Process.

Large scale cupellation.

Native silver is a rare element, although it exists as such. It is usually found in nature combined with other metals, or in minerals that contain silver compounds, generally in the form of sulfides such as galena (lead sulfide) or cerussite (lead carbonate). So the primary production of silver requires the smelting and then cupellation of argentiferous lead ores.  Lead melts at 327°C, lead oxide at 888°C and silver melts at 960°C. To separate the silver, the alloy is melted again at the high temperature of 960°C to 1000°C in an oxidizing environment. The lead oxidises to lead monoxide, then known as litharge, which captures the oxygen from the other metals present. The liquid lead oxide is removed or absorbed by capillary action into the hearth linings. This chemical reaction may be viewed as:  The base of the hearth was dug in the form of a saucepan, and covered with an inert and porous material rich in calcium or magnesium such as shells, lime, or bone ash. The lining had to be calcareous because lead reacts with silica (clay compounds) to form viscous lead silicate that prevents the needed absorption of litharge, whereas calcareous materials do not react with lead. Some of the litharge evaporates, and the rest is absorbed by the porous earth lining to form "litharge cakes".  Litharge cakes are usually circular or concavo-convex, about 15 cm in diameter. They are the most common archaeological evidence of cupellation in the Early Bronze Age. By their chemical composition, archaeologists can tell what kind of ore was treated, its main components, and the chemical conditions used in the process. This permits insights about production process, trade, social needs or economic situations.

Small scale cupellation.

Small scale cupellation is based on the same principle as the one done in a cupellation hearth; the main difference lies in the amount of material to be tested or obtained. The minerals have to be crushed, roasted and smelted to concentrate the metallic components in order to separate the noble metals. By the Renaissance the use of the cupellation processes was diverse: assay of ores from the mines, testing the amount of silver in jewels or coins or for experimental purposes. It was carried out in small shallow recipients known as cupels.  As the main purpose of small scale cupellation was to assay and test minerals and metals, the matter to be tested has to be carefully weighed. The assays were made in the cupellation or assay furnace, which needs to have windows and bellows to ascertain that the air oxidises the lead, as well as to be sure and prepared to take away the cupel when the process is over. Pure lead has to be added to the matter being tested to guarantee the further separation of the impurities. After the litharge has been absorbed by the cupel, buttons of silver were formed and settled in the middle of the cupel. If the alloy also contained a certain amount of gold, it settled with the silver and both had to be separated by parting.

Cupels.

The primary tool for small scale cupellation was the cupel. Cupels were manufactured in a very careful way. They used to be small vessels shaped in the form of an inverted truncated cone, made out of bone ashes. According to Georg Agricola, the best material was obtained from burned antlers of deer although fish spines could work as well. Ashes have to be ground into a fine and homogeneous powder and mixed with some sticky substance to mould the cupels. Moulds were made out of copper with no bottoms so that the cupels could be taken off. A shallow depression in the centre of the cupel was made with a rounded pestle. Cupel sizes depend on the amount of material to be assayed. This same shape has been maintained until the present.  Archaeological investigations as well as archaeometallurgical analysis and written texts from the Renaissance have demonstrated the existence of different materials for their manufacture; they could be made also with mixtures of bones and wood ashes, of poor quality, or moulded with a mixture of this kind in the bottom with an upper layer of bone ashes. Different recipes depend on the expertise of the assayer or on the special purpose for which it was made (assays for minting, jewelry, testing purity of recycled material or coins). Archaeological evidence shows that at the beginnings of small scale cupellation, potsherds or clay cupels were used.

History.

The first known use of silver was in the Near East in Anatolia and Mesopotamia during the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, the Early Bronze Age. Archaeological findings of silver and lead objects together with litharge pieces and slag have been studied in a variety of sites, and metallurgical analysis suggests that by then people were confidently extracting silver from lead ores so the method would have been known earlier.  During the following Iron Age, cupellation was done by fusing the debased metals with a surplus of lead, the bullion or result product of this fusion was then heated in a cupellation furnace to separate the noble metals. Mines such as Rio Tinto, near Huelva in Spain, started to be an important political and economic site for many people around the Mediterranean Sea, as well as Laurion in Greece. Around 500 BC control over the Laurion mines gave Athens political advantage and power in the Mediterranean so that they were able to defeat the Persians.  During the Roman times, the empire needed large quantities of lead in order to support the Roman civilization over a great territory; they searched for open lead-silver mines in whatever area they conquered. Silver coinage became the normalised medium of exchange, therefore silver production and mine control gave economic and political power. In Roman times it was worth mining lead ores if their content of silver was 0.01% or more.  The origin of the use of cupellation for analysis is not known. One of the earliest written references to cupels is "Theophilus Divers Ars" in the 12th century AD. The process then changed little until the 16th century.  Small-scale cupellation may be considered the most important fire assay developed in history, and perhaps the origin of chemical analysis. Most of the written evidence comes from the Renaissance in the 16th century. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Georg Agricola and Lazarus Ercker, among others, wrote about the art of mining and testing the ores, as well as detailed descriptions of cupellation. Their descriptions and assumptions have been identified within diverse archaeological findings through Medieval and Renaissance Europe. By these times the amount of fire assays increased considerably, mainly because of testing the ores in the mines in order to identify the availability of its exploitation. A primary use of cupellation was related to minting activities, and it was also used in testing jewelry. Since the Renaissance, cupellation became a standardised method of analysis that has changed very little, demonstrating its efficiency. Its development certainly touched the spheres of economy, politics, warfare and power in ancient times.

New World.

The huge amount of Pre-Hispanic silver adornments known especially from Perú, Bolivia and Ecuador raises the question whether the pre-Hispanic civilizations obtained the raw material from native ores or from argentiferous-lead ores. Although native silver may be available in America, it is as rare as in the Old World. From colonial texts it is known that silver mines were open in colonial times by the Spaniards from Mexico to Argentina, the main ones being those of Tasco, Mexico and Potosí in Bolivia.  Some kind of blast furnaces called huayrachinas were described in colonial texts, as native technology furnaces used in Perú and Bolivia to smelt the ores that come from the silver mines owned by the Spaniards. Although it is not conclusive, it is believed that these kinds of furnaces may have been used before the Spanish Conquest. Ethnoarchaeological and archaeological work in Porco Municipality, Potosí, Bolivia has suggested pre-European use of huayrachinas.  There are no specific archaeological accounts about silver smelting or mining in the Andes prior to the Incas. However, silver and lead artefacts have been found in the Peruvian central highlands dated in the pre-Inca and Inca periods. From the presence of lead in silver artefacts, archaeologists suggest that cupellation may have occurred there.

Cupellation is a refining process in metallurgy where ores or alloyed metals are treated under very high temperatures and have controlled operations to separate noble metals, like gold and silver, from base metals, like lead, copper, zinc, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth, present in the ore. The process is based on the principle that precious metals do not oxidise or react chemically, unlike the base metals, so when they are heated at high temperatures, the precious metals remain apart, and the others react, forming slags or other compounds.

Die Kupellation ist ein Verfahren zur Abtrennung von Edelmetallen, zum Beispiel Gold oder Silber, aus Legierungen mit unedleren Metallen. Das Kupellationsverfahren ist auch als Abtreiben oder Treibarbeit bekannt, historisch auch als Läuterung. Das verunreinigte Metall wird mit Blei legiert; letzteres nimmt die Verunreinigungen in sich auf. Das entstehende Bleioxid wird mitsamt den unedleren Metalloxiden von einem porösen Tiegelchen, der Kupelle oder Kapelle, aufgesogen. Es ist ein entscheidender Verfahrensschritt bei der Silberverhüttung. Gold und Silber lassen sich auf diese Weise jedoch nicht voneinander scheiden.


Plot.

The play takes place partly in Budapest, Hungary, and partly in a waiting area just outside Heaven. The story concerns Liliom, a tough, cocky carousel barker who falls in love with Julie, a young woman who works as a maid. When both lose their jobs, Liliom begins mistreating Julie out of bitterness—even slapping her once—although he loves her. When she discovers she is pregnant, he is deliriously happy, but, unbeknownst to Julie, he agrees to participate with his friend Ficsur, a criminal, in a hold-up to obtain money to provide for the child. Liliom is unwilling to leave Julie and return to his jealous former employer, the carousel owner Mrs. Muskat, and feels that the robbery is his only way left to obtain financial security. The hold-up is a disaster, but Ficsur escapes, and Liliom kills himself to avoid capture. He is sent to a fiery place, presumably Purgatory. Sixteen years later, he is allowed to return to Earth for one day to do a good deed for his now teenage daughter, Louise, whom he has never met. If he succeeds, he will be allowed to enter Heaven. He fails in the attempt, and is presumably sent to Hell. The ending, though, focuses on Julie, who obviously remembers Liliom fondly.  A contrasting subplot involves Julie's best friend, Marie, and Wolf Beifeld, a rather pompous hotel porter who marries Marie and finally becomes the wealthy owner of the hotel at which he once worked. The two eventually have seven children, who never appear onstage in Molnár's play. There is also a carpenter in "Liliom" who is in unrequited love with Julie, and who, in contrast to Liliom, has a stable job.

Reception.

"Liliom" was a failure in Hungary when it was staged there in 1909, but not when it was staged on Broadway in an English translation by Benjamin Glazer in 1921. The production starred Joseph Schildkraut (his role originally offered to John Barrymore), and Eva Le Gallienne, with supporting roles played by such actors as Dudley Digges and Helen Westley.  Ivor Novello starred as Liliom in 1926 in London, with Charles Laughton, in one of his first stage roles, as Ficsur. Schildkraut and Le Gallienne repeated their roles, and Sayre Crawley played the Magistrate in the first Broadway revival of the play, in 1932.

Stage and radio adaptations.

"The Campbell Playhouse" (1939).

In 1939, Orson Welles directed and played the title role in a one-hour radio adaptation for his CBS "The Campbell Playhouse" program. The production costarred Helen Hayes as Julie and Agnes Moorehead as Mrs. Muskat, the carousel owner who is infatuated with Liliom. It was broadcast live on 22 October 1939.

Broadway (1940).

In 1940, a second American stage revival, starring Burgess Meredith and Ingrid Bergman, with Elia Kazan as Ficsur and Joan Tetzel as Louise, played in New York.

"Carousel" (musical, 1945).

In 1945, at the suggestion of the Theatre Guild (which had produced the 1921 and 1932 productions of "Liliom" as well as the original "Oklahoma!"), Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II wrote "Carousel", an American musical adaptation of the play. This was also produced by the Theatre Guild and became one of the great classics of musical theatre. Even though the musical adaptation took liberties with Molnár's play, changing the ending so that the ex-barker is successful in trying to help Louise upon his return to Earth, Molnár applauded "Carousel". The character of Louise is made more poignant in the musical, in which she is snobbishly taunted and rejected because her father was a thief. It is the Liliom character who finally gives her the confidence she needs to face life. In "Carousel", the characters of Marie and Wolf Beifeld in "Liliom" become Carrie Pipperidge and Mr. Snow who, a fisherman in the musical, is made even more pompous than in the original play. His children are the ones who so viciously taunt Louise, although, in order to keep Carrie a sympathetic character, Hammerstein keeps her totally unaware of this; in contrast to Mr. Snow, she is even supportive of a potential budding romantic relationship between their eldest son and Louise. (The relationship is quickly cut short, however, when Mr. Snow's son insults Louise by stating outright that marrying her would be "beneath his station.") Both Carrie and Mr. Snow are made into rather comical figures (especially the feather-brained Carrie) in the musical, in contrast to the completely serious Marie and Wolf Beifeld in "Liliom".  "Carousel" also Americanizes the story, setting it in Maine during the last part of the nineteenth century, and including a New England clam bake as the setting for some of the more cheerful songs in the show. The names of most of the other characters were changed as well. Liliom became Billy Bigelow, the criminal Ficsur became Jigger Craigin, and Mother Hollunder, the boarding house keeper, became Julie's cousin Nettie. There is no carpenter character in "Carousel".  There is an added layer of social commentary in "Liliom" which is deliberately omitted from "Carousel". The intended holdup victim in Molnar's play, a payroll clerk named Linzman, is Jewish, as is Wolf Beifeld. In "Carousel", Linzman becomes Mr. Bascombe, the wealthy owner of the cotton mill at which Julie once worked.  In "Liliom", Liliom encounters Linzman only once, during the robbery. In "Carousel", Billy Bigelow has met Bascombe much earlier during the play. Bascombe finds him and Julie together and kindly offers not to fire Julie, who has stayed out past the mill workers' curfew, if she allows him (Bascombe) to take her back to the mill. She gently refuses.  However, many elements of "Liliom" are retained faithfully in "Carousel", an unusual step in the 1940s for a musical play based on such a serious drama. Molnár's basic plotline for Liliom and Julie is largely adhered to, as is much of his dialogue (although Hammerstein makes it more colloquial and gives it a New England flavor). Billy Bigelow is a womanizer and an abusive husband, as is Liliom in the non-musical play; however, both the Molnar play and the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical are careful to stress that he has hit his wife only once, and that other characters erroneously believe that he is a habitual wife-beater.  "Carousel" also retains the attempted robbery scene, however in the film adaptation, Billy falls on his knife while trying to get away and does not commit suicide like Liliom does in the original play.

Hamburg Ballet (2011).

In December 2011, a ballet adaptation of "Liliom", with music by Oscar-winning composer Michel Legrand, was premiered by the Hamburg Ballet, and starred Alina Cojocaru as Julie. In this version, Liliom's child is changed from being a girl to a boy (Louis instead of Louise).

Théâtre de Liège (2014).

In 2014 Galin Stoev directed the play in Théâtre de Liège.

Andrei Şerban's "Carousel" (2015).

A stage adaptation by Andrei Şerban and Daniela Dima, "Carousel", also based on Fritz Lang's 1934 "Liliom", has played at Bucharest's Bulandra Theatre since 2015.

Film adaptations.

"Liliom" has been filmed several times, beginning in the silent era:  These first two talking film versions of Molnar's original play also alter the ending to make it more hopeful, though not as drastically as "Carousel" does. ("A Trip to Paradise" also featured a happy ending.) In the 1934 French film, Liliom finally does gain entry into Heaven, not because he has successfully done something good for his daughter, but because of Julie's forgiveness and love for him. Likewise, in the 1930 American film version, Liliom feels that he has failed, but the Heavenly Magistrate (H. B. Warner) reassures him that he has not, because Julie clearly still loves him. But it is never revealed in this version whether or not Liliom actually enters Heaven.  By contrast, in the original stage play, Liliom is ominously and sternly led offstage after he fails in his heavenly mission and is never seen or heard from again, although Julie still remembers him fondly.

Trivia.

Liliom is the Hungarian word for lily, derived from the Latin "lilium". Lilies are the flowers most commonly used at funerals, where they symbolically signify that the soul of the deceased has been restored to the state of innocence.  Liliom is just a stage name, to the police he gives his "real" name: Andreas Zavoczki.  In the 1950 film "All About Eve", Eve Harrington claims that she and her boyfriend Eddie played in a small Milwaukee production of "Liliom", and that she was "awful."

Liliom is a 1909 play by the Hungarian playwright Ferenc Molnár. It was well known in its own right during the early to mid-20th century, but is best known today as the basis for the Rodgers and Hammerstein 1945 musical "Carousel".

Liliom ist der Titel des berühmtesten Theaterstückes des ungarischen Dramatikers Ferenc Molnár, für die deutsche Bühne bearbeitet von Alfred Polgar als „Vorstadtlegende in 7 Bildern und einem szenischen Prolog“. Die Uraufführung war am 7. Dezember 1909 im Vígszínház (Budapest), die erste deutschsprachige Aufführung 1912 im Berliner Lessing-Theater, die erste erfolgreiche Aufführung am 28. Februar 1913 im Theater in der Josefstadt in Wien (in der deutschen Fassung von Alfred Polgar).


Background.

"Gigi" originated as a 1945 novella by Colette, which was adapted for the screen with Danièle Delorme in 1948. In 1951 Anita Loos adapted the novel for the stage, and the Broadway production of "Gigi" starred Audrey Hepburn in her first major role.  Seven years later, while "My Fair Lady" was in Philadelphia prior to its Broadway opening, Arthur Freed approached Lerner about a feature film musical adaptation. Although Loewe had vowed never to work in movies, he was charmed by the book and agreed to collaborate on the project. The 1958 film of "Gigi" proved to be a major critical and commercial success and the winner of nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture.

Productions.

Original productions.

Edwin Lester, founder of the Los Angeles Civic Light Opera, asked for a stage version of the film "Gigi", and Lerner and Loewe then wrote the stage musical. They added four songs and a ballet for the stage adaptation. "Gigi" premiered at the Curran Theatre, San Francisco, on May 15, 1973, and then embarked on a six-month tour.  The musical opened on Broadway on November 13, 1973 at the Uris Theatre, where it ran for 103 performances and seven previews. Directed by Joseph Hardy and choreographed by Onna White, the cast featured Karin Wolfe as Gigi, Daniel Massey as Gaston, Maria Karnilova as Mamita, Agnes Moorehead as Aunt Alicia, and Alfred Drake as Honoré. Arlene Francis replaced the ailing Moorehead later in the run (Moorehead died of cancer on April 30, 1974). An original cast recording was released by RCA Victor. Louis Jourdan starred in a production that toured the United States in the mid 1980s, not in his original role as Gaston, but rather as Honoré.  The West End production opened on 17 September 1985 at the Lyric Theatre, where it ran for seven months. The cast included Amanda Waring as Gigi and Geoffrey Burridge as Gaston, with Beryl Reid as Mamita, Siân Phillips as Aunt Alicia, and Jean-Pierre Aumont as Honoré.  A London cast album was released by First Night Records.

Revival productions.

A production of the musical, newly-adapted by Heidi Thomas, directed by Eric D. Schaeffer, and with choreography by Josh Bergasse, opened at the Kennedy Center's Eisenhower Theatre, from January 16, 2015 to February 12, 2015. Vanessa Hudgens played the role of "Gigi".  On January 14, 2015, it was announced that the Kennedy Center production of "Gigi" would transfer to Broadway with a cast led by Vanessa Hudgens. The production began previews on March 19, 2015 at the Neil Simon Theatre and officially opened on April 8. It closed on June 21, 2015. A national tour was also scheduled in the 2016–2017 season but was not produced, and was available for licensing from Tams-Witmark Music Library.  A Broadway cast album, produced and engineered by six-time Grammy winner Frank Filipetti, was released by DMI Records in June 2015.

Synopsis.

Honoré Lachaille explains that in turn-of-the-20th-century Paris, marriage is not the only option. His nephew Gaston is a rich bon vivant, much like his uncle. But Gaston is bored with the high life and his series of mistresses. The one thing he truly enjoys is spending time with an old friend of his uncle, Madame Alvarez, whom he calls Mamita, and especially her granddaughter, the precocious, carefree Gilberte or "Gigi". Gaston's Uncle Honoré was involved romantically with Mamita, although advancing age has confused their recollections of the past.  Madame Alvarez sends Gigi to her Aunt Alicia's to learn to be a high-society courtesan in their family's tradition. Gigi is initially a very poor student, as she does not understand the reasons behind her education and finds Parisians' obsession with making love inexplicable. She does, however, enjoy spending time with Gaston, whom she treats as an older brother. Alicia is unhappy to discover that Gaston took Gigi and Madame Alvarez on holiday, as her sister had not consulted her. She insists that Gigi's education must increase dramatically if she is to catch a prize such as Gaston. Mamita is shocked, but sees the advantages it could bring Gigi and so goes along with the plan - though neither tells Gigi of their scheming. Gigi is miserable in her lessons, but puts up with them as a necessary evil, though she still seems awkward and bumbling to her perfectionist aunt.  Gaston visits and is shocked to see Gigi in an alluring white gown. He tells her she looks ridiculous and storms out, but returns later and apologizes, offering to make it up by taking her to dinner. Mamita refuses, telling Gaston that, with his reputation, a young girl seen in his company might be labelled in such a way as could damage her future. Gaston is enraged again, storms out, and wanders the streets of Paris in a fury.  Gaston realises that he has fallen in love with Gigi. He returns to Mamita and strikes a business arrangement to take Gigi as his mistress, promising to provide the girl with luxury and kindness. He visits Gigi later, but she tells him she does not wish to become someone's mistress; she wants more for herself than to be passed between men, only desired until they grow tired of her and she is moved on to another. Gaston is horrified at this portrayal of the life he wishes to give her, and leaves stunned. Later, however, Gigi contacts him; when Gaston returns, Gigi says she would "rather be miserable with [him] than without [him]."  Later that night Gigi emerges from her room prepared to accept her fate and take up her role as Gaston's mistress. For the first time, she appears as a woman, not a young girl. Gaston is enchanted when he picks Gigi up to take her to dinner at Maxim's, a popular Paris restaurant. Gigi's awkwardness is gone and she seems perfectly at ease. Nevertheless, patrons' stares make Gaston uncomfortable as he realises Gigi's interpretation of things may have been accurate after all. He discovers that his love for her makes the idea of her as his mistress an unbearable one. Angered by Honoré's comments, Gaston leaves the party with Gigi in tow, taking her home without explanation. A weeping Gigi begs to know what she has done to offend him, but Gaston does not answer until he arrives at Mamita's and humbly asks for Gigi's hand in marriage.

Gigi is a musical with a book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe. It is based on the 1944 novella "Gigi" by Colette and 1958 hit musical film of the same name. The story concerns Gigi, a free-spirited teenaged girl living in Paris at the turn of the 20th century. She is being groomed as a courtesan in her family's tradition. Before she is deemed ready for her social debut, she encounters the "bon vivant" bachelor Gaston Lachaille, whom she captivates as she is transformed into a charmingly poised young lady.

Gigi ist ein Musical von Frederick Loewe und Alan Jay Lerner. Die Bühnenversion folgt dem Musical-Film Gigi von 1958, der ebenfalls auf der Zusammenarbeit der beiden Autoren beruhte. Am 13. November 1973 hatte dieses Musical in New York im Uris (heute: Gershwin) Theatre Weltpremiere. Regie führte Joseph Hardy, die Choreografie übernahm Onna White; Alfred Drake spielte die Hauptrolle.


Early life.

Mowatt was born in Gordon Town, St. Andrew Parish, Jamaica. At the age of 13, she became a member of a dance troupe which toured Jamaica and other islands in the Caribbean. Her initial ambition was to become a registered nurse. Her earliest musical influences were Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, Curtis Mayfield, Dionne Warwick, Bob Marley, Marcia Griffiths, The Staple Singers and The Soulettes. A coincidental meeting with two teenage girls who were earlier in her dance troupe led to the formation of the Gaylettes, in 1967.

Career.

Mowatt is the longtime wife of Bunny Livingston/Wailer, and some of the tracks he recorded in the early 70s are credited to her (though this is often thought to be his way of helping her, much like Bob Marley's crediting of songs to Rita Marley or Vincent Ford). At that time, for legal reasons, she used the names Juliann and Jean Watt. On The Wailers album "Burnin'" (1973), two songs written by their singer Bunny Wailer were credited to Judy Mowatt under the pseudonym Jean Watt: "Hallelujah Time" and "Pass It On". Furthermore, the B Side of Concrete Jungle, "Reincarnated Soul", also credited to Jean Watt and sung by Bunny Wailer. This song – with the name changed to "Reincarnated Souls" – was included two years later on Bunny Wailer's first solo album "Blackheart Man" (1976).  In 1974, she got her big break by joining Bob Marley's backing vocal trio the "I Threes".  Her "Black Woman" album (Ashandan, 1979) came out the same year as I Three member Marcia Griffiths's album "At Studio One". It is considered by many critics to be the greatest reggae album by a female artist. It was also the first reggae album recorded by a woman acting as her own producer.  She became the first female singer nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of reggae music when her "Working Wonders" album was nominated in 1985.  Formerly a member of the Rastafari movement, in the late 1990s she converted to Christianity and now sings Gospel music.  In 1999 the Jamaican government made her an Officer of the Order of Distinction for "services to music".

References.

Judith Veronica Mowatt, (born 1952) is a Jamaican reggae artist. As well as being a solo artist, as from 1974 she was also a member of the I Three (wrongly spelled "I Threes"), trio of backing vocalists for Bob Marley & The Wailers after Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer left.

Judy Mowatt (* 11. November 1952 in Gordon Town, Saint Andrew Parish, Kingston, Jamaika) ist eine jamaikanische Sängerin, Liederschreiberin und Produzentin. Sie ist eine der bekanntesten Reggae-Künstlerinnen weltweit, aber auch in der Soul- und Gospel-Szene bekannt.


Biography.

He was born in the early eighth century at Hesbaye (Belgium, around the old Roman civitas of Tongeren) of a noble Frankish family, possibly the son of Sigramnus, Count of Hesbaye, and, daughter of Lambert II, Count of Hesbaye. Landrada was the sister of Rotrude of Hesbaye, Charles Martel's first wife.  He was educated first at the Benedictine monastery of Saint-Trond, one of the oldest and most powerful abbeys in the Low Countries, and then at the cathedral school of Metz. At the court of Charles Martel, became his referendary, then chancellor, and in 737 prime minister. Sometime after 742, he was appointed to succeed Sigibald as Bishop of Metz, while still retaining his civil office.  In 753 he met and escorted Pope Stephen II when the pontiff visited France to seek help against Lombard incursions. As apostolic delegate to the Frankish kingdom, he was directly involved in the coronation of Pepin in 754 and the subsequent defeat of the Longbard king Aistulf. He accompanied the pope to Ponthieu.  After the death of Saint Boniface, Pope Stephen conferred the "pallium" on Saint Chrodegang (754–755), thus making him an archbishop, but not elevating the See of Metz. In 762, during a dangerous illness, he introduced among his priests a confraternity of prayer known as the League of Attigny. Saint Chrodegang was well versed in Latin and the native early Old High German. He died at Metz on 6 March 766 and was buried in Gorze Abbey, the site of his principal shrine.

Reform.

According to M.A. Claussen, "Chrodegang's work lay at the foundation of the Carolingian spiritual revival of later eighth and ninth centuries." In 748 he founded Gorze Abbey (near Metz). He also established St. Peter's Abbey on the Moselle, and did much for the abbeys of Gengenbach and Lorsch. For the latter he is said to have obtained the relics of Saint Nazarius, and for Gorze those of Saint Gorgonius. In his diocese he introduced the Roman Liturgy and musical chant, and also enriched community life for the canons of his cathedral.

Rule of Chrodegang.

Around 755, he wrote a special rule for them, the Regula Canonicorum, later known as 'Rule of Chrodegang'. The rule, containing thirty-four chapters, which he gave his clergy was based on the Rule of St. Benedict. The purpose of the rule was principally pastoral; to encourage the mutual support of a community as found in a monastic setting, while recognizing the very different responsibilities of canons serving the spiritual needs of the laity. Chrodegang necessarily adapted the Benedictine rule, particularly in regards to the hospitality characteristic of monasteries, and the care of the sick as there were neither guest houses nor hospices at cathedrals.  The rule was widely circulated and gave an important impulse to the spread of community life among the secular clergy. In 816, it was incorporated in part into the Institutio canonicorum Aquisgranensis established by the Council of Aachen. By the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Rule of Chrodegang was gradually supplanted by more popular rules based on Augustine.  It seems probable that the Rule of Chrodegang was brought by Irish monks to their native land from the monasteries of north-eastern Gaul, and that Irish anchorites originally unfettered by the rules of the cloister bound themselves by it. The "Rule of Céli Dé", which is preserved in the Leabhar Breac, and has been attributed to Máel Ruain, was possibly written in the 9th century by one of his community. The Rule "...is more a canonical than a monastic rule, and analogous to Chrodegang of Metz's "Regula Canonicorum"."  In the course of the 9th century mention is made of nine places in Ireland (including Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Clones, Devenish and Sligo) where communities of these Culdees were established as a kind of annex to the regular monastic institutions. They seem especially to have had the care of the poor and the sick, and were interested in the musical part of worship.

Saint Chrodegang (; ; died 6 March 766 AD) was the Frankish Bishop of Metz from 742 or 748 until his death. He served as chancellor for his kinsman, Charles Martel. Chrodegang is claimed to be a progenitor of the Frankish dynasty of the Robertians.

Chrodegang von Metz, auch Hruotgang (in karolingischer Schreibweise) (* um 715 in "Hasbania" (dem heutigen Haspengau in der belgischen Provinz Limburg); † 6. März 766 in Metz) war ab 742 Bischof von Metz und Erzbischof von Austrasien. In der römisch-katholischen Kirche wird er als Heiliger verehrt.


Overview.

The T-64 was conceived at the Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau in Ukraine (Ukrainian SSR), as the next-generation main battle tank by Alexander A. Morozov, the designer of the T-54 (which, in the meantime, would be incrementally improved by Leonid N. Kartsev's Nizhny Tagil bureau, by the models T-54A, T-54B, T-55, and T-55A).  A revolutionary feature of the T-64 is the incorporation of an automatic loader for its 125-mm gun, allowing one crew member's position to be omitted and helping to keep the size and weight of the tank down. Tank troopers would joke that the designers had finally caught up with their unofficial hymn, "Three Tankers"—the song had been written to commemorate the crewmen fighting in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, in 3-man BT-5 tanks in 1939.  The T-64 also pioneered other Soviet tank technology: the T-64A model of 1967 introduced the 125-mm smooth-bore gun, and the T-64B of 1976 would be able to fire an anti-tank guided missile through its gun barrel.  The T-64 design was used as basis by LKZ for the gas turbine-powered T-80 main battle tank. The T-64A turret was adopted for early T-80 tank models, with its main gun and automatic loading mechanism, and upgraded armour.  The T-64 would only be used by the Soviet Army and never exported, unlike the T-54/55. The tank equipped elite and regular formations in Eastern Europe and elsewhere, the T-64A model being first deployed with East Germany's Group of Soviet Forces in Germany (GSFG) in 1976, and some time later in Hungary's Southern Group of Forces (SFG). By 1981, the improved T-64B began to be deployed in East Germany and later in Hungary. While it was believed that the T-64 was reserved for elite units, it was also used by much lower level "non-ready formations", for example, the Odessa Military District's 14th Army.  With the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, T-64 tanks remained in the arsenals of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Uzbekistan. Mid 2014, slightly fewer than 2,000 of the former Soviet inventory of T-64 tanks are in service with the military of Ukraine and about 4,000 are out-of-service and awaiting destruction in Russia.

Development history.

Object 430.

Studies for the design of a new battle tank started as early as 1951. The KB-60M team was formed at the Kharkiv design bureau of the Kharkiv transport machine-building factory No. 75 named for Malyshev () by engineers coming back from Nizhniy Tagil, with Morozov at its head.  A project named obyekt 430 gave birth to three prototypes which were tested in Kubinka in 1958. Those vehicles showed characteristics that were going to radically change the design of battle tanks on this side of the Iron Curtain. For the first time, an extremely compact opposed-piston engine was used: the 4TD, designed by the plant's engine design team. The transmission system comprised two lateral gears on each side of the engine. Those two innovations yielded a very short engine compartment with the opening located beneath the turret. The engine compartment volume was almost half that of the T-54. An improved cooling system and a new lightweight suspension was fitted, featuring hollow metallic wheels of a small diameter and caterpillar tracks with rubber joints.  The tank would be armed with the D-54TS and frontal armour of 120 mm. As it did not present a clear superiority in terms of combat characteristics when compared to the T-55, which was entering active service, Morozov decided that production was not yet ready given the project's drawbacks. However, studies conducted on the obyekt 430U, featuring a 122 mm gun and 160 mm of armour, demonstrated that the tank had the potential to fit the firepower and armour of a heavy tank on to a medium tank chassis. A new project was consequently started, obyekt 432.

Object 432.

The gun fitted on this new tank was a powerful 115 mm D-68 (2A21). This was a potentially risky decision to replace the human loader by an electro-hydraulic automatic system, since the technology was new to Russian designers. The crew was reduced to three, which allowed a considerable reduction in internal volume and external visible silhouette, and consequently in weight, from 36 tonnes (obyekt 430) to 30.5 tonnes. The height dropped by 76 mm.  However, the arrival of the British 105 mm L7 gun and the US M68 variant of it, fitted to the Centurion and M60 tanks, forced the team to undertake another audacious "première", with the adoption of composite armour. The recently created process was called "K combination" by Western armies: this protection consisted of an aluminium alloy layer between two high strength steel layers. As a consequence, the weight of the prototype rose eventually to 34 tonnes. But, as the engine was now a 700 hp (515 kW) 5TDF (also locally designed), its mobility remained excellent, far superior to that the T-62. The obyekt 432 was ready in September 1962 and production started in October 1963 in the Kharkiv plant. On 30 December 1966, it entered service as the T-64.

T-64A.

Even as the first T-64s were rolling off the assembly lines, the design team was working on a new version, named object 434, which would allow it to maintain firepower superiority. The brand new and very powerful 125 mm D-81T gun, from the Perm weapons factory, was fitted to the tank. This gun was merely a scaled-up version of the 115 mm smoothbore cannon from the T-62. The larger size of the 125 mm ammunition meant that less could be carried inside the T-64, and with a fourth crewman loader taking up space as well, the tank would only have a 25-round capacity. This was unacceptably low for the Soviet designers, but strict dimensional parameters forbade them from enlarging the tank to increase interior space. The solution was to replace the human loader with a mechanical autoloader, cutting the crew to three and marking the first use of autoloaders in a Soviet MBT. The 6ETs10 autoloader has 28 rounds and can fire 8 shots per minute; the stabiliser, a 2E23, was coupled to the new TPD-2-1 (1G15-1) sight. Night driving was also adapted with the new TPN-1-43A periscope, which would benefit from the illumination of a powerful infrared L2G projector, fitted on the left side of the gun. The shielding was improved, with fibreglass replacing the aluminium alloy in the armour, and small spring-mounted plates fitted along the mudguards (known as the "Gill" skirt), to cover the top of the suspension and the side tanks. They were, however, extremely fragile and were often removed. Some small storage spaces were created along the turret, with a compartment on the right and three boxes on the front left. Snorkels were mounted on the rear of the turret. A NBC protection system was fitted and the hatches were widened.  Prototypes were tested in 1966 and 1967 and, as production began after the six hundredth T-64, it entered service in the Soviet Army under the designation T-64A. Chief engineer Morozov was awarded the Lenin Prize for this model's success.  Designed for elite troops, the T-64A was constantly updated as available equipment was improved. After only three years in service, a first modernisation occurred, regarding:  A derived version appeared at the same time, designed for the commanding officer and named T-64AK. It comprised a R-130M radio with a 10 m telescopic antenna, which could be used only in a static position as it required shrouds, an artillery aiming circle PAB-2AM and TNA-3 navigation station; all of these could be powered by an auxiliary gasoline-fired generator.  In 1976, the weapons system was improved by mounting a D-81TM (2A46-1), stabilised by a 2E28M2, supplied by an automatic 6ETs10M. The night sight was replaced by a TNPA-65 and the engine could accept different fuels, including diesel fuel, kerosene or gasoline. The production, first carried on the B variant, stopped in 1980.  The majority of T-64As were further modernised after 1981, by mounting a six smoke grenade-launcher 81 mm 902A on each side of the gun, and by replacing the "gill" plates by a rubber skirt for a longer life. Some of them seem to have been fitted with reactive bricks (as the T-64AV) after 1985, or even with laser TPD-K1 telemeters instead of the optical TPD-2-49 optical coincidence rangefinder (1981). Almost all T-64s were modernised into T-64R, between 1977 and 1981, by reorganising external storage and snorkels, similar to the T-64A.

T-64B.

The design team was carrying on its work on new versions. Problems with the setup of the 5TDF engine occurred as the local production capacity was proven to be insufficient against a production done in three factories (Malyshev in Kharkiv, Kirov in Leningrad and Uralvagonzavod).  From 1961, an alternative to the obyekt 432 was studied, with 12 V-cylinder V-45 engine: the obyekt 436. Three prototypes were tested in 1966 in the Chelyabinsk factory. The order to develop a model derived from the 434 with the same engine gave the obyekt 438, later renamed as obyekt 439. Four tanks of this type were built and tested in 1969, which showed the same mobility as the production version, but mass production was not started. They served however as a basis for the design of the T-72 engine compartment.  At the beginning of the 1970s, the design team was trying to improve the tank further. The T-64A-2M study in 1973, with its more powerful engine and its reinforced turret, served as a basis for two projects: For the latter, the order was given to start its production under the name T-64B, as well as a derived version (which shared 95% of its components), the obyekt 437, without the missile guidance system for cost reasons. The latter was almost twice as much produced under the designation T-64B1. On 3 September 1976, the T-64B and the T-64B1 were declared good for the service, featuring the improved D-81Tm gun (2A46-2) with a 2E26M stabiliser, a 6ETs40 loader and a 1A33 fire control, including: Its ford capacity reaches 1.8 m without equipment. The T-64B had the ability to fire the new 9M112 "Kobra" radio-guided missile (NATO code "AT-8 Songster"). The vehicle then carries 8 missiles and 28 shells. The missile control system is mounted in front of the tank leader small turret and has many changes. The T-64B1 carries only 37 shells and has 2,000 7.62 mm rounds, against 1,250 for the T-64B.  They were modernised in 1981 by the replacement of the gun by a 2A46M1, the stabiliser by a 2E42, and the mounting of a 902A "Tucha-1" smoke grenade launcher in two groups of four, on each side of the gun. Two command versions are realised, very similar to the T-64AK: the T-64BK and the T-64B1K.  The decision, in October 1979, to start production of the 6TD engine, and its great similarity with the 5TDF engine, allowed after some study to fit it in versions B and B1, but also A and AK, yielding the new models T-64AM, T-64AKM, T-64BM and T-64BAM, entering service in 1983.  The production ended in 1987 for all versions. The total production has reached almost 13,000.

Modernisations in Ukraine.

After the dissolution of the USSR, Ukraine carried on the development of T-64 modernization, as the original and main factory was in this country.  Two different upgrade packages were developed in 1999  The two variants are also protected by Kontakt-5 modular reactive armour, able to resist to kinetic energy projectiles, as opposed to the first models which were efficient only against HEAT shaped-charge ammunition. Those two variants could also be re-motorised with the 6TDF 1,000 hp (735 kW) engine.  In 2010, the Kharkiv Malyshev Factory upgraded ten T-64B tanks (originally produced in Kharkiv in 1980) to T-64BM Bulat standard, and a further nineteen were delivered in 2011. These twenty-nine tanks are being upgraded under a ₴200 million ($25.1M) contract signed in April 2009. As of October 2011, the Ukrainian Army has 76 T-64BM Bulat in service. According to Malyshev Factory chief engineer Konstantin Isyak, the T-64BM Bulat is armoured to the level of modern tanks. It has Nizh (Knife) reactive armour, and Varta active protection system. The Bulat weighs, and with its 5TDFM multi-fuel diesel engine can travel at, with a range of. It retains the 125 mm smoothbore gun with an autoloader for 28 rounds, some of which can be guided missiles. It has a 12.7 mm AA machinegun, and a 7.62 mm coaxial machinegun. A 2019 refurbishing program upgraded the fire-control system to model 1A43U and uprated the engine.  In 2019, UkrOboronProm reported that the Kharkiv Armored Plant (KhBTZ) had delivered over 100 updated tanks to the Ukrainian Armed Forces. The upgraded tanks included new thermal imaging for all crew, remove Luna infrared searchlight, include TPN-1-TPV Ukrainian night sight in place of TPN1-49-23, Nizh reactive armour modules designed for bolt-on replacement on T-64BV turrets, SN-4215 networked satellite navigation unit, and Lybid K-2RB digital radio (under licence from Motorola) providing secure communications with a 70 km range. In August 2019, UkrOboronProm announced the Lviv Armored Plant (LBTZ) had also started modernizing T-64s to the 2017 standard

Production history.

Different sources differ on the initial production date of the tank that is set between 1963 and 1967. However it is normally agreed that the T-64 formally entered service with the army in 1967 and was publicly revealed in 1970. The T-64 was KMDB's high-technology offering, intended to replace the IS-3 and T-10 heavy tanks in independent tank battalions. Meanwhile, the T-72 was intended to supersede the T-55 and T-62 in equipping the bulk of the Soviet tank and mechanized forces, as well as for export partners and east-block satellite states.  It introduced a new autoloader, which is still used on all T-64s currently in service, as well as all variants of the T-80 except the Ukrainian T-84-120. The T-64 prototypes had the same 115 mm smoothbore gun as the T-62, the ones put in full-scale production had the 125 mm gun.  While the T-64 was the superior tank, it was more expensive and physically complex, and was produced in smaller numbers. The T-72 is mechanically simpler and easier to service in the field, while it is not as well protected, and its manufacturing process is correspondingly simpler. In light of Soviet doctrine, the superior T-64s were kept ready and reserved for the most important mission: a potential outbreak of a war in Europe.  In Soviet times, T-64 was mostly in service with units stationed in East Germany opposing the Chieftain-equipped units of the BAOR. No T-64s were exported. Many T-64s ended up in Russian and Ukrainian service after the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Models.

Modernisations.

T-64  T-64A, T-64AK  T-64B, T-64B1, T-64BK, T-64B1K

Service history.

Cold War.

According to David Isby, the T-64 entered service in 1967 with the 41st Guards Tank Division in the Kiev Military District, the suggestion being that this was prudent due to the proximity of the division to the factory, and significant teething problems during induction into service that required constant presence of factory support personnel with the division during acceptance and initial crew and service personnel training on the new type. It appears that the tank remained secret to the West for some years between its entry into production in the first half of 1960s and the official acceptance in the Soviet Army in 1967.  The T-64A began deployment to the Soviet Union's western military districts during the 1970s, and was gradually deployed to first line units in the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany in East Germany and Soviet troops in neighboring Warsaw Pact states. The first GSFG unit to receive the T-64A was the 14th Guards Motor Rifle Division at Jüterbog, which became the 32nd Guards Tank Division in 1982. When NATO detected the new tank after it was first deployed to East Germany, it was initially misidentified as the T-72. The T-64 mainly served with Soviet tank units in northern East Germany that were part of the 2nd Guards Tank Army, the 3rd Army, and the 20th Guards Army, although it began to be phased out and replaced by the newer T-80BV/T80U before Soviet troops were withdrawn from Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s. However, when the Soviet troops withdrew from Germany, two divisions and the 6th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade still operated the T-64.  In September 1990, the Soviet Union had 3,982 T-64s in service west of the Urals, with 2,091 of these in Ukraine. 1,386 of these were T-64As, 220 T-64AKs, 1,192 T-64Bs, 159 T-64BVs, 420 T-64B1s, 27 T-64B1K/BV1K, and 578 T-64Rs. During the Soviet period, the T-64 was never exported.  It is normally reported that the T-64 was not used in the Soviet–Afghan War since the 40th Soviet Army that was deployed there used T-54/55 and T-62 tanks, possibly due to the limited use of tanks in mountain warfare. A small number of T-64 tanks were tested in Afghanistan during January 1980, but were quickly withdrawn without seeing combat because their engines did not perform well in the high altitude necessary for Afghan operations.

Post-Soviet period.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the new Russian Ground Forces decided to standardize the tank fleet with the T-72 and the T-80, and the T-64s were gradually put in reserve or scrapped.  In June 1992, 18 Russian-manned T-64BV tanks from the Odessa Military District's 59th Guards Motor Rifle Division were taken over by the Transnistrian Army, fighting in the Transnistria War. Two T-64s were disabled during by Moldovan Ground Forces troops near Bender during Transnistrian counterattacks, one of which was knocked out by an MT-12 100mm anti-tank gun. These actions were the first combat use of the tank.  While Russian T-80 tanks participated in the First Chechen War, any use of T-64 in Chechnya is not clearly documented, but it is possible in limited numbers.  The T-64 was finally used in large scale combat in mid 2014 during the War in Donbass, with the Ukrainian Army deploying T-64 tanks as the main battle tank in the offensive against pro-Russian separatists. Also, towards the end of August 2014, over 20 T-64 tanks were documented as being operated by Military forces of Novorossiya. Ukrainian and NATO officials claimed that these T-64s were supplied to the separatists by Russia. By the end of August 2014, over 70 T-64 tanks of various configurations, including at least three T-64 BM Bulat tanks, were documented as destroyed in the war in Donbass.  The subsidiary of the State Company Ukrspecexport, the State Company Ukroboronservice, concluded the foreign economic contract for major overhaul and supply of 50 main battle tanks T64BV-1. The works will be performed by the State Enterprise Kharkiv plant of armored tanks.  The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo received 25 T-64BV from late 2016. They were seen in mid-2017 patrolling in Kasaï during the Kamwina Nsapu rebellion.

Capabilities and limitations.

A rather unconventional design, the T-64 had several features which set it apart not only from previous tanks, but from the visually similar T-72, many related to its higher mechanical complexity:

T-64BV technical information.

Crew.

Three men:

The T-64 is a Soviet second-generation main battle tank introduced in the early 1960s. It was a more advanced counterpart to the T-62: the T-64 served tank divisions, while the T-62 supported infantry in motorized rifle divisions. It introduced a number of advanced features including composite armor, a compact engine and transmission, and a smoothbore 125-mm gun equipped with an autoloader to allow the crew to be reduced to three so the tank could be smaller and lighter. In spite of being armed and armored like a heavy tank, the T-64 weighed only.

Der T-64 ist ein Kampfpanzer, der zur Zeit des Kalten Krieges in der Sowjetunion entwickelt wurde. Er gehörte der neuen Generation der universal einsetzbaren Kampfpanzer an und unterschied sich grundlegend von seinen Vorgängern T-54, T-55 und T-62.


History.

In April 1941 the Italian troops retreating from Harar, Somalia and Shoa, concentrated in Shashamane after suffering several attacks by the British Army, R.A.F. and Ethiopian "Roomaa". The British troops arrived at the beginning of May and the line of the Italian defense was held by Infantry and Artillery battalions on Little Dadaba river. On May 10 started an intensive shelling between South African and Indian artilleries on one side (supported by Hurricane planes) and the Italian artillery, on the other. After two days of reciprocal bombardment, on May 13 the British attacked with Natal Mounted Rifles, King's African Rifles, anti-tank rifles, mortars, tanks and armoured cars. Since Lieut. Col. Noel Douglas McMillan became ill, the attack was led by Major Leonard Montague Harris. The Italian 12th Colonial Somali Battalion (commanded by Major Gioacchino Nadalini), reinforced by Black Shirts, and the 121.st Artillery Battalion (commanded by Lieut. Col. Nicolò Bonessa), reinforced by tankettes, an A.A. battery, machine gunners and infantrymen, were overwhelmed. Most of the Italian officers died on the battlefield, as well as both cited commanders.

The Promised Land.

In the 1950s Emperor Haile Selassie I donated approximately of African soil to African Americans who were victims of racism and injustice after being exiled and forced into slavery in The United States of America. Haile Sellassie I formed the First E.W.F. in Harlem, NY and prepared a series of events to bond with African Americans for the Ethiopian culture before breaking the news about The Land Grants. While one of the female members of the Ethiopian World Federation was visiting Jamaica she was very excited and could not keep the news to herself. She shared the information about the Land Grant with the natives of Jamaica. The Land Grants were specifically intended for African American descendants of slaves in the U.S. in return for the favor that America played in coming to The Royal Families rescue in a time of need. Once everyone found out about the possibility of returning to the Homeland not only Jamaicans tried their hardest to get over there, divisions of the E.W.F. started popping up all over the World to take advantage of the Land Grants His Majesty left for African Americans. The official letter confirming the "Land Grant" of 1948 was submitted to the members and executives of the Ethiopian World Federation in New York City, 1955.  The first West Indian family and Federation members were Mr. James Piper and his wife Helen who arrived that same year as the first Land Grant administrators, returning to make a permanent settlement in 1955 on behalf of the federation. Haile Sellassie I visited Jamaica one time in an effort to get the natives to focus on uplifting their communities before visiting Ethiopia. By the time he left the entire community was infatuated with the thought that His Imperial Majesty was Jesus Christ in the flesh. He never returned. He did however try his best to encourage them to take care of the land that they had already been given in their own country. His Majesty left specific instructions with the U.S. and Africa pertaining to the Land Grant. African Americans were extremely traumatized as they fought for Civil Rights in America. They had a very hard time trying to stabilize their families, their citizenship, their equal rights all while figuring out their nationality while America was repairing itself for desegregation. They were promised that the land would be there when they were tired of fighting for Civil Rights and equality in The United States. Shashemane is their Promised Land. Meanwhile, the Rastafarian community in Jamaica was growing and many were looking for a way out.  The first actual Rastafarian that settled in Ethiopia, Gladstone Robinson, was also an official delegate of a division of the E.W.F. that went to Shashemane on behalf of the organization in June 1964, followed by Papa Noel Dyer, who hitchhiked and found his way to Ethiopia from England, eventually arriving in September 1965. Mr. Robinson, however, would later be appointed as the Land Grant administrator by a Division of The Federation executive council in 1967 thus replacing Mr. Piper and his wife in Ethiopia.  It was within a couple of years that a moderate trickle of Rastafari immigrants began, with the population swelling past 2000 at one point. In fact, it was reported in 2004 that their numbers had dwindled from more than 2,000 to fewer than 300 according to a recent CNN Interview with Dr. Robinson and other Rastafari settlers.  Jamaican settlers petitioned Emperor Haile Selassie I for Ethiopian citizenship and other benefits several times. His Imperial Majesty was a kind Ruler, He set aside a small area for a couple of settlers to rest their heads. Once the Jamaican Settlers began having children and inviting more people to The African Americans soil they began asking for more. They grew leary in their beliefs that The King was their Messiah after a while. A few weeks later, the "Jamaican Daily Gleaner" reported that E.W.F. members in Jamaica left for Ethiopia on September 5 to develop the settlement with no money or support from their original country. A lot of the settlers there that are not African American do not even have passports or identification yet they are still asking for citizenship. They cannot be given citizenship in a land that belongs to African Americans in The United States, especially when The Land Grants were not meant for them with respect to the wishes of Emperor Haile Selassie I King of Kings Lord of Lords conquering Lion of The Tribe of Judah.  After leaders of both Jamaican political parties, Hugh Shearer and Michael Manley, each paid visits to the community in September 1969, Selassie himself again visited and, according to EWF #37 leader Mortimer Planno, cautioned them against bringing Jamaican politics to Ethiopia. The following year, the Imperial Court ordered ten hectares apiece to be parceled out to twelve "pioneer" Rastafari settlers, as reported in "The Gleaner" on September 5, 1970.  According to the EWF, Selassie again paid a visit on 1 October 1970, asking to speak to the then land grant administrator, James Piper, who was not a Rastafari. Piper declined to appear, claiming it was his Sabbath. This resulted in a change in administration at the settlement. It is reported that due to this and other incidents, Mr. Robinson replaced the Pipers as administrators the land prior to the Derg revolution.  However, because of the "anti-organization" sentiments of many Rastas of that day, the federation's official authority was compromised. Many created other organizations, entities and groups in attempts to further deal with their own ways and means of repatriation. For example, one of the Rasta settlers, Clifton Baugh, was a main representative for the Rasta community in palace discussions on the land grant with minister Ato Tesfi, and Baugh also continually delivered the first fruits of their produce to the palace in Addis right up until 1974 when stopped by the Derg Revolution.  When Haile Selassie I was deposed in 1974 the new government of Mengistu Haile Mariam confiscated all but eleven hectares.  In January 2005 there were reports in the media that Bob Marley's remains were to be exhumed and reburied at Shashemane. His wife Rita Marley described Ethiopia as his spiritual home, provoking controversy in Jamaica, where his remains still lie. The following month, thousands of fans gathered in Shashamane for a month of celebrations for what would have been Marley's 60th birthday. Rita Marley did not perform in Shashemane, The Prime Minister did not acknowledge the fact that the decedents of slaves in America will need their land. They just decided not to entertain in Shashemane.  In January 2007 the settlers organized an exhibition and a bazaar in the city. It was also reported recently prior to the Ethiopian millennium that various pro-Ethiopian World Federation groups, consisting of indigenous Ethiopians and Rastafari, have given support to one of many five-year plans proposed for sustainable development of Shashemane, Ethiopia.  “Shashamane”, a 2017 documentary film about Shashamane and its relationship to repatriation, was released in 2016.

Notes.

1. The Case of Melaku E. Bayen & John Robinson - Tadias Magazine http://www.tadias.com/?p=160

Shashamane () is a town in Aanaa in West Arsi Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. The town lies on the Trans-African Highway 4 Cairo-Cape Town, about from the capital of Addis Ababa. It has a latitude of 7° 12' north and a longitude of 38° 36' east. The 2007 national census reported a total population for this town of 100,454, of whom 50,654 were men and 49,800 were women. A plurality of the inhabitants practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 43.44% of the population reporting they observed this belief, while 31.15% of the population said they were Muslim, 23.53% of the population were Protestant, and 1.3% were Catholic.

Shashemene (offizielle Schreibung "Shaashamannee", in westlicher Literatur auch "Shashamane" oder "Shashemenne") ist eine Stadt im südlichen Teil der äthiopischen Provinz Shewa bzw. im heutigen Bundesland Oromiyaa mit etwa 102.190 Einwohnern. Sie liegt etwa 250 Kilometer südlich der Hauptstadt Addis Abeba. Viele Einwohner Shashemenes sind Angehörige der Rastafari-Bewegung, welche ursprünglich aus Jamaika stammen und nach Äthiopien, das in der Heilslehre der Rastafaris als „gelobtes Land“ gilt, ausgewandert waren.


Deutsche Fußballnationalmannschaft der Frauen

History.

Early history.

In 1955, the DFB decided to forbid women's football in all its clubs in West Germany. In its explanation, the DFB cited that "this combative sport is fundamentally foreign to the nature of women" and that "body and soul would inevitably suffer damage". Further, the "display of the body violates etiquette and decency". In spite of this ban, more than 150 unofficial international matches were played in the 1950s and 1960s. On 30 October 1970, the ban on women's football was lifted at the DFB annual convention.  Other football associations had already formed official women's national teams in the 1970s, the DFB long remained uninvolved in women's football. In 1981, DFB official Horst R. Schmidt was invited to send a team to the unofficial women's football world championship. Schmidt accepted the invitation but hid the fact that West Germany had no women's national team at the time. To avoid humiliation, the DFB sent the German club champions Bergisch Gladbach 09, who went on to win the tournament. Seeing a need, the DFB established the women's national team in 1982. DFB president Hermann Neuberger appointed Gero Bisanz, an instructor at the Cologne Sports College, to set up the team.

1982–1994: Difficult beginnings and first European titles.

In September 1982, Bisanz organised two scouting training courses from which he selected a squad of 16 players. The team's first international match took place on 10 November 1982 in Koblenz. Following the tradition of the men's team, Switzerland was chosen as West Germany's first opponent. Doris Kresimon scored the first international goal in the 25th minute. In the second half, 18-year-old Silvia Neid contributed two goals to the 5–1 victory; Neid later became the assistant coach in 1996 and the head coach in 2005.  With five draws and one defeat, West Germany failed to qualify for the inaugural 1984 European Championship, finishing third in the qualifying group. In the beginning, Bisanz's primary objective was to close the gap to the Scandinavian countries and Italy – then the strongest teams in Europe. He emphasized training in basic skills and the need for an effective youth programme. Starting in 1985, Bisanz increasingly called-up younger players, but at first had little success with this concept, as West Germany again failed to qualify for the 1987 European Championship finals.  Undefeated and without conceding a goal, the German team qualified for the European Championship for the first time in 1989; the tournament was played on home soil in West Germany. The semi-final against Italy was the first international women's football match shown live on German television. The game was decided by a penalty shootout, in which goalkeeper Marion Isbert saved three penalty kicks and scored the winning penalty herself. On 2 July 1989 in Osnabrück, West Germany played Norway in the final. Before a crowd of 22,000, they beat favourites Norway and won 4–1 with goals from Ursula Lohn, Heidi Mohr and Angelika Fehrmann. This victory marked the team's first international title.  After the German reunification, the East German football association joined the DFB. The East German women's national football team had played only one official international match, losing 0–3 to Czechoslovakia in a friendly match on 9 May 1990. The unified German team defended their title successfully at the 1991 European Championship. After winning all games in the qualifying group, Germany again met Italy in the semi-final, this time winning 3–0. On 14 July 1991, the German team once more faced Norway in the final. The game went to extra time, during which Heidi Mohr and Silvia Neid scored for Germany and secured the 3–1 victory.  In November 1991, Germany participated in the first Women's World Cup in China. Following victories over Nigeria, Taiwan and Italy, the German team reached the quarter-final without conceding a single goal. Silvia Neid scored the first German World Cup goal on 17 November 1991 against Nigeria. Germany won the quarter-final against Denmark 2–1 after extra time, but lost 2–5 in the semi-final to the United States, who went on to win the tournament. Following a 0–4 defeat in the third-place match against Sweden, Germany finished fourth in the tournament.  The German team failed to defend their title at the 1993 European Championship, suffering a semi-final defeat to Italy in a penalty shootout, and later losing 1–3 against Denmark in the third-place playoff. Despite the disappointing result, new talents such as Steffi Jones, Maren Meinert and Silke Rottenberg made their tournament debut and later became key players for the German team.

1995–2002: Olympic and World Cup disappointments.

Birgit Prinz scored in a major tournament for the first time in 1995. In 1995, Germany won its third European Championship. After winning all qualification matches, scoring 55 goals, the German team defeated England 6–2 over two legs in the semi-final. Germany met Sweden in the final, which was played at the Fritz Walter Stadion in Kaiserslautern, Germany, on 26 March 1995. The Swedish team managed to score early, but Germany came back to win 3–2 with goals from Maren Meinert, Birgit Prinz and Bettina Wiegmann.  At the 1995 Women's World Cup in Sweden, the German team lost against the Scandinavian hosts, but still succeeded in winning their group by beating Japan and Brazil. Germany won the quarter-final against England 3–0, and defeated China 1–0 with a late goal by Bettina Wiegmann in the semi-final. On 18 June 1995 in Stockholm, the German team appeared in their first Women's World Cup final. Facing Norway, they lost the match 0–2, but as runners-up achieved their best World Cup result until then.  Women's football was first played as an Olympic sport at the 1996 Summer Olympics. Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening match against Japan, which Germany won 3–2. After losing their second group game against Norway 2–3, and drawing with Brazil 1–1, Germany was eliminated, finishing third in the group with four points from three matches. Head coach Gero Bisanz resigned after the tournament and his assistant since 1983, Tina Theune, took over as the new national coach. Silvia Neid ended her playing career and was appointed the new assistant coach.  The 1997 European Championship was the first test for new coach Theune. Following a defeat against Norway, Germany finished second in the qualifying group and only secured qualification by beating Iceland in a relegation play-off. After drawing with Italy and Norway, a victory over Denmark in the last group game saw the German team go through to the knockout stage. They beat Sweden 1–0 in the semi-final, and on 12 July 1997, claimed their fourth European championship with a 2–0 win over Italy, with goals from Sandra Minnert and Birgit Prinz.  At the 1999 Women's World Cup in the United States, the German team also failed to qualify directly, but managed to beat the Ukraine in a qualifying play-off. Germany started their World Cup campaign by drawing with Italy and winning 6–0 over Mexico. In the last group game, Germany drew 3–3 against Brazil; by conceding a last minute equalizer, Germany failed to win the group and subsequently had to face the hosts in the quarter-final. With 54,642 people in attendance, among them U.S. President Bill Clinton, the crowd at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium was the biggest the German team had ever played in front of. Despite leading twice, they lost 2–3 to the eventual World Cup winners.  Germany competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics, winning all three group games against Australia, Brazil and Sweden. The German team dominated the semi-final against Norway, but lost the game 0–1 after an own goal by Tina Wunderlich in the 80th minute. They beat Brazil 2–0 in the third place match with goals from Birgit Prinz and Renate Lingor, and won the bronze medal. It was the first Olympic medal for the German Football Associations since 1988 when the men's team also won bronze.  In 2001, Germany hosted the European Championship. Following victories over Sweden, Russia and England in the group stage, the German team beat Norway 1–0 in the semi-final courtesy of a diving header by Sandra Smisek. On 7 July 2001 in Ulm, they met Sweden in the final, which was played in heavy rain. The game was scoreless after 90 minutes and went to extra time, where Claudia Müller scored a golden goal and secured the fifth European title for Germany.

2003–present: Two consecutive World Cup titles.

At the 2003 Women's World Cup in the United States, Germany was drawn in a group with Canada, Japan and Argentina. After winning all three group games, the German team defeated Russia 7–1 in the quarter-final, which set up another clash with the United States. Germany's Kerstin Garefrekes scored after 15 minutes and goalkeeper Silke Rottenberg made several key saves. In the dying minutes of the semi-final, Maren Meinert and Birgit Prinz sealed the 3–0 win. On 12 October 2003, Germany met Sweden in the World Cup final in Los Angeles. The Scandinavians went ahead before half time, but Maren Meinert equalized shortly after the break. The game went to extra time, where Nia Künzer headed the winning golden goal in the 98th minute to claim Germany's first Women's World Cup title. Birgit Prinz was honoured as the tournament's best player and top goalscorer.  With wins over China and Mexico, the German team finished first in their group at the 2004 Summer Olympics. They beat Nigeria 2–1 in the quarter-final, but suffered a 1–2 semi-final loss to the United States after extra time. In the third place match, Germany defeated Sweden 1–0 with a goal by Renate Lingor, winning the teams's second Olympic bronze medal.  The 2005 European Championship was held in England. With wins over Norway, Italy and France in Round 1, the German team advanced to the semi-final, where they defeated Finland 4–1. On 19 June 2005, they met Norway for the third time in the European championship final. Germany won 3–1 with goals from Inka Grings, Renate Lingor and Birgit Prinz and added a sixth European title. Head coach Tina Theune stepped down after the tournament and her assistant Silvia Neid took over as national coach. In 2006, Germany won the annual Algarve Cup for the first time.  As reigning world champion, Germany played the opening game at the 2007 Women's World Cup in China, outclassing Argentina 11–0. After a goalless draw against England and a 2–0 win over Japan, the German team defeated North Korea 3–0 in the quarter-final. They beat Norway by the same result in the semi-final, with goals from Kerstin Stegemann, Martina Müller and a Norwegian own goal. On 30 September 2007, Germany faced Brazil in the World Cup final in Shanghai. Birgit Prinz put Germany in front after half time and goalkeeper Nadine Angerer saved a penalty by Brazilian Marta. Simone Laudehr scored a second goal after 86 minutes, which sealed the German 2–0 victory. Germany was the first team (men's and women's game) to win the World Cup without conceding a goal and the first to successfully defend the Women's World Cup title. With 14 goals, Prinz became the tournament's overall top goalscorer.  In a replay of the 2007 World Cup final, the German team drew 0–0 with Brazil in the opening game at the 2008 Summer Olympics. They then beat both Nigeria and North Korea to advance to the quarter-final, where they defeated Sweden 2–0 after extra time. In the semi-final, Germany again met Brazil. Birgit Prinz scored in the 10th minute, but the German team lost 1–4 after conceding three goals to Brazilian counter-attacks in the second half. They beat Japan 2–0 for the bronze medal, with Fatmire Bajramaj scoring both goals. The third consecutive semi-final loss at the Olympics was seen as a disappointment by both the players and the German press. The team's overall performance and head coach Silvia Neid were harshly criticised in the media.  Germany qualified for the 2009 European Championship in Finland winning all eight games and scoring 34 goals. They beat Norway, France and Iceland in the group stage to advance to the quarter-final, where they won 2–1 against Italy. After trailing Norway at half-time in the semi-final, the German team fought back to a 3–1 victory. On 10 September 2009, they defeated England 6–2 for their seventh European trophy. Birgit Prinz and Inka Grings scored twice, with Melanie Behringer and Kim Kulig also scoring. Grings retained her award as the tournament's top scorer from 2005, while Germany extended their winning streak at the European Championship finals to a 19-match run dating back to 1997.  Germany hosted the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup and won the three games on the group stage, over Canada, France and Nigeria. On the quarterfinals, the team suffered an upset by Japan, who won on overtime with a goal by Karina Maruyama. The defeat broke the Germans' streak of sixteen undefeated games at the World Cup. By failing to finish among the top two UEFA teams, Germany was unable to qualify for the 2012 Summer Olympics.  At the 2013 European Championship in Sweden, the Germans won their sixth straight continental title, with the decisive game being a 1–0 victory over Norway. Goalkeeper Nadine Angerer, who stopped two penalties during the final, was chosen as the tournament's best player. The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup had Germany again reaching the top four. In the semi-final against the United States, Célia Šašić, who wound up as the tournament's top scorer, missed a penalty, and afterwards goals by Carli Lloyd and Kelley O'Hara lead to an American victory. The third place match saw the Germans lose their first ever match to England after 21 contests, due to a penalty kick by Fara Williams during extra time.  At the 2019 Women's World Cup Germany were in Group B with China PR, South Africa, and Spain. They topped the group with three wins and defeated Nigeria in the Round of 16. Germany was eliminated by Sweden in the quarter-finals, losing to them for the first time in 24 years and conceding their only goals of the tournament and so failed to qualify for the Olympic football tournament of Tokyo 2020.

Acceptance and popularity.

For most of the 20th century, women's football was a niche sport in Germany and was frowned upon. When the DFB appointed Gero Bisanz to coach the newly founded women's national team, he was initially very reluctant about his assignment and feared it would harm his reputation. Winning the 1989 European Championship was the team's first international success, but it had little lasting effect on their popularity. As a gift for the first European trophy, every player received a tea set, which is often cited as an example of male chauvinism and general lack of interest in the women's national team at that time. This attitude within the German Football Association has changed considerably in the last two decades, in particular during the term of Theo Zwanziger as DFB president, an outspoken supporter of women's football. Each member of the 2003 Women's World Cup squad received a prearranged bonus of 15,000 euros for winning the tournament; four years later the players received 50,000 euros for their successful title defense. In 2009, one million of the 6.7 million DFB members were female.  The 2003 World Cup title marked the breakthrough for the women's national football team in Germany. The final was watched by 10.48 million viewers on German television (a 33.2 percent market share) and the German team was welcomed home by almost 10,000 fans at Frankfurt's city hall. Later that year, they were honoured as the 2003 German Sports Team of the Year. Nia Künzer's World Cup winning golden goal was voted Germany's 2003 Goal of the Year, the first time the award was won by a female player. Since 2005, almost all of the women's national football team's matches have been shown live on German television.  The final of the 2007 Women's World Cup was seen by 9.05 million television viewers (a 50.5 percent market share). After the team returned to Germany, they were celebrated by a crowd of 20,000 in Frankfurt. In December 2007, all players of the World Cup squad received the Silberne Lorbeerblatt (Silver Laurel Leaf), the highest state decoration for athletes in Germany. National coach Silvia Neid was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit on ribbon by German president Horst Köhler.  In 2009, the team's six home matches had an average attendance of 22,753. In a survey of German football fans, 65 percent of the male and 62 percent of the female respondents said they were interested in women's football. However, this popularity is mostly limited to international matches. Although the number of spectators in the women's Bundesliga has more than doubled since 2003, the average attendance in the 2007–08 season (887) was still less than three percent of that of the men's Bundesliga (38,612).  Today, women's football is socially accepted in Germany, although one of the main points of criticism remains the alleged lack of quality compared to the men's game. The German women's national team has played several exhibition matches against male teams, most notably losing 0–3 to the VfB Stuttgart Under-17 squad in preparation for the 2003 World Cup. Most German players dismiss comparisons between the quality of men's and women's football; Renate Lingor has said they are "two entirely different sports". Players such as Simone Laudehr, Ariane Hingst and Melanie Behringer have stated that men's football is played at a much faster pace, but also has more interruptions and brutal tackling than the women's game. Linda Bresonik has said she generally prefers to watch men's football.

Colours.

The German women's national football team wears white shirts with black shorts and white socks, following the tradition of the German men's team – black and white are the colours of Prussia. The current change kit is red and black, with black shorts and red socks. In the past, Germany also used green shirts with white shorts and green socks as the away kit.  The women's national team originally played with the emblem of the German men's team, a variation of the DFB logo with the Federal Eagle of Germany ("Bundesadler") and three stars at the top for the men's 1954, 1974 and 1990 World Cup titles. Since their first Women's World Cup win in 2003, the team displays its own World Cup titles; initially with one star, and since 2007, with two stars at the top of the emblem. While being reigning world champions, Germany also displayed the newly created "FIFA Women's World Champions Badge" on their shirts from 2009 until 2011 when they were succeeded by Japan.  For the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup, the team kit featured white socks, black shorts, and a primarily white jersey with a distorted version of a waving German flag rendered in black, red, and gold.  The current kit features a white crewneck jersey with a black horizontal pinstripe and the colors of the German flag at the sleeves.  In accordance with the rules of the International Olympic Committee, Germany does not wear its official uniform with the logo of the German Football Association while competing at the Summer Olympics. Instead, the DFB badge is replaced by the coat of arms of Germany. Like all DFB squads, the women's national team is supplied by Adidas, which had provided a specifically designed female football jersey since 1999. The team's main sponsor is the German insurance company Allianz.

Venues.

The German national football team has no national stadium. Like the men, the women's team play their home matches in different stadiums throughout the country. As of June 2011, they have played in 87 different German cities. Most home games have been held in Osnabrück with six matches, followed by Ulm (five games), and Bochum, Kaiserslautern, Koblenz, Lüdenscheid, Rheine, Siegen and Weil am Rhein (three games each). The first home match in former East Germany was played in Aue in May 1991.  In the 1980s and 1990s, home matches were mostly played in smaller towns with no professional football clubs. As the team became more successful, especially after the World Cup win in 2003, the number of spectators rose accordingly. Today, the team usually plays in stadiums with 10,000 to 25,000 seats. The ten largest German cities have only hosted five international matches. The team have played twice in Frankfurt and Berlin, and once Hamburg. Bremen, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Essen, Cologne, Munich and Stuttgart have never hosted an international match of the women's team.  Outside Germany, they have played the most games in Faro, Portugal (10 matches), and Guangzhou, China (six matches), the host cities of the annual Algarve Cup and the Four Nations Tournament respectively. They have also played five games in Albufeira, Portugal (also an Algarve Cup venue), and four times in Minneapolis in the United States.  The record attendance for Germany was 73,680 in the 2011 Women's World Cup opening game against Canada at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin. That game also set a new European record in women's football. Away from home, the team's crowd record was 54,642 in the 1999 Women's World Cup quarter-final against the United States at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium in Landover.

Coaches.

Former German international Martina Voss-Tecklenburg is the current head coach of the German women's national football team. The coach's official title is "DFB-Trainer" and he or she is employed by the German Football Association.

Team.

Current squad.

The following 23 players were named to the squad for the 2020 Algarve Cup from 4 to 11 March 2020.  Head coach: Martina Voss-Tecklenburg

Recent call-ups.

The following players were named to a squad in the last 12 months.  Notes:

Records.

Birgit Prinz, a former team captain who retired after the 2011 World Cup, holds the record for Germany and European appearances, having played 214 times from 1994 to 2011. She is one of 21 German players to have reached 100 caps. Kerstin Stegemann is second, having played 191 times. Bettina Wiegmann, Germany's team captain during the 2003 World Cup win, comes fourth with 154 games. Prinz exceeded Wiegmann's record as the most capped player in November 2006.  Wiegmann and Prinz have successively been awarded the title of honorary captain of the German women's national football team.  The title of Germany's highest goalscorer is also held by Prinz. She scored her first goal in July 1994 against Canada and finished her career with 128 goals (averaging 0.60 goals per game). Heidi Mohr, as well as being the second-highest scorer, is also the most prolific with 83 goals coming from 104 games (averaging 0.80 goals per game). Two players share the record for goals scored in one match: Conny Pohlers scored five goals in October 2001 against Portugal, and Inka Grings scored five times in February 2004, again facing Portugal. Silvia Neid, the former German national coach, is the sixth highest goalscorer with 48 goals in 111 games.  The largest margin of victory achieved by Germany is 17–0 against Kazakhstan during a European Championship qualifying game in November 2011. The record defeat, a 0–6 deficit against the United States, occurred during a friendly match in March 1996.  Former goalkeeper Nadine Angerer has the most appearances for a goalkeeper, with 145 games as goal keeper (89 without conceding a goal) and one game as a substitute as defender. Silke Rottenberg is second with 126 caps and 68 games without conceding a goal.Bettina Wiegmann holds the record of 14 goals from penalty kicks; Renate Lingor comes in second with 8 goals. Tina Wunderlich scored the team's only own goal in the semi-final of the 2000 Summer Olympics against Norway; it was the game's only goal.  The German team also holds several international records. In 2007, they were the first to win two consecutive Women's World Cup titles and they achieved the then-biggest win in tournament history by beating Argentina 11–0, Germany is also the only team to win either the men's or women's World Cup without conceding a goal and the only country to win both World Cups. With 14 goals, Prinz became the overall top goalscorer at the Women's World Cup in 2007, and she and Brazilian Marta are the only women to have received the FIFA World Player of the Year award at least three times.

Results and fixtures.

The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.

Tournament record.

World Cup.

Germany is one of the most successful nations at the FIFA Women's World Cup, having won the tournament twice and finishing runner-up once. The German team won the World Cup in 2003 and 2007. At the first World Cup in 1991, they finished in fourth place. In 1995, Germany reached the World Cup final, but were defeated by Norway. The team's worst results were quarter-final losses to the United States in 1999,, Japan in 2011 and Sweden in 2019. Overall, the German team has appeared in three Women's World Cup finals, and is a five-time semi-finalist. They have participated in every Women's World Cup and have a 30–5–9 win–draw–loss record.

Olympic Games.

Women's football debuted at the 1996 Summer Olympics and Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening game of the tournament. However, Germany failed to progress to the knockout stage and was eliminated after Round 1. Four years later the German team won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics. They again finished third at both the 2004 and the 2008 Summer Olympics.  The German team has qualified for all Women's Olympic Football Tournaments until 2008. However, they failed to qualify for the 2012 tournament as UEFA used the 2011 World Cup for qualification, and Germany ended below France and Sweden. The German team beat Sweden in the Olympics final in Rio in 2016 to obtain their first Olympic gold medal.

European Championship.

Germany failed to qualify for the first two UEFA European Championships in 1984 and 1987. Since 1989, the German team has participated in every tournament and is the record European champion with eight titles. Germany has won six consecutive championships from 1995 to 2013 and has an overall 31–6–3 win–draw–loss record. The worst German result at the European championship finals was finishing fifth in 2017.

The Germany women's national football team () is governed by the German Football Association (DFB). The German national team is one of the most successful in women's football. They are two-time world champions, having won the 2003 and 2007 tournaments. Germany is also the only nation to have won both the women's and men's tournament. The team has won eight of the twelve UEFA European Championships, claiming six consecutive titles between 1995 and 2013. Germany is one of the two nations to win both the women's and men's European tournament, along with the Netherlands. Germany has won Olympic gold in 2016, after three consecutive bronze medals at the Women's Olympic Football Tournament, finishing third in 2000, 2004 and 2008. Birgit Prinz holds the record for most appearances and is the team's all-time leading goalscorer. Prinz has also set international records; she has received the FIFA World Player of the Year award three times and is the joint second overall top goalscorer at the Women's World Cup.

Die deutsche Fußballnationalmannschaft der Frauen ist die von dem verantwortlichen Bundestrainer betreute Auswahl der deutschen Fußballspielerinnen. Sie repräsentiert den Deutschen Fußball-Bund (DFB) auf internationaler Ebene sowohl in Freundschaftsspielen gegen die Auswahlmannschaften anderer nationaler Verbände als auch bei der Europameisterschaft des europäischen Kontinentalverbandes UEFA, der Weltmeisterschaft der FIFA und den Olympischen Spielen.


Origins.

Standard German originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region but as a written language that was developed over a process of several hundred years in which writers tried to write in a way that was understood in the largest area. Until about 1800, Standard German was almost entirely a written language. People in Northern Germany who spoke mainly Low Saxon languages very different from Standard German then learned it more or less as a foreign language. However, later the Northern pronunciation (of Standard German) was considered standard and spread southward; in some regions (such as around Hanover), the local dialect has completely died out with the exception of small communities of Low German speakers.  It is thus the spread of Standard German as a language taught at school that defines the German "Sprachraum", which was thus a political decision rather than a direct consequence of dialect geography. That allowed areas with dialects with very little mutual comprehensibility to participate in the same cultural sphere. Currently, local dialects are used mainly in informal situations or at home and also in dialect literature, but more recently, a resurgence of German dialects has appeared in mass media.

Terminology.

In German linguistics, only the traditional regional varieties of German are called dialects, not the different varieties of standard German. The latter are known as "Umgangssprachen" and in the territory of Germany began to replace the traditional dialects beginning in the nineteenth century. They constitute a mixture of old dialectal elements with Standard German.  In German, Standard German is often called, a somewhat misleading term since it conflicts with the linguistic term High German. High German of the southern uplands and the Alps (including Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and parts of northern Italy as well as southern Germany) contrasts with Low German spoken in the lowlands stretching towards the North Sea. To avoid this confusion, some refer to Standard German as ("standard German"), ("German standard language"), or if the context of the German language is clear, simply ("standard language"). However, the word "standard" in some people's opinion downgrades the linguistic position of the daily language spoken in Switzerland and Austria, and thus they often prefer "Hochdeutsch" or "High German" as it is less aggressive towards Swiss Standard German and Austrian German.

Pluricentricity.

Standard German differs regionally. The most accepted distinction is between different national varieties of standard German: Austrian Standard German, German Standard German and Swiss Standard German. Additionally, there are linguists who posit that there are different varieties of standard German within Germany. Linguistic research of the different varieties of standard German began for the most part only in the 1990s, especially in Austria and Switzerland. During the existence of the German Democratic Republic, there were occasional studies about whether there were differences between the standard varieties of the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic. The German federal state of Bavaria has promoted language diversity in the past in an effort to preserve its distinct culture.  The different varieties of standard German (Austrian, Swiss, and Germany Standard) differ only in a few features, especially in vocabulary and pronunciation, but even in some instances of grammar and orthography. In the written language, it may be hard or even impossible to tell what variety of standard German has been used, though in the spoken language, the different varieties of standard German are easily recognized by most speakers.  The variation of the standard German varieties must not be confused with the variation of the local German dialects. Even though the standard German varieties are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. All varieties of standard German are based on the common tradition of the written German language, whereas the local dialects have their own historical roots that go further back than the unification of the written language and in the case of Low German belong to a different language entirely.

Continuum between standard German and German dialects.

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties according to situation. However, there are two (or three) exceptions:

Phonology.

While there is no officially recommended standard, and multiple regional variants are considered correct, there does exist a standardised accent which is generally used in radio and television as well as in German learning materials for non-natives, and to varying degrees by language teachers. This accent is documented in reference works such as "Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch" (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al., "Duden 6 Das Aussprachewörterbuch" (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and the training materials at the "Westdeutscher Rundfunk" (West German Broadcasting) and "Deutschlandfunk" (Radio Germany). It is an invented accent rather than radiating from any particular German-speaking city, but it is closest to the German spoken in Hanover.

Orthography.

A first standardization, although non-prescriptive, of Early Modern High German was introduced by the Luther Bible of 1534. In consequence, the written language of the chancery of Saxony-Wittenberg rose in importance in the course of the 17th century, and the 1665 revision of the Zürich Bible abandoned its Alemannic-based idiom in favour of this standard.  The First Orthographical Conference was called in 1876 by the government of Prussia.  Konrad Duden published the first edition of his dictionary, later simply known as the "Duden", in 1880. The first spelling reform, based on Duden's work, came into effect in 1901. The orthographical standards predating 1901 are now known as "classical orthography" ("Klassische deutsche Rechtschreibung"), while the conventions in effect from 1901 to 1998 are summarized as "old orthography" ("Alte deutsche Rechtschreibung"). In 1944 there was a failed attempt at another reform; this was delayed on the order of Hitler and not taken up again after the end of World War II. In the following decades German spelling was essentially decided "de facto" by the editors of the Duden dictionaries. After the war, this tradition was followed with two different centers: Mannheim in West Germany and Leipzig in East Germany. By the early 1950s, a few other publishing houses had begun to attack the Duden monopoly in the West by publishing their own dictionaries, which did not always conform to the "official" spellings prescribed by Duden. In response, the Ministers of Culture of the federal states in West Germany officially declared the Duden spellings to be binding as of November 1955.  The 1996 spelling reform was based on an international agreement signed by the governments of the German-speaking countries Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland; but acceptance of the reform was limited. While,, most German print media followed the reform, some newspapers, such as "Die Zeit", "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" and "Süddeutsche Zeitung", created their own in-house orthographies.  In 2006, there was a further revision of the spelling reform because there were disagreements about capitalisation and splitting of German words. Also revised were the rules governing punctuation marks.

Standard German, High German or more precisely Standard High German (, or, in Switzerland, ), is the standardized variety of the German language used in formal contexts and for communication between different dialect areas. It is a pluricentric Dachsprache with three codified (or "standardized") specific regional variants: German Standard German, Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German.

Standarddeutsch, genauer Standardhochdeutsch, auch mehrdeutig Hochdeutsch, schweizerisch Schriftdeutsch oder bairisch die Schreibe genannt, ist das Ergebnis der Normung der deutschen Sprache. In der Linguistik wird eine solche Standardsprache in einem System von Elementen, Sub- und Nebenelementen dargestellt, zugeordnet zu verschiedenen Ebenen. Dazu gibt es verschiedene sprachwissenschaftliche Modelle.