History.

CUNY began offering doctoral education through its Division of Graduate Studies in 1961, and awarded its first two Ph.D.s to Daniel Robinson and Barbara Stern in 1965. Robinson, currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Oxford, received his Ph.D. in psychology, while Stern, late of Rutgers University, received her Ph.D. in English literature.  In 1969, the Division of Graduate Studies formally became the Graduate School and University Center. Mathematician Mina S. Rees served as the institution's first president from 1969 until her retirement in 1972. Rees was succeeded as president of the Graduate Center by environmental psychologist Harold M. Proshansky, who served until his death in 1990. Psychologist Frances Degen Horowitz was appointed president in September, 1991. In 2005, Horowitz was succeeded by the school's provost, Professor of English Literature William P. Kelly.  During Kelly's tenure at the Graduate Center the University has seen significant growth in revenue, funding opportunities for students, increased Distinguished Faculty and a general resurgence. This is in accordance with three primary goals articulated in the Graduate Center's strategic plan. The first of these involves enhancing student support. In 2013, 83 dissertation-year fellowships were awarded at a total cost of $1.65 million. The Graduate Center is also developing new programs to advance research prior to the dissertation phase, including archival work. The fiscal stability of the university has enabled the chancellery to increase, on an incremental basis, the value of these fellowships. The packages extended for 2013-14 year increase stipends and reduce teaching requirements. In 2001, the Graduate Center provided 14 million dollars in student support, and, in Fall 2013, 51 million in student support.  On April 23, 2013, the CUNY Board of Trustees announced that President Kelly would serve as interim chancellor for the City University of New York beginning July 1 with the retirement of Chancellor Matthew Goldstein. GC Provost Chase F. Robinson, a historian, was appointed to serve as interim president of the Graduate Center in 2013, and then served as president from July 2014 to December 2018. Joy Connolly became Provost of the Graduate Center in August 2016 and Interim President in December 2018. Julia Wrigley was appointed as interim provost in December 2018.  On March 30, 2020, Robin L. Garrell, current Vice Provost for Graduate Education and Dean of Graduate Division at University of California, Los Angeles, was announced as the next president of The Graduate Center. She will assume office on August 1, 2020.

Campus.

The Graduate Center's main campus is located on the corner of 34th Street and Fifth Avenue, adjacent to the Empire State Building, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Housed in the B. Altman and Company Building, the former flagship store of B. Altman and Company, the Graduate Center shares the Fifth Avenue building with both the New York Public Library's Science, Industry and Business Library and Oxford University Press. The Graduate Center has occupied its current location since 2000, before which it was housed in Aeolian Hall on West 42nd Street across from the New York Public Library Main Branch.

Mina Rees Library.

The Mina Rees Library, named after former Graduate Center president Mina Rees, supports the research, teaching, and learning activities of the Graduate Center by connecting its community with print materials, electronic resources, research assistance and instruction, and expertise about the complexities of scholarly communication. Situated on three floors of the Graduate Center, the library is a hub for discovery, delivery, and digitization, as well as a place for solitary study. The library offers many services, including research consultations, a 24/7 online chat service with reference librarians, and workshops and webinars on using research tools.  The library also serves as a gateway to the collections of other CUNY libraries, the New York Public Library (NYPL), and libraries worldwide. It participates in a CUNY-wide book delivery system and offers an interlibrary loan service to bring materials from outside CUNY to Graduate Center scholars. The main branch of NYPL is just a few blocks up Fifth Avenue, and NYPL's Science, Industry and Business Library is just around the corner. Graduate Center students and faculty are NYPL's primary academic constituents, with borrowing privileges from NYPL research collections. NYPL's participation in the Manhattan Research Library Initiative (MaRLI) extends borrowing privileges for CUNY Graduate Center students to NYU and Columbia libraries as well. The Mina Rees Library is a key participant in the Graduate Center's digital initiatives. It supports the digital scholarship of students and faculty, and promotes the understanding, creation, and use of open access literature. Among its special collections is the Activist Women's Voices collection, an oral history project focused on unheralded New York City community-based women activists.

Cultural venues.

The Graduate Center houses three performance spaces and two art galleries. The Harold M. Proshansky Auditorium, named for the institution's second president, is located on the concourse level and contains 389 seats. The Baisley Powell Elebash Recital Hall, located on the first floor, seats 180. The Martin E. Segal Theatre, also located on the first floor, seats 70.

James Gallery.

The ground floor of the Graduate Center houses the Amie and Tony James Gallery, also known as the James Gallery, which is overseen by the Graduate Center's Center for the Humanities. The intention of the James Gallery is to bring scholars and artists into dialog with one another, as well as serve as a site for interdisciplinary research. The James Gallery hosts numerous exhibitions annually, and has hosted solo exhibitions by notable American and international artists such as Alison Knowles and Dor Guez.

Academics.

Across the institution's PhD programs, 18% of applicants were offered admission to The Graduate Center in Fall 2016. The latest edition of U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate School Ranking ranked The Graduate Center PhD program in Criminal Justice 15th, its English program 20th, its Sociology PhD program 28th, and its History doctoral program 34th best in the nation. The Graduate Center PhD program in Mathematics was ranked 39th. In the 2016 edition of QS World University Rankings, the Graduate Center's doctoral program in Philosophy was ranked 44th globally, and the 2018 Philosophical Gourmet Report lists the program as 16th in the English-speaking world.  Faculty members regularly receive prestigious honors and awards. Some recent examples include the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the National Humanities Medal, the National Medal of Science, the Schock Prize, the Bancroft Prize, Grammy Awards, the George Jean Nathan Award for Dramatic Criticism, Guggenheim Fellowships, the New York City Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology, the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers, and memberships in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences. Many departments are recognized internationally for their level of scholarship.  Courses in the social sciences, humanities, and mathematics, and courses in the sciences requiring no laboratory work convene at the Graduate Center. Due to the consortial nature of doctoral study at the Graduate Center, courses requiring laboratory work, courses for the clinical doctorates, and courses in business, criminal justice, engineering, and social welfare convene on CUNY college campuses.  The CUNY Graduate Center pioneered the CUNY Academic Commons in 2009 to much praise. The CUNY Academic Commons is an online, academic social network for faculty, staff, and graduate students of the City University of New York (CUNY) system. Designed to foster conversation, collaboration, and connections among the 24 individual colleges that make up the university system, the site, founded in 2009, has quickly grown as a hub for the CUNY community, serving in the process to strengthen a growing group of digital scholars, teachers, and open-source projects at the university. The project has received awards and grants from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Sloan Consortium and was the winner of the 2013 Digital Humanities Award. It continues to be in the forefront of scholarly social media.  Also affiliated with the institution are four University Center programs: CUNY Baccalaureate for Unique and Interdisciplinary Studies through which undergraduates can earn individualized bachelor's degrees by completing courses at any of the CUNY colleges; the CUNY School of Professional Studies and the associated Joseph S. Murphy Institute for Worker Education and Labor Studies; the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, which offers a master's degree in journalism; and Macaulay Honors College.

Research.

The Graduate Center describes itself as "research-intensive," and is classified by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to be an R1 or have "highest research activity." The Graduate Center's primary library, named after Mina Rees, is located on campus; however, Graduate Center students also have borrowing privileges at the remaining 31 City University of New York libraries, which collectively house 6.2 million printed works and over 300,000 e-books. Beginning in 1968, the Graduate Center maintains a formal collaboration with the New York Public Library that allows faculty and students access to NYPL's extensive research collections, regular library resources, as well as three research study rooms located in the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building. Further, Graduate Center students have access to the libraries of Columbia University and New York University through the NYPL's Manhattan Research Library Initiative. The Graduate Center library also maintains an online repository called CUNY Academic Works, which hosts open-access faculty and student research.

Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC).

The CUNY Graduate Center's Advanced Research Collaborative (ARC) program conducts research in seven core areas of study:

Initiatives and committees.

The CUNY Graduate Center does additional work through its initiatives and committees:

Centers and institutes.

With over 30 research institutes and centers the CUNY Graduate Center produces work on a range of social, cultural, scientific and civic issues.

Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality.

The James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality was launched on September 1, 2016. The Stone Center expanded and replaced the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Center, which opened its doors at the Graduate Center in 2009. The mission of the Stone Center is to build and disseminate knowledge related to the causes, nature, and consequences of multiple forms of socio-economic inequality. The Center's associated faculty and students share a commitment to scholarship that is quantitative, data-driven, interdisciplinary, and policy-oriented, and that addresses questions that are cross-nationally comparative and/or global in scope.

Advanced Science Research Center.

In the Spring 2017 semester, the Advanced Science Research Center, CUNY's premier scientific research institute, formally joined the Graduate Center. The partnership works to catalyze the sciences across CUNY and New York City alike, enhancing graduate education and the potential for scientific discovery. The ASRC houses five initiatives: Nanoscience, Structural Biology, Neuroscience, Environmental Sciences, and Photonics. The ASRC facility is a 200,000-square-foot, state-of-the art building on the southern edge of City College's campus in Upper Manhattan, which promotes a collaborative, interdisciplinary research culture.

Notable people.

The Graduate Center has graduated 15,000 alumni worldwide, including numerous academics, politicians, artists, and entrepreneurs. As of 2016, the Graduate Center counted five MacArthur Foundation Fellows among its alumni, including writer Maggie Nelson as the most recent recipient. Among alumni graduated between 2003 and 2018, more than two-thirds are employed at educational institutions and over half have remained within New York City or its metro area.  Among the Graduate Center's alumni are leading scholars across numerous disciplines, including art historian and ACT-UP activist Douglas Crimp, political scientist Douglas Hale, anthropologist Faye Ginsburg, sociologist Michael P. Jacobson, historian Maurice Berger, and philosopher Nancy Fraser. The City University of New York has been acknowledged for its exceptional number of faculty and students who have been awarded nationally-recognized prizes in poetry. Among this group include student Gregory Pardlo, winner of the 2015 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry  The Graduate Center holds a reputation for attracting established scholars to its faculty. In 2001, the Graduate Center initiated a five-year faculty recruitment campaign to hire additional renowned academics and public intellectuals in order to bolster the institution's faculty roster. Those recruited during the drive include André Aciman, Jean Anyon, Mitchell Duneier, Victor Kolyvagin, Robert Reid-Pharr and Saul Kripke.  The Graduate Center utilizes a unique consortium model, which hosts 140 faculty with sole appointments at the Graduate Center, most of whom are senior scholars in their respective disciplines, as well as draws upon 1,800 faculty from across the other CUNY schools to both teach classes and advise graduate students.  Notable faculty members include:

Student life.

Students at the CUNY Graduate Center have the option of living in Graduate housing, located in East Harlem. The eight story building includes a gym, laundry facilities, lounge and rooftop terrace with views of the Midtown skyline. The Graduate housing was opened in the Fall of 2011 in conjunction with the construction of the Hunter College School of Social Work.  The Doctoral Students' Council is the sole policy-making body representing students in doctoral and master's programs at the Graduate Center.  There are over forty doctoral student organizations ranging from the Middle Eastern Studies Organization and Africana Studies Group to the Prison Studies Group and the Immigration Working Group. These chartered organizations host conferences, publish online magazines, and create social events aimed at fostering a community for CUNY Graduate Center students.  Doctoral students at the Graduate Center also produces a newspaper funded by the DSC and run by a committee of editors from the various doctoral programs. The paper, entitled "The GC Advocate", comes out six times per academic year and is free of charge for students, faculty, staff, and visitors.

The Graduate School and University Center of the City University of New York (The Graduate Center) is a public research institution and post-graduate university in New York City. It is the principal doctoral-granting institution of the City University of New York (CUNY) system. The school is situated in a nine-story landmark building at 365 Fifth Avenue at the corner of 34th Street in the Midtown neighborhood of Manhattan, across the corner from the Empire State Building. The Graduate Center has 4,600 students, 31 doctoral programs, 14 master's programs, and 30 research centers and institutes. A core faculty of approximately 140 is supplemented by over 1,800 additional faculty members drawn from throughout CUNY's eleven senior colleges and New York City's cultural and scientific institutions.

Am Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY) finden sowohl die Ausbildung Studierender in Master- und Promotionsstudiengängen als auch Forschung und öffentliche Veranstaltungen statt. An seinem Sitz in Midtown Manhattan sind 4.600 Studierende sowie 33 Promotionsstudiengänge, 7 Masterstudiengänge und 30 separate Forschungsinstitute angesiedelt. Die Forschungsinstitute befassen sich mit sozialen, öffentlichen, kulturellen und naturwissenschaftlichen Themen. Der Lehrkörper am Graduate Center ("core faculty") besteht aus ca. 150 Professuren, wozu noch weitere 1.800 Lehrende hinzukommen, die von den elf "senior colleges" der City University entsandt werden.


Geography.

Quillan is located at the foothills of the Pyrenees, on the road between Carcassonne and Perpignan. The River Aude runs through the town. At the base of the mountains, fields of sunflowers and vineyards straddle the roads with snow-capped peaks in the distance. The location is thought of as one of the most spectacular in France, which is one of the reasons for the increase in tourism and migration to the area. Peyrepertuse, Montsegur, Puilauren, Queribus, Roquefixade and other spectacular ancient Cathar sites are within easy reach.  The beaches of the Mediterranean are little more than an hour away. In the other direction, the awe of Carcassonne is 45 minutes drive, while the majestic and sophisticated city of Toulouse is one and a half hours away. Quillan is a medium-sized town 6 km from Espéraza, neighbouring the commune of Ginoles. It is popular for whitewater rafting, canoeing, fishing and kayaking on the Aude River and other outdoor activities including cycling, hiking and running.

History.

Historically, Quillan was a significant stopping point on the ancient and winding road between Carcassonne and Perpignan. The River Aude traditionally carried timber and other local products to Carcassonne and the Canal du Midi. The town was particularly noted for hat making, and then later, the production of formica. Times have changed however, and with the construction of the toll-road joining Carcassonne to Perpignan via Narbonne, the town has moved away from production towards eco-tourism, tourism and outdoor pursuits such as rambling, biking, kayaking, rafting and walking to name just a few. The surrounding area is rich in geographical and historical interest including many Cathar castles within striking distance. Quillan now is a centre of travel and tourism in this beautiful region of France.

Economy.

The town and surrounding villages are largely agricultural, producing milk, grapes, wine (including the famous Blanquette de Limoux), wheat, sunflowers, eggs and meat from poultry and cows. In the last few years, tourism has increased and during the warmer months many tourists flock to Quillan and its surroundings for outdoor activities, cultural events, and restaurants. There are many bed-and-breakfasts and rentals.

Culture.

During each August there is a week of the Folklore Festival where dancers, musicians and singers from 10 or 12 different countries perform during the day and evening on the town square of Quillan.

Transportation.

There is a 1 euro bus/train that goes from Quillan to Carcassonne and from Quillan to Perpignan, each day. The railway line from Carcassonne stops in Limoux and Espéraza but some train services have been replaced by buses. Using this service, it's about 50 minutes to Carcassonne and about 1.25 hours to Perpignan. From Perpignan it's an easy short train to Barcelona or up to Narbonne and the TGV lines that depart from the South of France. By car, Quillan is 45 minutes from Carcassonne and one and a half hours from Toulouse.

Quillan (Languedocien: "Quilhan") is a commune in the Aude department in southern France. On 1 January 2016, the former commune of Brenac was merged into Quillan.

Quillan ist eine französische Gemeinde im Arrondissement Limoux im Département Aude in der Region Okzitanien in den Ausläufern der Pyrenäen. Sie hat Einwohner (Stand ).


Early life.

Camacho was born in the village of Hagåtña, Guam to Felix Martinez Camacho (1893–1975) and Antonia Cruz Garcia (1893–1985), both Spanish immigrants. His siblings included Maria Josefina Tanaka, Juan Camacho, Luis Camacho and Eddie Camacho. From 1946 to 1949, he attended Aquinas College in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In 1952, he earned a D.D.S. degree from Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Political career.

In the 1974 gubernatorial election, he was defeated for reelection in a re-match senator Ricardo Bordallo won the election. An election challenge by the Bordallo/Sablan campaign went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. Following his unsuccessful bid for reelection as governor, Camacho resumed his career as a dentist.

Governor of Guam (1969–1975).

At the young age of forty-four, Camacho succeeded Governor Manuel F.L. Guerrero as governor of Guam, with Kurt Moylan appointed as lieutenant governor. Camacho's term as appointed governor lasted only eighteen months, due to the Elective Governor Act that was signed into law by the U.S. Congress in 1968, allowing for Guam's citizens to choose their governor. The act took effect in 1970, when Guam's first election was held. Camacho's term was best remembered for his Christmas 1969 visit to the troops from Guam who were fighting in Vietnam.

Camacho-Salas Campaign.

Camacho first selected senator G. Ricardo Salas as his lieutenant governor running mate, but Salas was subsequently replaced by Kurt Moylan.

Camacho-Moylan Campaign.

Camacho was a candidate in Guam's first election for governor with Kurt Moylan running for lieutenant governor. The two running mates are Republican primary, while the Democratic primary was closely between former governor Manuel F. L. Guerrero, Senator Ricardo Bordallo and attorney and former speaker Joaquin C. "Kin" Arriola. After they close the primary and a contentious runoff election which is Bordallo who is defeated by Guerrero, and the general election as Camacho/Moylan defeated by Bordallo/Taitano.  Camacho and Moylan's historic inauguration was held on January 4, 1971 at the Plaza de España in Agana. He uses the resources of the government to enhance economic opportunities by granting incentives through the Guam Economics Development and offering various forms of assistance to the private sector. During his entire five and a half years in office, Camacho presided over one of the largest eras of hotel construction activities on Guam, with construction finishing or starting on the Kakue Hotel, Reef Hotel, Hilton Hotel, Okura Hotel, Fujita Tumon Beach, Continental Travelodge, and Guam Dai Ichi Hotel.  Camacho also initiated massive road projects that were continued by his successors, including the widening of Marine Drive (now Marine Corps Drive) from Hospital Road north to Route 16 in Harmon, and the reconstruction of other major highways in the villages of Agat, Dededo and Tamuning, among others.  He is also credited with enticing many educated Chamorros back to Guam, to reverse what was seen as a “brain drain” at the time, including Tony Palomo, Greg Sanchez, Mary Sanchez, Tony Unpingco, Dr. Pedro Sanchez, Dr. Katherine Aguon, Juan C. Tenorio, Bert Unpingco, Ben Perez, Eddie Duenas, Joseph F. Ada and Frank Blas. Many of them took jobs with the government of Guam as administrators and later became senators. Camacho also kept on other able administrators even if they were not of his party affiliation which served to stabilize the government.  As a team, Camacho and Moylan worked to develop economic opportunity by creating incentives to attract business and encourage local participation in business. At the time Guam elected its first governor the federal government still had control over much of the island's utilities and roads. They struggled to work toward gaining more self-government and self-determination.

Personal life.

Camacho was married to Lourdes Duenas Perez, and had seven children, including former Governor of Guam, Felix Perez Camacho, Carlos, Thomas, Ricardo, Francis, Victor, and his only daughter Mary Camacho Torres is now a senator from the Guam Legislature, she is married to Supreme Court of Guam Chief Justice Robert J. Torres, Jr. Originally appointed in 1969, he became Guam's first elected governor the following year and served in that capacity until August 1975.

Later years.

Following his defeat, Camacho returned to his career as a dentist, continuing in private practice until his death on December 6, 1979 four years later, at the age of 55. He is now buried at the Pigo Cemetery in Anigua.

Carlos Garcia Camacho (November 16, 1924 – December 6, 1979) was a Guamanian politician and member of the Republican Party. He served as the last appointed Governor of Guam from 1969 to 1971 and the first elected Governor of Guam from 1971 to 1975. He was the father of Felix Camacho, a former senator in the Guam Legislature, and also served as Governor of Guam.

Carlos Garcia Camacho (* 16. November 1924 in Agana; † 16. Dezember 1979) war von 1969 bis 1975 Gouverneur von Guam. Der Zahnarzt war der erste frei gewählte Gouverneur der Insel.


Background and motivation.

For most spacecraft, changes to orbits are caused by the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction from the sun and moon, solar radiation pressure, and air drag. These are called "perturbing forces". They must be counteracted by maneuvers to keep the spacecraft in the desired orbit. For a geostationary spacecraft, correction maneuvers on the order of 40–50 m/s per year are required to counteract the gravitational forces from the sun and moon which move the orbital plane away from the equatorial plane of the Earth.  For sun-synchronous spacecraft, intentional shifting of the orbit plane (called "precession") can be used for the benefit of the mission. For these missions, a near-circular orbit with an altitude of 600–900 km is used. An appropriate inclination (97.8-99.0 degrees) is selected so that the precession of the orbital plane is equal to the rate of movement of the Earth around the sun, about 1 degree per day.  As a result, the spacecraft will pass over points on the Earth that have the same time of day during every orbit. For instance, if the orbit is "square to the sun", the vehicle will always pass over points at which it is 6 a.m. on the north-bound portion, and 6 p.m. on the south-bound portion (or vice versa). This is called a "Dawn-Dusk" orbit. Alternatively, if the sun lies in the orbital plane, the vehicle will always pass over places where it is midday on the north-bound leg, and places where it is midnight on the south-bound leg (or vice versa). These are called "Noon-Midnight" orbits. Such orbits are desirable for many Earth observation missions such as weather, imagery, and mapping.  The perturbing force caused by the oblateness of the Earth will in general perturb not only the orbital plane but also the eccentricity vector of the orbit. There exists, however, an almost circular orbit for which there are no secular/long periodic perturbations of the eccentricity vector, only periodic perturbations with period equal to the orbital period. Such an orbit is then perfectly periodic (except for the orbital plane precession) and it is therefore called a "frozen orbit". Such an orbit is often the preferred choice for an Earth observation mission where repeated observations of the same area of the Earth should be made under as constant observation conditions as possible.  The Earth observation satellites ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat are operated in sun-synchronous frozen orbits.

Lunar frozen orbits.

Through a study of many lunar orbiting satellites, scientists have discovered that most low lunar orbits (LLO) are unstable. Four "frozen lunar orbits" have been identified at 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86° inclination. NASA expounded on this in 2006:  Lunar mascons make most low lunar orbits unstable... As a satellite passes 50 or 60 miles overhead, the mascons pull it forward, back, left, right, or down, the exact direction and magnitude of the tugging depends on the satellite's trajectory. Absent any periodic boosts from onboard rockets to correct the orbit, most satellites released into low lunar orbits (under about 60 miles or 100 km) will eventually crash into the Moon.... [There are] a number of 'frozen orbits' where a spacecraft can stay in a low lunar orbit indefinitely. They occur at four inclinations: 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86°"—the last one being nearly over the lunar poles. The orbit of the relatively long-lived Apollo 15 subsatellite PFS-1 had an inclination of 28°, which turned out to be close to the inclination of one of the frozen orbits—but less fortunate PFS-2 had an orbital inclination of only 11°.

Classical theory.

The classical theory of frozen orbits is essentially based on the analytical perturbation analysis for artificial satellites of Dirk Brouwer made under contract with NASA and published in 1959.  This analysis can be carried out as follows:  In the article orbital perturbation analysis the secular perturbation of the orbital pole formula_1 from the formula_2 term of the geopotential model is shown to be which can be expressed in terms of orbital elements thus:  Making a similar analysis for the formula_3 term (corresponding to the fact that the earth is slightly pear shaped), one gets which can be expressed in terms of orbital elements as  In the same article the secular perturbation of the components of the eccentricity vector caused by the formula_2 is shown to be:  where:  Making the analysis for the formula_3 term one gets for the first term, i.e. for the perturbation of the eccentricity vector from the in-plane force component  For inclinations in the range 97.8–99.0 deg, the formula_6 value given by () is much smaller than the value given by () and can be ignored. Similarly the quadratic terms of the eccentricity vector components in () can be ignored for almost circular orbits, i.e. () can be approximated with  Adding the formula_3 contribution formula_8  to () one gets Now the difference equation shows that the eccentricity vector will describe a circle centered at the point formula_9; the polar argument of the eccentricity vector increases with formula_10 radians between consecutive orbits.  As  one gets for a polar orbit (formula_14) with formula_15 that the centre of the circle is at formula_16 and the change of polar argument is 0.00400 radians per orbit.  The latter figure means that the eccentricity vector will have described a full circle in 1569 orbits. Selecting the initial mean eccentricity vector as formula_17 the mean eccentricity vector will stay constant for successive orbits, i.e. the orbit is frozen because the secular perturbations of the formula_2 term given by () and of the formula_3 term given by () cancel out.  In terms of classical orbital elements, this means that a frozen orbit should have the following mean elements:

Modern theory.

The modern theory of frozen orbits is based on the algorithm given in a 1989 article by Mats Rosengren.  For this the analytical expression () is used to iteratively update the initial (mean) eccentricity vector to obtain that the (mean) eccentricity vector several orbits later computed by the precise numerical propagation takes precisely the same value. In this way the secular perturbation of the eccentricity vector caused by the formula_2 term is used to counteract all secular perturbations, not only those (dominating) caused by the formula_3 term. One such additional secular perturbation that in this way can be compensated for is the one caused by the solar radiation pressure, this perturbation is discussed in the article "Orbital perturbation analysis (spacecraft)".  Applying this algorithm for the case discussed above, i.e. a polar orbit (formula_24) with formula_25 ignoring all perturbing forces other than the formula_2 and the formula_3 forces for the numerical propagation one gets exactly the same optimal average eccentricity vector as with the "classical theory", i.e. formula_17.  When we also include the forces due to the higher zonal terms the optimal value changes to formula_29.  Assuming in addition a reasonable solar pressure (a "cross-sectional-area" of, the direction to the sun in the direction towards the ascending node) the optimal value for the average eccentricity vector becomes formula_30 which corresponds to :formula_31, i.e. the optimal value is not formula_32 anymore.  This algorithm is implemented in the orbit control software used for the Earth observation satellites ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat

Derivation of the closed form expressions for the "J" perturbation.

The main perturbing force to be counteracted in order to have a frozen orbit is the "formula_3 force", i.e. the gravitational force caused by an imperfect symmetry north/south of the Earth, and the "classical theory" is based on the closed form expression for this "formula_3 perturbation". With the "modern theory" this explicit closed form expression is not directly used but it is certainly still worthwhile to derive it.  The derivation of this expression can be done as follows:  The potential from a zonal term is rotational symmetric around the polar axis of the Earth and corresponding force is entirely in a longitudinal plane with one component formula_35 in the radial direction and one component formula_36 with the unit vector formula_37 orthogonal to the radial direction towards north. These directions formula_38 and formula_37 are illustrated in Figure 1.  In the article Geopotential model it is shown that these force components caused by the formula_3 term are  To be able to apply relations derived in the article Orbital perturbation analysis (spacecraft) the force component formula_36 must be split into two orthogonal components formula_42 and formula_43 as illustrated in figure 2 Let formula_44 make up a rectangular coordinate system with origin in the center of the Earth (in the center of the Reference ellipsoid) such that formula_45 points in the direction north and such that formula_46 are in the equatorial plane of the Earth with formula_47 pointing towards the ascending node, i.e. towards the blue point of Figure 2.  The components of the unit vectors  making up the local coordinate system (of which formula_49 are illustrated in figure 2), and expressing their relation with formula_44, are as follows:  where formula_60 is the polar argument of formula_38 relative the orthogonal unit vectors formula_62 and formula_63 in the orbital plane  Firstly  where formula_65 is the angle between the equator plane and formula_38 (between the green points of figure 2) and from equation (12) of the article Geopotential model one therefore obtains Secondly the projection of direction north, formula_45, on the plane spanned by formula_49 is  and this projection is  where formula_37 is the unit vector formula_72 orthogonal to the radial direction towards north illustrated in figure 1.  From equation () we see that  and therefore:  In the article Orbital perturbation analysis (spacecraft) it is further shown that the secular perturbation of the orbital pole formula_74 is  Introducing the expression for formula_75 of () in () one gets The fraction formula_76 is  where  are the components of the eccentricity vector in the formula_80 coordinate system.  As all integrals of type are zero if not both formula_82 and formula_83 are even, we see that  and  It follows that  where  In the article Orbital perturbation analysis (spacecraft) it is shown that the secular perturbation of the eccentricity vector is  where  Introducing the expression for formula_96 of () and () in () one gets Using that  the integral above can be split in 8 terms:  Given that  we obtain  and that all integrals of type  are zero if not both formula_82 and formula_83 are even:  Term 1  Term 2  Term 3  Term 4  Term 5  Term 6  Term 7  Term 8  As  It follows that

In orbital mechanics, a frozen orbit is an orbit for an artificial satellite in which natural drifting due to the central body's shape has been minimized by careful selection of the orbital parameters. Typically, this is an orbit in which, over a long period of time, the satellite's altitude remains constant at the same point in each orbit. Changes in the inclination, position of the lowest point of the orbit, and eccentricity have been minimized by choosing initial values so that their perturbations cancel out. This results in a long-term stable orbit that minimizes the use of station-keeping propellant.

In der Raumflugmechanik ist ein Frozen Orbit (engl. " eingefrorener Orbit") ein Satellitenorbit, bei dem die durch die Erdform erzeugte natürliche Drift durch sorgfältig ausgesuchte Bahnparameter minimiert ist. Typischerweise ist das ein Orbit, bei dem über eine lange Zeitspanne die Höhe bei einem bestimmten Punkt im Orbit gleich bleibt. Änderungen in der Bahnneigung, des Argument des Perigäums, und der Exzentrizität werden durch die Auswahl von Startwerten so minimiert, dass ihre Störungen sich aufheben. Das erzeugt einen langzeitstabilen Orbit mit reduziertem Treibstoffbedarf zum Ausgleich der Bahnstörungen.


Plot.

Cole, a veteran of the Angolan Bush War, completes his ninjutsu training in Japan. Cole goes to visit his war buddy Frank Landers and his newlywed wife Mary Ann Landers, who are the owners of a large piece of farming land in the Philippines. Cole soon finds that the Landers are being repeatedly harassed by Charles Venarius, the wealthy CEO of Venarius Industries, in order to get them to sell their property because, unbeknownst to them, a large oil deposit is located beneath their land. Cole thwarts the local henchmen Venarius has hired to bully and coerce the Landers.  Cole and Frank infiltrate Venarius' base, and defeat a number of his henchmen. In the aftermath, Frank gets drunk and confesses to Cole that he is impotent. Mary Ann comes to Cole that night and they have an affair. Venarius, learning that Cole is a ninja, hires a ninja of his own to eliminate Frank and Cole - Hasegawa, who is a rival of Cole from their old training days.  Hasegawa strikes the Landers' estate at night, killing Frank in front of Mary Anne, then abducting her to Venarius' martial arts arena. Cole enters, and picks off the henchmen one by one before ultimately killing Venarius. Hasegawa releases Mary Ann, and the two ninja engage in a final battle. Cole defeats Hasegawa, who begs to be allowed to die with honor, and Cole beheads him.

Production.

"Enter the Ninja" was based on an original story that Mike Stone presented to Menahem Golan of Cannon Films, who became involved in the production in late fall 1980, with the intent of creating an American film about ninjutsu. In the October 7, 1980 issue of "Daily Variety", it was announced that Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) would produce the film for $4 million, as part of a multi-project film and television deal with The Cannon Group. The film was initially set to star Karate champion Mike Stone, while "Variety" announced later that Stone was writing the script.  "The Hollywood Reporter" reported in January 1981 that confirmed that principal photography began one day earlier on January 12, 1981, in the Philippines and in Tokyo, Japan., under the direction of Emmett Alston. "Variety" later noted that in February 18, 1981 that shooting had begun Manila but with Golan as director and Franco Nero replacing Stone in the lead role. Stone receives onscreen credit for the film's story, fight choreography, and stunt coordination. Principal photography concluded in March 1981.

Release.

Cannon planned to screen the film at the Cannes Film Festival, which was followed by promotional material stating the film would be released during the Easter season in 1982. In the August 12, 1981 issue of "Variety", Cannon Films took out a full page ad announcing that the film had opened in Germany and France and was a hit. The film also played in Arizona in October 1981. An issue of "Variety" from January 13, 1982 declared that the film was currently in release, but the film did not open in Los Angeles until April 30, 1982.

Legacy.

After the release of "Enter the Ninja" there was brief boom of ninja-related films in the early 1980s. On April 28, 1981, "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that Golan was going to direct a sequel titled "Revenge of the Ninja". Golan was later replaced by Sam Firstenberg as director. The film was released in 1983. The final film in the series was "", which was released in 1984.

Home media.

The film has been released on VHS and Beta during the 1980s, but an official US DVD release had long eluded the masses until MGM issued it as part of its Limited Edition Collection (a series of manufactured-on-demand DVD-Rs) in October 2011. The film was released on blu-ray by Kino Lorber on May 26, 2015, and in a box set from Eureka Video as "The Ninja Trilogy" with "Revenge of the Ninja" and "Ninja III: The Domination" on January 18, 2016.

Reception.

In a contemporary review, Robert Brown of the "Monthly Film Bulletin" gave the film a negative review, stating that it "seems singularly lacking in even the commercial ingredients that made "Enter the Dragon" such a successful showcase for the Kung Fu genre." Brown commented that Golan "never seems to have decided which genre he was exploiting, and ended up mistakenly crossing romantic drama with martial arts." A review by Hubert Niogret in the French film magazine "Positif" found the film's only purpose was to create a commercial project that was only popular for less demanding audiences and was only popular in the summer in France where there was little competition for quality cinema. Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" stated that the "plot limps along looking for convenient excuses for Ninjas to enter into brawls", noting that "none of the reasoning, acting or dialogue is particularly bright much less believable" while "the best directing in the film comes from fight choreographer and ex-karate champion Mike Stone, who obviously gets his kicks in"  From a retrospective review, Donald Guarisco of AllMovie stated that film was a "pretty lackluster affair." Guarisco also commented on Franco Nero that it "looks uncomfortable as the ninja expert and fails to perform convincingly during the fight scenes" and that Susan George was wasted as the damsel in distress "Even though a large amount of "Enter the Ninja"s running time is devoted to fight scenes, they lack the skillful choreography and sharp editing that would give them the visceral punch they truly need."  On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".

Enter the Ninja is a 1981 American martial arts film directed by Menahem Golan and starring Franco Nero, Susan George, Christopher George, and Sho Kosugi. The film is about a martial artist named Cole (Nero) who is visiting his friend Frank in the Philippines. On arrival, Cole learns that his friend is being harassed by the wealthy businessman Charles Venarius who wants Frank's land for the oil underneath. Frank and his wife are continuously thwarted by Cole who defends them with his martial arts skills. Learning of Cole's presence, Venarius hires his own ninja.

Ninja, die Killer-Maschine (auch: Ninja – Die Killermaschine und Die Rache der Ninja OT: "Enter the Ninja") ist ein US-amerikanischer Actionfilm von Menahem Golan. Der Martial-Arts-Film von 1981 markiert den Durchbruch von Shō Kosugi als Ninja-Darsteller und ist der Auftakt zu einer Trilogie.


Life.

Born in the Berti Palace, Florence, Italy, to an English family of Huguenot descent, Layard was the youngest of seven sons (two of the earlier siblings died in infancy) of Henry Peter John Layard of the Ceylon Civil Service (the son of Charles Peter Layard, dean of Bristol, and grandson of Daniel Peter Layard the physician) with his wife Marianne, a daughter of Nathaniel Austen, banker, of Ramsgate. Through her, he was partly of Spanish descent. His uncle was Benjamin Austen, a London solicitor and close friend of Benjamin Disraeli in the 1820s and 1830s. His oldest brother was the archaeologist and politician Sir Austen Henry Layard. Layard attributed his early interest in natural history to the lack of siblings close to his age. Lacking playmates, he spent time making collections of shells and butterflies. His interests were not approved of by his father who approved only of literary tastes. When he was ten years old the family returned from Italy to England in Surrey. Layard's father died soon after and his mother moved with the children to her parental home in Ramsgate. Here Layard met a taxidermist and naturalist Mr.Thompson (Layard describes his as "of the “Elnis”" and mentions that he was sometime Mayor of Ramsgate) and learnt to skin and mount birds. After going to school at Richmond he moved to Wheaton Aston and then to Cambridge. He was to join the clergy but influenced by Leonard Jenyns and Col. Babbington, he felt attracted to zoology. He also met a woman with a taste for zoology who he would later marry. Layard chose to go to Canada but found it too cold and returned after 18 months. Now 21 he heard from a cousin of a vacancy in Ceylon for someone with mechanical skills to work on machinery in a coffee estate. He married Barbara Anne, daughter of Reverend John Calthrop on 18 October 1848 and travelled to Ceylon with his wife, now skilled in art, so as to assist him in his zoological studies. Reaching Ceylon he fell ill and was attended to by Dr. Robert Templeton (1802–1892). Noticing the butterfly nets, the two became close friends who pursued the study of lepidoptera. Templeton also influenced Sir J.E. Tennent to find Layard an appointment. Layard was appointed a Custom House officer at Balliganbay. A correspondence with Edward Blyth changed his focus from botany to zoology and birds. Blyth sent him a list of all 182 of the known birds from Ceylon and sought specimens of poorly-known species. Layard valued his correspondence with Blyth greatly and was saddened by his death: "This was the beginning of a correspondence continued monthly for years, & of the pleasure & profit it was to me, I can give no idea. I used carefully to bind up his letters as they came, & I often now, when I see them, think with a sad heart of the bright intelligence and vast ornithological knowledge that sank with him, in shadows, in the grave."  Layard spent ten years in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where he studied the local fauna with Robert Templeton. He was forced to leave Ceylon by his and his wife's poor health. Most of their children died in infancy. Before leaving Ceylon, Layard's collection resulted in the number of species going from 182 to 318 species. On one occasion, he was able to use his natural history skills while settling a land dispute in Ceylon between two neighbouring farmers. He settled the disputed position of a filled up drain by digging them up and noticing the remains of a species of mollusc, which was later named after him as "Tortulosa layardi" (Pfeiffer 1851), along the true drain path. His collections were sent off to England and amounted to 9 tons.  In 1854, he went to the Cape Colony as a civil servant working in the service of the governor George Edward Grey (1812–1898). In addition, from 1855 Layard also took on a spare time position as curator of the South African Museum, and carried out extensive improvements at his own expense as well as building up the museum's collection and exhibits. In December 1855 Charles Darwin wrote to Layard with a description of his research investigating "the variation & origin of species", and requested assistance in obtaining specimens of domesticated animals and birds, particularly pigeons. Layard wrote back, and in June Darwin thanked him cordially for his ""very" valuable letter". In an expedition from October 1856 to March 1857, Layard visited Mauritius, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Madagascar, and ports on the southern coast of South Africa. In 1865 Layard found a whale which became known as the strap-toothed whale or the Layard's beaked whale, and was formally named "Mesoplodon layardii". His work at the Mixed Commission ended when it was abolished in 1870, and Layard then had to return to Britain. He was succeeded at the museum by Roland Trimen. Subsequently, Layard had posts in Brazil, where he collected birds for Arthur Hay (1824–1878).  Edgar Layard administered the government of Fiji from 1874 to 1875 and was honorary British Consul at Noumea, New Caledonia from 1876. Layard was appointed as an arbitrator to the British and Portuguese Commission at the Cape of Good Hope in 1862. Edgar Layard and his son, Edgar Leopold Calthrop Layard (referred to in the literature as either E.L.C. Layard or Leopold Layard to differentiate him from his father), were active collectors in this region, mainly of bird specimens. Between 1870 and 1881, they visited Fiji, Vanuatu, Samoa, Tonga, the Solomon Islands, New Britain and Norfolk Island. Aside from the South African material, the bird collections they made from their 'home base' of New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands are the most scientifically important. The Layards sent material to William Sharp MacLeay in Sydney, but also to many other ornithologists. Their specimens have become very scattered. Many went to the British Museum in London. Others went to Henry Baker Tristram, and are now in the National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside in Liverpool, England.  In 1867, Layard published "The Birds of South Africa", where he described 702 species. This work was later updated by Richard Bowdler Sharpe (1847–1909).  Layard wrote in his biographical notes:  Layard's first wife, Barbara Anne Calthrop (died 1886), whom he married in 1845, is commemorated in the specific epithet of Layard's parakeet ("Psittacula calthropae") and he named the brown-breasted flycatcher ("Muscicapa muttui") after his Tamil cook, Muttu who he considered as his "fidus Achates" or faithful follower. Only one son survived from the first marriage Edgar Leopold Calthorp Layard (born 21 Sep 1848). Layard married Jane Catherine Blackhall, daughter of General Robert Blackhall, in 1887.  Layard died in Budleigh Salterton, Devon, England on 1 January 1900.  Several species are named after Layard including Layard's tit-babbler ("Sylvia layardi") and the squirrel, "Funambulus layardi". A species of lizard endemic to Sri Lanka, "Nessia layardi" (originally placed in the genus "Acontias") was named after him by Edward Frederick Kelaart.

Edgar Leopold Layard, (23 July 1824 – 1 January 1900) was a British diplomat and a naturalist mainly interested in ornithology and to a lesser extent the molluscs. He worked for a significant part of his life in Ceylon and later in South Africa, Fiji and New Caledonia. He studied the zoology of these places and established natural history museums in Sri Lanka and South Africa. Several species of animals are named after him.

Edgar Leopold Layard (* 23. Juli 1824 in Florenz, Italien; † 1. Januar 1900 in Budleigh Salterton, Devon, England) war ein britischer Diplomat und Naturforscher. Sein Forschungsschwerpunkt war die Ornithologie.


Plot.

In 1950, Hester Collyer, the younger wife of High Court judge Sir William Collyer, has embarked on a passionate affair with Freddie Page, a handsome young former RAF pilot troubled by his memories of the Second World War. Freddie throws Hester's life in turmoil, as their erotic relationship leaves her emotionally stranded and physically isolated. For Freddie, that tumultuous mix of fear and excitement that was once in his life seems to be no longer present.  The majority of the film takes place during one day in Hester's flat, a day on which she has decided to commit suicide. Her suicide attempt fails and as she recovers, the story of her affair and her married life is played out in a mosaic of short and sporadic flashbacks. We soon discover the constraints of Hester's comfortable marriage, which is affectionate but without sexual passion.  As Hester's affair is discovered she leaves her life of comparative luxury and moves into a small dingy London flat with Freddie. Hester's new lover has awakened her sexuality, but the reckless, thrill-seeking Freddie can never give her the love and stability that her husband gave her. Yet to return to a life without passion would be unbearable. The film takes its title from her dilemma of being caught between the Devil and the deep blue sea – two equally undesirable situations.

Production.

Filming locations are all in London, England (UK). The Three Mills Studios was used, Three Mill Lane, Bow, London.  The orchestral background music is taken from Samuel Barber's violin concerto written 1939.

Critical reception.

The film was released to strongly positive reviews from critics. At Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 80%, based on 140 reviews and an average rating of 7.11/10. It also has a score of 82 on Metacritic based on 30 reviews.  For her performance, Weisz won the Best Actress Award at the 2012 New York Film Critics Circle Awards and also won the Best Actress Award from the Toronto Film Critics Association in the same year.  In January 2012, Weisz was nominated as Best Actress in the 70th Golden Globe Awards. The film was also chosen as one of the Top Ten films of the year by "The New York Times" and "The Los Angeles Times". The film has found a largely appreciative audience and critical success in the United States with Weisz's performance named as 'film performance of 2012' by David Edelstein of "New York" magazine.

The Deep Blue Sea is a 2011 British romantic drama film directed by Terence Davies and starring Rachel Weisz, Tom Hiddleston, and Simon Russell Beale. It is an adaptation of the 1952 Terence Rattigan play "The Deep Blue Sea" about the wife of a judge who engages in an affair with a former RAF pilot. This film version was funded by the UK Film Council and Film4, produced by Sean O'Connor and Kate Ogborn.

The Deep Blue Sea ist ein britisches Filmdrama von Terence Davies aus dem Jahr 2011. Es handelt sich um eine Adaption des seit 1952 erfolgreichen gleichnamigen Theaterstücks von Terence Rattigan. In den Hauptrollen sind Rachel Weisz, Tom Hiddleston und Simon Russel Beale zu sehen. Er erzählt die Geschichte der Frau eines Richters, die eine Affäre mit einem ehemaligen RAF-Piloten eingeht.


Adorers of the Sacred Heart of Montmartre

History.

They were founded by a Frenchwoman, Marie-Adèle Garnier (Mother Marie de Saint-Pierre) in Montmartre ("Mount of the Martyr"), Paris in 1898. In 1901 the French legislature passed Waldeck-Rousseau's "Law of Associations" which placed severe restrictions on religious bodies such as monasteries and convents and caused many of them to leave France. Mother Marie de Saint-Pierre therefore relocated the order in London in 1903, at Tyburn Convent, Bayswater Road, near Marble Arch. Near the convent was the site of Tyburn tree where 105 Catholic martyrs—including Saint Oliver Plunkett and Saint Edmund Campion—were executed during and following the English Reformation from 1535 to 1681. The nuns established at Tyburn the Martyrs' Shrine to honour the more than 350 Catholic Martyrs who were executed in England during and after the Reformation.  Tyburn Convent is now the Mother House of the Congregation.

Devotion.

Mother Mary of St Peter founded the Adorers to carry out Adoration of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in the exposed Blessed Sacrament, originally in the Basilica of the Sacred Heart at Montmartre. The religious foundation then moved to enclosure and Adoration in the monastic setting, building up numbers towards Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament by the community.  This Adoration was to be made in reparation for offences against the Sacred Heart and the Blessed Sacrament. Mystical experiences in the early Congregation in France confirmed that Adoration was needed to atone for sacrileges and blasphemies against the Blessed Sacrament committed by priests and lay people. The Foundress at this time also discerned a particular charism of prayer for priests.  Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament has continued night and day ever since the convent was established in London. Pilgrims and tourists from all over the world visit the shrine.

Rule of Life.

The Congregation follows the Rule of St Benedict as its rule of life. This is augmented by norms, a manual and a book of customs of the Congregation.  The sisters wear the traditional black Benedictine habit, but with a modernised veil and guimpe (wimple). Postulants wear lay dress and a short black veil. Novices wear the habit with a white veil and white choir cloak. Junior professed sisters wear the black veil and Congregation medal and white choir cloak. Perpetually professed sisters wear the black veil, medal, ring, and white choir cowl.

Expansion.

The Tyburn community has opened other monasteries in Scotland, Ireland (at Cobh), New Zealand (two foundations, "Tyburn Monastery" at Bombay, Auckland and "Tyburn Monastery Cor Iesu Fons Vitae" at Ngakaru, Rotorua in the Hamilton Diocese), Australia (at Riverstone), Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and in Rome and France at St Loup-sur-Aujon close to the birthplace of the Foundress, Mother Marie Adèle Garnier. Each monastery carries out Adoration during the day, and shares this with the laity. A new foundation in Africa has recently been initiated. The Congregation has also offered assistance to ageing Benedictine communities in Europe.  The Congregation numbers around 80 sisters worldwide in total, including sisters in formation.

The Adorers of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Montmartre, OSB is a Catholic order of Benedictine nuns, often known as Tyburn Nuns. The order was founded in Paris but later moved to a new Mother House in London and established additional monasteries in nine other countries. Nuns at the London monastery practice Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament and maintain a Martyrs’ Shrine dedicated to the Catholic Martyrs of the English Reformation.

Die Anbetungsschwestern vom Heiligsten Herzen Jesu von Montmartre (lat. "Congregatio Adoratricum Sanctissimi Cordis Iesu de Monte Martyrum") sind eine Gemeinschaft von neun Benediktinerinnenprioraten. Zuweilen werden diese Priorate wegen ihres Mutterhauses in Tyburn auch "Tyburn monasteries" genannt. Den Anbetungsschwestern gehören etwa 100 Ordensfrauen an.


Capacitance.

Helmholtz laid the theoretical foundations for understanding the double layer phenomenon. The formation of double layers is exploited in every electrochemical capacitor to store electrical energy.  Every capacitor has two electrodes, mechanically separated by a separator. These are electrically connected via the electrolyte, a mixture of positive and negative ions dissolved in a solvent such as water. Where the liquid electrolyte contacts the electrode's conductive metallic surface, an interface is formed which represents a common boundary between the two phases of matter. It is at this interface that the double layer effect occurs.  When a voltage is applied to the capacitor, two layers of polarized ions are generated at the electrode interfaces. One layer is within the solid electrode (at the surfaces of crystal grains from which it is made that are in contact with the electrolyte). The other layer, with opposite polarity, forms from dissolved and solvated ions distributed in the electrolyte that have moved towards the polarized electrode. These two layers of polarized ions are separated by a monolayer of solvent molecules. The molecular monolayer forms the inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). It adheres by physical adsorption on the electrode surface and separates the oppositely polarized ions from each other, forming a molecular dielectric.  The amount of charge in the electrode is matched by the magnitude of counter-charges in the outer Helmholtz plane (OHP). This is the area close to the IHP, in which the polarized electrolyte ions are collected. This separation of two layers of polarized ions through the double-layer stores electrical charges in the same way as in a conventional capacitor. The double-layer charge forms a static electric field in the molecular IHP layer of the solvent molecules that corresponds to the strength of the applied voltage.  The "thickness" of a charged layer in the metallic electrode, i.e., the average extension perpendicular to the surface, is about 0.1 nm, and mainly depends on the electron density because the atoms in solid electrodes are stationary. In the electrolyte, the thickness depends on the size of the solvent molecules and of the movement and concentration of ions in the solvent. It ranges from 0.1 to 10 nm as described by the Debye length. The sum of the thicknesses is the total thickness of a double layer.  The IHP's small thickness creates a strong electric field E over the separating solvent molecules. At a potential difference of, for example, U = 2 V and a molecular thickness of d = 0.4 nm, the electric field strength is  To compare this figure with values from other capacitor types requires an estimation for electrolytic capacitors, the capacitors with the thinnest dielectric among conventional capacitors. The voltage proof of aluminum oxide, the dielectric layer of aluminum electrolytic capacitors, is approximately 1.4 nm/V. For a 6.3 V capacitor therefore the layer is 8.8 nm. The electric field is 6.3 V/8.8 nm = 716 kV/mm, around 7 times lower than in the double-layer. The field strength of some 5000 kV/mm is unrealizable in conventional capacitors. No conventional dielectric material could prevent charge carrier breakthrough. In a double-layer capacitor the chemical stability of the solvent's molecular bonds prevents breakthrough.  The forces that cause the adhesion of solvent molecules in the IHP are physical forces rather than chemical bonds. Chemical bonds exist within the adsorbed molecules, but they are polarized.  The magnitude of the electric charge that can accumulate in the layers corresponds to the concentration of the adsorbed ions and the electrodes surface. Up to the electrolyte's decomposition voltage, this arrangement behaves like a capacitor in which the stored electrical charge is linearly dependent on the voltage.  The double-layer is like the dielectric layer in a conventional capacitor, but with the thickness of a single molecule. Using the early Helmholtz model to calculate the capacitance the model predicts a constant differential capacitance C independent from the charge density, even depending on the dielectric constant ε and the charge layer separation δ.  If the electrolyte solvent is water then the influence of the high field strength creates a permittivity ε of 6 (instead of 80 without an applied electric field) and the layer separation δ ca. 0.3 nm, the Helmholtz model predicts a differential capacitance value of about 18 μF/cm. This value can be used to calculate capacitance values using the standard formula for conventional plate capacitors if only the surface of the electrodes is known. This capacitance can be calculated with:  The capacitance C is greatest in components made from materials with a high permittivity ε, large electrode plate surface areas A and a small distance d between plates. Because activated carbon electrodes have a very high surface area and an extremely thin double-layer distance which is on the order of a few ångströms (0.3-0.8 nm), it is understandable why supercapacitors have the highest capacitance values among the capacitors (in the range of 10 to 40 μF/cm).  In real produced supercapacitors with a high amount of double-layer capacitance the capacitance value depends first on electrode surface and DL distance. Parameters such as electrode material and structure, electrolyte mixture, and amount of pseudocapacitance also contribute to capacitance value.  Because an electrochemical capacitor is composed out of two electrodes, electric charge in the Helmholtz layer at one electrode is mirrored (with opposite polarity) in the second Helmholtz layer at the second electrode. Therefore, the total capacitance value of a double-layer capacitor is the result of two capacitors connected in series. If both electrodes have approximately the same capacitance value, as in symmetrical supercapacitors, the total value is roughly half that of one electrode.

Double-layer capacitance is the important characteristic of the electrical double layer which appears, for example, at the interface between a conductive electrode and an adjacent liquid electrolyte. At this boundary two layers of charge with opposing polarity form, one at the surface of the electrode, and one in the electrolyte. These two layers, electrons on the electrode and ions in the electrolyte, are typically separated by a single layer of solvent molecules that adhere to the surface of the electrode and act like a dielectric in a conventional capacitor. The amount of electric charge stored in double-layer capacitor depends on the applied voltage. The unit of capacitance is the farad.

Eine Doppelschichtkapazität entsteht nach dem Anlegen einer elektrischen Spannung durch Ladungstrennung in einer Helmholtz-Doppelschicht an der Phasengrenze zwischen Elektrodenoberfläche und Elektrolyt. Die elektrische Energie in der Doppelschichtkapazität wird statisch in einem elektrischen Feld gespeichert.


Early life and education.

Basilone was born in his Italian American parents' home on November 4, 1916, in Buffalo, New York. He was the sixth of ten children. His five older siblings were born in Raritan, New Jersey, before the family moved to Buffalo where John was born; they returned to Raritan in 1918.  His father, Salvatore Basilone, emigrated from, in the province of Benevento, Italy in 1903 and settled in Raritan. Basilone's mother, Theadora Bencivenga, was born in 1889 and grew up in Manville, New Jersey, but her parents, Carlo and Catrina, also came from Benevento. Basilone's parents met at a church gathering and married three years later.  Basilone grew up in the nearby Raritan Town (now Borough of Raritan) where he attended St. Bernard Parochial School. After completing middle school at the age of 15, he dropped out prior to attending high school. Basilone worked as a golf caddy for the local country club before joining the military.

Military service.

U.S. Army.

Basilone enlisted in the United States Army in July 1934 and completed his three-year enlistment with service in the Philippines, where he was a champion boxer. In the Army, Basilone was initially assigned to the 16th Infantry at Fort Jay, before being discharged for a day, reenlisting, and being assigned to the 31st Infantry.  After he was released from active duty, Basilone returned home and worked as a truck driver in Reisterstown, Maryland. After driving trucks for a few years, he wanted to go back to Manila and believed he could get there faster by serving in the Marines rather than in the Army.

U.S. Marine Corps.

He enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1940, from Baltimore, Maryland. He went to recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, followed by training at Marine Corps Base Quantico and New River. The Marines sent him to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba for his next assignment, and then to Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands as a member of "D" Company, 1st Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division.

Guadalcanal.

On October 24, 1942, during the Battle for Henderson Field, his unit came under attack by a regiment of about 3,000 soldiers from the Japanese Sendai Division using machine guns, grenades, and mortars against the American heavy machine guns. Basilone commanded two sections of machine guns which fought for the next two days until only Basilone and two other Marines were left standing. As the battle went on, ammunition became critically low. Despite their supply lines having been cut off by enemies who had infiltrated into the rear, Basilone fought through hostile ground to resupply his heavy machine gunners with urgently needed supplies. Basilone moved an extra gun into position and maintained continual fire against the incoming Japanese forces. He then repaired and manned another machine gun, holding the defensive line until replacements arrived.  When the last of the ammunition ran out shortly before dawn on the second day, Basilone, using his pistol and a machete, held off the Japanese soldiers attacking his position. By the end of the engagement, Japanese forces opposite the Marines' lines had been virtually annihilated. For his actions during the battle, Basilone received the United States military's highest award for valor, the Medal of Honor.  Afterwards, Private First Class Nash W. Phillips, of Fayetteville, North Carolina, recalled from the battle for Guadalcanal:

War bond tours.

In 1943, Basilone returned to the United States and participated in war bond tours. His arrival was highly publicized, and his hometown held a parade in his honor when he returned. The homecoming parade occurred on Sunday, September 19 and drew a huge crowd with thousands of people, including politicians, celebrities, and the national press. The parade made national news in "LIFE" magazine and "Fox Movietone News". After the parade, Basilone toured the country raising money for the war effort and achieved celebrity status. Although he appreciated the admiration, he felt out of place and requested to return to the operating forces fighting the war.  The Marine Corps denied his request and told him he was needed more on the home front. He was offered a commission, which he turned down, and was later offered an assignment as an instructor, but refused this as well. When he requested again to return to the war, the request was approved. He left for Camp Pendleton, California, for training on December 27. On July 3, 1944, he reenlisted in the Marine Corps.

Marriage.

While stationed at Camp Pendleton, Basilone met his future wife, Lena Mae Riggi, who was a Sergeant in the Marine Corps Women's Reserve. They were married at St. Mary's Star of the Sea Church in Oceanside, California, on July 10, 1944, with a reception at the Carlsbad Hotel. They honeymooned at an onion farm near Portland, Oregon.

Iwo Jima and death.

After his request to return to the fleet was approved, Basilone was assigned to "C" Company, 1st Battalion, 27th Marine Regiment, 5th Marine Division. On February 19, 1945, the first day of the invasion of Iwo Jima, he was serving as a machine gun section leader on Red Beach II. While the Marines landed, the Japanese concentrated their fire at the incoming Marines from heavily fortified blockhouses staged throughout the island. With his unit pinned down, Basilone made his way around the side of the Japanese positions until he was directly on top of the blockhouse. He then attacked with grenades and demolitions, single-handedly destroying the entire strong point and its defending garrison.  He then fought his way toward Airfield Number 1 and aided a Marine tank that was trapped in an enemy mine field under intense mortar and artillery barrages. He guided the heavy vehicle over the hazardous terrain to safety, despite heavy weapons fire from the Japanese. As he moved along the edge of the airfield, he was killed by Japanese mortar shrapnel (based on his research for the book and miniseries "The Pacific", author Hugh Ambrose suggested that Basilone was killed by a burst of small arms fire which hit him in the right groin and neck and nearly took off his left arm).  His actions helped Marines penetrate the Japanese defense and get off the landing beach during the critical early stages of the invasion. Basilone was posthumously awarded the Marine Corps' second-highest decoration for valor, the Navy Cross, for extraordinary heroism during the battle of Iwo Jima.

Burial.

Basilone is interred in Arlington National Cemetery, in Section 12, Grave 384, grid Y/Z 23.5.  His widow, Lena M. Basilone, died June 11, 1999, aged 86, and is buried at Riverside National Cemetery in Riverside, California. Lena's obituary notes that she never remarried and was buried still wearing her wedding ring.

Awards and decorations.

GySgt Basilone's military awards include:

Medal of Honor citation.

Basilone's Medal of Honor citation reads as follows:  The President of the United States in the name of The Congress takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR to SERGEANT JOHN BASILONE UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS  for service as set forth in the following CITATION: For extraordinary heroism and conspicuous gallantry in action against enemy Japanese forces, above and beyond the call of duty, while serving with the 1st Battalion, 7th Marines, 1st Marine Division in the Lunga Area, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, on 24 and 25 October 1942. While the enemy was hammering at the Marines' defensive positions, Sgt. BASILONE, in charge of 2 sections of heavy machine guns, fought valiantly to check the savage and determined assault. In a fierce frontal attack with the Japanese blasting his guns with grenades and mortar fire, one of Sgt. BASILONE'S sections, with its gun crews, was put out of action, leaving only 2 men able to carry on. Moving an extra gun into position, he placed it in action, then, under continual fire, repaired another and personally manned it, gallantly holding his line until replacements arrived. A little later, with ammunition critically low and the supply lines cut off, Sgt. BASILONE, at great risk of his life and in the face of continued enemy attack, battled his way through hostile lines with urgently needed shells for his gunners, thereby contributing in large measure to the virtual annihilation of a Japanese regiment. His great personal valor and courageous initiative were in keeping with the highest traditions of the U.S. Naval Service. "FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT"

Navy Cross.

Basilone's Navy Cross citation reads as follows:  The President of the United States takes pride in presenting the NAVY CROSS posthumously to JOHN BASILONE UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS  for service as set forth in the following CITATION: For extraordinary heroism while serving as a Leader of a Machine-Gun Section, Company C, 1st Battalion, 27th Marines, 5th Marine Division, in action against enemy Japanese forces on Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands, 19 February 1945. Shrewdly gauging the tactical situation shortly after landing when his company's advance was held up by the concentrated fire of a heavily fortified Japanese blockhouse, Gunnery Sergeant BASILONE boldly defied the smashing bombardment of heavy caliber fire to work his way around the flank and up to a position directly on top of the blockhouse and then, attacking with grenades and demolitions, single handedly destroyed the entire hostile strong point and its defending garrison. Consistently daring and aggressive as he fought his way over the battle-torn beach and up the sloping, gun-studded terraces toward Airfield Number 1, he repeatedly exposed himself to the blasting fury of exploding shells and later in the day coolly proceeded to the aid of a friendly tank which had been trapped in an enemy mine field under intense mortar and artillery barrages, skillfully guiding the heavy vehicle over the hazardous terrain to safety, despite the overwhelming volume of hostile fire. In the forefront of the assault at all times, he pushed forward with dauntless courage and iron determination until, moving upon the edge of the airfield, he fell, instantly killed by a bursting mortar shell. Stouthearted and indomitable, Gunnery Sergeant BASILONE, by his intrepid initiative, outstanding skill, and valiant spirit of self-sacrifice in the face of the fanatic opposition, contributed materially to the advance of his company during the early critical period of the assault, and his unwavering devotion to duty throughout the bitter conflict was an inspiration to his comrades and reflects the highest credit upon Gunnery Sergeant BASILONE and the United States Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life in the service of his country.  For the President, "JAMES FORRESTAL" Secretary of the Navy

Other honors.

Basilone has received numerous honors, including the following:

Marine Corps.

Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton:

Public.

Public honorable recognitions include:

John Basilone (November 4, 1916 – February 19, 1945) was a United States Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant who received the Medal of Honor for heroism above and beyond the call of duty during the Battle for Henderson Field in the Guadalcanal Campaign, and the Navy Cross posthumously for extraordinary heroism during the Battle of Iwo Jima. He was the only enlisted Marine to receive both of these decorations in World War II.

John Basilone (* 4. November 1916 in Buffalo, Bundesstaat New York; † 19. Februar 1945 in Iwojima, Präfektur Tokio) war ein US-amerikanischer Soldat italienischer Abstammung im Range eines Gunnery Sergeants. Er war der einzige US-Marine, der während des Zweiten Weltkrieges mit der Medal of Honor und dem Navy Cross ausgezeichnet wurde.