood.  Goddess Kushmanda is worshiped on Chaturthi. Believed to be the creative power of the universe, Kushmanda associated with the endowment of vegetation on earth and hence, the color of the day is Green. She is depicted as having eight arms and sits on a Tiger.  Skandamata, the goddess worshiped on Panchami, is the mother of Skanda (or Kartikeya). The color of Grey is symbolic of the transforming strength of a mother when her child is confronted with danger. She is depicted riding a ferocious lion, having four arms and holding her baby.  Born to sage Katyayana, she is an incarnation of Durga and is shown to exhibit courage which is symbolized by the color Orange. Known as the warrior goddess, she is considered one of the most violent forms of Devi. In this avatar, Kātyāyanī rides a lion and has four hands. She is a form of Maha Lakshmi  Considered the most ferocious form of Goddess Durga, Kalaratri is revered on Saptami. It is believed that Parvati removed her fair skin to kill the demons Sumbha and Nisumbha. The color of the day is White. On Saptami, the Goddess appears in a white color attire with a lot of rage in her fiery eyes, her skin turns black. The white color portrays prayer and peace and ensures the devotees that the Goddess will protect them from harm.  Mahagauri symbolizes intelligence and peace. The color associated with this day is Pink which depicts optimism.  On the last day of the festival also known as Navami, people pray to Siddhidhatri. Sitting on a lotus, she is believed to possess and bestows all types of Siddhis. Here she has four hands. Also known as SriLakshmi Devi. The light blue color of the day portrays an admiration towards nature's beauty.

Regional Practices.

Navaratri is celebrated in different ways throughout India. Some fast, others feast. Some revere the same Mother Goddess but different aspects of her, while others revere avatars of Vishnu, particularly of Rama. The Chaitra Navaratri culminates in Rama Navami on the ninth day, and the Sharada Navaratri culminates in Durga Puja and Dussehra.  The Rama Navami remembers the birth of Rama, preceded by nine days of "Ramayana" recital particularly among the Vaishnava temples. In the past, Shakta Hindus used to recite Durga's legends during the Chaitra Navaratri, but this practice around the spring equinox has been declining. For most contemporary Hindus, it is the Navaratri around the autumn equinox that is the major festival and the one observed. To Bengali Hindus and to Shakta Hindus outside of eastern and northeastern states of India, the term Navaratri implies Durga Puja in the warrior goddess aspect of Devi. In other traditions of Hinduism, the term Navaratri implies something else or the celebration of Hindu goddess but in her more peaceful forms such as Saraswati – the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning, music, and other arts. In Nepal, Navaratri is called Dasain, and is a major annual homecoming and family event that celebrates the bonds between elders and youngsters with "Tika Puja", as well as across family and community members.

Eastern India, West Bengal & Nepal.

The Navaratri is celebrated as the Durga Puja festival in West Bengal. It is the most important annual festival to Bengali Hindus and a major social and public event in eastern and northeastern states of India, where it dominates the religious life. The occasion is celebrated with thousands of temporary stages called "pandals" are built in community squares, roadside shrines and large Durga temples in West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Nepal, Assam, Tripura and nearby regions. It is also observed by some Shakta Hindus as a private, home-based festival. Durga Puja festival marks the battle of goddess Durga with the shape-shifting, deceptive and powerful buffalo demon Mahishasura, and her emerging victorious.  The last five days of Navratri mark the popular practices during Durga Puja. The festival begins with "Mahalaya", a day where Shakta Hindus remember the loved ones who have died, as well the advent of the warrior goddess Durga. The next most significant day of Durga Puja celebrations is the sixth day, called Shashthi where the local community welcomes the goddess Durga Devi and festive celebrations are inaugurated. On the seventh day (Saptami), eighth (Ashtami) and ninth (Navami), Durga along with Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya are revered and these days mark the main Puja (worship) with recitation of the scriptures, the legends of Durga in "Devi Mahatmya" and social visits by families to elaborately decorated and lighted up temples and "pandals" (theatre like stages). After the nine nights, on the tenth day called Vijayadashami, a great procession is held where the clay statues are ceremoniously walked to a river or ocean coast for a solemn goodbye to Durga. Many mark their faces with vermilion ("sindooram") or dress in something red. It is an emotional day for some devotees, and the congregation sings emotional goodbye songs. After the procession, Hindus distribute sweets and gifts, visit their friends and family members.

North India.

In North India, Navaratri is marked by the numerous Ramlila events, where episodes from the story of Rama and Ravana are enacted by teams of artists in rural and urban centers, inside temples or in temporarily constructed stages. This Hindu tradition of festive performance arts was inscribed by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity" in 2008. The festivities, states UNESCO, include songs, narration, recital and dialogue based on the Hindu text "Ramacharitmanas" by Tulsidas. It is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.  The festival and dramatic enactment of the virtues versus vices filled story is organized by communities in hundreds of small villages and towns, attracting a mix of audiences from different social, gender and economic backgrounds. In many parts, the audience and villagers join in and participate spontaneously, some helping the artists, others helping with stage set up, create make-up, effigies and lights.  The most famous Navaratri festival is organized at Katra in Jammu Province. It is an annual event promoted by Directorate of Tourism, Jammu and Shri Mata Vaishno Deviji Shrine Board. Hundreds of thousands of devotees pay their attendance at Katra for the festival.  Navaratri has historically been a prominent ritual festival for kings and military of a kingdom. At the end of the Navratri, comes "Dussehra", where the effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakarna, and Meghanada are burnt to celebrate the victory of good (Rama) over evil forces on Vijayadashami. Elsewhere, during this religious observance, goddess Durga's war against deception and evil is remembered. A pot is installed (ghatasthapana) at a sanctified place at home. A lamp is kept lit in the pot for nine days. The pot symbolizes the universe. The uninterrupted lit lamp symbolizes the Adishakti, i.e. Durga Devi.

Bihar.

In parts of Bihar, Durga Devi is revered during the autumn of Navaratri. In other parts, such near Sitamarhi close to Nepal border, the spring Navratri attracts a large Ramanavami fair which marks the birth of Lord Rama as well as a reverence for his wife Sita who legends place was born at Sitamarhi. It is the largest cattle trading fair and attracts a large handicraft market in pottery, kitchen, and houseware, as well as traditional clothing. Festive performance arts and celebrations are held at the local Hindu temple dedicated to Sita, Hanuman, Durga, and Ganesha.

Gujarat.

Navaratri in Gujarat is one of the state's main festivals. The traditional celebrations include fasting for a day, or partially each of the nine days such as by not eating grains or just taking liquid foods, in remembrance of one of nine aspects of Shakti goddess. The prayers are dedicated to a symbolic clay pot called "garbo", as a remembrance of the womb of the family and universe. The clay pot is lit, and this is believed to represent the one Atman (soul, self). In Gujarat and nearby Hindu communities such as in Malwa, the "garbo" significance is celebrated through performance arts on all nine days. The most visible is group dances from villages to towns called Garba accompanied by live orchestra, seasonal raga or devotional songs. It is a folk dance, where people of different background and skills join and form concentric circles. The circles can grow or shrink, reaching sizes of 100s, sometimes 1000s of people, dancing and clapping in circular moves, in their traditional costumes, at the same time. The "garba" dance sometimes deploys "dandiyas" (sticks), coordinated movements and striking of sticks between the dancers, and teasing between the genders. Post dancing, the group and the audience socializes and feasts together. Regionally, the same thematic celebration of community songs, music and dances on Navaratri is called "garbi" or "garabi".

Goa.

In the temples of Goa, on the first day of the Hindu month of Ashwin, in temples (and some households), a copper pitcher is installed surrounded by clay in which nine varieties of food grains are placed inside the sanctum sanctorum of Devi and Krishna temples. The nine nights are celebrated by presenting devotional songs and through religious discourses. Artists arrive to perform folk musical instruments. Celebrations include placing the goddess image in a specially-decorated colorful silver swing, known as "Makhar" in Konkani language and for each of the nine nights, she is swung to the tune of temple music (called as "ranavadya") and devotees singing kirtan and waving lamps. This is locally called "Makharotsav".  The last night of the Goa Navaratri festival is a major celebration and attracts larger participation. It is locally called the "makhar arati".

Karnataka.

In Karnataka, Navaratri is observed at home and by lighting up Hindu temples, cultural sites, and many regal processions. It is locally called "Dasara" and it is the state festival ("Nadahabba") of Karnataka. Of the many celebrations, the Mysuru Dasara is a major one and is popular for its festivities and Mysore elephant procession. In Karnataka starting seventh day Saraswati pooja also starts where books on ancient Indian traditions and books of children are kept for pooja. These books are worshiped and read on the 10th day the Vijaya dashami.  The contemporary "Dasara" festivities at Mysore are credited to the efforts of King Raja Wodeyar I in 1610. On the ninth day of "Dasara", called "Mahanavami", the royal sword is worshipped and is taken on a procession of decorated elephants and horses. The day after Navratri, on the "Vijayadashami" day, the traditional "Dasara" procession is held on the streets of Mysore. An image of the Goddess Chamundeshwari is placed on a golden saddle ("hauda") on the back of a decorated elephant and taken on a procession, accompanied by tableaux, dance groups, music bands, decorated elephants, horses and camels.  Ayudha Puja is dedicated to Saraswati goddess, on the ninth day of Dasara, where military personnel upkeep their weapons and families upkeep their tools of livelihood, both offering a prayer to Saraswati as well as Parvati and Lakshmi. Another Navaratri tradition in Karnataka has been decorating a part of one's home with art dolls called "Gombe" or "Bombe", similar to Golu dolls of Tamil Nadu. An art-themed "Gaarudi Gombe", featuring folk dances which incorporate these dolls, is also a part of the celebration.

Kerala.

In Kerala and in some parts of Karnataka three days: Ashtami, Navami, and Vijaya Dashami of Sharada Navarathri are celebrated as Sarasvati Puja in which books are worshiped. The books are placed for Puja on the Ashtami day in their own houses, traditional nursery schools, or in temples. On "Vijaya Dashami" day, the books are ceremoniously taken out for reading and writing after worshiping Sarasvati. "Vijaya Dashami" day is considered auspicious for initiating the children into writing and reading, which is called Vidyāraṃbhaṃ.  The Vidyarambham day tradition starts with the baby or child sitting on the lap of an elderly person such as the grandfather, near images of Saraswati and Ganesha. The elder writes a letter and the child writes the same with his or her index finger. This Hindu tradition is so popular that Christian organizations have copied it and ritually observe it inside many churches. However, Navratri traditions of Hindus is not the only tradition observed by Kerala Christians, many other Hindu ritual traditions are celebrated in Churches.

Maharashtra.

The Navaratri celebrations vary across Maharashtra and the specific rites differ between regions even if they are called the same and dedicated to the same deity. The most common celebration begins on the first day of Navaratri with Ghatasthapana ("sthapana" of a "ghat"), which literally means "mounting of a jar". On this day, rural households mount a copper or brass jar, filled with water, upon a small heap of rice kept on a wooden stool ("pat"). Additionally, with the jar, is typically placed other agriculture symbols such as turmeric root, leaves of mango tree, coconut and major staple grains (usually eight varieties). A lamp is lighted symbolizing knowledge and household prosperity, and kept alight through the nine nights of Navaratri.  The family worships the pot for nine days by offering rituals and a garland of flowers, leaves, fruits, dry-fruits, etc. with a "naivedya", and water is offered in order to get the seeds sprouted. Some families also celebrate "Kali puja" on days 1 and 2, "Laxmi puja" on days 3, 4, 5 and Saraswati puja on days 6, 7, 8, 9 along with Ghatasthapana. On the eighth day, a "Yajna" or "Hom" is performed in the name of Goddess Durga. On the ninth day, the Ghat puja is performed and the Ghat is dismantled after taking off the sprouted leaves of the grains. In many families, a woman from Matang community is called and offered food and blessings are sought from her. She is considered as a form of the Goddess "Matangi".  The Goddess Lalita is worshipped on the fifth day of the festival. On the ninth day or "Khande Navami" of the festival, men participate in worshipping all kinds of tools, weapons, vehicles and productive instruments.

Tamil Nadu.

Navaratri has been a historic tradition within Tamil Nadu, with Lakshmi, Saraswati and Durga goddesses the focus. Like the rest of India, the festival has been an occasion for performance arts, particularly Hindu temple dances such as Bharatanatyam and Mohiniyattam. Major palaces, community centers, and historic temples have embedded dance halls. For example, the Padmanabhapuram Palace built about 1600 CE has had a large dance hall with intricately carved pillars, a structure entirely made of stone. This dance hall has traditionally been known as "Navratri Mantapa". The festivities begin with Vedic chants inaugurating the dances and other ceremonies. Other Tamil Hindu temples, such as those associated with Sri Vaishnavism, also celebrate the Navarathri festivities.  Another notable Tamil tradition is a celebration of the festival with "Golu" dolls (also spelled as "Gollu"). These include gods, goddesses, animals, birds and rural life all in a miniature design. People set up their own creative themes in their homes, called "Kolu", friends and families invite each other to visit their homes to view Kolu displays, then exchange gifts and sweets. This tradition is also found in other parts of South India such as Andhra Pradesh where it called "Bommala Koluvu", and Karnataka where it is called "Gombe Habba" or "Gombe totti". Evidence of "Gombe totti" tradition as a Hindu celebration of the artisan arts goes back to at least the 14th-century Vijayanagara Empire. In the evening of "Vijayadasami", any one doll from the "Kolu" is symbolically put to sleep and the Kalasa is moved a bit towards North to mark the end of that year's Navaratri Kolu. The family offers a prayer of thanks, and wraps up the display.  In temples of Tamil Nadu, Navaratri is celebrated for Devi's dwelling in each temple. The temples are decorated, ceremonial lamps are lit, and Vedic chantings are performed. Popular Tamil Nadu temples celebrating Navaratri are Madurai Meenakshi Temple, Chennai Kapaleeswarar temple, Kulasekarapattinam Devi temple, Perambur Ellaiamman temple, Srirangam Ranganathan temple and 8th century Kumari Amman temple. Priests and visitors to some of these temples wear a special yellow colored 'promise of protection' thread on their wrists, called "kappu" (Tamil) or "raksha bandhana" (Sanskrit). It is believed to symbolize a vow to the goddess and protection from the goddess against evil.

Telangana.

In Telangana, Navaratri is celebrated as in the rest of India and it ends with Dasara. During the Navaratri nights, a notable Telangana tradition involves Telugu Hindu women who produce Bathukamma for Navratri goddesses. It is an artistic flower decorations driven event, particularly using marigolds, which revere three different aspects Devi, called "Tridevi". In 2016, 9.292 women simultaneously participated to create a 20 feet high flower arrangements, one of the world's largest festive flower arrangement.  Bathukamma celebrations will be started with the Mahalaya Amavasya (Pitru Amavasya), a day before actually Navaratri starts. The main deity of worship is goddess Gowri, form of goddess Durga/Parvati who is symbolised or personified with turmeric powder idol and is placed on the floral arrangement called bathukamma. The festival will go for nine nights with women whirling around the bathukamma clapping their hands or with sticks along with recitation of Ramayana, stories of Shiva, Gowri, Ganga and common day-to-day life of women in the form of rhythmic songs resembling Garba and Dandiya at public gatherings. Every night bathukamma is immersed in nearby water resources like ponds or rivers and a new bathukamma is made next day. This nine nights festival end with Durgashtami, when goddesses Durga is believed to be worshipped in the form of Maha Gowri.  Like elsewhere in India, "Ayudha Puja" is observed by Telangana Hindus where weapons are maintained, decorated and worshipped. Tradesmen and farmers similarly clean up, decorate and worship their own equipment of the trade. On the 10th day, i.e. Dussehra (Vijayadashami), grand feasts are arranged with family members and friends. The 10 day long festival ends with Shami (Jammi) puja which is performed at evenings in open spaces, where leaves of plant are exchanged with each other by greeting dussehra wishes and taking blessings of elders symbolising victory over evil and recognizing the importance of shami plant in the epic of Mahabharata.

Animal sacrifice.

Animal sacrifice is a part of some Durga puja celebrations during the Navratri in eastern states of India. The goddess is offered sacrificial animal in this ritual in the belief that it stimulates her violent vengeance against the buffalo demon. According to Christopher Fuller, the animal sacrifice practice is rare among Hindus during Navratri, or at other times, outside the Shaktism tradition found in the eastern Indian states of West Bengal, Odisha and Assam. Further, even in these states, the festival season is one where significant animal sacrifices are observed. In some Shakta Hindu communities, the slaying of buffalo demon and victory of Durga is observed with a symbolic sacrifice instead of animal sacrifice.  The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places. The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior. The "Kuldevi" among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput-Muslim wars.  The tradition of animal sacrifice is being substituted with vegetarian offerings to the Goddess in temples and households around Banaras in Northern India.

Outside India.

The Hindu diaspora that migrated as indentured servants during colonial era to various plantations and mines around the world, as well as those who migrated on their own, continued to mark their Navaratri traditions. Tamil Hindus in Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, for example, built Hindu temples in southeast Asia in the 19th century, and Navratri has been one of their major traditional festivals. In Trinidad and United Kingdom, Navratri and Diwali have been one of the most visible celebrations of the local Hindu communities from about mid 20th-century.

Other Religions.

Navaratri and goddess worship is mentioned in the historic Sikhism literature, particularly in the "Dasam Granth" traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. According to Louis Fenech, the Sikhs have historically mirrored the reverence for "Devi" Shakthi and the worship of weapons in a manner similar to those by Shakta Hindus. The second Guru of Sikhism, Guru Angad was an ardent devotee of goddess Durga.  The Jains have observed the social and cultural celebrations of Navaratri with Hindus, such as the folk dances. The "stavan" poetry of Jainism, states M. Whitney Kelting, "draw much of their imagery from the "garba" poems" of Hinduism.

Navaratri is a Hindu festival that spans nine nights (and ten days) and is celebrated every year in the autumn. It is observed for different reasons and celebrated differently in various parts of the Indian cultural sphere. Theoretically, there are four seasonal "Navaratri". However, in practice, it is the post-monsoon autumn festival called Sharada Navaratri that is the most observed in the honor of the divine feminine Devi (Durga). The festival is celebrated in the bright half of the Hindu calendar month "Ashvin", which typically falls in the Gregorian months of September and October.

Navratri oder Navaratri (Sanskrit: नवरात्रि = „neun Nächte“) ist eines der wichtigsten Feste im hinduistischen Jahreszyklus. Es wird vor allem in Indien und in Nepal gefeiert. Eigentlich gibt es vier Navratri-Feste, doch durchgesetzt hat sich nur das häufig mit der Göttin Durga verbundene "Sharada-Navratri" in der Nach-Monsunzeit.


Childhood, education and career in the German Reich.

Kronstein came from a respected and wealthy Jewish family of Karlsruhe. He did his military service in the First World War and suffered a severe wound. Later he began studying law in Heidelberg and Berlin. Kronstein received his doctorate in 1924 from Martin Wolff in Berlin. He then worked as a lawyer in Mannheim, where he founded in 1931 together with Wilhelm Zutt the law firm "Kronstein Zutt" and specialized in patent law. Until 1935 he was still able to work as a lawyer in Germany, inter alias in the settlement of the sale of Jewish companies ("Aryanization").

Exile in the US.

At the end of 1935, Kronstein emigrated with his family to the United States and first tried to work in New York City as a consultant on foreign law. He studied law in New York from 1936 (Columbia University) with a Bachelor of Laws degree. In 1939 he moved to Washington D.C., graduated in 1940 at the Georgetown University Law School in Washington a second time, made in 1941 the "bar exam" for international law and became "Professor of Comparative Law."  Since 1936, Kronstein worked as a freelancer for the U.S. Department of Justice as a translator and appraiser. After gaining US citizenship, he was appointed a permanent Special Attorney in 1941. Kronstein worked initially or predominantly for the Claims Division, but had reservations about having to confiscate German assets after America entered the war against Germany. Because of his special knowledge of patent law and patent cartels and because of his background being from Germany Kronstein served in the Ministry of Justice as a cartel expert. To do this, in 1941/1942 he moved to the Antitrust division under Thurman Arnold. From the beginning on, he did important work for this division: In front of the Senate Commission on Patent Affairs Kronstein suggested that the cartelized economic structure of Germany had facilitated Hitler the seizure of power. In the Department of Justice, he was also a member of the so-called Antimonopoly Committee, which dealt with the reconstruction of Europe after the war.  From 1946 Kronstein taught as a full professor at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.

Later career in the Federal Republic of Germany.

From 1951 to 1965, Kronstein taught at the Law Faculty of Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main. In the years 1956/57 he officiated there as a full professor of commercial law.  In 1967, Kronstein was awarded the Federal German Cross of Merit.

Heinrich David Kronstein (September 12, 1897 in Karlsruhe – September 26, 1972 in Frankfurt) was a German lawyer and university professor. From late 1935 to early 1951, he lived in the U.S. and was an advisor in cartel matters and on the German question after WW II.

Heinrich David Kronstein (* 12. September 1897 in Karlsruhe; † 26. September 1972 in Frankfurt am Main) war ein deutscher Jurist, Rechtsanwalt und Hochschullehrer.


Background.

After three years out of power, Pakalitha Mosisili returned to office as Prime Minister in the February 2015 general election as leader of the Democratic Congress, defeating Prime Minister Tom Thabane of the All Basotho Convention. However, in November 2016 an agreement was announced between the deputy leader of the Democratic Congress, Monyane Moleleki, and Tom Thabane to remove Mosisili and install Moleleki as Prime Minister. Moleleki was suspended from the Democratic Congress in December 2016 and launched a new party, the Alliance of Democrats, in January 2017.  On 12 February 2017 Thabane returned to Lesotho from self-imposed exile, declaring that Prime Minister Mosisili no longer commanded a parliamentary majority and vowing to oust him in a vote of no confidence. He claimed that he was risking his life by returning.  The new opposition alliance defeated Mosisili in a vote of no confidence on 1 March 2017 and proposed Moleleki as the new Prime Minister; Mosisili, faced with the choice of stepping aside in favor of Moleleki or calling an early election, chose the latter. He advised King Letsie III to dissolve Parliament, and the King did so on 7 March, despite an opposition effort to obstruct the move. It was announced on 13 March that an early election would be held on 3 June 2017.

Electoral system.

The 120 members of the National Assembly are elected using the mixed-member proportional representation system, with voters casting a single vote. Eighty members are elected from single-member constituencies by first-past-the-post voting, with the remaining 40 elected from a single nationwide constituency in a closed list as leveling seats. The votes from every constituency are totalled (with votes cast for independent candidates ignored) to give a nationwide total for each party. A quota of the 120 total seats in the National Assembly is then calculated using each party's vote share and the number of seats won in constituencies is deducted in order to give the number of the 40 leveling -seats that a party is due. If the total number of seats due to be awarded is less than 120, the highest remainder method is used to distribute the remaining leveling seats.

Results.

Partial results available by 5 June, with counting for 57 constituencies completed, showed Thabane's opposition party, the ABC, winning 45 constituencies against only eight for Mosisili's party, the Democratic Congress.  Full results were released on 6 June, confirming a victory for Thabane and the ABC, which won 48 seats against 30 for Mosisili's Democratic Congress.  <onlyinclude> </onlyinclude>

Government formation.

The ABC said on 6 June that it planned to form a government in coalition with the Alliance of Democrats, the Basotho National Party, and the Reformed Congress of Lesotho. A government statement on 8 June said that Mosisili had submitted his resignation to King Letsie but would continue in a caretaker capacity. However, on 9 June, Deputy Prime Minister Mothetjoa Metsing, leader of the Lesotho Congress for Democracy, said that "there is no need for the removal of the existing government in office" and argued for the formation of "a government of national unity" for the sake of national stability.  Thabane's estranged wife Dipolelo was shot and killed on 14 June. Thabane was sworn in as Prime Minister on 16 June, and his cabinet was sworn in on 23 June, including Monyane Moleleki as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Parliamentary Affairs.

Early general elections were held in Lesotho on 3 June 2017 to elect all 120 seats of the National Assembly, the lower house of the Parliament. The elections were called more than three years ahead of schedule due to a successful vote of no confidence against the incumbent Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili.

Die Parlamentswahlen in Lesotho 2017 fanden am 3. Juni 2017 im Königreich Lesotho statt. Gewählt wurde die Nationalversammlung, die den Premierminister und damit die Regierung wählt. Es handelte sich um eine vorgezogene Neuwahl; der reguläre Termin wäre im Jahr 2020 gewesen. Das amtliche Endergebnis wurde am 6. Juni 2017 bekannt gegeben. Die All Basotho Convention gewann die meisten Sitze, so dass Thomas Thabane von einer Koalition aus vier Parteien zum Premierminister gewählt wurde.


Geography.

Kalugumalai is located at 9.152962, 77.704386. It has an average elevation of 105 metres (344 feet). It is strategically located in between Kovilpatti (20 km from kalugumalai) and Sankarankoil (19 km from kalugumalai) and served as ancient trade route from Kovilpatti to courtallam and sengottai. The village has two parts Kazhugumalai and South Kazhugumalai or kottai kalugumalai

History.

The hill Kalugumalai ("Hill of the vulture"). Earlier it was known as "Araimalai" or "Thirumalai". Even before that it was referred as Nechchuram and Tiruneccuram. Some of the epigraphies mentions that there was a palace for the pandya official called Ettimannan. At the foot of the Kalugumalai a large urn-burial cemetery was found. However hundreds of urns were destroyed during limestone quarrying. Opposite to Kalugasalamoorthy Temple there is a small palace which served as local residence of Raja of Ettaiyapuram.  The place was the scene of Kalugumalai riots of 1895, when ten people were killed in caste clashes.

Demographics.

India census, Kalugumalai had a population of 14,834. Males constitute 49% of the population and females 51%. Kalugumalai has an average literacy rate of 70%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 78%, and female literacy is 63%. In Kalugumalai, 9% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Worship Places.

There are three important Temples in Kalugumalai and a huge Church.  There are many rock relief sculptures dating to the 8th-9th century A.D. in the area, including the rock cut image of Bhagawan Parshwanatha flanked by two Yaksha, as well as many other rock cut images of other tirthankaras.  The area is known for the Jain cave temple and architecture. There are a number of Jain images with labels in vattezhuthu script. The epigraphs mentions the name of the donors,of the figures, of the provisions made for the offerings, etc. The main deity of the hill was called "Araimalai Alwar". The other figures were caused to be made by the followers of Jain faith from a number of villages nearby. The sculptures were caused to be made in memory of the departed souls. There are approximately one hundred and fifty relief sculptures. Among the donors were the carpenters, potters, smiths, cultivators and other workers. A number of others were high ranking persons bearing the titles of Enadi, Etti and Kavidi. Provisions are also recorded for expounding Jain siddhanta a Gunasagara bhattara a great Jain ascetic lived here. The sculptures and the epigraphs are to be assigned to the reign of Pandya, Parantaka Nedunjadaiya (A.D. 768-800). From different epigraphies it is found that they belong to different era and the place became extinct after the 13th century due to loss of Patronage after Pandya kings.  Vettuvan Koil () is a Hindu temple built between the 8th and 9th century. Kalugumalai is a priceless unfinished Pandyan monolith cave temple, part of the iconographic richness that helped chronicle the burgeoning richness of the Tamil culture, traditions, and sacred centres containing religious art. About 7.5 meter of the mountain is excavated in a rectangular fashion and in the middle the temple is sculpted from a single piece of rock. The carvings reflect the southern temple style of the Pandya era. Only the top portion of the temple is completed. The temple has an entrance and centre hall for the main deity. In the later days Ganesha's idol is kept and worshipped. At the top of the temple beautiful sculpture of Uma Maheswarar, Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu and Brahma can be found. This temple is of same style of Kailasnath temple in Ellora, structural shrines at Pattadakal in Bijapur, monolithic temples of Pallavas at Mamallapuram showing the close political relationship between Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. There are around 122 sculptures in the rock cut temple. The intricately carved statues are from fine granite. here another one temple is famous Sri Ananthamma kovil  The main deity of this temple is Murugan. The main deity hall and entrance hall is excavated inside the foot hills of kalugumalai in the south western corner of the hill and with external structural additions. The temple has many aesthetic sculptures.The temple dates to the 18th century. The main deity is Lord Murugan with his wife Deivanai. The temple complex also has shrines of Shiva, Akilandeswari, Vinayakar and many lesser deities. Our Lady Of Lourdes Church is the biggest Roman Catholic Church in Vicinity. This church is more than 100 years old and is adorned with two tall steeples in the front entrance of this church. This church has over 3000 members who gather here every week for prayers and are also actively involved in community activities. A primary school named as St. Mary's Primary School managed by this church is located adjacent to it.  Other than these temples there is Vinayaga temple at the top of the Kalugumalai hill and Ayyanar temple on the way to Jaina Abode.

Trade.

Kalugumalai, along with surrounding villages, specializes in the manufacturing of safety matches. There are hundreds of small scale industries involved in this trade, supported by the dry climatic condition and skilled labor available. Grocery business is another one doing in large scale.

Kalugumalai is a panchayat town in Kovilpatti Taluk of Thoothukudi district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Kalugumalai is 21 km and 22 km from Kovilpatti and Sankarankovil respectively. The place houses the rockcut Kalugasalamoorthy Temple, monolithic Vettuvan Koil and Kalugumalai Jain Beds.

Kalugumalai (Tamil: "Kaḻukumalai" [], auch "Kazhugumalai") ist eine Kleinstadt im indischen Bundesstaat Tamil Nadu. Die Einwohnerzahl beträgt rund 15.000 (Volkszählung 2011).