Elimination tournaments.

In a standard single-elimination tournament, each round has half the number of teams as the preceding round. Thus the finals will have two, the semi-finals will have four, the quarter finals will have eight, etc. Thus tournaments with competitors numbering a power of two can have a standard bracket in which all teams are paired up with the loser of each match eliminated and the winner moving on to the next round until only one champion remains.  Therefore, if the number of teams is not a power of two, a simple elimination tournament would eventually produce a round with an odd number of teams (if the number is not odd to start with). For example, a tournament of nine teams could only have four matches in the first round, while a simple tournament of ten teams would produce a second round with five teams, meaning only two matches could occur. Thus, if the number of participants is not a power of two (e.g. 16 or 32), to make a working bracket byes are provided to automatically move certain participants into a later round without requiring them to compete in an earlier one.  When participants are ranked, participants with the highest ranking going into the tournament are given a bye to the second round, as it is generally seen as an advantage to be assured entry into a later round. In the NFL playoffs, for example, come, the division-leader with the best record in each conference is given a bye to the second round. The Canadian Football League (CFL) also grants a bye to its two division winners, directly to the division finals as four other teams compete in a semi-final week. In other tournaments where teams are unranked, random draw may be used to determine the byes.  The number of teams offered a bye is generally designed to ensure that the next round consists of a power-of-two number of teams so the tournament can proceed as a simple single-elimination tournament from that round onward.  If the byes are all single first-round byes into the second round of a tournament, the number of byes required is the difference between the number of teams and the next-highest power of two. For example, a 12-team tournament will require four byes (16−12) to ensure that instead of six teams in the second round, eight advance (as the four byes avoid two of the four teams being eliminated).

Examples from Gaelic football.

In the Provincial Championships of Gaelic football, some teams receive a bye due to the irregular number of teams competing in each province. The different numbers resulted in different byes alignments in each Provincial Championship.  For example, below is an assessment of the 2012 Provincial Championships, and their use of the "bye".  Seven teams contested the 2012 Connacht Senior Football Championship, so a quarter-final was not played by Mayo. Mayo therefore advanced directly to the semi-final to await the winner of the game between Leitrim and London.  Eleven teams contested the 2012 Leinster Senior Football Championship, so five teams were given first round byes. Three teams (Carlow, Dublin and Wexford) played winners of the three preliminary matches, while the other two played each other in the quarter-finals without playing a game in the preliminary round.  Six teams contested the 2012 Munster Senior Football Championship, so two teams (Clare and Cork) were permitted to advance to the semi-finals without playing a game in the quarter-finals.  Nine teams contested the 2012 Ulster Senior Football Championship, so only Cavan and Donegal played in the preliminary round, while the other seven advanced via bye to the quarter-finals without playing a game in the preliminary round.

"Double byes".

While less common, byes can be offered for multiple rounds (e.g. a "double bye" directly into the third round), or starting in a later round (e.g. the top-ranked team in the first round is given a bye straight to the third round). A bye granted in a later round of the tournament eliminates the need for two byes in the previous round. In the English FA Cup, the football clubs in the top two league divisions receive two-round byes and enter in the third round "proper" (of eight); the two next-highest divisions' teams will have entered in the first round. Another example is the UEFA Europa League.  The WNBA also grants double byes to the league's top two seeds, while the next two seeds get first-round byes for their playoffs.  In NCAA Division I basketball, the 2009 Big East Men's Basketball Tournament introduced "double byes", as the conference invited all 16 members to participate for the first time (previously only the top twelve were invited). To limit the number of games each round to four, the four highest seeded teams were advanced to the third round of competition, the 5th-8th seeded teams given byes to the second round, and the bottom eight competed the first day.  Due to the realignment of major conferences, "double byes" were no longer needed by the Big East after 2013, but were added by the Southeast Conference in 2013, the Atlantic Coast and Atlantic 10 conferences in 2014, and the Big Ten in 2015 as each expanded beyond 12 teams.

Hidden byes (play-in games).

In certain tournaments, the byes are somewhat disguised. When more teams are given first-round byes than actually compete in the first round, these first games may be referred to as "play-in" games and might not be a formally labelled as a tournament round.  Since 2012, the Major League Baseball playoffs has included ten teams consisting of six division winners and four wildcard teams (the top-ranked non-division-winners). The first round of the playoffs consists two wild-card games: single-game matches in which the four wild-card teams are reduced to two. The winners move on to the Divisional series with the six division winners for an eight-team, three-round tournament. Although this is billed as adding two extra "one-game showdowns" to the post-season, it could also be viewed as adding a fourth round to the ten-team tournament with six byes for the division winners.  The FA Cup also has certain teams compete in up to 6 preliminary rounds to qualify for the first round "proper".  Another example is the NCAA Basketball Tournament, which since 2011 has had 68 teams, effectively granting 60 byes, while eight teams compete in the "First Four" games for remaining four spots in the round of 64. From 2011 to 2015, the "First Four" was considered the first round, the round of 64 played on Thursday and Friday, was called the "second round"; the round of 32 was then called the "third round", consisting of games played on Saturday and Sunday. In 2016, the naming reverted to the round of 64 being the "first round" once again, and the round of 32 being the "second round"., though the play-in round and all eight of those teams are officially part of the tournament.

Bye weeks in football leagues.

Certain professional rugby and gridiron football leagues use the term "bye week" for any week during the regular season in which a team does not play a game. (School teams may also have non-competing weeks, but these are scheduled by individual schools and more commonly termed "open dates".)

United States.

Each NFL team has one "bye week" during a normal season; this is placed on the team's schedule, usually falling between Week 4 and Week 12 inclusive (note that whenever Thanksgiving falls during Week 12, the Dallas Cowboys and Detroit Lions may not have a bye during Week 12).  During the 1960 and 1966 NFL seasons, the league had an odd number of teams due to expansion. Each week during those seasons, one team had a bye, including one team each in the first and last week of the season. (Thus, because they had to play all their games with no break in the middle, those two teams effectively had "no" byes.) The American Football League (at the time a completely separate league, but later became the American Football Conference) also had an odd number of teams in 1966 and 1967 following the addition of the Miami Dolphins, leaving each team with two bye weeks.  The NFL returned to the use of the bye week in 1990 so as to extend the 16-game regular season schedule to span 17 weeks to increase the number of viewable games for TV contracts. The 1993 NFL season spanned 18 weeks with each team having 2 bye weeks.  Between the 1999 through 2001 seasons, the NFL had an odd number of teams, 31, as a result of the Cleveland Browns re-entering the league. Each week during these three seasons featured at least one team with its bye week (the 2001 season also added an additional impromptu league-wide bye the weekend after the September 11 attacks). The league returned to having an even number of teams (32) in the 2002 season with the addition of the Houston Texans, and implemented the current bye week system.  Sarcastically, the media may refer to a team having a "bye week" if that team is playing an especially bad team and is all but assured of a win.  In the rare case of a game postponement that cannot be made up within the same week, the NFL may revise bye weeks assignments in order to reschedule the delayed game, making the postponement week those teams new "bye week".

Canada.

Traditionally, the CFL has had nine teams and required bye weeks. Beginning 2018, each team has three bye weeks and 18 games over a 21-week regular season.  In most seasons, (from 2014 to 2017 and prior to 2007), each team has two bye weeks during the 20 week 18-game regular season. When the league had only 8 teams, the league usually had no bye weeks. However between 2007 and 2013, the league had one bye per team over in two weeks in August (4 teams would have a bye during week 6 and the other 4 teams would have a bye on week 7).

Australia.

In Australia's National Rugby League (NRL), each team has two byes each season. During the representative period of the season (such as the State of Origin), byes are generally scheduled to the clubs that are expected to have the most players involved in the representative match, in the round preceding (or following) the representative fixture, to allow those clubs to sufficiently rest those players and prevent them from fielding a weakened side. On the competition ladder, teams are awarded two points (equivalent to a win) during their bye week except for the Melbourne Storm in 2010, who were barred from receiving premiership points for the remainder of the season as a punishment for gross long-term breaches of the salary cap.  The Australian Football League, which comprises an even number of clubs, gives each club a bye week in mid-season. In 1915, 1919 to 1924, 1942 and 1943, 1991 to 1994 and 2011, when there were an odd number of clubs competing, each club was given two byes.  In both leagues, and under many other professional and amateur sports leagues in Australia, higher placed teams don't earn byes during finals, but instead the opportunity not to be eliminated by losing their first-round match (also called a double chance). This practice is common in Australia, but it is not used in most other countries, to earn an easier passage to the Grand Final as reward for finishing higher on the ladder. This is different from a double elimination format, in which a team has to lose both in the tournament and the repechage to be eliminated.

Gymnastics.

In a variation of the round-robin case, at certain high-level competitions in artistic gymnastics, teams cycle through the apparatuses in an "Olympic Order" with scheduled byes in between.  As an example, the NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championships has 36 teams with six teams apiece at six regional sites, with 12 advancing to two semifinal rounds of six that decide participants for the final "Super Six". In each of these nine sextets, each team competes during four of six "rotations" with the other two as byesscheduled before the uneven bars and the floor exercise. For example, Semifinal II of the 2018 championships operated as follows

Swiss system tournaments.

In a Swiss-system tournament with an odd number of players, one player gets a bye in each round, but not all players will get a bye (as there are fewer rounds than there are players). FIDE specifies that "pairing-allocated" byes in their sanctioned chess tournaments may not be awarded multiple times to the same participant. Contrasting use in some single-elimination brackets, the byes are to be allocated to the lowest-rated eligible player in the pool.

A bye in sports (and certain other competitions, such as chess) refers to organizers scheduling a competitor not to participate in a given round of competition, due to one of several circumstances.

Ein Freilos () gewährt einem Sportler oder einer Sportmannschaft den Einzug in die nächste Runde, ohne das dazu eigentlich notwendige Spiel angetreten zu haben.


Early life.

Born at Maidstone in Kent, Richard Woodville was the son of Richard Wydeville (Woodville), chamberlain to the Duke of Bedford, and Joan Bittlesgate (or Bedlisgate), the daughter of Thomas Bittlesgate of Knightstone in the parish of Ottery St Mary in Devon. He was also grandson of John Wydeville who was Sheriff of Northamptonshire (in 1380, 1385, 1390).

Marriage and courtly career.

Woodville followed his father into service with the Duke of Bedford. In 1433 the Duke had married the 17-year-old Jacquetta of Luxembourg; she was the Duke's second wife and he was significantly older and in ill health. When the Duke died in 1435, Jacquetta was left a childless and wealthy widow. She was required to seek permission from King Henry VI before she could remarry, but in March 1437 it was revealed that she had secretly married Richard Woodville who was far below her in rank and not considered a suitable husband for the lady still honoured as the king's aunt. The couple were fined £1000, but this was remitted in October of the same year.  Despite this inauspicious start, the married couple soon prospered, thanks mainly to Jacquetta's continuing prominence within the royal family. She retained her rank and dower as Duchess of Bedford, which initially provided an income of between £7000 and £8000 per year, though over the years this diminished as a result of territorial losses in France and collapsing royal finances in England. Richard Woodville was honoured with military ranks, in which he proved himself a capable soldier.  Further honours for both came when Henry VI married Margaret of Anjou, whose uncle was Jacquetta's brother-in-law (Jacquetta's sister Isabelle married Margaret of Anjou's paternal uncle Charles du Maine). The Woodvilles were among those chosen to escort the bride to England, and the family benefited further through this double connection to the royal family. Sir Richard was raised to the rank of Baron Rivers in 1448. Their children therefore would grow up enjoying considerable privilege and material comfort.

Military career.

Woodville was a captain in 1429, served in France in 1433 and was a knight of the regent Duke of Bedford in 1435. He was at Gerberoy in 1435 and served under William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, in 1435–36. He then fought under Somerset and Shrewsbury in 1439 and the Duke of York in 1441–42, when he was made captain of Alençon and knight banneret. He was appointed seneschal of Gascony in 1450 (but failed to reach it before its fall), lieutenant of Calais in 1454–55, and to defend Kent against invasion by the Yorkist earls in 1459–60 (but was captured at Sandwich). He was created Baron Rivers by Henry VI on 9 May 1448. Two years later, as Sir Richard, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter in 1450. He was appointed Warden of the Cinque Ports in 1459.  In the Wars of the Roses, he was initially a Lancastrian, but he became a Yorkist when he thought that the Lancastrian cause was lost. He reconciled himself to the victorious Edward IV, his future son-in-law. On 1 May 1464, Edward married his daughter Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby. Richard was created Earl Rivers in 1466, appointed Lord Treasurer in March 1466 and Constable of England on 24 August 1467.

Later career.

The power of this new family was very distasteful to the old baronial party, and especially so to the Earl of Warwick. Rivers was regarded as a social upstart, and in an ironical episode, his future son-in-law in 1459, while accepting his submission, had rebuked him for daring, given his lowly birth, to fight against the House of York. The Privy Council, in its horrified response to the King's marriage, said bluntly that Richard Woodville's low social standing in itself meant that the King must surely know "that Elizabeth was not the wife for him". Early in 1468, the Rivers estates were plundered by Warwick's partisans, and the open war of the following year was aimed at destroying the Woodvilles. After the Yorkist defeat at the Battle of Edgecote Moor on 26 July 1469, Rivers and his second son John were taken prisoners at Chepstow. Following a hasty show trial, they were beheaded at Kenilworth on 12 August 1469.  Richard Woodville's eldest son Anthony succeeded him in the earldom.  Lord Rivers had a large family. His third son, Lionel (d. 1484) became the Bishop of Salisbury. All his daughters made great marriages: Catherine Woodville, his eighth daughter, was the wife of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham.  "Woodville" is the modern spelling of the name: in their own time "Wydeville", "Wydville" and other variants were used.

Children of Richard Woodville and Jacquetta of Luxembourg.

They had at least 14 children:  Robert Glover, Somerset Herald, noted another 'Richard' who would seem to have been born before Richard the 3rd Earl. A 'Richard Woodville, esquire for the body' was present at the christening of Prince Arthur (son of Elizabeth and Henry VII) on 24 September 1486 in Winchester Cathedral; Arthur's grandmother, Elizabeth Woodville, served as his Godmother, and her younger brother Edward was also present at the ceremony.  The Visitation of Buckinghamshire of 1566 mentions the marriage of William Dormer of Wycombe (only later of Ascott House) to "Agnes, da. of Sir Richard Woodvyle, Erle Ryvers" but does not say whether the father was the first or the third earl, who the mother was or whether Agnes was legitimate.

In fiction.

Woodville is a primary character in Philippa Gregory's 2011 novel about Jacquetta of Luxembourg, "The Lady of the Rivers". In "The White Queen" television series, he is portrayed by Robert Pugh.

Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers (1405 – 12 August 1469), also Wydeville, was the father of Elizabeth Woodville and father-in-law of Edward IV.

Richard Woodville, 1. Earl Rivers KG (eigentlich "Richard Wydeville" oder "Wydville", * um 1405 in Maidstone; † 12. August 1469 in Kenilworth) war ein englischer Militär und Adliger, der über seine Enkelin Elizabeth von York zu den Vorfahren des heutigen britischen Königshauses gehört.


Playing career.

In his early years, Kostopoulos graduated from Fairwind Senior Public School in 1993. As a youth, he played in the 1993 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Toronto Red Wings minor ice hockey team. After playing much of his minor hockey in the GTHL with the Toronto Marlboros and Mississauga Reps, Kostopoulos played one year with the Brampton Capitals of the OJHL (OHA). He was a 2nd round pick (18th overall) in the 1996 OHL Priority Selection by the London Knights.  Kostopoulos was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the seventh round of the 1999 NHL Entry Draft. Before that he played junior hockey with the London Knights of the Ontario Hockey League. He made his professional minor-league hockey debut with the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins of the American Hockey League. Kostopoulos made his NHL debut with the Penguins in the 2001–02 season and enjoyed his best season so far with Pittsburgh in 2003–04. During the 2005 off season, he played with the Manchester Monarchs, having signed a free-agent contract with the Los Angeles Kings. On July 3, 2007 he signed a free-agent contract with the Montreal Canadiens.  On January 22, 2008, he recorded a Gordie Howe hat trick in an 8–2 victory against the Boston Bruins.  On November 10, 2008, Kostopoulos was suspended for three games for a hit on Toronto Maple Leafs defenceman Mike Van Ryn during the game between the teams on November 8. He was given a boarding major penalty and ejected from the game. Kostopoulos also forfeited US-$33,000 in pay. Kostopoulos responded about the incident by saying," First and foremost, I sincerely regret the injuries suffered by Mike Van Ryn...this is an unfortunate turn of events. I was just trying to get in on the forecheck and get the puck. I didn't anticipate him turning and couldn't stop. I was trying to finish my check and obviously it did not end up well. I never intend on injuring another player. I feel bad. I hope he is going to be all right and resume playing as quickly as possible." NHL disciplinarian Colin Campbell said in announcing the suspension that while Van Ryn was not in a defenceless position, his injuries—including a concussion—were significant enough to warrant suspending Kostopoulos.  Kostopoulos was again suspended for a January 7, 2011, hit which broke Brad Stuart's jaw. Kostopoulos was assessed a minor roughing penalty during the game, but then served a six-game suspension for making primary contact with the head.  On January 23, 2013, the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins of the AHL announced Kostopoulos had signed with the team on a Professional Try Out. On March 5, 2013, the Pittsburgh Penguins signed Kostopoulos to a one-year two-way contract but was claimed off waivers by the New Jersey Devils the following day.  On September 3, 2013, Kostopoulos signed a one-year AHL contract to continue to play with and lead the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins.

Coaching career.

On April 4, 2018, Kostopoulos announced he planned on retiring at the conclusion of the 2017–18 season, his 19th professional year. After retiring, he joined the Penguins organization as a player development coach.

Personal life.

Kostopoulos was born in Mississauga, Ontario, on January 24, 1979. He names his brother Chris, a coach in Texas, as his biggest influence in hockey. Kostopoulos has three nephews, Cameron, Tyler, and Josh who live in Texas with his brother Chris. Kostopoulos also has one half sister, Laurie Bodley. They spend their offseasons in Oakville, Ontario.  Kostopoulos and his wife Lisa have two children together.  His mother is Cheryl Kostopoulos, who is of English heritage, and his father is George Kostopoulos, who is Greek.  He is of Greek descent, and in 2008 was the grand marshal of the Hellenic Community of Montreal's Greek Independence Day parade. Kostopoulos is involved with the Canadian Cancer Society as well as Garth Brooks' Teammates For Kids Foundation.

Thomas George Kostopoulos (; born January 24, 1979) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player. He most notably played in the National Hockey League (NHL) before playing his career with the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins in the American Hockey League (AHL). Kostopoulos was selected by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the seventh round (204th overall) of the 1999 NHL Entry Draft, and the 2017–18 season was his 19th year as a professional hockey player.

Thomas „Tom“ Kostopoulos (* 24. Januar 1979 in Mississauga, Ontario) ist ein ehemaliger kanadischer Eishockeyspieler. Der Flügelstürmer absolvierte über 600 Spiele für die Pittsburgh Penguins, Los Angeles Kings, Montréal Canadiens, Carolina Hurricanes, Calgary Flames und New Jersey Devils in der National Hockey League. Den Großteil seiner aktiven Laufbahn verbrachte er allerdings in der American Hockey League, in der er über 800 Partien absolvierte.


History.

In the 9th year of Tang Emperor Taizong, the State government was moved to Biyang () (the Biyang now). In the 13th year of Kaiyuan (725 A.D.) of Tang Emperor Xuanzong, re-established the Shangma County divided from Huyang County, and all belong to the Tangzhou State. In the 1st year of Tianbao (742 A. D.) of Tang Emperor Xuanzong, the Shangma County was renamed Biyang () County (the County government is near the urban district of Tanghe County now), and belongs to Tangzhou State. In the 3rd year of Tianyou (906 A.D.) of Tang Emperor Aidi, the state government was moved from Biyang () to Biyang () (now the urban district of Tanghe County), and Tangzhou State was renamed to Bizhou () State.  In the 11th year of Shaoxing (1141 A.D.) of Song Emperor Gaozong, was belongs to Jin Kingdom, and return to South Song in the 31st year of Shaoxing. In the 2nd year of Longxing (1164 A. D.) of South Song Emperor Xiaozong, was belongs to Jin Kingdom. In the alternately of South Song and Jin, the attribute had no changed. In the 6th year of Jiading of South Song Emperor Ningzong, also the 1st year of Zhining of Jin Emperor Weishao (1213 A.D.), the Huyang County was abolished and incorporated to Biyang () County (now Tanghe) as Huyang Town, and belongs to Tangzhou State. In the 1st year of Duanping (1234 A.D.) of South Song Emperor Lizong, the Jin Kingdom was eliminated by the union of Mongol Kingdom and Song Kingdom, the Biyang () County (now Tanghe) returned to South Song and belongs to Tangzhou State.  In the 2nd year of Zhiyuan (1265 A.D.) of Yuan Emperor Shizu Kublai Khan, the Huyang County was re-established separate from the Biyang County (now Tanghe) and belongs to Tangzhou State. At this time, the Tangzhou State administered Biyang () (now tanghe), Huyang, Biyang () (now Biyang) and Tongbai this four Counties. In the 3rd year of Zhiyuan (1266 A.D.), the Huyang, Biyang () and Tongbai Counties were abolished and set Huyang, Biyang () and Tongbai Town, respectively, and incorporated to Tangzhou State. Then the Biyang () (now tanghe) was incorporated to Tangzhou State too. At this time, the Tangzhou State had no County to administrate at all, and belongs to the Jiangbei Road of Henan. In the 8th year (1271 A.D.), belongs to Nanyang Fu ().  In the 2nd year of Hongwu (1369 A.D.), the Tangzhou State was abolished and set Tang County (govern the urban district of now Tanghe), belongs to Nanyang Fu. In the 14th year (1381 A.D.), the Biyang () Town was separated from Tang County and set Biyang () County (govern the now Biyang County). In the 12th year of Chenghua (1476 A.D.), the Tongbai Town was separated and set Tongbai County (govern the now Tongbai County).  Inheritance and followed the system of Ming dynasty.  In the beginning year was Tang County, belongs to Nanyang Fu. In the 2nd year of ROC (1913 A.D.), renamed the Biyuan () County, belongs to Yunan (South Henan) Road. In the 3rd year, changed and belongs to Ruyang Road. In the 12th year, renamed Tanghe County, belong to Ruyang Road. In the 16th year, the Ruyang Road was abolished, the County belongs to Henan Province. In the 21st year, changed and belongs to the Sixth District Chief Inspector of Henan Province.  In November of the 37th year, the County was captured by the PLA. In December 28, the Tanghe County (also named Tangbei County, government located in the now urban district ), Tangnan County (dominate the south of Sanjiahe River, government located in the now Qiyi Town) were established. In the August of next year, the Tangxi County (government located in the now Zhangdian Town). In 1947 – 1948, the Tanghe (or Tangbei), Tangnan and Tangxi Counties in the territory, and all belongs to the First Patriotic Democratic Chief Inspector of Tongbai Region. In the winter of 37th year of ROC, the Tanghe (Tangbei) County was changed and belongs to the Second Patriotic Democratic Chief Inspector of Tongbai Region. In March of the 38th year, the Tanghe (Tangbei), Tangnan and Tangxi County merge into Tanghe County, the county government located in now Tanghe County, belongs to Nanyang Region.  Named Tanghe County, still belongs to Nanyang Region.

Transport.

Public transportation.

Connections between Tanghe city and all its towns are provided by buses.

Tanghe County is administered by the prefecture-level city of Nanyang, in the southwest of Henan province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hubei province to the south. Its ancient name was Tangzhou ().

Tanghe () ist ein Kreis der bezirksfreien Stadt Nanyang in der chinesischen Provinz Henan. 1999 zählte er 1.280.181 Einwohner. Die Pagode des Sizhou-Tempels (Sizhou si ta 泗洲寺塔) steht seit 2006 auf der Liste der Denkmäler der Volksrepublik China (6-625).


History.

The square is named after the second oldest church in Bremen, the Medieval Gothic Unser Lieben Frauen Kirche, which dominated it.  Until the end of the thirteenth century, the Friedhof lay next to the church. The original Bremen City Hall from the thirteenth century was located on the west side at the corner of Obernstraße, Sögestraße and the square. At this time the square also served increasingly as a marketplace and the Liebfrauenkirche as market church. When the City Hall was rebuilt in 1405, the Bremer Market was also moved. In the seventeenth century the Old Börse stood on the south side on the modern Obernstraße; at first it was only a simple covered stall over a wine cellar. In 1687, a one-story building was erected above the wine cellar in the Baroque style which was then still unknown in Bremen, following plans of the Council architect Jean Baptiste Broebes, who had fled from Paris. A second floor was added between 1734 and 1736 after the plans of Giselher von Warneck. Subsequently, the old graves were removed from the little churchyard in 1813 and the fenced square was expanded; so that the Bremer Freimarkt could take place here. The first "comptoir" of the Sparkasse Bremen was in the Alte Börse from 1825 to 1845. In 1888 the Alte Börse burnt down.  The Kaiser Wilhelm monument stood here from 1890/3 until it was melted down for armaments as a "Metallspende" (metal donation) i 1942. Today the square is surrounded on its northern and western sides by shops and offices; to the east still stands the Liebfrauenkirche with its parish house. In 1909 the decagonal Marcus Fountain, donated by Mayor Marcus, was inaugurated on the square. In the same year a Moltke monument was installed at the Liebfrauenkirche for Helmuth von Moltke.  The east side is formed by the Neues Rathaus, which was built on the location of the old Bishop's Palace in the Neo-Renaissance style, according to plans by Gabriel von Seidl and was inaugurated in 1913.  Two foodstands are located on the square, immediately next to the fencing of the Alten Börse.

Monuments.

The whole square, with the following buildings is under cultural heritage management:

Unser Lieben Frauen Kirchhof (German: "Our Loving Lady Churchyard") is a central square in Bremen between the Bremer Marktplatz, Obernstraße, Sögestraße and the Domshof. The square is used as a flower market. The appearance of the square is quite consistent: sandstone (as in the church), dark brick (as in the Rathaus) and clinker brick.

Unser Lieben Frauen Kirchhof ist ein zentraler Platz in Bremen zwischen dem Bremer Marktplatz, der Obernstraße, der Sögestraße und dem Domshof. Der Platz wird als Blumenmarkt genutzt. Die Gestaltung des Platzes ist recht einheitlich geprägt durch die Materialien Sandstein (u. a. Kirche) und dunklen Backstein (u. a. Rathaus) oder Klinker.


History.

Establishment and early leadership under Benjamin Strong.

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York opened for business on November 16, 1914, under the leadership of Benjamin Strong Jr., who had previously been president of the Bankers Trust Company. He led the Bank until his death in 1928. Strong became the executive officer (then called the "governor"—today, the term would be "president"). As the leader of the Federal Reserve's largest and most powerful district bank, Strong became a dominant force in U.S. monetary and banking affairs. One biographer has termed him the "de facto leader of the entire Federal Reserve System". This was not only because of Strong's abilities, but also because the central board's powers were ambiguous and, for the most part, limited to supervisory and regulatory functions under the 1913 Federal Reserve Act because many Americans were antagonistic to centralized control.  When the United States entered World War I, Strong was a major force behind the campaigns to fund the war effort via bonds owned primarily by U.S. citizens. This enabled the United States to avoid many of the post-war financial problems of the European belligerents. Strong gradually recognized the importance of open market operation, or purchases and sales of government securities, as a means of managing the quantity of money in the U.S. economy and thus affecting interest rates. This was particularly important at the time because gold had flooded into the United States during and after World War I. Thus, its gold-backed currency was well-protected, but prices had been pushed up substantially by the currency expansion due to the gold standard-imposed expansion of currency. In 1922, Strong unofficially scrapped the gold standard and instead began aggressively pursuing open market operations as a means of stabilizing domestic prices and thus internal economic stability. Thus, he began the Federal Reserve's practice of buying and selling government securities as monetary policy. John Maynard Keynes, a prominent British economist who had previously not questioned the gold standard, used Strong's activities as an example of how a central bank could manage a nation's economy without the gold standard in his book "A Tract on Monetary Reform" (1923). To quote one authority:  It was Strong more than anyone else who invented the modern central banker. When we watch... [central bankers of today] describe how they are seeking to strike the right balance between economic growth and price stability, it is the ghost of Benjamin Strong who hovers above him. It all sounds quite prosaically obvious now, but in 1922 it was a radical departure from more than two hundred years of central banking history.  Strong's policy of maintaining price levels during the 1920s through open market operation and his willingness to maintain the liquidity of banks during panics have been praised by monetarists and harshly criticized by Austrian economists.  With the European economic turmoil of the 1920s, Strong's influence became worldwide. He was a strong supporter of European efforts to return to the gold standard and economic stability. Strong's new monetary policies not only stabilized U.S. prices, they encouraged both U.S. and world trade by helping to stabilize European currencies and finances. However, with virtually no inflation, interest rates were low and the U.S. economy and corporate profits surged, fueling the stock market increases of the late 1920s. This worried him, but he also felt he had no choice because the low interest rates were helping Europeans (particularly Great Britain) in their effort to return to the gold standard.  Economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger states that Strong was one of the few U.S. policymakers interested in the troubled financial affairs of Europe in the 1920s, and that had he not died in 1928, just a year before the Great Depression, he might have been able to maintain stability in the international financial system.  A public competition for the design of the building was held and the architectural firm of York and Sawyer submitted the winning design. The bank moved to the new Federal Reserve Bank of New York Building in 1924. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York maintains a vault that lies below street level and below sea level, resting on Manhattan bedrock. By 1927, the vault contained 10% of the world's official gold reserves.

Terrorism attempt.

On October 17, 2012, Quazi Mohammad Rezwanul Ahsan Nafis, 21, was arrested while attempting to detonate what he believed to be an 800-pound bomb. A joint FBI/NYPD operation flagged the suspect on the Internet and set up the sting with fake explosives. In 2013, Nafis pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 30 years in federal prison.

Responsibilities.

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York publishes a monthly recession probability prediction derived from the yield curve and based on the work by Arturo Estrella & Tobias Adrian.  Their models show that, when the difference between short-term interest rates (using three-month T-bills) and long-term interest rates (using ten-year Treasury bonds) at the end of a Federal Reserve tightening cycle is negative or less than 93 basis points positive, a rise in unemployment usually occurs.

Largest regional Federal Reserve Bank.

Since the founding of the Federal Reserve banking system, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in Manhattan's Financial District has been the place where monetary policy in the United States is implemented, although policy is decided in Washington, D.C. by the Federal Reserve Board of Governors. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York is the largest in terms of assets of the twelve regional banks. Operating in the financial capital of the U.S., the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is responsible for conducting open market operations, the buying and selling of outstanding U.S. Treasury securities. The Trading Desk is the office at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York that manages the FOMC Directive to sell or buy bonds. Note that the responsibility for "issuing" new U.S. Treasury securities lies with the Bureau of the Public Debt. In 2003, Fedwire, the Federal Reserve's system for transferring balances between it and other banks, transferred $1.8 trillion a day in funds, of which about $1.1 trillion originated in the Second District. It transferred an additional $1.3 trillion a day in securities, of which $1.2 trillion originated in the Second District. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York is also responsible for carrying out exchange rate policy by buying and selling dollars at the discretion of the United States Treasury Department. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York is the only regional bank with a permanent vote on the Federal Open Market Committee and its president is traditionally selected as the Committee's vice chairman.Currently, it is reputedly the largest gold repository in the world (though this cannot be confirmed as Swiss banks do not report their gold stocks) and holds approximately of gold bullion ($415 billion as of October 2011), more than Fort Knox. Nearly 98% of the gold at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is owned by the central banks of foreign nations. The rest is owned by the United States and international organizations such as the IMF. The Federal Reserve Bank does not own the gold but serves as guardian of the precious metal, which it stores at no charge to the owners, but charging a $1.75 fee (in 2008) per bar to move the gold.

Branch.

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York Buffalo Branch was formerly the sole branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. It was formally disbanded on October 31, 2008.

Criticisms.

In 2009, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York commissioned a probe into its own practices. David Beim, finance professor at Columbia Business School submitted a report in 2009, released by the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission in 2011, saying "that a number of people he interviewed at the reserve bank believe that supervisors paid excessive deference to banks and, as a result, they were less aggressive in finding issues or in following up on them in a forceful way".  Following Stephen Friedman's resignation on 7 May 2009, Denis Hughes, formerly Deputy Chair, was designated as Interim Chair. The current Chair (for 2013) is Emily Rafferty, President of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.  In 2012, Carmen Segarra, then Federal Reserve Bank of New York bank examiner, told her superiors that Goldman Sachs had no policy governing conflicts of interest. She was "fired in May 2012 after refusing to change her findings on the conflict-of-interest policy and sued the New York Fed October 2013".  In April 2014 the U.S. District court in Manhattan dismissed the case, "ruling that Segarra failed to make a legally sufficient claim under the whistle-blower protections of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act".  In September 2014, Segarra's secretly recorded conversations were aired by "This American Life" and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York was accused of political corruption by being a "captured agency", "i.e.", subject to regulatory capture, of the banks which it supervises.

Board of Directors.

The following people serve on the board of directors. Terms expire on December 31 of their final year on the board.

In popular culture.

In the first "Godfather" movie, the "meeting of the Dons" scene uses the Federal Reserve building exterior, even though the interior of another New York building (the Penn Central railway boardroom) was also used for filming.  In the 1974 film "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" hijackers take over a subway train car and demand $1 million for release of the car and 19 passengers, and the city must deliver it to the train car within one hour or the hijackers will start executing passengers at the rate of one per minute until it's delivered. The money for the ransom, to be provided in bundles of used $50 and $100 bills, is frantically assembled by workers at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York while a police cruiser waits at the front entrance for it to be assembled for delivery.  The Federal Reserve Bank of New York plays a prominent role in the 1995 film "Die Hard with a Vengeance", starring Bruce Willis and Jeremy Irons. The Federal Reserve Bank is the setting for a major heist of the gold by Jeremy Irons' character, Simon Gruber. The vault is penetrated under the pretense of construction work and the gold bullion transported via dump trucks to a location outside the city.  The New York Fed publishes a series of educational comic books about its activities. Included are such titles as "Once upon a Dime", "The Story of Money", "Too Much, Too Little", "A Penny Saved...", and "The Story of Foreign Trade and Exchange".

References.

Notes Further reading

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York is one of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks of the United States. It is located at 33 Liberty Street, New York, New York. It is responsible for the Second District of the Federal Reserve System, which encompasses New York State, the 12 northern counties of New Jersey, Fairfield County in Connecticut, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Working within the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York implements monetary policy, supervises and regulates financial institutions and helps maintain the nation's payment systems.

Die Federal Reserve Bank of New York ist eine der bedeutendsten der zwölf Regionalbanken, die zusammen das Federal Reserve System der USA bilden. Sie befindet sich in der Liberty Street 33 in New York City im Bundesstaat New York. Die weitere Geschäftsstelle in Buffalo (New York) wurde am 31. Oktober 2008 geschlossen. Ein technisches Zentrum befindet sich in East Rutherford. Die Federal Reserve Bank of New York ist verantwortlich für den Bezirk 2 des Federal Reserve System, der den Bundesstaat New York, die 12 nördlichen Countys von New Jersey, Fairfield County in Connecticut, Puerto Rico und die Virgin Islands umfasst. Die Bank wurde 1913 gegründet und hat 2.700 Mitarbeiter.


Early history.

In the early 1920s, Western Electric was developing both sound-on-film and sound-on-disc systems, aided by the purchase of Lee De Forest's Audion amplifier tube in 1913, consequent advances in public address systems, and the first practical condenser microphone, which Western Electric engineer E.C. Wente had created in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922. De Forest debuted his own Phonofilm sound-on-film system in New York City on April 15, 1923, but due to the relatively poor sound quality of Phonofilm and the impressive state-of-the-art sound heard in Western Electric's private demonstrations, the Warner Brothers decided to go forward with the industrial giant and the more familiar disc technology.  The business was established at Western Electric's Bell Laboratories in New York City and acquired by Warner Bros. in April 1925. Warner Bros. introduced Vitaphone on August 5, 1926 with the premiere of their silent feature "Don Juan", which had been retrofitted with a symphonic musical score and sound effects. There was no spoken dialog. The feature was preceded by a program of short subjects with live-recorded sound, nearly all featuring classical instrumentalists and opera stars. The only "pop music" artist was guitarist Roy Smeck and the only actual "talkie" was the short film that opened the program: four minutes of introductory remarks by motion picture industry spokesman Will Hays.  "Don Juan" was able to draw huge sums of money at the box office, but was not able to match the expensive budget Warner Bros. put into the film's production. After its financial failure, Paramount head Adolph Zukor offered Sam Warner a deal as an executive producer for Paramount if he brought Vitaphone with him. Sam, not wanting to take any more of Harry Warner's refusal to move forward with using sound in future Warner films, agreed to accept Zukor's offer, but the deal died after Paramount lost money in the wake of Rudolph Valentino's death. Harry eventually agreed to accept Sam's demands. Sam then pushed ahead with a new Vitaphone feature starring Al Jolson, the Broadway dynamo who had already scored a big hit with early Vitaphone audiences in "A Plantation Act", a musical short released on October 7, 1926. On October 6, 1927, "The Jazz Singer" premiered at the Warner Theater in New York City, broke box-office records, established Warner Bros. as a major player in Hollywood, and is traditionally credited with single-handedly launching the talkie revolution.  At first, the production of Vitaphone shorts and the recording of orchestral scores were strictly a New York phenomenon, taking advantage of the bountiful supply of stage and concert hall talent there, but the Warners soon migrated some of this activity to their more spacious facilities on the West Coast. Dance band leader Henry Halstead is given credit for starring in the first Vitaphone short subject filmed in Hollywood instead of New York. "Carnival Night in Paris" (1927) featured the Henry Halstead Orchestra and a cast of hundreds of costumed dancers in a Carnival atmosphere.

Process.

From the perspective of the cast and crew on the sound stage, there was little difference between filming with Vitaphone and a sound-on-film system. In the early years of sound, the noisy cameras and their operators were enclosed in soundproofed booths with small windows made of thick glass. Cables suspended the microphones in fixed positions just above camera range, and sometimes they were hidden behind objects in the scene. The recording machines were usually located in a separate building to completely isolate them from sound stage floor vibrations and other undesirable influences. The audio signal was sent from an on-stage monitoring and control booth to the recording room over a heavy shielded cable. Synchronization was maintained by driving all the cameras and recorders with synchronous electric motors powered from a common source. When music and sound effects were being recorded to accompany existing film footage, the film was projected so that the conductor could synchronize the music with the visual cues and it was the projector, rather than a camera, that was electrically interlocked with the recording machine.  Except for the unusual disc size and speed, the physical record-making process was the same one employed by contemporary record companies to make smaller discs for home use. The recording lathe cut an audio-signal-modulated spiral groove into the polished surface of a thick round slab of wax-like material rotating on a turntable. The wax was much too soft to be played in the usual way, but a specially supported and guided pickup could be used to play it back immediately in order to detect any sound problems that might have gone unnoticed during the filming. If problems were found, the scene could then be re-shot while everything was still in place, minimizing additional expense. Even the lightest playback caused some damage to the wax master, so it was customary to employ two recorders and simultaneously record two waxes, one to play and the other to be sent for processing if that "take" of the scene was approved. At the processing plant, the surface of the wax was rendered electrically conductive and electroplated to produce a metal mold or "stamper" with a ridge instead of a groove, and this was used to press hard shellac discs from molten "biscuits" of the raw material.  Because of the universal desirability of an immediate playback capability, even studios using sound-on-film systems employed a wax disc "playback machine" in tandem with their film recorders, as it was impossible to play an optical recording until it had made the round trip to the film processing laboratory.  A Vitaphone-equipped theater had normal projectors which had been furnished with special phonograph turntables and pickups; a fader; an amplifier; and a loudspeaker system. The projectors operated just as motorized silent projectors did, but at a fixed speed of 24 frames per second and mechanically interlocked with the attached turntables. When each projector was threaded, the projectionist would align a start mark on the film with the film gate, then cue up the corresponding soundtrack disc on the turntable, being careful to place the phonograph needle at a point indicated by an arrow scribed on the record's surface. When the projector was started, it rotated the linked turntable and (in theory) automatically kept the record "in sync" (correctly synchronized) with the projected image.  The Vitaphone process made several improvements over previous systems:  These innovations notwithstanding, the Vitaphone process lost the early format war with sound-on-film processes for many reasons:  After the improvement of the competing sound-on-film systems, Vitaphone's disadvantages led to its retirement early in the sound era. Warner Bros. and First National stopped recording directly to disc and switched to Photophone sound-on-film recording. Warner Bros. had to publicly concede that Vitaphone was being retired, but put a positive spin on it by announcing that Warner films would now be available in "both" sound-on-film and sound-on-disc versions. Thus, instead of making a grudging admission that its technology had become obsolete, Warner Bros. purported to be doing the entire movie industry a favor.  A significant number of theater owners, who had invested heavily in Vitaphone equipment only a short time before, were financially unable or unwilling to replace their sound-on-disc-only equipment. Their continuing need for discs compelled most Hollywood studios to prepare sets of soundtrack discs for their new films, made by dubbing from the optical soundtracks, and supply them as required. This practice continued, although on an ever-dwindling scale, into the mid-1930s.

Vitaphone soundtrack discs.

In 1924–1925, when Western Electric established the format of the system which would eventually be named Vitaphone, they settled on a diameter disc rotating at rpm as a good practical compromise of disc size and speed. The slow speed permitted the 11-minute playing time needed to match the maximum running time of a then-standard 1000 foot (300 meter) reel of film projected at 24 fps, yet the increased diameter preserved the average effective groove velocity, and therefore the sound quality, of a smaller, shorter-playing record rotating at the then-standard speed of about 78 rpm.  Like ordinary pre-vinyl records, Vitaphone discs were made of a shellac compound rendered lightly abrasive by its major constituent, finely pulverized rock. Such records were played with a very inexpensive, imprecisely mass-produced steel needle with a point that quickly wore to fit the contour of the groove, but then went on to wear out in the course of playing one disc side, after which it was meant to be discarded and replaced. Unlike ordinary records, Vitaphone discs were recorded inside out, so that the groove started near the synchronization arrow scribed in the blank area around the label and proceeded outward. During playback, the needle would therefore be fresh where the groove's undulations were most closely packed and needed the most accurate tracing, and suffering from wear only as the much more widely spaced and easily traced undulations toward the edge of the disc were encountered.  Initially, Vitaphone discs had a recording on one side only, each reel of film having its own disc. As the sound-on-disc method was slowly relegated to second-class status, cost-cutting changes were instituted, first by making use of both sides of each disc for non-consecutive reels of film, then by reducing the discs to in diameter. The use of RCA Victor's new "Vitrolac", a lightweight, flexible and less abrasive vinyl-based compound, made it possible to downsize the discs while actually improving their sound quality.  There were exceptions to the standard size of 1920s Vitaphone discs. In the case of very short films, such as trailers and some of the earliest musical shorts, the recording, still cut at rpm and working outward from a minimum diameter of about, was pressed on a disc when the smaller size sufficed.

The Vitaphone Project.

In 1991, The Vitaphone Project was started by a group of five vintage record collectors and movie enthusiasts. Since the soundtrack discs and film prints of Vitaphone productions often became separated, The Vitaphone Project searches for original 16-inch soundtrack discs and mute film elements that go with surviving soundtrack discs. The Vitaphone Project borrows or purchases soundtrack discs from private collectors and often works with the restoration labs at the University of California at Los Angeles to create new 35mm preservation prints that combine the original picture and sound elements. The Vitaphone Project also often partners with the Library of Congress and the British Film Institute.  As of December 2016, The Vitaphone Project had located about 6,500 soundtrack discs in private collections and helped preserve 125 films, 12 of which were feature-length films. They have also raised $400,000 in donations, with Hugh Hefner being a notable donor.  The Vitaphone Project has been able to help restore films featuring stars such as Rose Marie and Al Jolson. They also worked with Warner Brothers to restore 1929's "Why Be Good?", the final silent film made by Colleen Moore. Funding raised by The Vitaphone Project was used to restore 1928's "The Beau Brummels", starring vaudeville duo Al Shaw and Sam Lee, which was added to the National Film Registry in 2016.

Legacy.

Warner Bros. kept the "Vitaphone" trademark alive in the name of its short subjects division, The Vitaphone Corporation (officially dissolved at the end of 1959), best remembered for releasing the "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" cartoons. In the 1950s, the Warner Bros. record label boasted "Vitaphonic" high-fidelity recording. In the 1960s, the end titles of "Merrie Melodies" cartoons (beginning with "From Hare to Heir" (1960)) carried the legend "A Vitaphone Release". "Looney Tunes" of the same period (beginning with that same year's "Hopalong Casualty") were credited as "A Vitagraph Release", making further use of the name of the venerable Vitagraph Studios in Brooklyn, which the Warners had bought in 1925, used as a facility for working out practical sound film production techniques and filming some early musical shorts, and from which a name for the previously nameless Western Electric sound-on-disc system had been derived.  Vitaphone was among the first 25 inductees into the TECnology Hall of Fame at its establishment in 2004, an honor given to "products and innovations that have had an enduring impact on the development of audio technology." The award notes that Vitaphone, though short-lived, helped in popularizing theater sound and was critical in stimulating the development of the modern sound reinforcement system.  Though operating on principles so different as to make it unrecognizable to a Vitaphone engineer, DTS is a sound-on-disc system, the first to gain wide adoption since the abandonment of Vitaphone.

References.

Notes  Further reading

Vitaphone was a sound film system used for feature films and nearly 1,000 short subjects made by Warner Bros. and its sister studio First National from 1926 to 1931. Vitaphone was the last major analog sound-on-disc system and the only one which was widely used and commercially successful. The soundtrack was not printed on the film itself, but issued separately on phonograph records. The discs, recorded at rpm (a speed first used for this system) and typically in diameter, would be played on a turntable physically coupled to the projector motor while the film was being projected, achieving a frequency response of 4300 Hz. Many early talkies, such as "The Jazz Singer" (1927), used the Vitaphone system. The name "Vitaphone" derived from the Latin and Greek words, respectively, for "living" and "sound".

Vitaphone war ein in fast 2000 Kurzfilmen von Warner Bros. Entertainment benutztes Tonfilmverfahren. Die Eigenschaften waren: Bildaufnahme mit klassischer Kamera, wie Bell & Howell Standard samt Elektromotor, Tonaufnahme auf Wachsplatte. Die Bildfrequenz beträgt 24 Bilder in der Sekunde. Bei der Wiedergabe werden je ein klassischer Projektor und ein mechanisch angetriebener Plattenspieler starr miteinander gekoppelt, wobei die Schallplatten von 17 Zoll Durchmesser (rund 43 cm) mit 331⁄3 Umdrehungen in der Minute von innen nach außen abgetastet werden. Je ein Filmakt von maximal 1000 Fuß Länge (rund 300 m) läuft synchron mit der zugehörigen Platte. Die Laufzeit von Akt und Platte beträgt im Mittel 11 Minuten. Die Filmplatten sind nur einseitig bespielt und tragen einen eingepressten Pfeil beim Rillenanfang. Die Filmvorführer können die Tonnadel exakt auf Pfeilspitze auflegen, während die Filmkopie ein Startbild einkopiert hat, das vor das Bildfenster zu stehen kommt.


Early years.

James Kern Kyser was born in Rocky Mount, North Carolina, the son of pharmacists Emily Royster (née Howell) and Paul Bynum Kyser. Journalist and newspaper editor Vermont C. Royster was his cousin. Kyser graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He was also senior class president.  Owing to his popularity and enthusiasm as a cheerleader, he was invited by Hal Kemp to take over as bandleader when Kemp ventured north to further his career. He began taking clarinet lessons but was better as an entertaining announcer than a musician. He adopted the initial of his middle name as part of his stage name, for its alliterative effect.

Career.

Long before his national success, Kyser recorded two sessions for Victor in the late 1920s (Camden, New Jersey in November 1928 and Chicago in early 1929). These were issued on Victor's V-40000 series devoted to country music and regional dance bands. Following graduation, Kyser and his band, which included Sully Mason on saxophone and arranger George Duning, toured Midwest restaurants and night clubs and gradually built a following.  They were popular at Chicago's Blackhawk restaurant, where Kyser came up with an act combining a quiz with music which became "Kay Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge." The act was broadcast on the Mutual Broadcasting System in 1938 and then moved to NBC Radio from 1939 to 1949. The show rose in the ratings and spawned many imitators. Kyser led the band as "The Ol' Perfessor", spouting catchphrases, some with a degree of Southern American English: "That's right—you're wrong", "Evenin' folks, how y'all?" and "C'mon, chillun! Le's dance!"

Big band era.

Although Kyser and his orchestra gained fame through the "Kollege of Musical Knowledge," they were a successful band in their own right. They had 11 number one records, including some of the most popular songs of the late 1930s and early 1940s.  Unlike most other big bands of the era, which centered on only the bandleader, individual members of Kyser's band became stars in their own right and would often receive the spotlight. Some of the more popular members included vocalist Harry Babbitt, cornetist Merwyn Bogue (a.k.a. Ish Kabibble), trombonist Bruce King, saxophonist Jack Martin (who sang lead vocal on the number one hit, "Strip Polka"), Ginny Simms (who had her own successful acting and singing career after leaving Kyser's band), Sully Mason, Mike Douglas (years before he became a popular TV talk show host) and Georgia Carroll.  Carroll, a blonde fashion model and actress whose best-known role was Betsy Ross in "Yankee Doodle Dandy", was dubbed "Gorgeous Georgia Carroll" when she joined the group in 1943. Within a year, she and Kyser married.  Kyser was also known for singing song titles, a device copied by Sammy Kaye and Blue Barron. When the song began, one of the band's lead singers (usually Babbitt) sang the title phrase, and then the first verse or two of the song was performed instrumentally before the lyrics resumed. Several of his recordings spawned catch phrases, such as "Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammunition".  His group had a major hit with the novelty tune, "Three Little Fishes". It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA.  During the Swing Era, Kyser, Hal Kemp and Tal Henry often performed in or near New York City, making possible a reunion of North Carolina musicians. Later, after retirement, Kyser and Henry got together to share music world memories.

Movies.

During the late 1930s and early 1940s, Kyser's band appeared in several motion pictures, usually as themselves, beginning with the successful "That's Right - You're Wrong" (1939), "You'll Find Out" (1940), "Playmates" and "My Favorite Spy". Some of the films built a plot around the band. "Around the World" (1943) fictionalized the band's international tours of military camps.  In "Carolina Blues" (1944), Kyser has to replace his lead singer (Carroll) who has run off to get married. Caught in a jam, he reluctantly hires the daughter of a powerful defense plant owner, played by Ann Miller. Two of the band's best-known performance appearances were in 1943 when they appeared in the wartime films "Stage Door Canteen" and "Thousands Cheer". Kyser appeared as a light comedian; he acted with (and was billed above) John Barrymore in Barrymore's final film "Playmates" (1941). Kyser is the dupe in a scam where Barrymore pretends to teach him how to act in Shakespearean drama.  Kyser also appeared in a Porky Pig cartoon, "Africa Squeaks" (1940). In the cartoon, he voiced a caricature of himself called "Cake-Icer," at the request of director Bob Clampett.  After the war, Kyser's band continued to record hit records, including two featuring Jane Russell as vocalist. "It's All Up to You" features vocals by Frank Sinatra and Dinah Shore, although Kyser's participation in this recording is disputed, record label showing Axel Stordahl as conductor. Kyser had intended to retire following the end of the war, but performance and recording contracts kept him in show business for another half decade.  During this time, Kyser made a cameo appearance in a "Batman" comic book. Kyser was first to introduce the new sonic audio process called the'sonovox', a singing electronic voice triggered by music. The Sonovox would be used by Jingle Companies such as PAMS and JAM Creative Productions, and said jingles would be used in heavy rotation by rock radio stations such as WABC, WMEX, WXYZ, KONO, WKDA, and WHTZ.

Television.

In 1949 and 1950, "Kay Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge" aired on NBC-TV. In addition to Kyser, the TV show featured Ish Kabibble and vocalists Mike Douglas, Sue Bennett and Liza Palmer, plus The Honeydreamers vocal group and the dance team of Diane Sinclair and Ken Spaulding. Ben Grauer was the announcer during the first season. Always the businessman, Kyser reunited his band especially for this series and just as quickly disbanded it when the show ended. After a four-year hiatus, the "Kollege of Musical Knowledge" was revived by Tennessee Ernie Ford, prior to the launching of his own NBC program, "The Ford Show", which ran from 1956-61.

Radio (non-musical).

Kyser and Ginny Simms co-starred in "Niagara to Reno" (described as "an original comedy") on CBS radio's "Silver Theater" April 6, 1941.

Personal life.

Kyser converted to the Church of Christ, Scientist sometime between 1944 and 1946, despite the fact his mother had been the first female pharmacist in his home county. Nevertheless, he had become interested in Christian Science when conventional medicine did not relieve his problems with arthritis. It was this arthritis which is often cited as one of the reasons he retired from performing in 1950. In the 1970s, Kyser ran the film and television department of the Christian Science Church in Boston. In 1983, he became its President, a one-year position. He referred to it as "honorary", joking that he hadn't "been elected Pope or anything".  In the early 1960s, several members of the Kay Kyser team (including Kabibble and Simms but not Kyser himself) reunited at Capitol Records to record an album of new versions of Kyser's greatest hits. Comedian Stan Freberg, one of Capitol's regular artists, did an impression of Kay's original song introductions.

Family.

Kyser and Georgia Carroll remained married until his death. They had three children.

Death.

Kyser died of a heart attack in Chapel Hill, North Carolina on July 23, 1985. He was buried at Old Chapel Hill Cemetery in Chapel Hill.

Legacy.

Kyser was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 1999.  The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is custodian of a large archive of documents and material about Kyser which was donated by his widow and made available to the public on April 8, 2008.  His version of the song, "Jingle Jangle Jingle", was featured in the 2010 role playing video game, "".

James Kern Kyser (June 18, 1905 – July 23, 1985), known as Kay Kyser, was an American bandleader and radio personality of the 1930s and 1940s.

James Kern „Kay“ Kyser (* 18. Juni 1905 in Rocky Mount, North Carolina; † 24. Juli 1985 in Chapel Hill, North Carolina) war ein US-amerikanischer Big-Band-Leader, Sänger und Entertainer des Swing.


Overview.

This album saw Neu! regroup after a few years' break, during which time Michael Rother had worked together with Cluster in the krautrock supergroup Harmonia.  By this time, Rother and bandmate Klaus Dinger had somewhat diverged in their musical intentions for the band, Dinger preferring a more aggressive, rock-influenced style than Rother's ambient predilections. As a result, they agreed to a compromise: Side 1 of the record was recorded in the old Neu! style, as a duo, with Dinger playing drums. For the pieces on side 2, Dinger switched to guitar and lead vocals, recruiting his brother Thomas and Hans Lampe to play drums (simultaneously).  The result is essentially a split record, subtly melodic in the first half and boldly unconventional in the second. On both sides, the use of keyboards and phasing is increased compared to earlier records. Dinger's rock song "Hero" was an inspiration for many musicians of the time, including John Lydon of the Sex Pistols, and is since considered an example of proto-punk. David Bowie alluded to the album on his ""Heroes"" album. The band Negativland (named after a song on their first album) named their record label Seeland after the song on "'75". "Fact" described the album's sound "spartan psych-rock set to power driven drum tracks." while Thomas Jerome Seabrook labeled it a kosmische musik album.

Reception.

In 1979, "NME" critic Andy Gill reviewed the album, stating that "Neu took the repetitive pulse of rock, stretched it out and wove lush, shifting layers of sound over the framework to produce a distinctive, hypnotic music which, whilst undeniably rock, was definitely outside-looking-in." and that "this strain which reaches full fruition on "Neu '75", and it's because of this that the album's so pivotally important". The review referred to the tracks "Hero", "E-Musik" and "After Eight" as "damn-near perfect as makes no difference, an achievement which exhausts superlatives". Gill called the track "Hero" "magnificent", comparing it to "Brown Sugar" or Bob Seger's "Rosalie". Gill assessed "Isi", "Seeland" and "Leb' Wohl'" as "less immediate but only slightly less satisfying: evocative, entropic, hot-summer-daze music which balances — and is even more successfully "ambient" than — side two's sweaty nightclub pulse".  Ben Sisario of "The New York Times" described the album and its predecessors as "landmarks of German experimental rock," also referred to by journalists as krautrock.

Neu! 75 is the third studio album by the krautrock band Neu!. It was recorded and mixed at Conny Plank's studio between December 1974 and January 1975. It was released in 1975 by Brain Records, and officially reissued on CD on 29 May 2001 by Astralwerks in the US and by Grönland Records in the UK.

Neu! ’75 ist das dritte und letzte von den Gründungsmitgliedern Michael Rother und Klaus Dinger gemeinsam veröffentlichte Studioalbum der deutschen Krautrock-Band Neu!.


Geography.

Set on both sides of the narrow road between Annot and Puget-Théniers that runs alongside the gorge of the river Var, the medieval walled town lies in the shadow of a mountaintop citadel.

History.

Following incursions of Saracens and the razing of the old town of Glandèves, which became a bishopric no later than the sixth century, the more defensible site of medieval Entrevaux was founded in the 11th century on the rocky spur in an angle of the river; the oldest recorded name is "Interrivos" and dates from 1040.  Between 1481 and 1487, Provence became a part of France.  In 1536, Entrevaux fell to the troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, betrayed by its lord Jacques Glandeves; half the population was massacred (coll.). The remaining population staged an uprising, cutting the throat of the governor, and offered the town to the French Dauphin, King François I. In recognition of this, Entrevaux was given the Municipal charter (city law model) of Avignon and declared a royal town of France, with its inhabitants exempt from taxation.  In the 16th century, the bishop's official seat at the Glandèves Cathedral in Glandèves was abandoned, and a new one, Entrevaux Cathedral, was constructed in Entrevaux though still the seat of the Bishop of Glandèves. It served as a cathedral until 1790, but the see persisted until 1801.  In 1658 a bridge guarded by towers and a portcullis was constructed over the Var; this is the modern "Porte Royale". In 1690 the military architect Vauban drew up plans to further fortify the town, due to its strategic position guarding the valley of the Var and on the border with Savoy. Although not completed in full, the citadel perched high above the town was strengthened, particularly on the more accessible side closest to the hilltops, and a protected walkway constructed up the side of the mountain from the town. Two small forts were provided to protect the town, and its two main gates - now called the "Porte d'Italie" and the "Porte de France" - strengthened.  Entrevaux was briefly besieged in June 1707 by the royalist Savoyards under Chevalier Blaignac, but resisted and was relieved by the French forces.  The citadel was last used during World War I as a prison for German officers.  In 2009 the medieval diocese of Glandèves was nominally restored as Latin Titular bishopric of Episcopal (lowest) rank, but under the present names of Entrevaux (French) / Intervallen(sis) (Latin).

Sights.

Entrevaux features a pilgrimage of St John on the weekend closest to 24 June, and an annual medieval festival on the weekend closest to 15 August (Le Monti). It houses a motorcycle museum with a working collection of early, mostly European models. Outside the city walls, a working 19th-century oil mill is still in production and can be visited.  The cathedral houses a large painting of the Assumption of the Virgin by François Mimault from 1647, as well as an organ by Jean Eustache dating to 1717.

Transportation.

Entrevaux may be reached by the mountain train from Nice to Digne-les-Bains run by the Chemins de Fer de Provence. In summer, a restored 19th century steam train runs between Annot and Puget-Théniers.

Cuisine.

Regional culinary specialities include "Secca de boeuf" (dried beef, served in wafer-thin slices), "pain d'épice" (gingerbread), and honey.

Entrevaux is a commune (municipality), former episcopal seat (not bishopric in title, that remained the Diocese of Glandèves) and Latin Catholic titular see in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department in southeastern France.

Entrevaux (okzitanisch und provençalisch Entrevaus, von "Entre" = zwischen und "Vau" = Tal) ist eine französische Gemeinde mit Einwohnern (Stand ) im Département Alpes-de-Haute-Provence in der Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Sie gehört zum Kanton Castellane im Arrondissement Castellane. Die Einwohner werden als "Entrevalais" bezeichnet.


History.

The first station on the site was built in 1866 on a design by the architect Enrico Alvino and it was opened on 7 May of the following year. The current station was designed in 1954 by Pier Luigi Nervi, Carlo Cocchia, Massimo Battaglini, Bruno Zevi, Giulio De Luca, Luigi Piccinato and Joseph Vaccaro on the site of the old railway station and overlooks the square dedicated to Giuseppe Garibaldi. The project was completed in 1960. The station has undergone a deep restyling lasting five years and finished in August 2010, which concerned both the platform and the underground floor, with the installation of new escalators, elevators, lights, benches, shops and the replacement of the original floors made in black linoleum with a more modern white tile covering.

Transport.

The station has 25 tracks. It is connected to Rome by high-speed trains on the Rome–Naples high-speed railway line as well as slower trains on the original Rome–Cassino–Naples line and the Rome–Formia–Naples "Direttissima" opened in 1927. It is connected to Salerno and southern Italy by the traditional Naples–Salerno line and the recently opened Naples–Salerno high-speed line used by long distance trains.

Train services.

The station is served by the following services (incomplete):

Napoli Piazza Garibaldi railway station.

Below the mainline station is an underground station named Napoli Piazza Garibaldi railway station, for the Villa Literno–Napoli Gianturco railway, used by the metropolitan train of the line 2. There is also a connection to the nearby Circumvesuviana "Napoli Piazza Garibaldi".

Napoli Centrale ("Naples Central Station") is the main railway station in the city of Naples and in southern Italy and the sixth largest station in Italy in terms of passenger flow with an annual ridership of 50 million. It is located next to Piazza Garibaldi to the east of the old city. It is the primary rail terminus and station for Naples, and serves Trenitalia national railways and EAV and has an underground section known as "Stazione di Napoli Piazza Garibaldi" (Naples Garibaldi Piazza station), which is served by the metropolitan trains of the line 2.

Der Bahnhof Napoli Centrale (italienisch: "Stazione di Napoli Centrale") ist der Hauptbahnhof der süditalienischen Hafenstadt Neapel. Er wird auf der Liste der 13 "Grandi Stazioni" (zu Deutsch: "Große Bahnhöfe") der Ferrovie dello Stato (FS) geführt. Betreiber ist das Unternehmen "Grandi Stazioni".


Definitions and usage.

'(, plural') is an Arabic word that means  Its religious definition can be: Islam Web gives two slightly different definitions: It was first used with the meaning of "law" in the Syro-Roman law book before it became widely used in Islamic jurisprudence.

Sunnah and hadith.

Sunnah and hadith (the words, actions or approval that are narrated about Muhammad and which are believed to document Sunnah) are sometimes used synonymously, but not always.

"Sunnah Salat".

In addition to being "the way" of Islam or the traditional social and legal custom and practice of the Islamic community, sunnah is often used as a synonym for "mustahabb" (encouraged) rather than "wajib"/"fard" (obligatory), regarding some commendable action (usually the saying of a prayer).

Ahl as-Sunnah.

Sunni Muslims are also referred to as "Ahl as-Sunnah wa'l-Jamā'ah" ("people of the tradition and the community (of Muhammad)") or "Ahl as-Sunnah" for short. Some early Sunnî Muslim scholars (such as Abu Hanifa, al-Humaydî, Ibn Abî `Âsim, Abû Dâwûd, and Abû Nasr al-Marwazî) reportedly used the term "the sunnah" narrowly to refer to Sunni Doctrine as opposed to the creeds of Shia and other non-Sunni sects. Sunnah literally means face, nature, lifestyle, etc. In the time of prophet Muhammad's companion, newly converted muslims accepted and rejected some set of creed by using reason. So many early muslim scholars started writing books on creed entitled as'sunnah'.

In the Quran.

The word “Sunna” appears several times in the Qur’an, but there is no specific mention of sunnah of the messenger or prophet ("sunnat al-rasool", "sunnat al-nabi" or "sunna al-nabawiyyah"), i.e. the way/practice of Prophet Muhammad. (There "are" several verses calling on Muslims to obey Muhammad—see below.) Four verses (8.38, 15.13, 18.55) use the expression “"sunnat al-awwalin"”, which is thought to mean “the way or practice of the ancients.” It is described as something "that has passed away" or prevented unbelievers from accepting God. “"Sunnat Allah"” (the “way of God”) appears eight times in five verses. In addition, verse 17.77 talks of both the way of other, earlier Muslim messengers (Ibrahim, Musa, etc.), and of "our way", i.e. God's way. [This is] the way ("sunna") of those whom we sent [as messengers] before you, and you will not find any change in Our way ("sunnatuna").  This indicates to some scholars (such as Javed Ahmad Ghamidi) that sunnah predates both the Quran and Muhammad, and is actually the tradition of the prophets of God, specifically the tradition of Abraham. Christians, Jews and the Arab descendants of Ishmael, the Arabized Arabs or Ishmaelites, when Muhammad reinstituted this practice as an integral part of Islam.

History/etymology.

According to historians (particularly Daniel W. Brown), the classical Islamic definition of Sunnah as the customs and practices of Muhammad (only) was not the original one.  Prior to the "golden age of classical Islamic jurisprudence" (according to Mahmoud El-Gamal) -- when the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, etc. schools of fiqh were created in the second century of Islam, the "ancient schools" of law prevailed. These "regional" schools of law, located in several major cities of the new Arab empire of Islam -- Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Syria, etc. -- had a more flexible definition of sunnah than was used later. This was "acceptable norms" or "custom", not limited to “traditions traced back to the Prophet Muhammad himself” ("sunna al-nabawiyyah"). It included examples of the Prophet's Companions, the rulings of the Caliphs, and practices that “had gained general acceptance among the jurists of that school”.  Examples of the use of non-Muhammadan sunnahs at this time is found in a (non-Muhammadan) tradition/hadith comment  In al-Ṭabarī's history of early Islam, the term "Sunnah of the Prophet" is not only used "surprisingly infrequently", but used to refer to "political oaths or slogans used by rebels", or "a general standard of justice and right conduct", and not "to specific precedents set by Muhammad", let alone hadith. An early theological writing by Hasan al-Basri ("Risala fi'l Qadar") also is "empty of references to specific cases" when mentioning Sunnah of the Prophet.

First century of Islam.

Daniel Brown states that the first extant writings of Islamic legal reasoning were "virtually hadith-free" and argues that other examples of a lack of connection between sunnah and hadith" can be found in:  According to one source (Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi and Karim Douglas Crow), early Sunni scholars often considered "sunnah" equivalent to the biography of Muhammed ("sira"). As the "hadith" came to be better documented and the scholars who validated them gained prestige, the "sunnah" came often to be known mostly through the "hadith", especially as variant or fictional biographies of Muhammad spread.

al-Shafi'i.

Abū ʿAbdullāh Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī (150-204 AH), known as al-Shafi'i, argued against flexible sunnah and the use of precedents from multiple sources, emphasizing the final authority of a hadith of Muhammad, so that even the Qur'an was "to be interpreted in the light of traditions (i.e. hadith), and not vice versa." While the sunnah has often been called "second to the Quran", hadith has also been said to "rule over and interpret the Quran". Al-Shafiʿi "forcefully argued" that the sunnah stands "on equal footing with the Quran", (according to scholar Daniel Brown) both being divine revelation. As Al-Shafi'i put it, “the command of the Prophet is the command of God.” (Notwithstanding the triumph of this theory, in practice the schools of fiqh resisted the thorough application of hadith and fiqh was little changed from the days before Al-Shafi'i.)  Sunnah of Muhammad outranked all other, and "broad agreement" developed that "hadith must be the basis for authentication of any Sunnah," (according to M.O. Farooq). Al-Shafiʿi's success was such that later writers “hardly ever thought of sunnah as comprising anything but that of the Prophet”, and sunnah was often considered synonymous with hadith.

Systemization of hadith.

While the earliest Muslim lawyers "felt no obligation" to provide documentation of hadith when arguing their case, and the Sunnah was not recorded and written during the Prophet's lifetime, (according to scholar Khaled Abou El Fadl), all this changed with the triumph of Al-Shafi‘i and a "broad agreement" that Hadith should be used to authenticate Sunnah, (according to M.O. Farooq), over the course of the second century, when legal works began incorporated Prophetic hadith.  Hadith was now systematically collected and documented, but several generations having passed since the time of its occurrence meant that "many of the reports attributed to the Prophet are apocryphal or at least are of dubious historical authenticity," (according to Abou El Fadl). "In fact, one of the most complex disciplines in Islamic jurisprudence is one which attempts to differentiate between authentic and inauthentic traditions."

Classical Islam.

Islam jurists divide sunnah into that which has no legal consequences --"al-sunna al-ʿādīyah" -- (the "personal habits and preferences" of Muhammad); and that which is binding on Muslims -- "al-sunna al-hudā". The literalist Zāhirī school disagrees holding that there was no sunnah whose fulfillment is not rewarded or neglect punished, while classical Islam holds that following non-binding "al-sunna al-ʿādīyah" is meritorious but not obligatory.  Sufis see the "division between binding and non-binding" sunnah as "meaningless". Muhammad is "al-insān al-kāmil", the perfect man, "labib-Allah" beloved of God, an intercessor, a "channel of divine light". Imitating his every action is "the ultimate expression" of piety. or in the words of Al-Ghazālī: Know that the key to joy is following the sunnah and imitating the Prophet in all his comings and goings, words and deeds, extending to his manner of eating, rising, sleeping and speaking. I do not say this only in relation to requirements of religion ["ʿibādāt"], for there is no escaping these; rather, this includes every area of behavior ["ʿādāt"].

Modernist Islam.

In the 19th century, "social and political turmoil" starting with the decline of the Moghal empire, caused some Muslims to seek a more humanized figure of Muhammad. The miracle-performing "larger than life" prophetic figure was de-emphasized in favor of "a practical model for restoration of the Muslim community," a virtuous, progressive social reformer. Nasserist Egypt, for example, celebrated the "imam of socialism" rather than the cosmic "perfect man". One who argued against the idea of sunnah as divine revelation, and for the idea that Muhammad's mission was simply to transmit the Quran was Ghulam Ahmed Perwez (1903–1985). He quoted the Quranic verse "The messenger has no duty except to proclaim [the message]," (Q.5:99) and pointed out several other verses where God corrects something Muhammad has done or said (8:67),(9:43), (66:1), thus demonstrating Muhammad's lack of supernatural knowledge.  This era of rapid social and technological change, decline of Muslim power, and replacement of classical madhhab by Western-inspired legal codes in Muslim lands, also suggested a turn away from the "detailed precedents in civil and political affairs," called for by traditional Hadith, "for if worldly matters require detailed prophetic guidance, then every age will require a new prophet to accommodate changing circumstances".

Alternatives: Sunnah without hadith.

Although "most writers agree", including skeptics, that "sunnah and hadith must stand or fall together", some (Fazlur Rahman Malik, Javed Ahmad Ghamidi) have attempted to "establish a basis for sunnah independent of hadith", working around problem of hadith authenticity raised by modernist and Western critics, while reaching back to pre-al-Shafiʿi meaning of Sunnah.  In the 1960s, Fazlur Rahman Malik, an Islamic modernist and former head of Pakistan's Central Institute for Islamic Research, advanced another idea for how the (Prophetic) sunnah -- the normative example of the Prophet -- should be understood: as "a general umbrella concept" but not one "filled with absolutely specific content", or that was static over the centuries. He argued that Muhammad had come as a "moral reformer" and not a "pan-legit", and that the specifics of the sunnah would be agreed upon community of his followers, evolving with changing times as a "living and on-going process". He accepted the criticism of Western and Muslim scholars that the content of many hadith and isnad (chain of transmitters) had been tampered with by Muslims trying to prove the Muhammad had made a specific statement -- but this did not make them fraudulent or forgeries, because if "Hadith verbally speaking does not go back to the Prophet, its spirit certainly does". Instead these collections of ahadith of al-Bukhari and al-Muslim's were "ijma" (consensus or agreement of the Muslim scholars -- which is another classical source of Islamic law). Doing so they follow the spirit of the Prophet's mission, and "resurrect" the legal methodology of the pre-Shafi'i "Ancient schools". But just as second and third century Muslims could re-formulate hadith and law around a prophetic spirit, so could modern Muslims -- redefining "riba" and eliminating medieval laws against bank interest, while protecting the poor in other ways.  Some of the most basic and important features of the sunnah — worship rituals like "salat" (ritual prayer), "zakat" (ritual tithing), "hajj" (pilgrimage to Mecca), "sawm" (dawn to dusk fasting during Ramadan) — are known to Muslim from being passed down `from the many to the many` (according to scholars of fiqh such as Al-Shafi'i), bypassing books of hadith, (which were more often consulted for answers to details not agreed upon or not frequently practiced) and issues of authenticity.  Modernist Rashid Rida thought this "the only source of sunnah that is beyond dispute". S.M. Yusuf argued "practice is best transmitted through practice", and a more reliable way to establish Sunnah than hadith. He also believed that the passing down of practice from generation to generation independent of hadith explained why early schools of law did not differentiate between sunnah of the caliphate and sunnah of the prophet. According to Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, another Modernist, this passing down by continuous practice of the Muslim community (which also indicates consensus, "ijma") was similar to how the Qur’ān has been "received by the "ummah"" (Muslim community) through the consensus of the Prophet's Companions and through their perpetual recitation. Consequently, Ghamidi sees this more limited Sunnah of continuous practice as the true sunnah — equally authentic to the Quran, but shedding orthodox sunnah and avoiding problematic basis of the hadith.  Sufi thinkers "emphasized personal spirituality and piety rather than the details of fiqh". According to the view of some Sufi Muslims who incorporate both the outer and inner reality of Muhammad, the deeper and true sunnah are the noble characteristics and inner state of Muhammad -- "Khuluqin Azim" or 'Exalted Character'. To them Muhammad's attitude, his piety, the quality of his character constitute the truer and deeper aspect of what it means by sunnah in Islam, rather than the external aspects alone. They argue that the external customs of Muhammad loses its meaning without the inner attitude and also many hadiths are simply custom of the Arabs, not something that is unique to Muhammad.

Basis of importance.

The Qur'an contains numerous commands to follow the Prophet. Among the Quranic verses quoted as demonstrating the importance of hadith/sunnah to Muslims are Say: Obey Allah and obey the Messenger,  Which appears in several verses:,,,  Your companion [Muhammad] has not strayed, nor has he erred, Nor does he speak from [his own] inclination or desire.  "A similar (favour have ye already received) in that We have sent among you a Messenger of your own, rehearsing to you Our Signs, and sanctifying you, and instructing you in Scripture and Wisdom, and in new knowledge.  "Ye have indeed in the Messenger of Allah a beautiful pattern (of conduct) for any one whose hope is in Allah and the Final Day, and who engages much in the Praise of Allah."  The teachings of "wisdom" ("hikma") have been declared to be a function of Muhammad along with the teachings of the scripture. Several Quranic verses mention "wisdom" ("hikmah") coupled with "scripture" or "the book" (i.e. the Quran) -- "al-kitāb wa al-ḥikma". Mainstream scholars starting with al-Shafi'i believe "hikma" refers to the Sunnah, and this connection between Sunnah and the Quran is evidence of the Sunnah's divinity and authority.  Therefore, along with the Quran, the "sunnah" was revealed. Modern Sunni scholars have examined both the "sira" and the "hadith" in order to justify modifications to jurisprudence ("fiqh"). Hense, the imitation of Muhammad helps Muslims to know and be loved by God.  Another piece of evidence for the divinity of the Sunnah -- according to its supporters -- are verses in the Quran that refer to revelations not found "in" the Quran. For example, there is no verse mentioning the original direction of prayer (the "qibla") in the Quran, but God in the Quran does say He appointed the original qibla (). Other events mentioned in the Quran that already happened without Quranic command or description include a dream in which Muhammad would enter Mecca (); Muhammad's marriage to Zayd's ex-wife (); and the dispute over the division of spoils after the Battle of Badr (); all "definitive proof that besides the Quran other commands came to the Prophet by the agency of waḥy," according to revivalist Abul A'la Maududi.

Alternative view.

The minority argument against the Sunnah of the prophet being divine revelation ("waḥy") goes back to the "ahl al-Kalam" who al-Shāfiʿī argued against in the second century of Islam. Their modern "Quranists", the modern successors of the "ahl al-Kalam", argue that the sunnah falls short of the standard of the Quran in divinity. Specifically because

Providing examples.

According to John Burton, paraphrasing Al-Shafi'i, "it must be remembered that the Quran text are couched in very general terms which it is the function of the sunnah to expand and elucidate, to make God's meaning absolutely clear." There are a number of verses in the Quran where "to understand the context, as well as the meaning", Muslims need to refer to the record of the life and example of the Prophet.  It is thought that verses 16:44 and 64 indicate that Muhammed's mission "is not merely that of a deliveryman who simply delivers the revelation from Allah to us, rather, he has been entrusted with the most important task of explaining and illustrating" the Quran. And We have also sent down unto you (O Muhammad) the reminder and the advice (the Quran), that you may explain clearly to men what is sent down to them, and that they may give thought.  And We have not sent down the Book (the Quran) to you (O Muhammad), except that you may explain clearly unto them those things in which they differ, and (as) a guidance and a mercy for a folk who believe. [Quran 16:64]  For example, while the Quran presents the general principles of praying, fasting, paying zakat, or making pilgrimage, they are presented "without the illustration found in Hadith, for these acts of worship remain as abstract imperatives in the Qur’an".

Types of sunnah.

Sunnah upon which "fiqh" is based may be divided into:  It may be also divided into sunnah that is binding for Muslims and that which is not. Ibn Qutaybah (213-276 AH) distinguished between: In the terminology of "fiqh" (Islamic jurisprudence), sunnah denotes whatever though not obligatory, is "firmly established ("thabata") as called for ("matlub")" in Islam "on the basis of a legal proof ("dalîl shar`î").

Sciences of Sunnah.

According to scholar Gibril Fouad Haddad, the "sciences of the Sunnah" ("`ulûm as-Sunna") refer to: the biography of the Prophet ("as-sîra"), the chronicle of his battles ("al-maghâzî"), his everyday sayings and acts or "ways" ("sunan"), his personal and moral qualities ("ash-shamâ'il"), and the host of the ancillary hadîth sciences such as the circumstances of occurrence ("asbâb al-wurûd"), knowledge of the abrogating and abrogated hadîth, difficult words ("gharîb al-hadîth"), narrator criticism ("al-jarh wat-ta`dîl"), narrator biographies ("al-rijâl"), etc., as discussed in great detail in the authoritative books of al-Khatîb al-Baghdâdî.

Sunnah in Shia Islam.

Shia Islam does not use the "Kutub al-Sittah" (six major "hadith" collections) followed by Sunni Islam, therefore the Sunnah of Shia Islam and the Sunnah of Sunni Islam refer to different collections of religious canonical literature.  The primary collections of Sunnah of Shia Islam were written by three authors known as the 'Three Muhammads', and they are:  Unlike Akhbari Twelver Shiites, Usuli Twelver Shiite scholars do not believe that everything in the four major books of the Sunnah of Shia Islam is authentic.  In Shia "hadees" one often finds sermons attributed to Ali in The Four Books or in the Nahj al-Balagha.

Sunnah (,, plural ), also sunna or sunnat, is the Arabic word for traditional customs and practices; in the Islamic community it refers to the traditions and practices of the Prophet Muhammad, that constitute a model for Muslims to follow. According to classical Islamic theories of Sunnah they are documented by "hadith" (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions or disapprovals of Muhammad), and along with the Quran (the holy book of Islam), are the divine revelation ("Wahy") delivered through the Prophet that make up the primary sources of Islamic law and belief/theology. Differing from Sunni classical Islamic theories are those of Shia Muslims, who hold that the Twelve Imams interpret the sunnah, and Sufi who hold that Muhammad transmitted the values of Sunnah "through a series of Sufi teachers."

Sunna () Pl. "sunan" () ist ein Begriff, der in vorislamischer Zeit die Sitten, Bräuche, Werte und Normen der verschiedenen arabischen Stämme bezeichnete, im Laufe der Formierung des Islams aber eine religiöse Bedeutung erhielt, indem er zur Kurzbezeichnung für die zu befolgende "sunnat an-nabī", die „Handlungsweise des Propheten (=Mohammed)“, wurde. In diesem Sinne wird Sunna insbesondere in der islamischen Jurisprudenz und Traditionswissenschaft verwendet. Im Laufe der Zeit haben sich verschiedene Verschiebungen in der Bedeutung des Begriffs ergeben. Das zugehörige Verb ist.