History.

Road racing in its modern form originated in the late 19th century. It began as an organized sport in 1868. The sport was popular in the western European countries of France, Spain, Belgium, and Italy, and some of those earliest road bicycle races remain among the sport's biggest events. These early races include Liège–Bastogne–Liège (established 1892), Paris–Roubaix (1896), the Tour de France (1903), the Milan–San Remo and Giro di Lombardia (1905), the Giro d'Italia (1909), the Volta a Catalunya (1911), and the Tour of Flanders (1913). They provided a template for other races around the world.  Cycling has been part of the Summer Olympic Games since the modern sequence started in Athens in 1896.  Historically, the most competitive and devoted countries since the beginning of 20th century were Belgium, France and Italy, then road cycling spread in Colombia, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland after World War II. However, as the sport grows in popularity through globalization, countries such as Kazakhstan, Australia, Russia, Slovakia, South Africa, New Zealand, Norway, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Poland and the United States continue to produce world-class cyclists.

Road race types.

Single-day.

Professional single-day race distances may be as long as. Courses may run from place to place or comprise one or more laps of a circuit; some courses combine both, i.e., taking the riders from a starting place and then finishing with several laps of a circuit (usually to ensure a good spectacle for spectators at the finish). Races over short circuits, often in town or city centres, are known as criteriums. Some races, known as handicaps, are designed to match riders of different abilities and/or ages; groups of slower riders start first, with the fastest riders starting last and so having to race harder and faster to catch other competitors.

Time trial.

Individual time trial (ITT) is an event in which cyclists race alone against the clock on flat or rolling terrain, or up a mountain road. A team time trial (TTT), including two-man team time trial, is a road-based bicycle race in which teams of cyclists race against the clock. In both team and individual time trials, the cyclists start the race at different times so that each start is fair and equal. Unlike individual time trials where competitors are not permitted to 'draft' (ride in the slipstream) behind each other, in team time trials, riders in each team employ this as their main tactic, each member taking a turn at the front while teammates'sit in' behind. Race distances vary from a few km (typically a prologue, an individual time trial of usually less than before a stage race, used to determine which rider wears the leader's jersey on the first stage) to between approximately and.

Stage races.

Stage races consist of several races, or stages, ridden consecutively. The competitor with the lowest cumulative time to complete all stages is declared the overall, or general classification (GC), winner. Stage races may also have other classifications and awards, such as individual stage winners, the points classification winner, and the "King of the Mountains" (or mountains classification) winner. A stage race can also be a series of road races and individual time trials (some events include team time trials). The stage winner is the first person to cross the finish line that day or the time trial rider (or team) with the lowest time on the course. The overall winner of a stage race is the rider who takes the lowest aggregate time to complete all stages (accordingly, a rider does not have to win all or any of the individual stages to win overall). Three-week stage races are called Grand Tours. The professional road bicycle racing calendar includes three Grand Tours - the Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France, and the Vuelta a Espana.

Ultramarathon.

Ultra-distance cycling races are very long single stage events where the race clock continuously runs from start to finish. They usually last several days and the riders take breaks on their own schedules, with the winner being the first one to cross the finish line. Among the best-known ultramarathons is the Race Across America (RAAM), a coast-to-coast non-stop, single-stage race in which riders cover approximately in about a week. The race is sanctioned by the UltraMarathon Cycling Association (UMCA). RAAM and similar events allow (and often require) racers to be supported by a team of staff; there are also ultra-distance bicycle races that prohibit all external support, such as the Transcontinental Race and the Indian Pacific Wheel Race.

Tactics.

A number of tactics are employed to reach the objective of a race. This objective is being the first to cross the finish line in the case of a single-stage race, and clocking the least aggregate finish time in the case of a multi-stage race.

Drafting.

Tactics are based on the aerodynamic benefit of drafting, whereby a rider can significantly reduce the required pedal effort by closely following in the slipstream of the rider in front. Riding in the main field, or peloton, can save as much as 40% of the energy employed in forward motion when compared to riding alone. Some teams designate a leader, whom the rest of the team is charged with keeping out of the wind and in good position until a critical section of the race. This can be used as a strength or a weakness by competitors; riders can cooperate and draft each other to ride at high speed (a paceline or echelon), or one rider can sit on a competitor's wheel, forcing the other person to do a greater share of the work in maintaining the pace and to potentially tire earlier. Drafting is not permitted in individual time trials.

Breaks.

A group of riders that "breaks away" (a "break") from the peloton has more space and freedom, and can therefore be at an advantage in certain situations. Working together smoothly and efficiently, a small group can potentially maintain a higher speed than the peloton, in which the remaining riders may not be as motivated or organized to chase effectively. Usually a rider or group of riders will try to break from the peloton by attacking and riding ahead to reduce the number of contenders for the win. If the break does not succeed and the body of cyclists comes back together, a sprinter will often win by overpowering competitors in the final stretch. Teamwork between riders, both pre-arranged and ad-hoc, is important in many aspects: in preventing or helping a successful break, and sometimes in delivering a sprinter to the front of the field.

Terrain and conditions.

To make the course more selective, races often feature difficult sections such as tough climbs, fast descents, and sometimes technical surfaces (such as the cobbled "pavé" used in the Paris–Roubaix race). Stronger riders are able to drop weaker riders during such sections, reducing the number of direct competitors able to take the win. Also weather may be a discriminating factor.

Climbs.

Climbs are excellent places for a single rider to try and break away from a bunch, as the lower riding speeds in a climb seriously reduce the drafting advantage of the bunch. The escaping rider can then further capitalize on that rider's position in the descent, as going downhill alone allows for more maneuvering space and therefore higher speeds than when in a bunch. In addition, because the bunch riders are keeping more space between them for safety reasons, their drafting benefits are again reduced. If this action takes place relatively close to the target (e.g. another bunch ahead, or the finish), the ride over flatter terrain after the descent is not long enough to let the drafting effect (which is then working at full power again) make the bunch catch up, making a climb escape even more attractive.

Crosswinds.

Wind conditions can also make otherwise routine sections of a course potentially selective. Cyclists have been finding that three- or four-spoked composite front wheels are more stable when confronting crosswinds. Crosswinds, particularly, alter the position of the "shadow" when drafting a rider, usually placing it diagonally behind the lead rider. To take advantage of this, an attacking rider rides at high speed at the front of the peloton, on the opposite side of the road from which the crosswind is blowing. Following riders are unable to fully shelter from the wind. If such tactics are maintained for long enough, a weaker rider somewhere in the line will be unable to keep contact with the rider directly ahead, causing the peloton to split up.

Speed.

As well as exceptional fitness, successful riders must develop excellent bike handling skills in order to ride at high speeds in close quarters with other riders. Individual riders can reach speeds of while descending winding mountain roads and may reach 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph) level speeds during the final sprint to the finish line. Across a long stage race, such as a Grand Tour, the winner's average speed is usually near 40 km/h.

Gruppetto.

In more organized races, a SAG wagon ("support and gear") or broom wagon follows the race to pick up stragglers. In professional stage racing, particularly the Tour de France, riders who are not in a position to win the race or assist a teammate, will usually attempt to ride to the finish within a specified percentage of the winner's finishing time, to be permitted to start the next day's stage. Often, riders in this situation band together to minimize the effort required to finish within the time limit; this group of riders is known as the "gruppetto" or "autobus". In one-day racing, professionals who no longer have any chance to affect the race outcome will routinely withdraw, even if they are uninjured and capable of riding to the finish.

Teams.

While the principle remains that the winner is the first to cross the line, many riders are grouped together in teams, usually with commercial sponsors. On professional and semi-professional teams, team names are typically synonymous with the primary sponsors. As an example, some prominent professional teams of the last 30 years have been,,, and. The size of the team varies, from three in an amateur event for club riders to a dozen in professional races. Team riders decide between themselves, before and during the race, who has the best chance of winning. The choice will depend on hills, the chances that the whole field will finish together in a sprint, and other factors. The other riders on the team, or domestiques, will devote themselves to promoting the leader's chances, taking turns in the wind for him, refusing to chase with the peloton when he or she escapes, and so on. The goal is to allow the leader to have enough energy to take off at the critical point of the race and go on to victory.  In professional races, team coordination is often performed by radio communication between the riders and the team director, who travels in a team car behind the race and monitors the overall situation. The influence of radios on race tactics is a topic of discussion amongst the cycling community, with some arguing that the introduction of radios in the 1990s has devalued the tactical knowledge of individual riders and has led to less exciting racing. In September 2009, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), the governing body of pro cycling, voted to phase in a ban on the use of team radios in men's elite road racing. However, after protests from teams, the ban introduced in 2011 excluded races on the top-level men's and women's circuits (the UCI World Tour and UCI Women's Road World Cup) and in 2015 the UCI reversed its stance, allowing race radios to be used in class HC and class 1 events from the 2016 season.

Types of riders.

Within the discipline of road racing, from young age different cyclists have different (relative) strengths and weaknesses. Depending on these, riders tend to prefer different events over particular courses, and perform different tactical roles within a team.  The main specialities in road bicycle racing are:

Stage-race ranking.

In a stage race a "stage ranking" is drawn up at the end of each stage, showing for each participating rider the completion time of the stage. The one with the lowest completion time wins the stage. At the same time a "general ranking" shows the cumulative finishing times of all prior stages for each participating rider. A rider who does not complete any of the stages within its respective time limit is disqualified. The one with the lowest total cumulative time is the general leader. The general leader typically wears a distinctive jersey (yellow in the Tour de France) and generally maintains a position near the head of the main mass of riders (the peloton), surrounded by team members, whose job it is to protect the leader.  Contenders for the general lead may stage "attacks" to distance themselves from the leader in "breakaways". The general leader's vulnerability to breakaways is higher when the escaping rider(s) trail by a small time difference in the general ranking, and as number of remaining stages diminishes. Riders, who finish in the stage ranking behind the general leader, increase their cumulative time disadvantage. Whereas those who finish ahead of the general leader decrease their time disadvantage and may even gain sufficient time to unseat the general leader. After each stage, the racer with the lowest cumulative time becomes (or remains) the general leader.  The general leader does not generally react to breakaways by riders who trail substantially in cumulative time. Such escapes usually achieve other goals, such as winning the stage, collecting sprinting or mountain points, or just creating air time for their team sponsors as a dedicated camera bike typically accompanies the escape.

Notable bicycle races.

Grand Tours.

Notable cycling races include the Tour de France, a three-week stage race principally through France and ending in Paris, the Giro d'Italia in Italy and the Vuelta a España in Spain. Each of these races is considered a "Grand Tour".

UCI World Tour.

Professional racing is governed by the Union Cycliste Internationale. In 2005 it instituted the UCI ProTour (renamed UCI World Tour in 2011) to replace the UCI Road World Cup series. While the World Cup contained only one-day races, the World Tour includes the Grand Tours and other large stage races such as Tour Down Under, Tour de Suisse, Paris–Nice and the Critérium de Dauphiné Libéré.  The former UCI Road World Cup one-day races – which include all five Classic cycle races or "Monuments" – were also part of the ProTour: Milan–San Remo (Italy), Tour of Flanders (Belgium), Paris–Roubaix (France), Liège–Bastogne–Liège (Belgium) and Amstel Gold Race (Netherlands) in the spring, and Clásica de San Sebastián (Spain), HEW Cyclassics (Germany), Züri-Metzgete (Switzerland, until 2006), Paris–Tours (France, until 2007) and Giro di Lombardia (Italy) in the autumn season.

Olympic Games.

Cycling has been a discipline in the summer Olympics ever since the birth of the modern Olympic movement. The historian Wlodzimierz Golebiewski says: "Cycling has become a major event on the Olympic programme... Like many other sports it has undergone several changes over the years. Just as there used to be track and field events such as the standing high jump or throwing the javelin with both hands, cyclists, too, used to compete for medals in events which today have been forgotten; for example in Athens in 1896, they attempted a 12-hour race, and in London, in 1908, one of the events was a sprint for." The Olympic Games has never been as important in road cycling as in other sports. Until the distinction ended, the best riders were professionals rather than amateurs and so did not take part. Law enforcement always escort the athletes to ensure they and bystanders are kept safe during the cycling events, especially the road races.

Paris–Rouen.

The success of the races in the Parc de St-Cloud inspired the Compagnie Parisienne and the magazine "Le Vélocipède Illustré" to run a race from the Arc de Triomphe in Paris to the cathedral in Rouen on 7 November 1869. It was the world's first long-distance road race and also won by Moore, who took 10 hours and 25 minutes to cover 134 km. The runners-up were the Count André Castéra, who had come second to Moore at St-Cloud, and Jean Bobillier, riding a farm bike that weighed 35 kg. The only woman to finish within 24 hours was the self-styled Miss America, in reality an unknown English woman who, like several in the field, had preferred not to compete under her real name.

International development and governance.

The growth of organised cycle racing led to the development of national administrative bodies, in Britain in 1878, France 1881, the Netherlands 1883, Germany 1884 and Sweden 1900. Sometimes, as in Britain, cycling was originally administered as part of athletics, since cyclists often used the tracks used by runners. This, according to historian James McGurn, led to disputes within countries and internationally.  The first international body was the International Cycling Association (ICA), established by an English schoolteacher named Henry Sturmey, the founder of Sturmey-Archer. It opened in 1893 and held its first world championship in Chicago, United States, the same year. A new organisation, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), was set up on 15 April 1900 during the Olympic Games in Paris, by several European countries and the United States. Britain was not initially a member, but joined in 1903. The UCI, based in Switzerland, has run the sport ever since.

Season.

In its home in Europe and in the United States, cycle racing on the road is a summer sport, although the season can start in early spring and end in autumn. The months of the season depend on the hemisphere. A racing year is divided between lesser races, single-day classics and stage races. The classics include the Tour of Flanders, Paris–Roubaix and Milan–San Remo. The other important one-day race is the World Championships. Unlike other classics, the World Championships is held on a different course each year and ridden by national rather than sponsored teams. The winner wears a white jersey with coloured bands (often called "rainbow bands") around the chest.  In Australia, due to the relatively mild winters and hot summers, the amateur road racing season runs from autumn to spring, through the winter months, while criterium races are held in the mornings or late afternoons during the summer. Some professional events, including the Tour Down Under, are held in the southern summer, mainly to avoid clashing with the major northern hemisphere races and allowing top professionals to compete.

References.

Road bicycle racing is the cycle sport discipline of road cycling, held on paved roads. Road racing is the most popular professional form of bicycle racing, in terms of numbers of competitors, events and spectators. The two most common competition formats are mass start events, where riders start simultaneously (though sometimes with a handicap) and race to set finish point; and time trials, where individual riders or teams race a course alone against the clock. Stage races or "tours" take multiple days, and consist of several mass-start or time-trial stages ridden consecutively.

Zum Straßenradsport werden die Disziplinen des Radsports gezählt, die auf Straßen ausgetragen werden. Dies unterscheidet den Straßenradsport z. B. vom Bahnradsport, von Cyclocross-, Mountainbike- und BMX-Rennen. Bei den UCI-Straßen-Weltmeisterschaften werden die Disziplinen Straßenrennen, Einzelzeitfahren und Mannschaftszeitfahren ausgetragen.


Biography.

Child prodigy.

Rich was born in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York, to Jewish-American parents Bess Skolnik and Robert Rich, both vaudevillians. As a kid, when he was at a restaurant with his parents, he used the knife and fork as drum sticks. Before he turned two, he was part of his parents' act on vaudeville, but on breaks he would sneak into the orchestra pit and try to get the drummer's sticks. Rich would often sneak into jazz clubs at an age when he looked old enough to sit on the drum set. He was on Broadway as Baby Traps the Drum Wonder at age four, playing "Stars and Stripes Forever" on a drum. He was a singer and tap dancer. In his teens he led a band and toured in the U.S. and Australia. At fifteen he became the second highest paid child entertainer behind Jackie Coogan during the 1930s.

Jazz career.

His jazz career began in 1937 with clarinetist Joe Marsala. He became a member of big bands led by Bunny Berigan and Artie Shaw. When he was home from touring with Shaw, he gave drum lessons to a 14-year-old Mel Brooks for six months. At 21, he participated in his first major recording with the Vic Schoen Orchestra who backed the Andrews Sisters.  In 1942, Rich left the Dorsey band to join the United States Marine Corps, in which he served as a judo instructor, never saw combat, and was discharged due to medical reasons. After leaving the Marines, he returned to the Dorsey band. In 1946, with financial support from Frank Sinatra, he formed a band and continued to lead bands intermittently until the early 1950s.  Following the war, Rich formed his own big band which often played at the Apollo Theater and featured backing vocals from Frank Sinatra.  In addition to Tommy Dorsey (1939–42, 1945, 1954–55), Rich played with Benny Carter (1942), Harry James (1953–56–62, 1964, 1965), Les Brown, Charlie Ventura, Jazz at the Philharmonic, and Charlie Parker ("Bird and Diz", 1950).  In 1955, Gene Krupa and Buddy Rich recorded the collaboration album titled, "Krupa and Rich," which featured the song "Bernie's Tune," where they traded drum solos for a total of six minutes.  From 1966 until his death, he led successful big bands in an era when their popularity had waned. He continued to play clubs but stated in interviews that the majority of his band's performances were at high schools, colleges, and universities rather than clubs. He was a session drummer for many recordings, where his playing was often more understated than in his big-band performances. Especially notable were sessions for Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong and the Oscar Peterson trio with bassist Ray Brown and guitarist Herb Ellis. In 1968, Rich collaborated with the Indian tabla player Ustad Alla Rakha on the album "Rich à la Rakha".  He performed a big-band arrangement of a medley from "West Side Story" that was released on the 1966 album "Swingin' New Big Band". The "West Side Story Medley", arranged by Bill Reddie, is a complex big-band arrangement which highlights Rich's ability to blend the rhythm of his drumming into his band's playing of the musical chart. Rich received the West Side Story arrangement of Leonard Bernstein's melodies from the famed musical in the mid-1960s and found it challenging. It consists of many difficult sections which feature 4/4 and 6/8 time signatures; it took almost a month of constant rehearsals to perfect. It later became a staple in all his performances, clocking in at various lengths from seven to fifteen minutes. A six-minute performance of "Prologue/Jet Song" from the suite, performed during Frank Sinatra's portion of the Concert for the Americas, performed in the Altos de Chavón amphitheater in the Dominican Republic on August 20, 1982 is on the DVD "Frank Sinatra: Concert for the Americas". In 2002, a DVD was released called "The Lost West Side Story Tapes" that captured a 1985 performance of this along with other numbers.  A live recording of the "Channel One Suite" is on the album "Mercy, Mercy" recorded at Caesars Palace in 1968. The album received acclaim as the "finest all-round recording by Buddy Rich's big band".

TV appearances.

In the 1950s Rich was a frequent guest on "The Steve Allen Show" and other television variety shows, most notably on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. Rich and Johnny were lifelong friends and Johnny Carson was also a drum enthusiast himself.  In 1973 PBS broadcast and syndicated Rich's February 6, 1973, performance at the Top of the Plaza in Rochester, New York. It was the first time thousands of drummers were exposed to Buddy in a full-length concert setting, and many drummers continue to name this program as a prime influence on their own playing. One of his most widely seen television performances was in a 1981 episode of "The Muppet Show" in which he engaged Muppet drummer "Animal" (performed by Frank Oz, drums played by Ronnie Verrell) in a drum battle. Rich's famous televised drum battles also included Gene Krupa, Ed Shaughnessy and Louie Bellson.

Personality.

Rich was notoriously short-tempered. Singer Dusty Springfield slapped him after several days of "putting up with Rich's insults and show-biz sabotage". He held a rivalry with Frank Sinatra which sometimes ended in brawls when both were members of Tommy Dorsey's band. But they remained lifelong friends, and Sinatra delivered a eulogy at Rich's funeral in 1987. In 1983, Rich underwent quadruple bypass surgery in which Frank Sinatra would always pay him a visit in the hospital.  Rich held a black belt in karate. The result in Rich's discovery in the arts of Karate at 48 proved very beneficial to him and his health. At the time, Rich was prone to heart attacks and poor back structure following a surgery removing two of his spinal disks. The discovery of karate also calmed his short temper and he was calmer in his later years of his career.  Rich took a strong disliking towards bandleaders. He claimed that none of the musicians "hardly look at the bandleader," and that the drummer is the real "quarterback" of the band.  Billy Cobham said that he met Rich in a club and asked him to sign his snare drum, but Rich “dropped it down the stairs”.  According to bassist Bill Crow, Rich reacted strongly to Max Roach's increasing popularity when he was the drummer for Charlie Parker, especially when a jazz critic stated Roach had topped Rich as the world's greatest drummer. Drummer John JR Robinson told Crow he was with Roach when Rich drove by with a beautiful woman seated next to him and yelled: "Hey, Max! Top this!". Nonetheless, the two worked together on the 1959 album "Rich Versus Roach", and Roach appeared on the 1994 Rich tribute album "".  Rich preferred to concentrate on jazz and held a low opinion of both country and rock music; during medical therapy before his death, a nurse asked Rich if he couldn't take anything (referring to medicine), to which he replied, "Yeah, country music."  Rich's temper was documented in a series of secret recordings made on tour buses and in dressing rooms by pianist Lee Musiker, who concealed a compact tape recorder in his clothing while on tour with Rich in the early 1980s. On one recording, Rich threatens to fire trombonist Dave Panichi for having a beard. Although he threatened many times to fire members of his band, he seldom did so and for the most part, he praised his musicians in television and print interviews. The day before his death, April 1, 1987, Rich was visited by Mel Tormé, who claims that one of Rich's last requests was to hear the tapes of his angry outbursts. Tormé was working on an authorized biography of Rich, and included excerpts of the tapes in the book, but he never played the tapes for Rich.  In Mel Torme's biography of Buddy, he notes that while Buddy was tough on his band, there were a few instances when some members stood up to him. One departing musician told Rich, 'I came to this band to play music, not join the marines!' Another instance was when an Australian musician loudly debated with Buddy in the bus. This argument was caught on tape.  Mel also was familiar with Buddy's dislike of rock music, but he states that 'when some of these rock drummers came to greet Buddy after a show, he was always charming and polite. And he never, at least in my presence, disparaged them in any way.'

Influences, technique, and performances.

Rich cited Gene Krupa, Jo Jones, Chick Webb, Ray McKinley, Ray Bauduc and Sid Catlett as influences.  He usually held his sticks with the traditional grip. He used the matched grip when playing floor toms around the drum set while performing cross-stickings (crossing arm over arm), which was one of his party tricks, often leading to loud cheers from the audience. Another technique he used to impress was the stick-trick, a fast roll performed by slapping two drumsticks together in a circular motion using "taps" or single-stroke stickings. He often used contrasting techniques to keep long drum solos from getting mundane. Aside from his energetic, explosive displays, he would go into quieter passages. One passage he would use in most solos started with a simple single-stroke roll on the snare drum picking up speed and power, then slowly moving his sticks closer to the rim as he got quieter, and eventually playing on the rim itself while still maintaining speed. Then he would reverse the effect and slowly move towards the center of the snare while increasing power. Though well known as a powerful drummer, he did use brushes. On the album "The Lionel Hampton Art Tatum Buddy Rich Trio" (1955) he played with brushes almost exclusively.  In 1942, Rich and Henry Adler wrote "Buddy Rich's Modern Interpretation of Snare Drum Rudiments", which is regarded as one of the more popular snare drum rudiment books. Adler met Rich through a former student. Adler said, "The kid told me he played better than Krupa. Buddy was only in his teens at the time and his friend was my first pupil. Buddy played and I watched his hands. Well, he knocked me right out. He did everything I wanted to do, and he did it with such ease. When I met his folks, I asked them who his teacher was. 'He never studied', they told me. That made me feel very good. I realized that it was something physical, not only mental, that you had to have." Adler denied the rumor that he taught Rich how to play. "Sure, he studied with me, but he didn't come to me to learn how to hold the drumsticks. I set out to teach Buddy to read. He'd take six lessons, go on the road for six weeks and come back. He didn't practice. He couldn't, because wherever the guy went, he was followed around by admiring drummers. He didn't have time to practice...Tommy Dorsey wanted Buddy to write a book and he told him to get in touch with me. I did the book and Tommy wrote the foreword. Technically, I was Buddy's teacher, but I came along after he had already acquired his technique."  When asked if Rich could read music, Bobby Shew, lead trumpeter in Rich's mid-1960s big band replied, "No. He'd always have a drummer there during rehearsals to read and play the parts initially on new arrangements. Buddy would just sit in the empty audience seats in the afternoon and listen to the band...He'd only have to listen to a chart once and he'd have it memorized. We'd run through it and he'd know exactly how it went, how many measures it ran and what he'd have to do to drive it."  In a "Modern Drummer" interview, Buddy had this to say about practicing: "I don't put much emphasis on practice anyhow. I think it's a fallacy to believe that the more you practice, the better you become. You can only get better by playing. You can sit in a basement with a set of drums and practice rudiments all day long, but if you don't play with a band, you won't learn style, technique, and taste, and you won't learn how to play for a band and with a band. It's like getting a job, any kind of job, it's an opportunity to develop. And practice, besides that, is boring. I know teachers who tell their students to practice three, four, six hours a day. If you can't get what you want after an hour of practice, you're not going to get it in four days."  In the same article, Rich also discourages playing drums with one's bare hands. When asked if he could do such a thing, he replied, 'Yes, but why destroy your hands? I could think of a hundred ways to use my hands rather than to break them on the rim of a drum.'"

Personal life.

Rich was married to Marie Allison, a dancer and showgirl on April 24, 1953, until his death in 1987. They had a daughter in 1954, Cathy, who later became a vocalist and carried on her father's band. Rich was also cousin of actor Jonathan Haze.  He also lived in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.

Death.

Rich continued touring and performing until the end of his life. In early March 1987, he was touring in New York when he was hospitalized after suffering a paralysis on his left side that physicians believed had been caused by a stroke. He was transferred to California to UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles for tests, where doctors discovered and removed a brain tumor on March 16. He was discharged a week later, but continued to receive daily chemotherapy treatments at the hospital. On April 2, 1987, he died of unexpected respiratory and cardiac failure after a treatment related to the malignant brain tumor. His wife Marie and daughter Cathy buried him in Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. He was 69.  Since Rich's death, a number of memorial concerts have been held. In 1994, the Rich tribute album "" was released. Produced by Rush drummer/lyricist Neil Peart, the album features performances of Rich staples by a number of jazz and rock drummers such as Joe Morello, Steve Gadd, Max Roach, Billy Cobham, Dave Weckl, Simon Phillips, Steve Smith, and Peart himself, accompanied by the Buddy Rich Big Band. A was issued in 1997. Phil Collins was featured in a DVD tribute organized by Rich's daughter, "A Salute to Buddy Rich", which included Steve Smith and Dennis Chambers.

Legacy.

Rich's technique, including speed, smooth execution and precision, is one of the most coveted in drumming and has become a common standard. Gene Krupa defined him as "the greatest drummer ever to have drawn breath".  Rich's influence extended from jazz to rock music and jazz fusion. He influenced drummers John Bonham of Led Zeppelin, Carl Palmer of Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Ian Paice of Deep Purple, Tré Cool from Green Day, and Bill Ward of Black Sabbath. Phil Collins stopped using two bass drums and started playing the hi-hat after reading Rich's opinion on the importance of the hi-hat. Roger Taylor, drummer of Queen, acknowledged Rich as the best drummer he ever saw for sheer technique. Blink-182 drummer Travis Barker has credited Rich as the greatest drummer of all time.  The Independent quoted Buddy Rich as "A one-man symphony behind the kit," and "if he were in my band, I would have 4 minute drum solos at the beginning and end of every song in the setlist."

Awards and honors.

In 1980, Rich was awarded an honorary doctorate of music from Berklee College of Music.  In 1986, just a year before his death, Buddy Rich was elected into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in the category of bandleader, and drum set player.  On September 30, 2017, Rich was honored with a Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars.  In 2016, readers of "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked Rich No. 15 in their list of the 100 Greatest Drummers of all time. In a readers' poll in 2011, he ranked No. 6.

Material loss.

On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Buddy Rich among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Count Basie  With Benny Carter  With Harry James With Charlie Parker  With others

Instruments.

Rich was known as a performer and endorser of Ludwig, Slingerland, and Rogers drums. While endorsing Slingerland in the '60s and '70s, Rich sometimes used a Fibes snare drum together with a Slingerland drum kit. He switched exclusively to Ludwig in the late 1970s through the early 1980s. While recovering from a heart attack in 1983, Rich was presented with a 1940s-vintage Slingerland Radio King set, refurbished by Joe MacSweeney of Eames Drums, which he used until his death in 1987. Rich's typical setup included a 14"×24" bass drum, a 9"×13" mounted tom, two 16"×16" floor toms (with the second tom usually serving as a towel holder), and a 5.5"×14" snare drum. His cymbals were typically Avedis Zildjian: 14" New Beat hi-hats, 20" medium ride, 8" splash, two 18" crashes (thin and medium-thin). Sometimes a 6" splash and later a 22" swish. He also used Remo drumheads and Slingerland drumsticks.

Bernard "Buddy" Rich (September 30, 1917 – April 2, 1987) was an American jazz drummer and bandleader. He is considered one of the most influential drummers of all time and was known for his virtuoso technique, power, and speed. He performed with Tommy Dorsey, Harry James and Count Basie, and led a big band.

Bernard „Buddy“ Rich (* 30. September 1917 in New York; † 2. April 1987 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Jazz-Schlagzeuger und Bandleader und gilt als einer der besten und technisch versiertesten Jazz-Schlagzeuger der Welt.


Biography.

Early life.

Maximilian, the son of the Count Palatine Frederick Michael of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld and Maria Francisca of Sulzbach, was born on 27 May 1756 at Schwetzingen, between Heidelberg and Mannheim.  After the death of his father in 1767, he was left at first without parental supervision, since his mother had been banished from her husband's court after giving birth to a son fathered by an actor. Maximilian was carefully educated under the supervision of his uncle, Duke Christian IV of Zweibrücken, who settled him in the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts. He became Count of Rappoltstein in 1776 and took service in 1777 as a colonel in the French army. He rose rapidly to the rank of major-general. From 1782 to 1789, he was stationed at Strasbourg. During his time at the University of Strasbourg, Klemens von Metternich, the future Austrian chancellor, was for some time accommodated by Prince Maximilian. By the outbreak of the French Revolution, Maximilian exchanged the French for the Austrian service and took part in the opening campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars.

Duke of Zweibrücken and Elector of Bavaria and the Palatinate.

On 1 April 1795, Maximilian succeeded his brother Charles II as Duke of Zweibrücken, however his duchy was entirely occupied by revolutionary France at the time.  On 16 February 1799, he became Elector of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine, Arch-Steward of the Empire, and Duke of Berg upon the extinction of the Palatinate-Sulzbach line at the death of Elector Charles Theodore of Bavaria. The new elector Maximilian IV Joseph found the Bavarian army in abject condition on his accession to the throne: Hardly any of the units were at full strength, the Rumford uniforms were unpopular and impractical, and the troops were badly-trained. The young Prince-Elector, who had served under the Ancien Régime in France as a colonel in the "Royal Deux-Ponts" regiment, made the reconstruction of the army a priority.  Maximilian's sympathy with France and the ideas of enlightenment at once manifested itself when he acceded to the throne of Bavaria. In the newly organized ministry, Count Max Josef von Montgelas, who, after falling into disfavour with Charles Theodore, had acted for a time as Maximilian Joseph's private secretary, was the most potent influence, wholly "enlightened" and French. Agriculture and commerce were fostered, the laws were ameliorated, a new criminal code drawn up, taxes and imposts equalized without regard to traditional privileges, while a number of religious houses were suppressed and their revenues used for educational and other useful purposes. He closed the University of Ingolstadt in May 1800 and moved it to Landshut.  In foreign affairs, Maximilian Joseph's attitude was, from the German point of view, less commendable. He never had any sympathy with the growing sentiment of German nationality, and his attitude was dictated by wholly dynastic, or at least Bavarian, considerations. Until 1813, he was the most faithful of Napoleon's German allies, the relationship cemented by the marriage of his eldest daughter to Eugène de Beauharnais. His reward came with the Treaty of Pressburg (26 December 1805), by the terms of which he was to receive the royal title and important territorial acquisitions in Swabia and Franconia to round off his kingdom. He assumed the title of king on 1 January 1806. On 15 March, he ceded the Duchy of Berg to Napoleon's brother-in-law Joachim Murat.

King of Bavaria.

The new King of Bavaria was the most important of the princes belonging to the Confederation of the Rhine, and remained Napoleon's ally until the eve of the Battle of Leipzig, when by the Treaty of Ried (8 October 1813) he made the guarantee of the integrity of his kingdom the price of his joining the Allies. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede.  By the first Treaty of Paris (3 June 1814), however, he ceded Tyrol to Austria in exchange for the former Grand Duchy of Würzburg. At the Congress of Vienna, which he attended in person, Maximilian had to make further concessions to Austria, ceding Salzburg and the regions of Innviertel and Hausruckviertel in return for the western part of the old Palatinate. The king fought hard to maintain the contiguity of the Bavarian territories as guaranteed at Ried but the most he could obtain was an assurance from Metternich in the matter of the Baden succession, in which he was also doomed to be disappointed.  At Vienna and afterwards Maximilian sturdily opposed any reconstitution of Germany which should endanger the independence of Bavaria, and it was his insistence on the principle of full sovereignty being left to the German reigning princes that largely contributed to the loose and weak organization of the new German Confederation. The of the Congress of Vienna was proclaimed in Bavaria, not as a law but as an international treaty. It was partly to secure popular support in his resistance to any interference of the federal diet in the internal affairs of Bavaria, partly to give unity to his somewhat heterogeneous territories, that Maximilian on 26 May 1818 granted a liberal constitution to his people. Montgelas, who had opposed this concession, had fallen in the previous year, and Maximilian had also reversed his ecclesiastical policy, signing on 24 October 1817 a concordat with Rome by which the powers of the clergy, largely curtailed under Montgelas's administration, were restored.  The new parliament proved to be more independent than he had anticipated and in 1819 Maximilian resorted to appealing to the powers against his own creation; but his Bavarian "particularism" and his genuine popular sympathies prevented him from allowing the Carlsbad Decrees to be strictly enforced within his dominions. The suspects arrested by order of the Mainz Commission he was accustomed to examine himself, with the result that in many cases the whole proceedings were quashed, and in not a few the accused dismissed with a present of money.  Maximilian died at Nymphenburg Palace, in Munich, on 13 October 1825 and was succeeded by his son Ludwig I. Maximilian is buried in the crypt of the Theatinerkirche in Munich.

Cultural legacy.

Under the reign of Maximilian Joseph the Bavarian Secularization (1802–1803) led to the nationalisation of cultural assets of the Church. The Protestants were emancipated. In 1808 he founded the Academy of Fine Arts Munich.  The city of Munich was extended by the first systematic expansion with the new Brienner Strasse as core. In 1810 Max Joseph ordered construction of the National Theatre Munich in French neo-classic style. The monument "Max-Joseph Denkmal" before the National Theatre was created in the middle of the square Max-Joseph-Platz as a memorial for King Maximilian Joseph by Christian Daniel Rauch and carried out by Johann Baptist Stiglmaier. It was only revealed in 1835 since the king had rejected to be eternalized in sitting position.  In 1801 he led the rescue operation when a glassmaker's workshop collapsed, saving the life of Joseph von Fraunhofer, a 14-year-old orphan apprentice. Max Joseph donated books and directed the glassmaker to give Fraunhofer time to study. Fraunhofer went on to become one of the most famous optical scientists and artisans in history, inventing the spectroscope and spectroscopy, making Bavaria noted for fine optics, and joining the nobility before his death at age 39.  He was elected a Royal Fellow of the Royal Society in 1802.

Private life and family.

As a monarch, Max Joseph was very close to the citizens, walked freely along the streets of Munich without great accompaniment, and conversed with his people in a casual manner. Regardless, he was somewhat eccentric, like some of his descendants and successors.  Maximilian married twice and had children by both marriages:  His first wife was Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Prince George William of Hesse-Darmstadt (14 April 1765 – 30 March 1796). They were married on 30 September 1785 in Darmstadt. They had five children:  Maximilian's second wife was Karoline of Baden, daughter of Margrave Karl Ludwig of Baden (13 July 1776 – 13 November 1841). They were married on 9 March 1797 in Karlsruhe. They had eight children. King Maximilian was also the father of two sets of twin girls, Elisabeth and Amalie born in 1801, as well as Sophie and Marie Anne born in 1805.

References.

Attribution:

Maximilian I Joseph (; 27 May 1756 – 13 October 1825) was Duke of Zweibrücken from 1795 to 1799, prince-elector of Bavaria (as Maximilian IV Joseph) from 1799 to 1806, then King of Bavaria (as Maximilian I Joseph) from 1806 to 1825. He was a member of the House of Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken, a branch of the House of Wittelsbach.

Maximilian I. Maria Michael Johann Baptist Franz de Paula Joseph Kaspar Ignatius Nepomuk (* 27. Mai 1756 in Schwetzingen bei Mannheim; † 13. Oktober 1825 auf Schloss Nymphenburg, Nymphenburg, heute München, kurz auch Max Joseph genannt) war bei Regierungsantritt im Jahre 1799 als Maximilian IV. zunächst Herzog von Bayern, Pfalzgraf bei Rhein, Herzog von Jülich und Berg sowie Kurfürst (von Kurpfalz-Bayern) im Heiligen Römischen Reich. Er begründete die Herrschaft des Wittelsbacher Hauses Pfalz-Zweibrücken über Bayern. Durch ein Bündnis mit dem napoleonischen Frankreich stieg er am 1. Januar 1806 zum ersten König des Königreichs Bayern auf. Durch die einschneidenden Reformen und territorialen Veränderungen seiner Zeit entstand unter seinem Minister Maximilian von Montgelas der moderne bayerische Staat. Bei seinen Untertanen wurde er mit der populären Kurzform seines Namens „König Max“ genannt.


Overview.

Some journals are 'born digital' in that they are solely published on the web and in a digital format, but most electronic journals originated as print journals, which subsequently evolved to have an electronic version, while still maintaining a print component. As academic research habits have changed in line with the growth of the internet, the e-journal has come to dominate the journals world.  An e-journal closely resembles a print journal in structure: there is a table of contents which lists the articles, and many electronic journals still use a volume/issue model, although some titles now publish on a continuous basis. Online journal articles are a specialized form of electronic document: they have the purpose of providing material for academic research and study, and they are formatted approximately like journal articles in traditional printed journals. Often a journal article will be available for download in two formats - as a PDF and in HTML format, although other electronic file types are often supported for supplementary material. Articles are indexed in bibliographic databases, as well as by search engines. E-journals allow new types on content to be included in journals, for example video material, or the data sets on which research has been based.  With the growth and development of the internet, there has been a growth in the number of new journals, especially in those that exist as digital publications only. A subset of these journals exist as Open Access titles, meaning that they are free to access for all, and have Creative Commons licences which permit the reproduction of content in different ways. High quality open access journals are listed in Directory of Open Access Journals. Most however continue to exist as subscription journals, for which libraries, organisations and individuals purchase access.

Electronic journals, also known as ejournals, e-journals, and electronic serials, are scholarly journals or intellectual magazines that can be accessed via electronic transmission.

Eine elektronische Zeitschrift, auch E-Journal, eJournal oder Onlinemagazin, ist eine Zeitschrift, die dem Leser im Gegensatz zur gedruckten Form digital zur Verfügung steht. Elektronische Zeitschriften wurden anfangs auf Datenträgern verbreitet (etwa die auf Disketten gespeicherten Diskmags), heute als Netzpublikationen über das Internet. Im Netz publizierte elektronische Zeitschriften werden auf den Websites ihrer kommerziellen oder nicht-kommerziellen Anbieter entweder gratis oder kostenpflichtig angeboten.


Early life.

White was born Barry Eugene Carter on September 12, 1944, in Galveston, Texas, United States. His father was Melvin A. White, and his mother was Sadie Marie Carter. His parents never married, so his mother gave him her last name, but he later took on the surname of his father. He grew up in South Central Los Angeles, California. He was the older of two children; his brother Darryl was 13 months younger. White grew up listening to his mother's classical music collection and first took to the piano, emulating what he heard on the records.  White has often been credited with playing piano, at age 11, on Jesse Belvin's 1956 hit single, "Goodnight My Love". However, in a 1995 interview with the "Boston Herald", White denied writing or arranging the song. He believed the story was an exaggeration by journalists. While White and Belvin lived in the same neighborhood, Belvin was 12 years older than White.  White's voice deepened suddenly when he was 14. He recalled: "[As a child], I had a normal squeaky kid voice. Then as a teenager, that completely changed. My mother cried because she knew her baby boy had become a man."  White's brother Darryl was murdered in a clash with a rival gang, and White himself was jailed for four months at the age of 16 for stealing $30,000 worth of Cadillac tires. While in jail, he listened to Elvis Presley singing "It's Now or Never" on the radio, an experience he later credited with changing the course of his life.

Music career.

1960s.

After his release from jail, White left gang life and began a musical career at the beginning of the 1960s in singing groups. He first released "Too Far to Turn Around" in 1960 as part of The Upfronts before working for various small independent labels in Los Angeles. He also recorded several singles under his own name in the early 1960s, backed by vocal groups the Atlantics (for the Rampart and Faro labels) and the Majestics (for the Linda and Jordan labels). White had no involvement with Bob & Earl's 1963 hit single "Harlem Shuffle", a song he has sometimes been credited with producing; in his 1999 autobiography, White confirmed the song had been produced by Gene Page, who had worked with him on many of White's 1970s successes.  In 1965, White produced "Feel Aw RIght" by the Bel Canto's, released on the Downey label. He recorded his debut single, "Man Ain't Nothin'" / "I Don't Need It, released under the name Lee Barry on Downey in 1966. He also co-wrote "Together Forever," released by Pat Powdrill & the Powerdrills in 1967.  Bob Keane of Del-Fi Records hired him as an A&R man in the mid-1960s, and White started working with the label's artists, including Viola Wills and The Bobby Fuller Four, as a songwriter, session musician, and arranger. He discovered singer Felice Taylor and arranged her song "I Feel Love Comin' On" co-written with his friend Paul Politi. It became a big hit in the UK. Other charting hits written by White and Politi for her included "It May Be Winter Outside (But in My Heart It's Spring)" and "Under the Influence of Love". White also wrote "Doin' the Banana Split" for TV bubblegum act The Banana Splits in 1968.  In 1969, White was signed by Forward Records of Los Angeles, a division of Transcontinental Entertainment Corporation, as a producer.

1970s as producer.

In 1972, White got his big break producing a girl group he had discovered called Love Unlimited. Formed in imitative style of the Motown girl group The Supremes, the group members had gradually honed their talents with White for two years previously until they signed contracts with Uni Records. His friend Paul Politi hooked him up with music industry businessman Larry Nunes, who helped to finance their album. After it was recorded, Nunes took the recording to Russ Regan, who was the head of the Uni label owned by MCA. The album, 1972's "From A Girl's Point of View We Give to You... Love Unlimited", became the first of White's string of long-titled albums and singles.  White produced, wrote and arranged their classic soul ballad "Walkin' in the Rain with the One I Love", which climbed to No. 14 in the "Billboard" Hot 100 Pop chart and No. 6 on the "Billboard" R&B chart in late 1972. It became White's first million selling single as a writer and producer. This single also reached No. 12 in the UK chart. White's voice can clearly be heard in this piece as he plays the lover who answers the phone call of the female lead.  Soon after, Regan left Uni for 20th Century Records. Without Regan, White's relationship with Uni soured. With his relationship with Uni over and Love Unlimited contract-bound with the label, White was able to switch both his production deal and the group to 20th Century Records. They recorded several other hits throughout the 1970s, "I Belong to You", which spent over five months on the "Billboard" R&B chart in 1974 including a week at No. 1 and "Under the Influence of Love Unlimited", which hit No. 3 on the "Billboard" Pop album charts. White married the lead singer of the group, Glodean James, on July 4, 1974.

The Love Unlimited Orchestra.

In 1973, White created The Love Unlimited Orchestra, a 40-piece orchestral group to be used originally as a backing band for the girl-group Love Unlimited. However, White had other plans, and in 1973 he released a single with "Love's Theme" (written by him and played by the Orchestra). That same track reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" Pop charts. Later, in 1974, he made the first album of the Love Unlimited Orchestra, "Rhapsody in White", containing "Love's Theme". White is sometimes credited with ushering in the "disco" sound, seamlessly combining R&B music with classical music. Some also regard "Love's Theme" as the first hit in the actual "disco era".  White would continue to make albums with the Orchestra, achieving some successes such as: "Rhapsody in White"; "Satin Soul"; "Forever in Love"; "Midnight Groove"; "My Sweet Summer Suite", Remake of "Theme From King Kong". The Orchestra ceased to make albums in 1983, but continued to support White as a backing band.

1970s solo career.

White wanted to work with another act but decided to work with a solo male artist. While working on a few demos for a male singer, he made three song demos of himself singing and playing, but Nunes heard them and insisted that he re-record and release them himself as a solo recording artist. After arguing for days about it, White was finally persuaded to release the songs himself, although he was initially reluctant to step out behind the microphone.  He then wrote several other songs and recorded them for what eventually became an entire album of music. He was going to use the name "White Heat," but decided on using his given name instead. White was still hesitating up to the time the label copy was made. It eventually became White's first solo album, 1973's "I've Got So Much to Give". It included the title track and his first solo chart hit, "I'm Gonna Love You Just a Little More Baby", which also rose to No. 1 on the "Billboard" R&B charts as well as No. 3 on the "Billboard" Pop charts in 1973 and stayed in the top 40 for many weeks.  Other chart hits by White included "Never, Never Gonna Give You Up" (No. 2 R&B, No. 7 Pop in 1973), "Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe" (No. 1 Pop and R&B in 1974), "You're the First, the Last, My Everything" (No. 1 R&B, No. 2 Pop in 1974), "What Am I Gonna Do with You" (No. 1 R&B, No. 8 Pop in 1975), "Let the Music Play" (No. 4 R&B in 1976), "It's Ecstasy When You Lay Down Next to Me" (No. 1 R&B, No. 4 Pop in 1977) and "Your Sweetness Is My Weakness" (No. 2 R&B in 1978) and others. White also had a strong following in the UK, where he scored five Top 10 hits and a No. 1 for "You're the First, the Last, My Everything".  After six years White left 20th Century in 1979 to launch his own label, Unlimited Gold, with CBS/Columbia Records.

1980s.

Although his success on the pop charts slowed down as the disco era came to an end, he maintained a loyal following throughout his career. Despite several albums over the next three years, he failed to repeat his earlier successes, with no singles managing to reach the "Billboard" Hot 100, except for 1982's "Change," climbing into the Billboard R&B Top 20 (No. 12). His label venture was exacting a heavy financial cost on White, so he concentrated on mostly touring and finally folded his label in 1983.  After four years he signed with A&M Records, and with the release of 1987's "The Right Night & Barry White", the single entitled "Sho' You Right" made it to the "Billboard" R&B charts, peaking at No. 17.  In 1989 he released "The Man Is Back!" and with it had three top 40 singles on the "Billboard" R&B charts: "Super Lover", which made it to No. 34, "I Wanna Do It Good to Ya", which made it to No. 26, and "When Will I See You Again", which made it to No. 32.

1990s.

A 1970s nostalgia fad allowed White to enjoy a renewed wave of popularity in the 1990s. After participating in the song "The Secret Garden (Sweet Seduction Suite)" from Quincy Jones's 1989 album "Back on the Block", White mounted an effective comeback with several albums, each more successful than the last. He returned to the top of the charts in 1991 with the album "Put Me in Your Mix", which reached No. 8 on the "Billboard" R&B Albums chart and the song by the same name reached No. 2 on the "Billboard" R&B singles chart.  In 1994, White released "The Icon Is Love", which went to No. 1 on the "Billboard" R&B album charts, and the single "Practice What You Preach" gave him his first No. 1 on the "Billboard" R&B singles chart in almost 20 years. The album was nominated for a Grammy in the Best R&B Album category, but lost to TLC's "CrazySexyCool".  In 1996, White recorded the duet "In Your Wildest Dreams" with Tina Turner. 1996 also saw the release of "Space Jam" and its soundtrack, on which White had a duet with Chris Rock, called "Basketball Jones," a remake of Cheech & Chong's "Basketball Jones" from 1973.  White's final album, 1999's "Staying Power", resulted in his last hit song "Staying Power," which placed No. 45 on the "Billboard" R&B charts. The single won him two Grammy Awards in the categories Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance.  His autobiography, "Love Unlimited", written with Mark Eliot, was published in 1999 by Broadway Books.

Acting career.

Over the course of his career, White sometimes did voice-over work for television and movies.  He voiced the character Brother Bear in the film "Coonskin" (1975), and also played the character Sampson in the movie's live-action segments.  White appeared as himself in a few episodes of "The Simpsons". In the episode "Whacking Day", Bart and Lisa used his famous deep bass singing voice, played through loudspeakers placed on the ground, to lull and attract snakes, saving them from extermination. White was a fan of the show, and had reportedly contacted the staff about wanting to make a guest appearance. He made a second cameo in the episode "Krusty Gets Kancelled".  White played the role of a bus driver for a Prodigy commercial in 1995, and he also portrayed the voice of a rabbit in a Good Seasons salad-dressing-mix commercial, singing a song called "You Can't Bottle Love".  In addition, he did some work for car commercials, most famously for Oldsmobile, and later on, Jeep. White also provided voice-over for Arby's Restaurant commercials on television and radio to promote its "Market Fresh" menu. White's voice can also be heard in Apple's first iBook commercial.  White made three guest appearances on the comedy-drama television series "Ally McBeal", as his music was often featured on the show in dream sequences.

Personal life.

Marriages.

White was first married to his childhood sweetheart, identified as just Mary in his autobiography, by the time he was 19. They separated in 1969 and later divorced.  In 1974, White married singer Glodean James. The couple collaborated on the 1981 album "Barry & Glodean". They reportedly divorced in 1988, however, they were still legally married until White's death in 2003 although they lived separate lives. Although estranged from Glodean for over a decade, as his widow she was made sole executor of his estate.

Children.

White had at least nine children.  By the age of 16, White had fathered two children with his first wife Mary. They had four children together. In 2017, his son Darryl White from his first marriage sued his estate claiming he was cut off financially.  White had four children with his second wife Glodean James. Their daughter Shaherah was his personal assistant. Barry Jr. played in the Love Unlimited Orchestra and was also his tour manager. White's son MacKevin worked in his publishing administration.  White had a daughter, Denise Donnell born in 1962 to Gurtha Allen. She did not discover who her biological father was until 1988. She was accepted by White and with his help she changed her name to Denise White. In 2016, she sued White's estate after she stopped receiving money.  After White's death in 2003, his girlfriend Katherine Denton claimed her infant daughter was his biological child. Denton also claimed that she was owed money and personal items that White had promised to give her. Paternity tests revealed that her baby was not his and Denton lost her court case.

Health problems and death.

White was overweight for most of his adult life and suffered from related health problems. In October 1995, White was admitted to a hospital as a result of high blood pressure. In August 1999, White was forced to cancel a month's worth of tour dates owing to exhaustion, high blood pressure and a hectic schedule. In September 2002, White was hospitalized with kidney failure attributed to chronic diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure.  While undergoing dialysis and awaiting a kidney transplant in May 2003, White suffered a severe stroke, which forced him to retire from public life. On July 4, 2003, White died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles at the age of 58. His remains were cremated, and the ashes were scattered in the ocean off the Californian coast.

Legacy.

On September 20, 2004, White was posthumously inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame at a ceremony held in New York. On September 12, 2013, which would have been White's 59th birthday, he was posthumously awarded the 2,506th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6914 Hollywood Boulevard in the category of recording. The show "Counting Cars" paid tribute to White by restoring the last car he owned for his widow, Glodean.  In an obituary referring to White by his nickname, "The Walrus of Love", the BBC recalled "the rich timbres of one of the most distinctive soul voices of his generation, about which it was once said: 'If chocolate fudge cake could sing, it would sound like Barry White.'"  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Barry White among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Awards and nominations.

White was nominated for 11 Grammy Awards; winning two for "Staying Power" at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards in 2000.

Barry Eugene Carter (September 12, 1944 – July 4, 2003), better known by his stage name Barry White, was an American singer-songwriter, musician, record producer and composer.

Barry Eugene White (* 12. September 1944 in Galveston, Texas, als "Barrence Eugene Carter"; † 4. Juli 2003 in Los Angeles) war ein US-amerikanischer Soulsänger und Musikproduzent. Erst später nahm er mit White den Namen des Vaters an. Zu seinen bekanntesten Songs zählen "You’re the First, the Last, My Everything", ein Welthit, Nummer-1-Hit in England, Nummer 2 in den USA, und "Can’t Get Enough of Your Love, Babe", Nummer 1 in den amerikanischen Billboard-Charts, beide aus dem Jahr 1974.


Structure.

Correspondence chess differs from over-the-board (OTB) play in several respects. While players in OTB chess generally play one game at a time (an exception being a simultaneous exhibition), correspondence players often have several games going at once. Tournament games are played concurrently, and some players may have more than one hundred games continuing at the same time.  Time limits in correspondence play are usually between 30 and 60 days for every 10 moves (plus transmission time in postal chess). This time allows for far deeper calculation, meaning that blunders can be less frequent. Certain forms of assistance, including books, chess databases and sometimes chess programs, are often allowed. Books and databases are almost universally acceptable, but organizations vary as to whether chess engine use is permitted.

Computer assistance.

The phenomenon of computer assistance has altered the essence of correspondence chess. In addition to profound chess knowledge and analytical discipline, the ability to interpret and guide computer analysis has also become important. Given that even players with poor chess knowledge can use the strongest computer programs to analyse their games, the gap between the beginner and master player has narrowed in recent years. However, the influence of computer assistance remains controversial in both official and casual play, and consensus on the issue of whether to allow computer aid is still lacking.  Variant chess games are often played on public chess servers or chess forums. Since the games are a modified form of chess engines may be less helpful, or based on the variant, completely useless. For example, chess games played on an unbounded chess, or infinite chess, are virtually untouched by chess-playing software.

Regulatory bodies.

Correspondence chess tournaments are usually played under the auspices of an official regulatory body, most importantly the International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF), which is affiliated with FIDE, the international chess organization. However, the ICCF, which organizes postal and email events, is not the only organization involved in correspondence chess. There are numerous national and regional bodies for postal chess, as well as a number of organisations devoted to organizing email play for free such as the International Email Chess Group (IECG), the Free Internet Correspondence Games Server (FICGS), that also runs a world championship cycle, and International E-mail Chess Club (IECC). However, groups other than the ICCF are not sanctioned by FIDE.  The ICCF awards the titles International Master, Senior International Master and International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster—these are equivalent to similar titles awarded by FIDE for over-the-board chess. The ICCF also runs the World Correspondence Chess Championships. Because these events can last a long time, they may overlap: for instance, in February 2005 Joop van Oosterom was declared winner of the eighteenth Championship (which began in June 2003), though the winner of the seventeenth Championship (which began in March 2002) had not yet been determined.  Up until 2004, ICCF correspondence chess was played only via email and postal mail. For playing by these two forms of transmission, the ICCF developed their own game notation, known as the ICCF numeric notation, especially for the purpose of ICCF correspondence chess.  In recent years, the use of increasingly powerful chess programs has brought forth new challenges for organizations like the ICCF and the U.S. Chess Federation, necessitating sometimes controversial decisions on the admissibility of such programs in official correspondence play.  Moreover, the emergence of the Internet has brought new opportunities for correspondence chess, not all of which are organized by official bodies. Casual correspondence chess includes correspondence play initiated through correspondence chess servers and games played between individuals who meet and play on their own. Casual correspondence play does not lead to official ratings, though some chess servers will calculate ratings for the players based on results on that server.

Types.

There are several types of correspondence chess, with server based correspondence chess becoming the most popular form in the world today, with major

Server-based correspondence chess.

Correspondence chess servers are usually database-driven and carry with them a web-based interface for submitting moves to the database. But they do create the possibility of facilitating any method of transmission, as long as the transmitted moves are audited within the server's database.  Server fees vary. Most casual servers use a yearly charging model, whereby players can play as many tournaments or games as they want all year round. Some servers offer basic membership for free, with more services available for a fee. Also more casual servers allow the use of nicknames, and have a real-time rating system which often adjusts a player's rating after each rated game. Casual servers also tend to have a wide range of facilities, such as online games databases, social and chess improvement forums, teams, and player homepages. More traditional correspondence chess servers often charge per tournament and force the use of real names. For example, competitors in the Correspondence Chess League of America use their real names rather than aliases.  One popular website for such games is Chess.com, which features both correspondence and blitz servers for both classical chess, and variants such as Chess960. The ICCF runs its own web server.

Mobile correspondence chess.

With the advent of smart-phones such as Apple's iPhone, Blackberry, and Android-based devices, correspondence chess has seen a recent rise in popularity as applications on these devices. Usually the devices use wireless internet or SMS technology to submit their moves to a central server.

Email-based correspondence chess.

There are organizations devoted to organizing play by email, such as the International E-mail Chess Club (IECC).  Email play has gradually declined in popularity due to issues such as email viruses, opponents' claims of not receiving moves, and similar impediments to the point email play has arguably been superseded by server-based correspondence chess, where usually the interface to a chess server is a web-based interface.

Postal (traditional mail) correspondence chess.

There are national and regional organizations for postal chess which use traditional "snail mail" for transmitting moves between players. The ICCF and affiliated local and national federations often organize postal events. Other examples of groups offering postal play include the Correspondence Chess League of America (CCLA) and the United States Chess Federation (USCF). However, groups other than the ICCF and affiliates are not sanctioned by FIDE.  Traditional postal chess organizations such as the International Correspondence Chess Federation, the Correspondence Chess League of America (CCLA), and the United States Chess Federation (USCF) have added email and/or server-based options to their correspondence play.  One of the older documented postal correspondence chess games is a game played in 1804 by lieutenant-colonel F.W. von Mauvillon of the Dutch army in The Hague with one of his officers in Breda.  Postal correspondence chess has arguably been superseded by server-based correspondence chess.

Over-the-board players who also play correspondence chess.

Although nowadays the strongest correspondence players are specialists, a number of notable players in over-the-board (OTB) chess have in the past played postal games during their chess career.  Paul Keres, an Estonian sometimes regarded as the strongest player never to become world champion, played many games of correspondence chess. OTB world champions Alexander Alekhine and Max Euwe also played. Ulf Andersson also achieved very high ratings in both ICCF and FIDE, remaining in the FIDE top 100 until June 2002 and consistently ranked second on ICCF. Andrei Sokolov is another OTB GM who has recently taken up email chess. World Correspondence Champion Hans Berliner was also an OTB International Master.  In 1999, Garry Kasparov played a chess game "Kasparov versus the World" over the Internet, hosted by the MSN Gaming Zone. The "World Team" included participation of over 50,000 people from more than 75 countries, deciding their moves by plurality vote. The game lasted four months, with Kasparov playing "g7" on his 62nd move and announcing a forced checkmate in 28 moves. The World Team voters resigned on October 22. After the game Kasparov said "It is the greatest game in the history of chess. The sheer number of ideas, the complexity, and the contribution it has made to chess make it the most important game ever played."

Correspondence chess is chess or variant chess played by various forms of long-distance correspondence, often through a correspondence chess server, a public internet chess forum, email, or the postal system. Less common methods that have been employed include fax, homing pigeon and phone. It is in contrast to (OTB) chess, where the players sit at a chessboard at the same time, or play at the same time remotely.

Beim Fernschach wird Schach gespielt, indem die Züge dem Gegner postalisch oder elektronisch übermittelt werden. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Schachwettkämpfen ist der Einsatz von Hilfsmitteln (Literatur, Beratung durch andere Spieler, Computerprogramme,...) nicht verboten.


Etymology.

The genus name, "Salvia", was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely "Salvia officinalis" (common sage) and is derived from the Latin "salvere". The specific epithet, "divinorum", was given because of the plant's traditional use in divination. It is often loosely translated as "diviner's sage" or "seer's sage". Albert Hofmann, who collected the first plants with Wasson, objected to the new plant being given the name "divinorum": "I was not very happy with the name because "Salvia divinorum" means "Salvia of the ghosts", whereas "Salvia divinatorum", the correct name, means "Salvia of the priests". It is now in the botanical literature under the name "Salvia divinorum".

Common names.

There are many common names for "S. divinorum", including "sage

History.

"Salvia divinorum" is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec, primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination. "S. divinorum" is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans. In their rituals, the shamans use only fresh "S. divinorum" leaves. They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary, Saint Peter, the Holy Trinity, and other saints. Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf—the Maztec shamans say that "La Maria ("S. divinorum") speaks with a quiet voice."  It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic, and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as "panzón de borrego", or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").  The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes "Salvia divinorum" being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.

Academic discovery.

"Salvia divinorum" was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism. He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials. It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert.  Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated

Botany.

"Salvia divinorum" has large green ovate (often also dentate) leaves, with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) long. The leaves have no hairs on either surface, and little or no petiole. The plant grows to well over in height, on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground, with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes.  The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The flowers are white, curved and covered with hairs, and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands. When it does bloom in its native habitat, it does so from September to May.  Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas, based on Epling and Játiva's description. The first plant material they received was dried, so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson, who didn't realize that their "blue flowers, crowned with a white dome" were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas.

Distribution and habitat.

"Salvia divinorum" is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the primary or secondary cloud

Reproduction.

"Salvia divinorum" produces few viable seeds even when it does flower—no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active pollen tube

Taxonomy.

"Salvia divinorum" was first documented in 1939, but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites. Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson, traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants. Eventually, the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens. These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as "Salvia divinorum", after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec. By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found.  Until 2010, there were differing opinions on whether "Salvia divinorum" is an interspecific hybrid. The

Strains.

There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct. One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell (the "Bunnell" strain), colloquially mis-attributed as the "Wasson-Hofmann strain".

Cultivation.

Propagation by cuttings.

"Salvia divinorum" is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction. Small cuttings, between long, cut off

Flowering.

Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours (beginning in mid-October in some places), necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution (HPS).

Chemistry.

The known active constituent of "Salvia divinorum" is a "trans"-neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A (chemical formula CHO). This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0.18%.  Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid, (meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen), unlike most known opioid receptor ligands. Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen.  Similar to many psychoactive herbs, "Salvia divinorum" synthesizes and excretes its active constituent (salvinorin A) via trichomes, of the peltate-glandular morphology, located just beneath the cuticle (subcuticular) layer.

Potency.

By mass, salvinorin A "is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen." It is active at doses as low as 200 μg. Synthetic chemicals, such as LSD (active at 20–30 μg doses), can be more potent. Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ-opioid (kappa-opioid) receptor agonist. It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by

Other terpenoids.

Other terpenoids have been isolated from "Salvia divinorum", including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and

Other pharmaceutical action.

Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility (e.g. diarrhea), through a combination of κ-opioid and cannabinoid (mainly CB receptor) receptors in "inflamed" but not normal gut "in vivo". The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as 'prejunctional', as it was

Ingestion.

There are a few ways to consume "Salvia divinorum". In traditional Mazatec ritual, shamans use only fresh "Salvia divinorum" leaves. Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle, salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed, an altered state of consciousness can occur. The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed.

Traditional methods.

Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 (about 50g/2 oz to 200g/7 oz.) or more fresh leaves. They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or 'tea' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies.  Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method. Oral consumption

Modern methods.

Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.

Smoking.

Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe, or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke. The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high (about 240 °C). A cooler flame will work, but the direct application of a more intense flame, such as that of a torch lighter, is often preferred.  Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects. Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves, have become widely available. This enhanced (or "fortified") leaf is described by a number followed by an x (e.g. "5x", "10x"), the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of

Quid chewing.

The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use. However, salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested, as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system. Therefore, in what's understood to be a modern innovation, the 'quid'

Using a tincture.

Less commonly, some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture. This is administered sublingually, usually with the aid of a glass dropper. It may be taken diluted with water just before use, which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects, but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol. Tinctures vary in potency, and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense hallucinatory one.  When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion, though they may be significantly more intense, depending on extract potency.

Effects.

Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising salvia divinorum effects. A survey of salvia users found that 38% described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness. 23% said the effects were like yoga, meditation or trance. Users have written prose about their experiences; some describing their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which are'salvia-inspired'. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant.

Safety.

Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia. In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent, and quite strong enough, he argues. High strength extracts on the other hand can show ""a more precipitous, and more terrifying, face"" and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience.

Vaporization.

Ethnobotanist Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs. Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation.

Research.

An ABC news report said excitement over research into "Salvia" "could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency [sic] is considering doing right now."

Controversy.

The relatively recent emergence of "Salvia divinorum" in modern Western culture, in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use, contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject.  Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or "a gift from the gods", to 'threat to society', to be banned as quickly as possible in order to "spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse".

Media coverage.

Interest in "Salvia divinorum" has been escalating in the news media, particularly in the United States, where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast.  These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status, for example comparing it to LSD, or describing it as "the new pot", with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens.  Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as "Dangerous Herb is Legal..." or "Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High".  Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction

Brett's law.

A particular focus of many US media stories is the long-running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester, a 17-year-old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning.  Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth. They have instead argued that salvia-induced depression was largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think "existence in general is pointless." Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide

Usage shown on YouTube.

A reported concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably, apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate. In an interview with California-based newspaper the "San Francisco Chronicle", published in June 2007, Daniel Siebert said that the videos "make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous..." and that it stops people from realizing "there are sensible ways to use something like this."  "The New York Times" has reported that "in state after state... the YouTube videos have become "Exhibit A" in legislative efforts to regulate salvia."  Waco Representative Charles Anderson (R), who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas. Anderson told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car. "What we really worry about, is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping

Legal status.

Many countries control "Salvia divinorum" in some manner. As of 2015, it is illegal in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, South Korea, Sweden and Switzerland. It is legal to possess and grow in Chile, France and Spain, but not to sell. In Russia, it is legal to possess, but not grow or sell. Estonia, Finland, Iceland and Norway treat it as a medicinal herb that requires a prescription.  The prohibitive degree of "Salvia divinorum" legislation varies widely from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest'schedule 9' (US Schedule I equivalent), and Italy has also placed salvia in its 'Table I' of controlled substances (also US Schedule I equivalent). In Spain, there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of "Salvia divinorum", personal cultivation (i.e. for non-commercial use) is not targeted.  Legislation may prove difficult to enforce. The plant has a nondescript appearance; unlike many other drug plants, the leaves are non-descript, and without a detectable odour. "Salvia divinorum" can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high-power lights.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, following a local newspaper story in October 2005, a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for "Salvia divinorum" to be banned there. However, it only received 11 signatures. A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures, and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith, then Home Secretary. The Advisory

Australia.

"Salvia divinorum" is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964

United States.

National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and "Salvia divinorum" in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca (D- California). Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert, who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation, and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics (CCLE), who sent key members of the US Congress a report on "Salvia divinorum" and its active principle, along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling "Salvia divinorum" would negatively impact important research on the plant. The bill did not pass.  Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act, as of 2009, it had been made illegal in 13 states. Delaware banned it after the Salvia use was reported to have played a role in the suicide of a teenager. Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Texas and others, have passed their own laws. Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages.  Where individual state legislation does exist, it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree.  Legal consequences may also exist even in states without bans on salvia in particular. Christian Firoz, a Nebraska store owner, was charged for selling salvia, but not under the auspices of any specific law against "Salvia divinorum". Firoz was instead charged under a general Nebraskan statute where it is illegal to sell a product to induce an intoxicated condition. See also the legal status of salvia in North Dakota and Nebraska).  "Salvia divinorum" has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases.

Internet sale.

Some internet vendors will not sell live "salvia" cuttings, leaf, or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited. Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of "Salvia divinorum" or derived products (despite legality in most areas).

Opinions and arguments.

Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media, with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on "protecting our children" being echoed; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking.  Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature, "We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem," or of an imitative nature, "The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it." Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed.  Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation.  Those advocating consideration of "Salvia divinorum"s potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture, where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament. In light of this it is argued that "Salvia divinorum" could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen.

Public opinion.

Despite its growing notoriety in some circles, media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia, with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it.  Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole, some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories.

Salvia divinorum (also known as sage of the diviners, ska maría pastora, seer's sage, yerba de la pastora or simply salvia) is a plant species with transient psychoactive properties when its leaves are consumed by chewing, smoking or as a tea. The leaves contain opioid-like compounds that induce hallucinations. Because the plant has not been well-studied in high-quality clinical research, little is known about its toxicology, adverse effects, or safety over long-term consumption.

Der Azteken-Salbei ("Salvia divinorum"), auch Götter-Salbei oder Wahrsage-Salbei genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der artenreichen Gattung Salbei ("Salvia") innerhalb der Familie der Lippenblütler (Lamiaceae). Es handelt sich um eine psychoaktiv wirkende Salbeiart.


History.

The Berliner Rundfunk was established in 1945 by the Soviet Military Administration in Germany. It initially broadcast from the Haus des Rundfunks building of the former Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft ("Reich"-Radio Association) GmbH on Masurenallee in Berlin-Charlottenburg. It is notable that this broadcaster was located in the British sector of what was to become West Berlin. The station was merged with the regional broadcasters in Potsdam and Schwerin as well as the broadcast studio in Rostock.  In the course of the centralization of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1952, in which among other things five "Länder" were eliminated, the status of East German radio changed. In the meantime, the new radio headquarters of the Rundfunk der DDR was established on Nalepastraße in Oberschöneweide, East Berlin. After 1952, all radio programs in the GDR emanated from there. The Berliner Rundfunk was changed to the program "Berlin I" with a political focus and allotted the transmitters in Schwerin and Weimar. The program also took over the shortwave transmission of the previous Deutschlandsender.  In August 1953 the radio system was reorganized. This reform created the Deutschlandsender, the Berliner Rundfunk, and the Radio DDR. From June 1954 until September 1955 the program of the Berliner Rundfunk was temporarily called "Berlin 1. Programm" in contrast to the program of Radio DDR which was called "Berlin 2. Programm."  The Berliner Rundfunk transmitted its program set over mediumwave (657, 693, 999, 1170, 1431 and 1575 kHz) and VHF.  In connection with the unification of the two German states, the Berliner Rundfunk ceased its transmission in February 1990. In Berlin an identically named private radio program broadcast on the VHF frequency 91.4 MHz. The other open frequencies of the Berliner Rundfunk were taken over by regional programs of the newly created "Länder".

The Berliner Rundfunk (BERU) was a radio station set in East Germany. It had a political focus and discussed events in East Berlin. Today it is a commercial radio station broadcast with the name "Berliner Rundfunk 91.4".

Der Berliner Rundfunk (BERU) war ein Rundfunksender des Rundfunks der DDR. Er produzierte das gleichnamige Hörfunkprogramm. Dieses hatte vor allem einen politischen Schwerpunkt und informierte über das Geschehen in der Hauptstadt Berlin.