Early life.

Harvey was born in Montreal on December 19, 1924, the second child of Alfred and Martha Harvey. Alfred was born in Hammersmith, United Kingdom in 1896 and had moved to Canada with his parents in 1905, while Martha was born in Pennsylvania to Welsh immigrants. The family lived in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce (NDG) an English-speaking and working-class neighbourhood of Montreal, where Alfred worked in the warehouse of N.C. Polson. Harvey was the second child, following Alfred, Jr. (Alf) and preceding Howard and Mary.  As a child Harvey was physically active, playing in many sports, and was also known as a troublemaker, often getting into fights with neighbouring children. Outside of sports he delivered newspapers, with one of his customers being future Canadiens' teammate Bill Durnan. He first showed his athletic ability in Canadian football, and when he entered West Hill High School in 1939 he joined the team there, playing both on offence and defence. He also played for the West Hill hockey team, and it was there that he first began to demonstrate his skills as a hockey player. Harvey had played hockey from a young age, but only joined an organised league when he was 13, asked to join a team by Alf. Initially he played goaltender, owing to his small stature, but soon moved to centre. Only later would he switch to defence.  The Second World War was ongoing while Harvey was completing high school, and in 1942, one month before his 18th birthday, he enlisted in the Royal Canadian Navy, following the advice of Alf, who had already done so. Recognized as a skilled hockey player, Harvey was initially assigned to the Navy's hockey team, which was used to boost public morale. However Harvey wanted to properly serve in the war, so requested a transfer to active service, though this was not addressed until 1944. In the spring of 1944 Harvey was assigned to a defensively equipped merchant ship; this was again a suggestion of Alf, as it meant a less rigorous lifestyle on-board a naval vessel. Harvey would spend the next year regularly crossing the Atlantic while helping protect supplies being shipped to Europe and Africa. Throughout this time Harvey's ships were never fired upon, and he would later look back fondly on his service. It was also during this period that biographer William Brown believes Harvey began to develop an alcohol addiction; neither of his parents drank, which was in stark contrast to the naval service, though Brown concedes it was only later in life that it became a serious problem for Harvey.

Amateur career.

Minor league hockey.

Harvey played minor league hockey in Oxford Park, Notre Dame de Grace in his native Montreal, Quebec, Canada, then began his professional career with the Montreal Royals of the Quebec Senior Hockey League where he played from 1945 to 1947, helping them win the Allan Cup. He then played one season with the Buffalo Bisons of the American Hockey League. He made the jump to the Montreal Canadiens of the NHL in the 1947–48 NHL season and remained with the team until 1961.

Football and baseball.

In the early 1940s Harvey also played rugby football (later known as Canadian football). He started to play competitively while at West Hill, and though he could play both offense and defence equally well, he was most known as a defensive halfback. He continued on with the sport when he joined the navy, playing for their Montreal-based team, St. Hyacinthe–Donnacona Navy. In 1943 Harvey was named the most valuable player of the Quebec Rugby Football Union. The Donnacona Navy won the 1944 Grey Cup as Canadian champions, though Harvey had been sent into active service and did not play in the game. After the war he briefly played for the newly-formed Montreal Hornets, but a mid-season injury forced him out. Though skilled at football, Harvey gave up the sport as it was only semi-professional in Canada at that time, while hockey was fully professional.  Harvey also played baseball at a competitive level, spending summers on teams from 1947 to 1950, mainly playing as a third baseman. In 1947 he was invited to join the Ottawa Nationals, a team that was run by Tommy Gorman (who had recently left his position as general manager of the Montreal Canadiens hockey team) and competed in the Class C Border League. A skilled ball player, in 1949 Harvey led the Border League in runs, runs batted in, and batting average. He was also offered a contract by the major league Boston Braves, though turned down the offer as it would only see him play in Class B (another level in the minor leagues).

Professional career.

Montreal Canadiens.

Under coach Dick Irvin, Harvey was named to the All-Star team 11 consecutive times, beginning in the 1951–52 NHL season. He won his first of seven James Norris Memorial Trophies in 1955, as the league's best defenceman. In an era when the defenceman's role did not include scoring points, Harvey used his skating speed and passing ability to become a factor in making the Canadiens a high-scoring team.  He earned six Stanley Cups, all with Montreal. In 1954, however, he scored a Cup-losing own-goal when he tried to block a shot by Tony Leswick of the Detroit Red Wings with his glove but instead tipped it past goalie Gerry McNeil. McNeil was so crushed by the goal that he retired to coach junior hockey the next season, but returned to the Canadiens in 1956.  Between 1955 and 1962 Harvey won the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the NHL's top defenceman every year except 1959, when it went to his teammate Tom Johnson.  Prior to the 1960–61 season Harvey was voted captain of the Canadiens by his teammates. This was not welcomed by team management, who were not happy with Harvey's actions on and off the ice.  Harvey was an outspoken critic of the hockey establishment who controlled players' careers via the reserve clause, which restricted player rights. In Harvey's day, players were not highly paid, with Harvey earning less than $30,000 a season at the peak of his career.

New York Rangers.

After the Canadiens lost in the 1961 playoffs, Harvey was singled out by Canadiens' general manager Frank J. Selke for the team's poor performance, and began to look at ways to get rid of him. Though he was still considered one of the best players in the NHL, Selke and the Canadiens had tired of his antics, and soon were in discussions with the New York Rangers about a possible trade. Muzz Patrick, the coach and general manager of the Rangers, had tired of the dual role, and agreed to take on Harvey if he could be convinced to be a player-coach. While Harvey was reluctant to move to New York he agreed to talk to Patrick, who offered a two-year contract worth $25,000 per year, a fairly high salary. After initially refusing, he agreed after a third year was added to the contract.  He won the Norris Trophy in his first season with the Rangers, but resigned as coach after the year, citing a lack of interest. He played one more season withe the team and part of a second before going to the minor leagues.

Minor leagues.

After leaving the Rangers Harvey spent two years with the Quebec Aces of the AHL. He followed that with one and a half seasons with the Baltimore Clippers and a further half season with the Pittsburgh Hornets.  In 1964 Harvey, Gump Worsley, and Red Berenson played for the Montreal Jr. Canadiens in a game against the Soviet national team. Harvey played almost 50 minutes during the 3–2 loss.

Detroit Red Wings and St. Louis Blues.

In January 1967 Harvey was called up to play for the Detroit Red Wings in a back-to-back series against the Chicago Black Hawks. However he disappointed Red Wings management by showing up roughly overweight, and was largely ineffective in the two games, so was sent back to Pittsburgh for the remainder of the season. With the Hornets he won the Calder Cup, the AHL championship, though the team disbanded after the season as the Pittsburgh Penguins were due to start playing in the NHL for 1967–68. He finished his NHL career in 1969 with the St. Louis Blues. Harvey served as player-coach during his first season in New York but was never entirely comfortable with this dual role.  In addition, he was hired as coach and manager of the Kansas City Blues, which was the farm team affiliate for the St Louis Blues in 1967-68.

Post-playing career.

After retiring from playing, Harvey became head coach of the Laval Saints of the newly-formed Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. However he only coached 16 games before leaving the team, finishing with a record of 4 wins and 12 losses. Offered a role as an assistant coach with the Los Angeles Kings of the NHL he went there, serving out the rest of the season with the team. He was offered a chance to play for the team but declined as he was 45 at that point and had not played in over a year.  In 1973 was hired as an assistant coach and scout by the Houston Aeros of the upstart World Hockey Association. With the Aeros he helped sign former NHL star Gordie Howe and his two sons, Mark and Marty, which was considered a major coup for the new league. Though he had initially stayed sober with Houston, Harvey relapsed and was let go by the team at the end of the 1973–74 season.

Personal life.

Family.

Harvey married Usula Hardie on May 21, 1949 in Montreal. It is not certain when they met, but they had been together since at least 1946. They had six children: Doug, Jr., Darlene, Glen, Nancy, Diane, and Maria. The family lived in NDG throughout Doug's playing career, though moved to Long Island during his first season with the Rangers before returning to Montreal after a few months, living in a house he built with his brothers in 1950.

Off-ice business.

Outside of hockey Harvey had several business ventures. After building his own home, Harvey and his brothers began a house-building business in 1953, and they later established an aluminum window business as well. Harvey, who was well-known for his hockey career at this point, would spend most of his time talking to clients, leaving Alf and Howard to do the physical work. In the early 1960s Harvey opened up a restaurant in Montreal, Chez Doug Harvey, with an associate he had recently met. The restaurant proved a massive financial failure, with his partner absconding with a large amount of money, and ultimately cost Harvey around $65,000, equal to nearly two years' pay for him. It also took a serious toll on his family's finances, which were exacerbated when he played in the minor leagues, making far less than he had in the NHL; on several occasions friends would help cover the mortgage to prevent Harvey from defaulting.  Starting in the mid-1960s Harvey started a summer hockey school for young boys. He would lead a two-week school instructing them on how to play better, and would often buy equipment and board players who were unable to cover the associated costs. The school ran yearly until 1979. In the early 1980s Harvey was offered a job at the Connaught Park Racetrack in Aylmer, Quebec, as well as the opportunity to live in retired railcar that had been used by Canadian prime minister John Diefenbaker in the 1950s, and subsequently purchased by the track.  For years, Harvey battled alcoholism while suffering from bipolar disorder. In 1985 he was offered a job with the Montreal Canadiens as a scout. He died on December 26, 1989 due to cirrhosis of the liver, only a week after his 65th birthday, and was interred in the Notre-Dame-des-Neiges Cemetery in Montreal.

Playing style.

Prior to the start of Harvey's career, it was normal for defencemen to pass the puck off to forwards or dump it into the offensive zone; the goal was to quickly move it out of the defensive zone and limit chances for the opponent to set up plays. Harvey was not interested in this system, and preferred to keep control of the puck as long as he could. In this way Harvey felt he could control the tempo of the play, and felt that by quickly dumping the puck it only turned over possession to the opponent. He would then pass the puck to a teammate who would quickly enter the offensive zone and set up scoring chances that way. This style of play was unusual at the time and Harvey was perceived as being a lazy player by both Canadiens' fans and his coaches. That Harvey, who was roughly and during his playing career, had a stocky look did not help this perception. However once it became apparent what he was doing he earned recognition for his ability.  Harvey's ability to set up offense helped the Canadiens create one of the strongest offensive teams in NHL history. Though he did not score many goals during his career, Harvey helped others score, and recorded several seasons with high assist totals. With this Harvey led NHL defencemen in assists five times and scoring three times during his career. Indeed, the Canadiens of the late 1950s were so strong on the power play that they repeatedly could score multiple goals on one power play. Other teams began to resent this, and so at the end of the 1955–56 season the NHL adopted a rule that ended a power play after one goal was scored.

Legacy.

From early on in his playing career Harvey was recognized as one of the top defencemen in NHL history, and one of the best players in general. With seven Norris Trophy wins he is tied with Nicklas Lidström for second most all-time, behind Bobby Orr's eight. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1973, though he had been eligible since 1972. Brown has said that the one-year delay was because of Harvey's lifestyle, and that he was asked to clean himself up if he wanted to be elected. Harvey apparently took this as a slight, and refused to attend his own induction ceremony in 1973, and reportedly went fishing instead.  Prior to a game on October 26, 1985, the Montreal Canadiens retired Harvey's #2. In 1991 the Confederation Arena, located in NDG, was renamed the "Doug Harvey Arena". Efforts had been made to rename the arena prior to Harvey's death, but the City of Montreal rarely renamed arenas after still-living people. "The Hockey News", the premier hockey magazine, released a list of the top 100 NHL players of all-time in 1997, with Harvey being named sixth overall. He was also named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in 2017.

Douglas Norman Harvey (December 19, 1924 – December 26, 1989) was a Canadian professional hockey defenceman and coach who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) from 1947 until 1964, and from 1966 until 1969. Best known for playing with the Montreal Canadiens, Harvey also played for the New York Rangers, Detroit Red Wings, and St. Louis Blues, as well as several teams in the minor leagues. He also served as the player-coach of the Rangers for one season, and served a similar role for the minor-league Kansas City Blues.

Douglas „Doug“ Norman Harvey (* 19. Dezember 1924 in Montreal, Québec; † 26. Dezember 1989 ebenda) war ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der von 1947 bis 1969 für die Montréal Canadiens, New York Rangers, Detroit Red Wings und St. Louis Blues in der National Hockey League spielte.


By country.

Argentina.

In Argentina the Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of "Jurisprudence". To obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney. (Título de Abogado). The doctorates in Jurisprudence in Argentina might have different denominations as is described as follow:

Brazil.

In Brazil, the Doctor of Laws degree, known in Portuguese as "Doutor em Direito" or "Doutor em Ciências Jurídicas", is the highest academic degree in law available.  In a few universities there is a higher title known as "livre docência", like the habilitation in some European countries. However, this higher title is not a degree in the strict sense, because "livre docência" nowadays is an internal title, that applies solely within the institution granting it.  In the past, "livre docência" was a degree in the fullness of the term, and a professor bearing the title would enjoy the privileges of "livre docência" if he transferred from one institution to another; there are still living professors who hold the "old" "livre docência" degrees; but all new titles of that name only confer privileges within the institution granting it.  The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the successful defense of a thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a "livre docência". Two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are also required to earn a minimum number of credits.  Unlike the rules of other countries, the Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree. Nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institution's library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title.  If one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy the academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. In that case, the doctor asking for the validation of the title will present his thesis and other documents relating to his foreign doctoral course to a board examiners of the Brazilian University and the examiners will then pass judgement on whether the work done by the candidate adheres to the minimum standards of quality that are usually required by a Brazilian university when granting doctoral degrees.  Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a master's degree (the Master's in Brazil is a graduate degree and is not the first professional degree). Therefore, a bachelor of Laws (a bearer of the first professional degree), seeking the degree of doctor must usually complete a postgraduate course to attain the degree of Master of Laws (to attain that degree one must write and defend a dissertation before a panel of three professors, bearing the title of master, doctor or a "livre docência, and also complete credits), and only then, after being a Master of Laws, one will apply for admission to a doctoral course.  There are, however, a few universities that allow "direct" admission to the doctoral course without previous completion of the Master's course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in rare cases, a bachelor of Laws (i.e., a holder of the first professional degree), can be admitted directly to a doctoral course.  Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. So, if one were to graduate from Law School and immediately enter a Master of Laws course and a Doctor of Laws course in immediate succession, that person would become a doctor about seven years after graduating from the Law School. On the other hand, in the rare cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a "direct" doctorate, he is usually allowed five years time to complete the doctoral course.  Unlike the Master of Laws dissertation, the Doctoral Thesys must contain an original contribution to the field of Law under study.

Canada.

In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates: the Doctor of Laws (LL.D.); Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science (J.S.D./S.J.D); Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.); and the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). The Doctor of Jurisprudence (Juris Doctor or J.D.) is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law.  The first law degree was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.). However, since law schools in Canada generally insist on a prior degree or some equivalent in order to grant admission, it was a more advanced degree than the LL.B. degrees awarded by programs abroad, which would accept high school graduates. The majority of Canadian universities now grant that degree rather than the LL.B.; the University of Saskatchewan replaced its LL.B. with a J.D. in 2010, because the Canadian LL.B. is equivalent to the J.D.  All Canadian J.D. programs are three years, and all (except those in Quebec) have similar mandatory first-year courses: In "public", "constitutional," or "state" law; tort law; contract law; criminal law, and some sort of "professional practice" course. Beyond first year and the minimum requirements for graduation, course selection is elective, with various concentrations such as business law, international law, natural resources law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law.  After the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws (LL.M.) and after that, the Doctor of Law (LL.D.), at some Canadian universities. (The LL.D. is awarded by several universities only as an honorary degree, but when awarded by a law school is an earned degree). Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four (University of Ottawa, University of Montreal, Laval University, and University of Quebec at Montreal) offer LL.Ds, five (University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, Dalhousie University, and University of Victoria) offer Ph.D.s, only one (University of Toronto,) offers J.S.D./S.J.D degrees (Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science), and one (McGill University) offers a D.C.L (Doctor of Civil Law). The differences largely reflect the divide between Canada's two legal systems (the common law and the civil law). Faculties that teach in the civil law tradition grant LL.D degrees, whereas those in the common law tradition grant either Ph.D.s or J.S.Ds. The York University Ph.D. in law was formerly termed Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.), until the name was changed in 2002.

Czech Republic and Slovakia (former Czechoslovakia).

In the Czech Republic and Slovakia the Doctor is a postgraduate degree in two types – as a professional degree in law (JUDr) and a research doctorate (PhD).  JUDr (Juris Utriusque Doctor - Doctor of Both Laws i.e. Civil and Church) is a degree with a tradition of several centuries, originally the highest possible degree. Nowadays, its scholar importancy is quite limited, but it serves as a traditional and popular badge degree, especially useful for attorneys. In older times with no master's degree, JUDr. served as the only law degree (and was roughly equivalent to the today's master's degree, plus a special exam). Requirements for obtaining a JUDr degree are a highly rated Master (Mgr.) degree in law, the compilation of a thesis (including successful defense) and passing an oral exam called "Rigorosum". The thesis itself is also sometimes called "Rigorosum". Many JUDr. theses are based on the students previous Master theses; however, nowadays universities require that the dissertation work be completely original.  Doctoral studies leading to PhD degree are different from the JUDr exam. PhD studies are internal (PhD student is at the same time teacher at the university), which lasts 3–5 years, and external up to 8 years long. PhD students are obliged to pass some exams during the studies and mainly to work on their dissertation. The PhD is intended basically for candidates interested in an academic career, and it gives them the right to teach at a university.  The Czech system is in many ways similar to the German and Austrian systems. Therefore, a PhD degree is necessary for habilitation procedure. Through habilitation, the doctor of law who submits his habilitation work (similar to German Habilitationsschrift) can be given a capacity and title of Docent (Doc.), similar to German Dozent, Privatdozent or US Assistant Professor. Docent is not a degree, but a scholar title.  Only a docent can be appointed a professor through a special procedure. Unlike Germany (and unlike the traditional Czech practice), a professor is not a function (a seat, Cathedra) at a university, but a scholarly title. This leads to many problems, especially the phenomenon of so-called "flying professors", who are teaching at two or three universities at the same time and to the decline of academic life.

European and Commonwealth usage.

In the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Europe, the degree is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of exceptionally insightful and distinctive publications that contain significant and original contributions to the study of law. Some universities, such as the University of Oxford, award a Doctor of Civil Law degree instead. In South Africa the LL.D. is awarded based upon research and completion of a dissertation; the LL.D. may also be awarded as an honorary degree based upon contributions to society; see below.

Finland.

In Finland, the Doctor of Laws (, OTT) (, JD) is the highest academic degree in law, based on 60 credits of course studies and, most importantly, successful completion of a doctoral dissertation. The dissertation usually takes the form of a monograph at least of 250 pages in length, or of a series of published articles. A successful oral disputation is also required. It usually takes at least four years to complete the degree.  The degree of the Doctor of Laws does not qualify its holder for judicial offices. Instead, the degree of the Master of Laws () () is the requirement for the membership of the Finnish Bar Association and for judicial offices. As the doctoral programs for the doctoral degree are, in principle, open for the holders of all master's degrees, the possession of the degree of the Doctor of Laws is not a guarantee for the possession of the Master of Laws -degree. However, it is very seldom that someone who has not graduated in law graduates for a doctor of law.

France.

In France, the Doctor of Law degree ("doctorat en droit") is a PhD. The PhD in law is required to teach at the university level as a "maître de conférences" (lecturer). To become Professor of Law, holders of a PhD in law have yet to pass an additional competitive exam: the "agrégation de droit". Only the first year ("master 1") of the master's degree in law is necessary to pass the bar exam.

Germany.

The Doctor of Laws ("Doktor der Rechte") is the terminal degree in law, abbreviated as "Dr. iur." "(Doctor iuris)" or "Dr. jur." "(Doctor juris)". The terminology varies: while most universities refer to the degree as Doctor of Laws ("Doktor der Rechte" (pl.), e.g. Munich, Münster, Berlin (HU), Cologne, Tübingen, Göttingen), some others refer to it either as Doctor of Jurisprudence ("Doktor der Rechtswissenschaft", e.g. Heidelberg, Hamburg) or Doctor of Law ("Doktor des Rechts" (sg.), e.g. Berlin (FU)). It is conferred based on a thesis consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, and an oral examination ("Rigorosum" or "Disputation"). The thesis must have been published as a book or – less common – as a series of articles in a peer reviewed law journal before the degree can be formally conferred. Admission usually requires the grade of "Fully Satisfactory" (approximately top quintile of class) in the student's first "Staatsexamen" (the Master's level first professional degree). Having successfully passed the second "Staatsexamen" (the German equivalent to the bar exam) is not required.  The Doctor of Both Laws ("Doktor beider Rechte"), awarded as "Dr. iur. utr." ("Doctor iuris utriusque", conferred e.g. in Würzburg) is rare, since it means considering both Civil Law and Canonical Law. A doctorate solely in the latter area is the degree of "Dr. iur. can." "(Doctor iuris canonici)".  Approximately ten percent of German law graduates hold a doctoral degree. However, the Doctor of Laws is still only the first step to tenure at German law schools. Despite the initiative to establish a junior professorship with tenure option after five to seven years, and special professorships specializing in teaching ("Lehrprofessur"), to become a university professor of law a "habilitation" (de iure not an academic degree) is still mandatory at most German law schools.

Italy.

In Italy, the title of "Magister Doctor of Law" ("Dottore magistrale in Giurisprudenza") is the title given to students who complete the five-year "Laurea magistrale" degree.  Despite the adoption of the Bologna process, in Italy law remains a field that retains the traditional Italian system.  Once a prospective lawyer has been awarded the Magister Doctor of Law and worked 18 months as a trainee lawyer, he or she is required to pass a state bar examination in order to be licensed to practice as an attorney at law ("Avvocato"). Previously, "dottore in giurisprudenza" was the title given to the students that completed the old (four-year) course of studies in law. After the five-year degree, it is possible to enroll in a Ph.D. course in a specific field of law ("Dottorato"), and the title obtained is "Dottore di ricerca" (Ph.D.).

Malta.

In Malta, the European Union's smallest member state, the LL.D. was a doctorate-level academic degree in law requiring at least three years of post-graduate full-time study at the University of Malta, Malta's national university. At least three years of previous law study were required for entry. Students were required to complete coursework in a number of core areas of law, as well as to submit a thesis which is to be "an original work on the approved subject or other contribution to the knowledge showing that he/she has carried out sufficient research therein". It confers the title of Doctor, which in Malta is used to address a holder of the degree. Up until 2014, the LL.D. was one of the requirements for admission to the profession of advocate in Malta (an advocate, as opposed to a legal procurator, has rights of representation in superior courts).  Practising lawyers are of three designations – notary, legal procurator and advocate. The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. A one-year full-time taught post-graduate diploma of Notary Public (N.P.) is required after the LL.B. for admission to the profession of notary public, while a taught post-graduate diploma of Legal Procurator (L.P.) is required for admission to the profession of legal procurator. A legal procurator has rights of audience in the lower courts, a profession that was existent in Malta as early, and even prior to 1553. All three designations also require members to be holders of a warrant issued by the president of Malta, obtainable after examination, as well as a minimum of one year of work experience in that profession. It is not possible for a Maltese lawyer to hold a warrant in more than one of the professions at a time.  As of 2014 changes to the law course resulted from the implementation of the Bologna Process, removed the Doctorate of Laws (LLD) title and replace it with a second cycle degree, Master of Advocacy (M.Adv). This raised discussion as to whether newly qualified lawyers would be referred to as 'Doctor', as had been the norm. Following representation from law student organisations, the Chamber of Advocates came to the agreement that if a newly qualified lawyer was to self-stylise as 'Doctor' they would be supported, as a matter of convention.

South Africa.

In South Africa the doctorate in law is offered as a research doctorate of at least two years duration, in various specialised areas of law. In general, South African universities offer either the PhD or the LLD, with no significant difference between these. (At UCT, UKZN and Wits, the PhD is the research doctorate, while the LLD is the higher doctorate; SU and UWC offer the LLD to law graduates, and the PhD to other graduates researching a legal-related topic). In order to obtain the degree, the student will complete a thesis under the guidance of a supervisor, after completion of a module in research methodology, the submission of a research proposal and an oral examination. The thesis will demonstrate evidence of in-depth independent research and understanding of the topic, and constitute an original scientific contribution. Admission is usually on the basis of an LLM, and in some cases an LLB.

Sweden.

In Sweden, the Doctor of Laws (LLD) is the highest academic degree in law. It is a research degree, which combines 240 credit hours (or equivalent of four full-time years of work). Candidates have the option to complete a dissertation or a monograph of a series of published articles. Although not required to practice law, the LLD is a prerequisite for an academic career.

United Kingdom.

In the UK, the degree of Doctor of Laws is a higher doctorate, ranking above the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a portfolio of advanced research. It is also often awarded "honoris causa" to public figures (typically those associated with politics or the law) whom the university wishes to honour. In most British universities, the degree is styled "Doctor of Laws" and abbreviated LL. D.; however, some universities award instead the degree of Doctor of Civil Law, abbreviated DCL.  In former years, Doctors of Law were a distinct form of lawyer who were empowered to act as advocates in civil law courts. The Doctors had their own Society called Doctors' Commons, but following reforms in the nineteenth century their exclusive rights of audience were shared with barristers and the last Doctor of Law died in 1912. Due to the possession of a doctorate, the Doctors of Law had precedence equal to that of a Serjeant-at-Law and for this reason the convention remains that advocates holding junior doctorates (such as Doctors of Philosophy) should not be addressed as "doctor" in an English court.  In 1953, a case was brought under long-dormant law in the High Court of Chivalry. The opening arguments in that case were by George Drewry Squibb who argued, to the satisfaction of the court, that since the modern class of Doctors of Laws were no longer trained as advocates, their role must necessarily be performed by barristers. This was because Victorian reforms, which had unified the other classes of court attorney into the single profession of barrister, had overlooked the Doctors of Law.

United States.

In the United States, the most common Doctor of Law degree is the Juris Doctor (or Doctor of Jurisprudence), abbreviated as J.D. It is the professional degree for lawyers, having replaced the Bachelor of Laws in the 20th century after law schools began to require a Bachelor's degree before admission to a J.D. program to study law for three years. A research dissertation is not required for the J.D., but the American Bar Association issued a Council Statement stating that the J.D. should be considered equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. In recent years, some universities also have developed other new interdisciplinary professional doctorates that may combine law and other specialized or applied fields. One example of this is Northeastern University's Doctor of Law and Policy (D.L.P.) degree.  Additionally, other universities award a higher postdoctoral research degree in law, the Doctor of Juridical Science (or Scientiae Juridicae Doctor), abbreviated as S.J.D. or D.J.S. Applicants for S.J.D. programs must first earn a J.D., and some programs require both a J.D. and an LL.M. before admission. Similar to the Ph.D., the S.J.D. is a research doctorate and has been described as the "highest degree in law" by the University of Virginia, as well as the "terminal degree in law" by Indiana University and Harvard Law School. It has also been called the "most advanced law degree" by Yale Law School, Georgetown Law, New York University, and Stanford University. The University of Connecticut School of Law explains that this specific degree is "intended for individuals who have demonstrated evidence of superior scholarly potential."  The National Association of Legal Professionals states that the S.J.D./D.J.S. is "the most advanced or terminal law degree that would follow the earning of the LL.M. and J.D. degrees." It typically requires three to five years to complete and requires an advanced study in law as a scientific discipline and a dissertation, which serves as an original contribution to the scholarly field of law.  As with most other countries, in the United States, the Legum Doctor (LL.D.), also colloquially known in English as Doctorate of Laws, is granted only as an honorary degree.

Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country and includes degrees such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D), Doctor juris (Dr. iur. or Dr. jur.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and Legum Doctor (LL.D.).

Doktor der Rechte, seltener "Doktor des Rechts" oder "Doktor der Rechtswissenschaft(en)", ist der akademische Grad eines Doktors im Bereich der Rechtswissenschaft. Die Abkürzung ist Dr. jur. oder Dr. iur. (lateinisch; Abkürzung von "Doctor iuris")


Background.

BR research.

Following nationalisation of the UK's railways in 1948, British Rail faced significant losses in passengers as the car rapidly became more popular through the 1950s and 60s. By 1970, passenger numbers were roughly half what they had been immediately before World War II. In an attempt to maintain some level of profitability, the government commissioned a report that resulted in the abandonment of many lines as part of the 1963 "Beeching Axe". In spite of this significant restructuring, the company was still built on lines that were pre-war,

Cant and tilting trains.

During this period, BR's Passenger Business division produced a report suggesting rail could compete with road and air, but only if trains were faster. Studying the increase in ridership due to the introduction of the British Rail Class 55 "Deltic" engines on the East Coast Main Line, and the effects of electrification on the WCML which improved journey times 20 to 30%, they concluded that every increase in speed would result in a 1% increase in passengers. This basic rule was apparently proven in Japan, when the Tokyo-Osaka shinkansen line was operating from 1964 to huge success.  The shinkansen provided a smooth ride at speeds as high as by laying new lines dedicated to high speed travel. BR's most used route, the WCML, had in the order of 6 million passengers a year between London and Manchester, a far cry from the Tokyo-Osaka's 120 million. Funding for a new line for high speed use was highly unlikely given these passenger levels. This presented a problem for any sort of high-speed operation on the route because the existing line contained many turns and curves, and rounding these at high speed would cause lateral forces that would

APT's origins.

In 1964, a number of BR's formerly dispersed research groups were organised into the new Derby Research Division. It was here that the final work on Wickens' HSFV was being developed.  In 1965, Wickens had hired an intern, Dutch engineer A.J. Ispeert, and had him do some early work on active tilt systems. These would replace the passive pendulum-like Talgo system with a system using hydraulic cylinders that would quickly drive the car to the proper angle and hold it there without any swinging. A major advantage

Finalising the design.

Another of Jones' many goals for the APT was that it would not cause additional wear on the lines. Instantaneous loads on the railbed vary with the square of speed, so a faster train would greatly increase road wear. Offsetting this effect required the train to meet stringent weight limits, and eliminated the possibility of using conventional diesel engines, which were simply too heavy. The team selected gas turbine power as the solution, initially considering the Rolls-Royce Dart.  When the funding was secured a number of

POP.

Although construction of the train was relatively straightforward, a number of more serious problems appeared in the power and control systems. Thus the decision was made to build two additional power cars as unfinished frameworks with no power. These cars would instead be hauled by conventional locomotives to provide data on the tilting and braking systems as well as the dynamics of the vehicles. A contract for the additional two cars was sent out on 14 April 1970, and ran for the first time in September 1971. The name "POP" was assigned, an acronym for "power-zero-power", indicating the two power car layout with no passenger

APT-E.

While POP was proving the basic concepts, construction of the test train continued at the Derby lab. The set was sufficiently complete by late 1971 for an official naming ceremony, where it became the APT-E (for Experimental). It made its first low-speed run from Derby to Duffield on 25 July 1972. Upon reaching Duffield, the ASLEF union immediately "blacked" it, forbidding their members from doing any work involving the train. Their complaint was that the APT-E had a single operator's chair, which they took as evidence that BR was moving to single

Move to electrification.

While APT-E was still under construction, the team was well into the design of a production version. Jones found an ally in Graham Calder, who had been promoted to become BR's chief mechanical engineer (CME) in 1971. At the time they envisioned building two new experimental trains; one was essentially a stretched version of the APT-E with turbine power, and the other was similar, but powered by overhead electrical lines via pantograph (pan).  As data flowed in from the POP and APT-E, a number of changes to the design were being made. Among the more problematic

Design review.

With the decision to move primarily to electrification made in November 1972, Jones began building a larger management team to carry the design forward to service. This resulted in the April 1973 transfer of the design from the research division to the Office of the Chief Mechanical and Electrical Engineer. A review was carried out by a joint team from the two divisions, led by David Boocock.  As a result of this review a number of additional changes were made to the

HST vs. APT.

It was during this time that other groups within BR began to agitate against APT, saying it was simply too large a step to make in a single design. They proposed building a much simpler design, powered by conventional diesels and lacking tilt, but capable of speeds of up to and able to run anywhere on the BR network. This emerged in 1970 as the

APT-P.

Although the centre-motor layout was the simplest in terms of solving the immediate technical problems, it would cause significant problems in operational terms. There was a passage through the power cars that connected the two halves of the train, but it was noisy, cramped and not permitted for passengers. Instead, each end of the train now required its own dining car and similar facilities. The split design also presented problems in the stations, where only the two ends of the platforms could now be used, whereas normal equipment could park with the locomotives off the end of the platform.  Although all auxiliary equipment such as lighting, air conditioning and air compressors was powered by motor alternators driven from the 25 kV overhead line, it was recognised that if there were a power failure, conditions in the passenger vehicles would quickly become unbearable and even unsafe. Each driving van trailer i.e. the leading and trailing

Service testing.

Although APT-P used much of the technology developed on the APT-E, construction of the first APT-P was delayed several times. The first power car was delivered from the Derby locomotive works in June 1977, and the first passenger cars on 7 June 1978, a year late. The first complete train was not ready until May 1979. It entered testing soon after, and set the UK speed record at in December 1979, a record that stood for 23 years. Two additional examples were delivered, each with minor changes, one in late 1979, and the last in 1980. Initially proposed in the 1960s, and given the go-ahead in the early 1970s, the design was now significantly late.  Long delays in the production of the prototype meant that the brake units had to be stored for an extended period before being installed. The change from oil to water-glycol mix required the cylinders to be covered internally with an anti-corrosion coating, which broke down during storage. In testing the cylinders repeatedly failed, and the loss of pressure caused the train to take nearly as long

In service.

Queasy rider.

While the commissioning team continued to report, and solve, problems in the APT design, BR management was under increasing pressure from the press. By the early 1980s the project had been running for over a decade and the trains were still not in service. "Private Eye" lampooned it with a timetable proclaiming "The APT arriving at Platform 4 is fifteen years late". Press pressure led to political pressure which led to management pressure, and the APT team was told to put the train into operation in spite of its ongoing problems.  This led to one of the most infamous events in rail history. On 7 December 1981 the press was invited aboard APT for its first official run from Glasgow to London, during which it set a schedule record at 4 hours 15 minutes. The press proved uninterested in this success. Instead, they focused on a distinct sickening sensation from the tilt system, and nicknamed APT the "queasy rider". They also reported that the stewardess, Marie Docherty, suggested the solution was to "just stand with your feet apart." BR engineers did little to address the problem when one publicly suggested that

Further development.

In 1981, BR hired the consulting firm Ford & Dain Partners to produce a report on the APT project and make any suggestions to improve it. It produced an interim report in November 1981, and a final version that December. Their reports first suggested that the technical aspects of the design were largely complete, although they drew attention to the braking system, but that the management structure was a serious problem and there had to be a single manager in charge of the entire project. This resulted in the appointment of John Mitchell to the position of manager of the APT. Matters immediately improved.  Among the improvements was a fix for the motion sickness being experienced by passengers. The commissioning team had been well aware of this problem before it entered service, but this was not mentioned to the press when it was noticed on the public runs. The problem was due to two effects. One was that the control system did not

Re-entry, demise.

The APT-P trains were quietly reintroduced into service in mid-1984, but not mentioned as such on any of the timetables; passengers would find out if they were taking APT only when it arrived at the platform. These trains proved to work well, the problems having apparently been corrected. However, the political and managerial will to continue the project and build the projected 140 mph capable APT-S production vehicles had evaporated.  Meanwhile, HST entered service as the InterCity 125 in 1976 and proved to

Examination.

The failure of the APT project saw extensive reporting in the 1980s, and has remained a topic of some discussion since then. Writers generally agree that the technical aspects of the design were largely solved by the time of their second service introduction, and put most of the blame for the delays on the shifting management structures and infighting within BR between APT and HST. There have also been concerns that carrying out development within BR was a major problem of its own, because this meant their industrial partners had no buy-in and their years of practical experience were being ignored.  The development timeline is also a

Legacy.

Alan Williams notes that work continued on a new variant, the APT-U (APT-Update). This was essentially APT-P with the tilt system made optional and the engines repositioned at either end of the train with power couplings running between them. That project was later retitled InterCity 225 (IC225), perhaps to distance it from the bad publicity surrounding the APT-P. The Mark 4 coach design that was introduced as part of the new IC225 sets for the East Coast Main Line electrification allowed the retrofitting of the tilt mechanism, although this was never implemented. The Class 91 locomotives that power the IC225s had design features "imported wholesale" from the APT-P power cars, including body- rather than bogie-mounted traction motors to reduce unsprung load, and having the transformer below rather than on top of the underframe to reduce the centre of gravity. Unlike the APT-P power cars, though, they were never intended to tilt. In 1976 Fiat Ferroviaria built the

APT today.

The APT-E unit is now owned by the National Railway Museum and is on display at its "Locomotion" museum at Shildon in County Durham. An APT-P unit is now on display at Crewe Heritage Centre and can be seen from trains passing on the adjacent West Coast Main Line along with APT-P power car number 49006 which arrived in March 2018 after 7 years at the Electric Railway Museum, Warwickshire in Coventry  During special events, the driving trailer 370003 offers a "tilt" experience which involves tilting the coach when it is static.

The Advanced Passenger Train (APT) was a tilting high speed train developed by British Rail during the 1970s and early 1980s, for use on the West Coast Main Line (WCML). The WCML contained many curves, and the APT pioneered the concept of active tilting to address these, a feature that has since been copied on designs around the world. The experimental APT-E achieved a new British railway speed record on 10 August 1975 when it reached, only to be bested by the service prototype APT-P at in December 1979, a record that stood for 23 years.

Die britischen Advanced Passenger Trains waren Personenzüge der British Rail (BR), die mit dem Ziel hoher Reisegeschwindigkeiten entwickelt wurden. Dabei sind zwei Unterarten zu unterscheiden: Zum einen existiert der APT-E (E für Experimental), der mit einer Gasturbine betrieben wurde und zum anderen der APT-P (P für Prototype), welcher elektrisch angetrieben wurde.


History.

In 1703, the University of Glasgow's first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine.  University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the M.D., until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the M.D. title rather than the MB beginning in the late

By country.

Professional degrees.

Afghanistan.

In Afghanistan, medical education begins after high school. No pre-medicine courses or bachelor's degree is required. Eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam held every year throughout the country. Entry to medical school is competitive, and only students with the highest ranks are accepted into medical programs. The primary medical degree is completed in 7 years. According to the new medical curriculum (from 2016), during the 12th semester, medical students must complete research on a medical topic and provide a

Argentina.

In Argentina, the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate () is equivalent to the North American MD Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or

Australia.

Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their higher or honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorized as

Austria.

In Austria, medical studies (medicine or dentistry) take 6 years full-time. In medicine, the first two years comprise basic fields of medicine such as anatomy, biology, chemistry, physics, physiology, etc., the next three years consist of all medical fields in the narrower sense with frequent bedside training and medical traineeships while the sixth and last year is dedicated solely to working in a clinic. After this, a specific 6-year training (e.g. in internal medicine, paediatrics, ENT, pathology) or 4 year (GP) can be started; without this training, working with patients is forbidden. There is no central placement test for said specialist training, only a board-registered spot as a resident/registrar is needed. As with all other studies in Austria, there is no tuition but compulsory students' insurance (approx. 38 € per year). A specific entrance exam (MedAT, Medizin-Aufnahmetest, medicine acceptance test) has to be taken but is open only once a year in summer; a fee of 110 € has to be paid. In 2019, 16.443 persons registered for the MedAT and 12.960 took the test. 1.680

Belgium.

In French-speaking part of Belgium, the medical degree awarded after six years of study

Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is

Bulgaria.

At the end of the six-year medical programs from Bulgarian medical schools, medical students

Cambodia.

After 6 years of general medical education (a foundation year plus 5 years), all students will graduate with a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc, ), equivalent to Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). This degree does not allow graduates to work independently as a physician, but it

Canada.

In Canada, the M.D. is the degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada that continues to award the M.D., C.M. degrees (abbreviated M.D.C.M.). M.D.C.M. is from the Latin

China.

In China, many prestigious research universities such as Peking Union Medical College, Peking University Health Science Center, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University offer the 8-year Doctor of Medicine program. In the meantime, the majority of primary medical training comes in the form of a 5-year Bachelor of Medicine degree, which includes 2.5 years of basic science and biomedical science training

Croatia.

In Croatia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded

Cuba.

In Cuba, the title of "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor in Medicine) is awarded upon completion of six years of study at a University of

Dominican Republic.

In the Dominican Republic, it is known as "Doctor en Medicina" (Doctor in Medicine). In 1511 the Spanish Catholic church founded the first university of the Americas in

Ecuador.

In Ecuador, medical school begins after graduating high-school. There are two options; applying to public or private universities. Both private and public university select their candidates based on entrance exams. Public universities

France.

After graduating from high school with a Baccalaureat, any student can register at a university of medicine (there are about 30 of them throughout the country). Until 2018, at the end of the first year, an internal ranking examination took place at each of these universities in order to implement the "numerus clausus". This ranking examination and the "numerus clausus" has since been abolished. First year consists primarily of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology. Passing first year is generally considered very challenging, requiring hard and continuous work. Each student can only try twice. For example, the Université René Descartes welcomes about 2,000 students in the first year and only 300 after "numerus clausus".  The second and third year are usually quite theoretical although the teachings are often accompanied by placements in the field (e.g., internships as nurses or in the emergency room, depending on the university).  During their fourth, fifth and sixth years, medical students get a special status called ""externe"" (In some universities, such as Pierre

Georgia.

In Georgia, medical universities in Georgia offer a 6-year curriculum leading to award "Doctor of Medicine (MD)" "Physician" "Medical Doctor (MD),

Germany.

After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam '. Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician ('). About 80% of them additionally obtain the academic degree Doctor

Guyana.

In Guyana, Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree is awarded after the completion of 4 years or

Hungary.

In Hungary, after six years of medical school, which includes

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, the title of ""dokter"" (dr.) is awarded after 3-3.5 years of study (at least) and 1.5–2 years of clinical course in university hospitals. After a medical student finished those five years of study, they need to take "Uji Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter" (UKMPPD). If they pass the test, they can take Hippocrates Oath and the title of "Dokter" (dr.) is entitled before their name. Then they need to take

Iran.

In Iran, Medical education begins after high school. No pre-med course or BSc degree is required. The eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam being held every year throughout the country. The entry to medical school is competitive and only students with the highest rank are accepted into medical program. The primary medical degree is

Israel.

There are six university medical schools in Israel, including the Technion in Haifa, Ben Gurion University in Be'er Sheva, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, the Medical school of the Bar-Ilan University in Safed and Ariel University. They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University and Ariel University, which has a four-year program similar to the US system. However, as of 2009, Tel Aviv University has introduced a four-year program similar to the US system for students

Italy.

In Italy, before the Bologna process, the degree of "Dottore in Medicina e Chirurgia" (literally "Doctor in Medicine and Surgery", from the Latin Medicinae Doctor et Chirurgiae) is awarded after completion of at least six years of study and clinical training in a university and after the submission of a thesis, that consists of original research.  However, spurred by the Bologna process, a major reform instituted in 1999 to align University

Latvia.

In Latvia, the duration of basic medical education is

Malaysia.

In Malaysia, there are two types of MDs, one being for a basic medical degree while the other being a doctoral degree, depending on the awarding universities. The basic medical degree MDs (Similar to the MBBS awarded by other local universities) are awarded by both private and

Philippines.

In the Philippines, the MD is a first professional degree in medicine. To be accepted in Philippine medical schools, one must have finished a college degree before one can proceed to have a medical education. It is attained by either completing a 4-year degree or a 5-year degree (with internship included) from an accredited institution private and public Medical

Poland.

In Poland the title of "lekarz" (physician, medical doctor) or "lek." is granted after completing a 6-year medical program (students apply to it directly after graduating high school). Many medical schools in Poland also offer medicine programs in English, which award the

Romania.

Romanian medical programs last for 6 years (including clinical practice), which is the long-cycle first professional degree and concludes

Russia.

Medical universities in Russia offer a six-year curriculum leading to award a professional graduate degree, called of "specialist" (Diploma of Specialist; in medicine, Diploma of Physician (Doctor of Medicine)).

Serbia.

In Serbia, MD degree is awarded upon completion of

Singapore.

The American Duke University has a medical school based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Medical School), and follows the North-American model of styling

Slovakia.

Slovakia's medical education is offered at three medical schools in the country. Two of them are faculties of the Comenius University, which are the Faculty of Medicine in Bratislava, and the Jessenius School of Medicine in Martin, while the third one is the Pavol Josef Šafarik University in Košice. Both the Jessenius School of Medicine and the Faculty of Medicine in Košice has several international students. The Jessenius School of Medicine has almost a thousand international students, most from Norway.  Admission to the medical schools is based

Slovenia.

In Slovenia, the title of "doktor medicine" (abbreviated "dr. med.") is awarded upon completion of six years of study at one of the

South Korea.

In South Korea, there is a Medical Doctor (MD) license.  The medical educations in South Korea (Republic of Korea) are 6 or 4 years in duration, 6-year

Taiwan.

In Taiwan, the MD is a first awarded

Thailand.

The Thai medical education follows the 6-year European system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training. Upon graduation, all medical students must pass national medical licensing examinations and a university-based comprehensive test. After medical school, newly graduated doctors are under contract

Tunisia.

In Tunisia, education is free for all Tunisian citizens and for foreigners who have scholarships. The oldest Medical school is a faculty of the University of Tunis. There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir. Admission is bound to the success and score in the baccalaureate examination. Admission score threshold is very high, based on competition among all applicants throughout the nation. Medical school curriculum consists of six years. The first two years are medical theory (PCEM), containing all basic sciences related to medicine, and the last four years (DCEM) consists of clinical issues related to all medical specialties. During these last four years, the student gets the status

Turkey.

In Turkey, the title of "Tıp Doktoru" (literally "Doctor of Medicine") is awarded upon completion of six years continuous study started with five years university education include three years basic sciences, two years clinical courses followed by one year of internship in university hospitals. The internal structure and methology of training varies among universities; however vertical integration

Ukraine.

In Ukraine, by 2018, graduates of the school with completed secondary education that have coped with the relevant exams (in the disciplines designated by these universities) in the nationwide system for assessing graduates' knowledge - EIT (, External independent testing) based on the rating - may be admitted to the Medical Universities.  Ukrainian medical universities offer a 6-year curriculum, which should end with the passing of the State Complex Examination. The graduate receives the Diploma of the State Standard with the title "Specialist Diploma", which specifies a specialty and qualification (for example, "Physician"), or "Magister's Diploma" also of a

United States.

In the United States, the M.D. awarded by medical schools is a "Professional Doctorate" (as opposed to the Doctor of Philosophy degree which requires a focus on research) and is accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), an independent body sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Medical Association (AMA).  In addition to the M.D., the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) is an equivalent professional doctoral degree for physicians and surgeons offered by medical schools in the United States. According to Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of M.D. physicians, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and certification."  Admission to medical school in the United States is highly competitive, and in the United States about 17,800 out of approximately 47,000 applicants (≈38%) received at least one acceptance to any medical school in recent application years. Before entering medical school, students are required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT); however, some combined undergraduate-medical programs exist. Before graduating from a medical school and

Venezuela.

After graduating from high school in Venezuela students can apply for federal appointment to a six-year medical program within a University. Only Public Universities offer this degree in Venezuela. Any student can apply for federal appointment by Ministry of Higher Education. So that, the student is allowed to register at university and follow a medical program. This a six-year program divided within three cycles. First cycle: Theory and lectures (1-2), second cycle: pre-clinical training (3-4) and third cycle: clinical training (5-6).  First year consists mainly of theoretical classes, however there are practice since first day in laboratories and institutes, such as biochemistry, anatomy which included lectures and teaching sessions with cadavers in dissection tables, Molecular Biology, histology, embryology and many others general subjects.  The second year is usually mainly quite theoretical although most teaching sessions takes place in laboratories. After completing these years the student know how the human body is and how it works. Also, any extrinsic agent that can modify its functions. There is also Medical Exercise demonstration which included guided visit to primarily care centers during a complete semester or year-round depending on universities.  During third year medical students start studying pharmacology, pathology and physical examination. Passing successfully first, second and third year is commonly considered a filter, almost half of previously admitted students leave voluntarily.  The fourth year medical students enter on the

Postgraduate clinical degrees.

Bhutan.

In Bhutan, a medical doctor who completes 4 to 5 years of medical school is awarded with MBBS or Dr.title by their respective universities ( usually from universities in

India.

The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (undergraduate) level of training required to be licensed as a physician (other degrees in alternative medicine are present like BAMS, BHMS, BSMS etc.) and the MS or MD degree is a postgraduate degree, representative of speciality training. The equivalent training in the US or Canada would be the completion of a medical (post-graduate) degree. Eligibility for the MS or MD course is restricted to medical graduates holding the MBBS degree.  The MBBS course is for five and a half

Pakistan.

In Pakistan MBBS is the undergraduate degree. The MD is a higher doctorate, awarded by medical universities based on successful completion of a residency program of

Sri Lanka.

In Sri Lanka, the MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree that is awarded by the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after completion of a postgraduate course, examinations and speciality training. The MD degree in Sri Lanka is representative of specialty training in clinical, para clinical, and preventive medicine (e.g., general medicine, cardiology, nephrology, oncology, para clinical such as microbiology, haematology and preventive such as community medicine). Entry for the MD course is open only for medical graduates holding the MBBS degree (with a duration of five and a half years), and training is obtained in medical disciplines that are non-surgical in nature (e.g., internal medicine, radiology, pathology, etc.) After three or four years of study and the successful completion of an examination with written as well as cases and via examinations, the MD degree in the respective

Research degrees.

United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries.

The entry-level first professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChB). This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree. Due to the UK code for higher education, first degrees in medicine comprise an integrated programme of study and professional practice spanning several levels. These degrees may retain, for historical reasons, "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" and are abbreviated to MBChB, MBBS or BMBS.  In the UK, Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, the MD is a postgraduate research degree in medicine. At most universities, this takes the form of a first doctorate, analogous to the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a thesis and a successful "viva". The thesis may consist of new research undertaken on a full- or part-time basis, with much less supervision (in the UK) than for a Ph.D., or a portfolio of previously published work.  In order to be eligible to apply for

Other postgraduate clinical degrees.

There is also a similar advanced professional degree to the postgraduate MD: the Master of Surgery (usually ChM or MS, but MCh in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and at Oxford and MChir at Cambridge). The equivalence of these degrees, but their differing names, prevents the need for surgeons (addressed as Mr. in the UK) having to revert to the title Dr., which they once held as new MBBS graduates.  In Ireland, where the basic medical qualification includes a degree in obstetrics, there is a similar higher degree of Master of the Art of Obstetrics (MAO). A Master of Midwifery was formerly examined by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London (hence MMSA) but fell into abeyance in the 1960s; in this case, the term Master referred not to a university degree but rather a professional rank that is common among craft guilds.  In East Africa, the

Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated M.D., from the Latin "Medicinae Doctor") is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In Canada and most other countries, the M.D. denotes an undergraduate degree awarded upon graduation from medical school. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional graduate degree. In the United States, this generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery was used and eventually in the 19th century became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, higher doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree in medicine; in those countries, the equivalent professional to the North American and some others use of M.D. is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.).

Doktor der Medizin ist ein akademischer Grad und in manchen Ländern ein sogenanntes Berufsdoktorat. In den USA, Österreich und einigen anderen Ländern, nicht jedoch z. B. in Deutschland, wird nach dem Abschluss eines Diplomstudiengangs der Humanmedizin ohne Promotionsleistung ein sogenanntes Berufsdoktorat (in Österreich Dr. med. univ.) verliehen. Es entspricht dem in Deutschland das Studium abschließenden Examen. Das Führen der medizinischen Berufsdoktorgrade ist ausschließlich in der jeweils verliehenen Originalform möglich. Berufsdoktorgrade aus EWR-Ländern dürfen ohne den sonst obligatorischen Herkunftzusatz geführt werden. Die Führung dieser Grade als "Dr." oder als "Dr. med." sowie in einer anderen ins Deutsche übersetzten Form ist aufgrund des Fehlens einer Promotionsleistung nicht erlaubt.


History.

This area along the Mississippi River valley was long occupied by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. In historic times, the Chickasaw controlled much of this area. They are believed to be descendants of the important Mississippian culture, which established fortified and complex cities. The largest of these was Cahokia, which was active from about 950CE into the 15th century. It was developed on the east side of the Mississippi in present-day southern Illinois, roughly on the same latitude as present-day St. Louis, Missouri.  The Shelby County area was part of the lands acquired by the United States government from the Chickasaw as part of the Jackson Purchase of 1818. Shelby County was established by European-American migrants in 1819 and named for Isaac Shelby, the former governor of Kentucky who had helped negotiate the land acquisition. From 1826 to 1868, the county seat was located at Raleigh, Tennessee, on the Wolf River. After the American Civil War, in recognition of the growth of Memphis and its importance to the state economy, the seat was moved there. (Raleigh has now been absorbed within the city limits of Memphis.)  The lowlands in the Mississippi Delta, closest to the Mississippi River, were developed before the war for large cotton plantations; their laborers were overwhelmingly enslaved African Americans, whom planters transported from the east or purchased in the domestic slave trade. Well before the American Civil War, the population of the county was majority black, most of whom were slaves. Memphis developed as a major cotton market, with many brokers. After the war and emancipation, many freedmen stayed on these lands by working as sharecroppers.  Tennessee continued to have competitive politics after the freedmen were enfranchised. The eastern part of the state retained its Unionist leanings and supported the Republican Party. Blacks in the west also supported the Republican Party. Most conservative whites supported the Democrats. From 1877-1950, there were 20 lynchings of blacks by whites in Shelby County, the highest number of any county in the state.  Most blacks were disenfranchised around the turn of the century when the state passed laws raising barriers to voter registration; the legislature also imposed Jim Crow laws, including racial segregation of public facilities. Blacks were mostly closed out of the political system for more than six decades. In the 20th century, mechanization of agriculture reduced the need for farm workers at a time when industries and railroads in the North were recruiting workers. The Great Migration resulted in many African Americans moving from rural areas into Memphis or out of state to northern cities for work and social and political opportunities.  After World War II, highways were constructed that led to development of much new housing on the outskirts of Memphis where land was cheap. Suburbanization, with retail businesses following new residents, took place in the county, drawing population out of the city. With continued residential and suburban development, the population of the metropolitan area became majority white. Six towns in the county have become incorporated; other communities are unincorporated. Residents enjoy many parks in the area as well as attractions in the city of Memphis.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (2.8%) is water. It is the largest county in Tennessee by area. The lowest point in the state of Tennessee is located on the Mississippi River in Shelby County (just outside the Memphis city limits), where the river flows out of Tennessee and into Mississippi.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 927,644 people living in the county. 52.1% were Black or African American, 40.6% White, 2.3% Asian, 0.2% Native American, 3.3% of some other race and 1.4 of two or more races. 5.6% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race). As of the census of 2000, there were 897,472 people, 338,366 households, and 228,735 families living in the county. The population density was 1,189 people per square mile (459/km2). There were 362,954 housing units at an average density of 481 per square mile (186/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 48.56% Black, or African American, 47.34% White, 0.20% Native American, 1.64% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.20% from other races, and 1.02% from two or more races. 2.60% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 338,366 households out of which 34.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.80% were married couples living together, 20.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.40% were non-families. 27.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.18.  In the county, the population was spread out with 28.20% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 31.10% from 25 to 44, 21.00% from 45 to 64, and 10.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 91.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.80 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $39,593, and the median income for a family was $47,386. Males had a median income of $36,932 versus $26,776 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,856. About 12.90% of families and 16.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.90% of those under age 18 and 13.30% of those age 65 or over.

Law and government.

The first county government was established as a quarterly court in 1820. During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Governor William G. Brownlow appointed a five-member commission to govern the county. When the state drafted a new constitution in 1870, it required county officials to be elected by the people or the Quarterly Court. By 1910 the Shelby County Quarterly Court had 50 members, making it inefficient; some prominent people complained it was "too democratic."  E. H. Crump, the political boss of Memphis who was also influential in the county and state, gained a 1911 legislative act creating a three-member executive commission for the Shelby County Commission, which could override the court on all issues except setting property taxes, which was protected by the state constitution. He also had the number of districts reduced to nineteen and then seven. After Crump's death in 1954, the executive commission of the county was abolished.  In 1964, the US Supreme Court ruled in "Baker v. Carr" that legislative districts had to be apportioned by population under the Equal Protection Clause, a principle known as one man, one vote. This change was incorporated in Shelby County, which had been biased toward geographic representation. In 1965, there were nine districts established, of roughly equal population, to elect members to the Quarterly Court. These have been redistricted as needed based on decennial census population changes.  In 1975, the people voted to ratify the Shelby County Restructure Act, creating a single elected executive, with the title of mayor, and an eleven-member legislative body (now called the County Commission). The Commission has been expanded to thirteen members. The mayor and all the county commissioners are elected at-large; the latter represent 13 districts. The members of the county commission serve four-year terms.  Other elected officials in Shelby County include the sheriff, the chief law enforcement officer; trustee, chief tax collector, and assessor, the chief property appraiser.  The government has an annual budget of $1.1 billion and 6,000 employees.

School board.

Until 1996, the Shelby County Commission appointed members to the Shelby County School Board. This system was changed to comply with interpretation by the state that its constitution required that county officials, including school board members, should be elected by all residents of the county, and provisions of the state Education Improvement Act. In 1996 under what was known as Plan C, the Shelby County Commission established seven single-member special election districts for election of county school board members by all residents of the county. This was challenged in the case known as "Board of County Commissioners of Shelby County Tennessee v. Burson". Shelby County and its Board of Commissioners as plaintiffs, joined by mayors of the six suburban municipalities, filed suit in 1996 against Plan C, arguing that their rights were violated under the "one person, one vote" principle embodied in the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the US Constitution, as their vote would be diluted. Although Memphis City had its own school system, the Memphis population made up 74.8% of the county's population in the 1990 census, so its representatives would dominate an elected county school board, with six of seven positions. Thus Memphis representatives would dominate a system intended to serve only county residents and students who lived outside the city.  The US district court found in this case:  As a result, the County Commissioners established seven single-member special election districts in the county outside the limits of Memphis, for the purpose of electing school board members to the Shelby County School Board.

Mayors.

Shelby County's first elected mayor was Roy Nixon, who served from 1976 to 1978. The current Shelby County Mayor is Lee Harris, who was elected in 2018 after having served as the Minority Leader of the Tennessee Senate.  Notes:

Shelby County Board of Commissioners.

Mark Billingsley, David Bradford, Willie Brooks, Edmund Ford Jr., Eddie Jones, Mickelly Lowery, Amber Mills, Reginald Milton, Brandon Morrison, Tami Sawyer, Van Turner, Michael Whaley, and Mick Wright

Shelby County Courthouse.

The Shelby County Courthouse, in Memphis on Adams Avenue between North 2nd and North 3rd streets, was designed by James Gamble Rogers and completed in 1909. This neoclassical pile features a long portico topped by a cornice supported by massive Ionic columns. The ambitious sculptural program designed by J. Massey Rhind includes the pediment groups, "Canon Law, Roman Law, Statutory Law, Civil Law" and "Criminal Law". Female allegorical figures can be found on the north facade cornice representing "Integrity, Courage, Mercy, Temperance, Prudence" and "Learning." Flanking the main entrances are over-life-sized seated figures embodying "Wisdom, Justice, Liberty, Authority, Peace" and "Prosperity."  It is by far the state's largest courthouse. The courthouse was featured in the movie "The Silence of the Lambs" as the place where Dr. Hannibal Lecter was held and escapes custody.  The courthouse is included in the Adams Avenue Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Politics.

During the mid-twentieth century, Shelby County was competitive, voting for the Democratic candidate six times and the Republican candidate five times between 1952 and 1992. In the twenty-first century, the county has become reliably Democratic; Barack Obama twice won the county with more than 60 percent of the vote. In 2016, the county was carried by the Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton, who won 62.0 percent of the vote to Donald Trump's 34.5 percent.

Education.

Higher Education.

Shelby County is home to fourteen institutions of higher learning and satellite campuses of institutions whose main campus is in another county.  Memphis is home to Baptist College of Health Sciences, Christian Brothers University, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University, Worldwide (Memphis Campus), Harding School of Theology, LeMoyne–Owen College, Memphis College of Art, Memphis Theological Seminary, Rhodes College, Southern College of Optometry, Southwest Tennessee Community College, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, and the University of Memphis.  Cordova is home to Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary. Germantown is home to a satellite campus of Union University.

Primary and Secondary Education.

Until the end of the 2012–2013 school year, almost all areas in Shelby County that were outside the city of Memphis were zoned to schools operated by Shelby County Schools. Schools in Memphis were operated by Memphis City Schools. On June 30, 2013, Memphis city and Shelby County schools consolidated, forming a unified county school system (still called Shelby County Schools). This lasted one year.  In 2014, the incorporated suburbs of Arlington, Bartlett, Collierville, Germantown, Lakeland, and Millington broke away from the Unified System and formed their own municipal districts. Their residents had previously voted in favor of creating municipal school districts, and all voted to pass the related sales tax hike except for Millington, which narrowly rejected the sales tax hike by three votes. On November 27, 2012, U.S. district court Judge Samuel Mays voided this vote since the state law passed at the time applied only to a specific area (which is unconstitutional). The Tennessee state legislature passed the law again, to include all of the state. All six suburbs voted again for the municipal districts and started classes on August 4, 2014.

Transportation.

Major highways.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Once fully completed the mainline of I-69 will travel from Brownsville, TX to Port Huron, MI.

Air travel.

Shelby County is the site of Memphis International Airport, located south of the center of Memphis.

Communities.

Numbers refer to the map at right.

Shelby County is a county in the U.S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the population was 927,644. It is the state's largest county both in terms of population and geographic area. Its county seat is Memphis, a port on the Mississippi River and the second most populous city in Tennessee. The county was named for Governor Isaac Shelby (1750–1826) of Kentucky.

Das Shelby County ist ein County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Tennessee. Im Jahr 2010 hatte das County 927.644 Einwohner und eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 474,5 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer. Der Verwaltungssitz (County Seat) ist Memphis.