Biography.

Heller was born at Chomutov in Bohemia (then within Austria-Hungary, now the Czech Republic), to the family of a Jewish physician. He graduated a doctor of law from the German University in Prague (Deutsche Universität in Prag, Juridische Fakultät) on 11 February 1935, at the age of 23. In 1939 he emigrated to the United Kingdom, where he began his professional career as a Germanist, being active at Cambridge and London (England) and at Swansea (Wales). Heller became a British subject in 1947. From 1960 onwards he was based in the United States, primarily at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, where he was initially Professor of German, and subsequently Avalon Professor of the Humanities until his retirement in 1979.  For Heller, German letters as an academic discipline was something of an avocation, a marriage of convenience to supply a vehicle for the conveyance of thought of a wider scope. He kept a certain distance from the scholarly community around him, believing (with Jacob Burckhardt) this community's pedantry and unremitting quest for precision to be 'one of the most cunning enemies of truth', their cumulative effect being 'the absence of true comprehension'.

Main currents of his thought: "anima naturaliter religiosa".

Not a religious philosopher (and an agnostic by personal persuasion), he could show religious sensibility, as when he wrote, in an essay on Heinrich von Kleist that bridges Heideggerian and Biblical idioms, that:  Heller accepted the Fall, or rather its philosophical consequences. Writing elsewhere about Friedrich von Schiller Heller states that Schiller presented

"Disinherited Mind"; or the Creed of Ontological Invalidity.

Heller's "The Disinherited Mind", a seminal work published in 1952 (US ed., expanded, 1957), earned him a following among intellectuals. The project of "The Disinherited Mind" was to analyse the disappearance of Truth from the immediate environment of man, and the ensuing compulsions of Art to fill the void. Such an intervention on the part of Art, in the circumstances, results in the impoverishment of the world, not in its enrichment. It entails the loss of'significant external reality'.  "The Disinherited Mind" was first published in Britain; two years later it was issued under the title "Enterbter Geist" by Suhrkamp in Frankfurt. An Italian translation followed in 1965, and a Japanese rendering in 1969.

Formulating the 'Creed'.

For Heller, Truth could be defined in the terms proposed by Paul Roubiczek in "Thinking in Opposites", a book that appeared in the same year as did "The Disinherited Mind": Truth must be "embodied" in external reality. (Heller says the same in "The Disinherited Mind" when he points out that the question, What is Truth? becomes irrelevant 'in the face of its embodiment'.) Roubiczek's grasp of the meaning of Truth is more philosophical than Goethe's, according to whom Truth is 'a revelation emerging at the point where the inner world of man meets external reality...'  Heller saw Truth as the first casualty of the mechanistic theory of nature, set on its course by Darwin and others, which in alliance with applied sciences roots out the intrinsic meaning of things in favour of the 'how?' of their causal interrelatedness. The thing in itself is forgotten, and with it the meaning of Reality as such. Such theories succeed merely in feeding 'the body of superstitious beliefs that had grown rampant ever since medieval scholasticism suffered its final defeat at the hands of Francis Bacon'.  This process, of Reality's being eviscerated of deeper meaning in the course of being 'explained' by modern science, constitutes the main charge that Heller laid against supporters of what he called the Creed of Ontological Invalidity. The practical result of its implementation is that nothing can exist in and of itself: things' scientific explanation deprives them of their individual "being" as entities and reduces them to the position of mere links in a much more broadly conceived chain. Here there are echoes — and indeed a defence — of Martin Heidegger's "das Sein des Seinden", although Heller would probably have rejected these. This state of affairs leads to spiritual perdition, he felt, whereby man's own true significance as a higher being (his 'ontological mystery') is obscured, and whereby any attempt at a meaningful response to the world is stymied. For such a response can only take place "vis-à-vis" the question of what the world fundamentally "is", not simply how it works.  The meaningful response that the fully realised human being makes to the world differs from the attitude of the frog-in-the-well scientist in the most fundamental of ways: the former — through his theorising, which is the 'highest intellectual achievement' — actually shapes the Reality, rather than passively'recording' it in the manner of the latter whose mere 'looking at a thing is of no use whatsoever'. Heller's best-known quotation is: "Be careful how you interpret the world; it "is" like that." The admonition is not addressed to those who 'find and accept' (as he put it), but to those who through the 'intuitive, visionary faculty of... [their] genius' essentially "create" the world we know.

Objections.

An objection levelled against "The Disinherited Mind" (and registered in the Postscript, Part 4 of the essay entitled "The Hazard of Modern Poetry," which Heller appended to the US edition of 1957) was that the "Weltanschauung" at the heart of its critique was in some aspects excessively "Holocaust-centric". (Heller took exception to this term, preferring the English word 'genocide', or the Semitic words "sho'ah" and "hurban" (Hebrew, 'annihilation'), to 'Holocaust'.)  Heller chose not to contest this charge. However, the book itself throws some light on this question. In the chapter 'Goethe and the Avoidance of Tragedy', a non-Jewish philosopher of stature, Karl Jaspers, is quoted on Goethe's having become – in an important sense – obsolete after 1945. This is on account of his inadequate grasp of the problems of theodicy, that is, chiefly, of the problem of the existence of Evil. The question posed is not whether the Holocaust was central to Erich Heller (as it was to all the Jews who survived), but whether any human being can avoid being conscious of its centrality.  For Heller, the Body was central to human identity. The Body was the "principium individuationis" (in the sense in that Nietzsche understood or misunderstood that expression, which was good enough for Heller). He once confessed privately that it is precisely because religions like Christianity offered a redemption that, for him, entailed the greatest sacrilege – a divestiture of the Body in Paradise in favour of some 'transfigured' entity that seemed to merge the individual personhood, eschatologically speaking, into a single collective state of all the blessed – it is for this reason that he was not interested in those religions. The Holocaust had a theological dimension for him, also. With its mass destruction of bodies it violated the principle of the sacred, of the spiritual, as manifested in the world. For Heller, the spiritual was never a tissue of 'vague abstractions': it was always incarnate. The spiritual needed the Body in exactly the same measure in which it needed transcendence: the spiritual had to be 'known and felt to be real'. ‘Genius’ alone, he once wrote, 'is never the whole man'.

On Nietzsche.

Heller points out that Nietzsche's and Rilke's opposition to "valid" distinctions — in particular Nietzsche's "relativisation of Good and Evil" — was an over-reaction. It took against what both writers diagnosed as the 'barbarism of concepts' of a 'crudely interpreted world' (the expression is Nietzsche's), whereby the dual aspects of immanence and transcendence — closer to each other than human thought has been prepared to allow over the centuries — open the floodgates to a series of specious distinctions. Pre-eminent among the latter is the false distinction between thought and feeling. But, in their zeal to uncover the fraud of such bifurcations, the two thinkers carry their denunciation too far: Nietzsche, in particular, overstates his case when he links Good with Evil.

Borrowing.

In a critique of T. S. Eliot's views on Shakespeare – who supposedly modelled himself on Montaigne in formulating the character of Hamlet – Heller took a commonsensical approach to "literary borrowing". His position has broader applications. Eliot – Heller writes —  Heller adduces another case in point: 'If Dante's thought is Thomas Aquinas's, it is yet Dante's: not only by virtue of imaginative sympathy and assimilation, and certainly not as a reward for the supply of an "emotional equivalent" ["sc." in its unique capacity as poetry]. It is Dante's property by birthright. He has reborn it within himself –– poetically.'  The argument preempts criticism of Heller's philosophy, based on its roots in Nietzsche and Rilke, and ("mutatis mutandis") of Kafka. The title of "The Disinherited Mind" itself might have been suggested by Rilke's Seventh Elegy.

Other works; or the Last Days of Mankind.

Bibliographies are a dull business (as Erich Heller remarks in his 'The Last Days of Mankind'). "The Disinherited Mind" was followed by another collection of essays, "The Artist’s Journey into the Interior" (1965; German ed., "Die Reise der Kunst ins Innere und andere Essays", 1966; Japanese translation, 1972); then by "The Poet’s Self and the Poem: Essays on Goethe, Nietzsche, Rilke and Thomas Mann" (1976); and finally by "Im Zeitalter der Prosa: literarische und philosophische Essays", published simultaneously in German and in English editions (the latter under the title "In the Age of Prose: Literary and Philosophical Essays") in 1984.  Heller’s early article on Karl Kraus, 'The Last Days of Mankind', was originally published in the "Cambridge Journal" in 1948, its title taken from one of Kraus's plays, "Die letzten Tage der Menschheit" (1919).

Writings on Nietzsche.

Heller's German-language "Nietzsche: 3 Essays" appeared in 1964, establishing him as an authority on Friedrich Nietzsche. An English-language collection of –– chiefly cross-cultural –– essays on the subject was brought out by the University of Chicago Press as "The Importance of Nietzsche" in 1988 to wide acclaim on both sides of the Atlantic. The collection was posthumously published in Germany four years later. His essay on ‘Wittgenstein and Nietzsche’ appears in "Portraits of Wittgenstein" (1999).  Heller also contributed an introduction to R. J. Hollingdale's (1930–2001) translation of Nietzsche's "Menschliches, Allzumenschliches" ("Human, All Too Human"), published by Cambridge University Press in 1986.

Writings on Thomas Mann.

Already in 1940, soon after his arrival at Cambridge, the 29-year-old Heller annotated a collection of Thomas Mann's short stories for a British publisher. Thomas Mann's writings were collectively the subject of Heller's doctoral dissertation, written under the supervision of Edwin Keppel Bennett (1887–1958), which was presented to the University of Cambridge (where, it may be noted, he was a member of Peterhouse and the Faculty of Modern and Medieval Languages) in February 1949: in this work he considered Mann's "corpus" in relation to the main currents of thought in nineteenth-century Germany.  Heller's well-known study of Thomas Mann ("The Ironic German", 1958; German ed., "Thomas Mann, der ironische Deutsche", 1959; Jap. transl. (from the revised German), "Tômasu Man: hangoteki doitsu-jin", 1975) is based on information derived from his personal acquaintance of the subject. Gabriel Josipovici (b. 1940) called it in March 2006 one 'of the most important books in my intellectual formation'.  Later, Heller would also write an introduction to the 1972 reissue of Kenneth Burke's translation of Thomas Mann's "Der Tod in Venedig" (originally published in 1925), and to the American translation of Mann's "Wagner und unsere Zeit" (ed. Erika Mann).

Writings on Kafka; and the Question of Negative Transcendence.

Heller shared Franz Kafka's background. He also studied at the same university, in the same department, and took the same degree as did Kafka, 29 years before him. The essay on Kafka ("Kafka", London: Fontana Modern Masters, 1974; US ed., "Franz Kafka", New York, 1975) is still valuable for its author's synthesis of his subject's multifaceted, cross-pollinated mindset and cultural heritage. Decades before this essay was published Heller had used the expression negative transcendence, for which he is still remembered, to describe the particular quality of the visible reality adumbrated in Kafka's compositions, and particularly discernible in "The Castle".  In Kafka’s world, contingent reality has been completely unhitched from the realm of the intelligible, from Truth that is—a positivistically ruled domain where the mutual causal relations between things preclude any reference to the transcendent in the elucidation of their meaning. Yet, it is the transcendent that constitutes a major part of that meaning (if indeed it does not exhaust it completely). In this situation, the meaning of reality methodically purged of what are taken to be illegitimate, because scientifically ‘unprovable’, elements becomes truncated, grossly incomplete, thereby producing a spiritual vacuum that, sealed off (as it were) ‘from above’, has no choice but to resolve the tension between the void and the plenum by sucking up ‘from below’ the stuff from Hell to replenish itself with. This is "negative transcendence". For where the positive values are suppressed, Evil will take over with the force and inevitability of a physical necessity. One might call it Heller’s law.  Erich Heller had earlier been, famously, the co-editor of Kafka’s love-letters addressed to Felice Bauer (1887–1960), the revealing 782-page "Briefe an Felice...", published in 1967, to which he wrote an introduction that became something of a classic in itself, being retained for the French translation of the correspondence in question. Subsequently Heller also contributed an introduction to an English translation of "Der Prozess", and edited Kafka's "Der Dichter über sein Werk", and his "Über das Schreiben".

German writings.

A selection of his essays on Nietzsche, Thomas Mann, T. S. Eliot, and Karl Kraus appeared in Germany in 1977 under the title "Die Wiederkehr der Unschuld": this collection includes the beautiful essay 'Vom Menschen, der sich schämt' in which Erich Heller surveys the human attitude the Greeks called "aidos", as manifested in later history. "Die Wiederkehr der Unschuld" followed upon essays on Rilke, "Nirgends wird Welt sein als innen" (1975), and "Essays über Goethe", which saw the light of day in 1970. These in turn were preceded by his "Studien zur modernen Literatur" of 1963. His article ‘Karl Kraus und die schwarze Magie der Sprache’ appeared in "Der Monat" (VI/64) in 1954; while his paper on Rilke, ‘Improvisationen zur ersten der Duineser Elegien’, presented at a congress in Italy in 1982, is published in a collective volume.

Life in letters.

Heller corresponded with a number of thinkers of his day, whose names include (in the chronological order of the date of birth, not necessarily in the order of the respective correspondents’ importance) the following.  Perhaps his most notable correspondent had been Hannah Arendt; perhaps, indeed.  Many important biographical details shared with him by other writers could only with the greatest difficulty, if at all, find their way into conventional studies and biographies, and remain hidden from public view (such as, for example, Thomas Mann's verbal confession, made to Heller, concerning the circumstances attending upon the destruction, by his own hand, of his early diaries [their homosexual content was the immediate cause], or another concerning his reading and re-reading of Xenophon's "Symposium" 'nine times' before writing his own narrative on love's vicissitudes, "Der Tod in Venedig").  Erich Heller's vivid intellect made him on occasion a principled controversialist, as evidenced by his long-running –– and sometimes acrimonious –– public exchanges with another prominent British Germanist, T. J. Reed, in the weekly pages of the "Times Literary Supplement" in the 1970s.

Private life.

Heller was a lifelong bachelor who cultivated several meaningful intellectual friendships, including with the Chicago writer Joseph Epstein. W. H. Auden is also known to have been an early friend.

Views on America.

Although he apparently never sought to become a citizen of the United States, a country where he spent upwards of a third of his life, Heller nevertheless had a deep respect for American democracy, which he felt embodied values directly opposed to those that informed the political realities of the Central Europe he fled in 1939. This pietistic stance however never prevented him from espousing views considered by the mainstream opinion in America to be outdated or otherwise 'politically incorrect' whenever he thought them valid on objective grounds; nor did he shrink from considering America an intellectual desert.

The Heidegger Question.

Much interested in the thought of Nietzsche and Wittgenstein (he contributed a 'Vorwort zum "Tractatus logico-philosophicus), Heller had also a natural attraction for the basic issues raised by Martin Heidegger in his works on Being, which were directly relevant to his own reflections on the nature of Reality. An obstacle to a deeper analysis of Heidegger's "œuvre" was presented by that writer's questionable but imperfectly explored association with National Socialism. At an early stage in his life Heller, in a bid to 'absolve' Heidegger in his own mind, went so far as to undertake a special trip to post-war Germany to meet the renowned philosopher in person; but his 'Why?' was met by stony silence. The encounter seemed to convince Heller that there was little one could add, by way of moral comment on Heidegger, that has not been expressed in Paul Celan's poem 'Todtnauberg', written later but in similar circumstances, with its well-known "topos" of suffocation at what Celan calls "Krudes" (an instance of smuttiness).  This turn of events must needs be adjudged a most unfortunate one, given that much of Heller's best thought can be viewed as a continuation in one sense or another of Heidegger's preoccupation with Being; certainly Heidegger's "Sein und Zeit", in its original edition, was a prized possession and remained part of Heller's personal library to his last day (surviving the substantial paring down of his collection upon his moving into a retirement home in the final stages of his life). It is possible, and indeed probable, that if the outcome of his meeting with Heidegger, which might have taken place "c".1947, had been more positive in providing answers to some of the burning questions, the final shape of "The Disinherited Mind", Heller's first book, would have been substantially different, and that we would have been presented therein with manifold instances of direct engagement with Heidegger's propositions. As things stand, there are just a couple of perfunctory references to Heidegger in this, "nolens volens", most 'Heideggerian' of books. (Those references do nevertheless reveal intimate acquaintance with his thought.) Just as Heidegger had not a single word for Heller during their meeting, so also he has barely a word to spare for Heidegger.

"Festschrift".

On his 65th birthday in 1976 (the year of Heidegger's death) Erich Heller was presented with a commemorative volume of Goethe studies written in his honour, entitled "Versuche zu Goethe" (ed. Volker Dürr and Géza von Molnár), which includes an extensive bibliography of his own works.  Another tribute from an unexpected quarter came five years later from the aforementioned Hans Egon Holthusen (see Life in Letters, above), who also taught at Northwestern between 1968 and 1981, and who, despite the criticisms meted out to him in "The Disinherited Mind", delivered himself of a ‘Geburtstagsgruß an Erich Heller’ in "Merkur" (35, 1981; pp. 340–342) on the occasion of Heller’s 70th birthday.

The end; and the "Nachlass".

Erich Heller died on 5 November 1990 in a retirement home in Evanston, Illinois. He was 79. His body was subsequently cremated. His library, including the complete set of the Musarion-"Ausgabe" of Nietzsche’s works with which he never parted during his lifetime, became dispersed among second-hand bookshops.  Heller's personal papers, including private correspondence and manuscripts, are preserved in parts at the Northwestern University Archives in Evanston, and in parts at the Deutsches Literaturarchiv (Schiller-Nationalmuseum) in the southwestern German city of Marbach am Neckar (Baden-Württemberg). The files of the Northwestern University Archives contain some photographs. The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., for its part, holds facsimiles of some of his letters (in particular those addressed to Hannah Arendt and Robert B. Silvers), in addition to the sound recordings of two of his lectures, the one on 'The Modern German Mind: The Legacy of Nietzsche’, which he delivered in the Coolidge Auditorium of the Library of Congress on 8 February 1960, the other on ‘The Works of Nietzsche’, recorded in 1974.  In 2015, Random House published "Reading Claudius: A Memoir in Two Parts" by Erich Heller's niece, Caroline, the daughter of his brother Paul. In the book, Caroline Heller writes of her father, mother, and uncle's lives in pre-war Prague, emphasizing the rich mix of the cultural, literary, and political before the Nazi invasion. She writes of her mother and uncle's escape from Prague as Hitler's power grew, as well as Paul Heller's arrest by the Gestapo the night Hitler invaded Poland. "Reading Claudius" uses excerpts from Paul Heller's writings to chronicle his six years subsequent years in Buchenwald and Auschwitz. "Reading Claudius" received praise from the Sunday "New York Times" Book Review and the "Boston Globe", among other newspapers and journals.  Erich Heller lacks an entry in the "Encyclopædia Britannica", as he does in Bautz’ "Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon", although he does command a mention in the "Brockhaus Enzyklopädie".

Supplementary references (not included in Notes, below).

The sources listed below provide further information on the man and his thought or document the latter’s reception.

Erich Heller (27 March 1911 – 5 November 1990) was a British essayist, known particularly for his critical studies in German-language philosophy and literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Erich Heller (* 27. März 1911 in Komotau, Böhmen; † 5. November 1990 in Evanston, Illinois) war ein englischer Essayist deutschsprachiger Herkunft, der vor allem wegen seiner literaturwissenschaftlichen Schriften zur deutschen Philosophie und Literatur des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts bekannt wurde. Besonders einflussreich geworden sind seine Interpretationen zu den Werken von Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke und Thomas Mann.


Biography.

Youkhanna was born in Habbaniyah, Iraq in 1950 to Assyrian parents from Targawar, Iran. He moved with his family to Baghdad during his childhood, where he gained his education. He gained a BA, MA, and PhD in prehistoric archaeology at the University of Baghdad. He was fluent in Aramaic, Arabic, and English.  Youkhanna was the Director General of Iraq’s National Museum, Chairman of the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage and the President of the Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage. He conducted excavations in the Bekhme Dam area, Nineveh, and Tell Umm al-Aqarib as well as working on many restoration projects in Babylon, Nimrud, Nineveh, Ur and Baghdad. He authored two books on the structural design and stone industries of Tell es Sawwan, and gave several presentations on the current museum conditions and historical archaeological sites of Iraq.  Dr. George, who dropped his last name for professional purposes, was instrumental in recovering over half of the 15,000 Mesopotamian artifacts looted from the National Museum in Baghdad during the invasion. A majority of the artefacts date back to 6,000 years from the ancient empires of Assyria and Babylonia. He fought his way through to the Iraq National Museum in the days after the American-led invasion of Iraq and tried to stop the looters ransacking it but was unable to persuade American soldiers to protect it because they had been given no orders to do so.  He became the international face of the plight of ancient sites and artefacts in Iraq, many of which were stolen or destroyed during the invasion. In December 2008, Youkhanna was decisive in preventing the sale of royal Neo-Assyrian earrings from the world-famous Nimrud treasures at Christie's art auction in New York.  Due to threats from unknown militia groups during the US occupation of Iraq, Youkhanna was forced to flee Iraq with his family first to Syria and then to the United States in 2006, to take up a position as visiting professor at Stony Brook University in New York.  He died on 11 March 2011 as a result of a heart attack while he was travelling via Toronto Pearson International Airport, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He was 60.

Donny George Youkhanna (Arabic:, ) (October 23, 1950 – March 11, 2011) was an Iraqi-Assyrian archaeologist, anthropologist, author, curator, and scholar, and a visiting professor at Stony Brook University in New York.

Donny George Youkhanna (* 23. Oktober 1950 im Gouvernement al-Anbar; † 11. März 2011 in Toronto) war ein irakischer Prähistorischer Archäologe, Anthropologe, Museumsleiter und Wissenschaftsorganisator.


Background.

2007 parliamentary elections.

The 2007 parliamentary elections were the second of King Mohammed VI's reign. They were characterized by a relatively low turnout of 37%, 15 points down from that of 2002 (52%). The Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) - the largest party in the outgoing government - unexpectedly lost 12 of its seats. The Istiqlal Party came first with 52 seats, ahead of the Justice and Development Party with 46, despite the latter coming first in terms of number of votes. A coalition of five parties (Istiqlal, Popular movement, National rally of independents, Party of Progress and Socialism and Socialist Union of Popular Forces) with a narrow combined majority in the House of Representatives formed a government headed by Abbas El Fassi, the president of the Istiqlal party.

Arab Spring and protest movement.

Following national protests held in early February 2011 in solidarity with the Egyptian revolution, a youth group (later known as the 20 February movement) and the Islamist organization Al Adl Wa Al Ihssane called for a day of protests. Among the demands of the organisers was that the constitutional role of the king should be "reduced to its natural size". On 20 February, several thousands of people participated in demonstrations across Morocco. On 26 February, a further protest was held in Casablanca. Further protests were held in Casablanca and Rabat on 20 March.  On 9 March, King Mohammed announced that he would form a commission to work on constitutional revisions, which would make proposals to him by June, after which a referendum would be held on the draft constitution.

2011 Constitutional reforms.

A committee representing various parties was tasked by the king to prepare the new constitution. A draft was published in early June 2011. A referendum for its adoption was conducted on 1 July 2011 and registered a record high participation rate with a 70% turnout; the reforms were passed with 98% approval. The protest movement however, previously called for a boycott of the referendum. Consequently, the date of the parliamentary election was brought forward from September 2012 to October 2011.  The new constitution, entered into effect on 1 August 2011, created a number of new civil rights, including constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression, social equality for women, rights for speakers of minority languages and the independence of judges.  Changes to electoral and administrative law were also significant. The king rescinded his power to appoint prime ministers, obliging himself to appoint a member of the party winning the most seats in a parliamentary election. The office of prime minister, in turn, was given additional powers to appoint senior civil servants and diplomats, in consultation with the king's ministerial council. The prime minister replaced the king as the head of government and chair of the government council, gaining the power to dissolve parliament.  The voting system was also changed so that the number of parliamentary seats decided on a constituency basis was increased from 295 to 305. Additional seats were reserved for election from national party lists, 60 consisting only of female candidates and 30 for male candidates under the age of 40.

Election timetable.

After negotiations between the interior ministry, which oversees elections, and some 20 political parties, the government proposed that parliamentary elections should be moved to 11 November, with the possibility of shifting it due to its proximity to the Islamic holiday of Eid al-Adha. In the end, the election was held on 25 November 2011. The electoral campaign took place from 12 to 24 November.  There were fears that a low voter turnout, already traditionally a problem, would be further exacerbated by a boycott call by the pro-reform February 20 movement and the Islamist organization Al Adl Wa Al Ihssane, who felt that the constitutional reforms were insufficient.

Electoral system.

The election follows the closed list proportional representation system (with a 6 percent threshold) using the largest remainder method. Voting is conducted through universal suffrage in secret ballots.  There are two types of list, local and national. 305 seats are allocated for the local lists spread over 92 electoral districts, while the national list consists of 90 seats, putting the total number of deputies at 395 - 70 more than the last election.  The national list consists of a 60 seats list reserved for women and another of 30 seats for candidates under 40. The list follows the same proportional representation system but on the level of the country.

Eligibility.

All Moroccan citizens are eligible for voting if they are at least 18 years old and have their civil and political rights unrestrained by a court order. A person is eligible for candidacy if they fulfil the conditions set out in the law regulating parliament (law 27.11 articles 6 to 10), according to which the following are ineligible:

Campaign.

Participating parties.

A total of 30 parties proposed candidates in the election while three far-left parties - the communist "Talia", the Unified Socialist Party and the "Nahj Ad-Dimuqrati" - called for a boycott. The Islamist organization Al Adl Wa Al Ihssane and the 20 February protest movement also called for a boycott.  Istiqlal was the only party that filled a list for every constituency. The Justice and Development Party and the Socialist Union of Popular Forces both fielded 393 candidates. Source:

Major competing parties.

The main contestants in the election were three political formations : the moderate Islamist Justice and Development Party (PJD), headed by Salé's deputy Abdelillah Benkirane; the "Coalition for Democracy" which is an alliance headed by Morocco's current minister of finance Salaheddine Mezouar; and the "Koutla" alliance of the incumbent prime minister Abbas El Fassi  The Coalition for Democracy was formed on 10 October 2011 and groups eight parties: the National Rally of Independents, the Popular Movement, the Constitutional Union, the Authenticity and Modernity Party (PAM), the Labour Party, the Green Left Party, the Party of Renaissance and Virtue and the Socialist Party.  The "Koutla" groups three parties which are members of the 2007-2011 government; namely the Istiqlal Party, the Socialist Union of Popular Forces and the Party of Progress and Socialism. The "Koutla" alliance criticized the decision of two other member parties of the current government to join the Coalition for Democracy alliance with other parties of the opposition. Consequently, the leaders of the "Koutla" made implicit calls for the Justice and Development party to join their alliance.  The below table lists the most prominent parties in the Moroccan political scene (bold indicates members of the 2007-2011 government): (**):

Results.

The spokesman of the ministry of the interior announced on the evening of Friday 25 November that the turnout in the election was 45%, up 8 points from that of 2007. By the time of the initial results on 26 November, covering 288 of the 395 seats being contested, it had become clear that the Justice and Development Party had secured a plurality. It had secured 80 seats by this stage, with Istiqlal having secured 45. News organizations speculated that the Justice and Development Party would govern in coalition with several left-wing political parties.  Names of successful candidates were announced on 27 November 2011. The Justice and Development Party won a plurality of seats, making its leader, Abdelillah Benkirane, prime minister designate under the rules of the new constitution. "This is a clear victory," he said,"but we will need alliances in order to work together".  Assembly of Representatives of Morocco results grouped by coalition

Government formation.

The Justice and Development party is expected to ally with the Koutla and form a government that will be likely headed by Abdelillah Benkirane or Saadeddine Othmani, who are respectively the current and former party leaders. Benkirane held talks with the King on the evening of 28 November, and declared that he is not going to announce an alliance before the prime minister is appointed. He has previously stated that he is open to an alliance with the Koutla and made positive signs towards it.  After the announcement of the final results, some leaders of the Coalition for Democracy stated that they have no reason to still maintain the alliance. Mohand Laenser of the Popular Movement and representatives from the Constitutional Union said that they were discussing whether to stay or retract from the coalition. Salaheddine Mezouar of the National Rally of Independents, and Mohamed Cheikh Biadillah, leader of the Authenticity and Modernity Party, said that they choose not to participate in the upcoming government.  On Tuesday 29 November 2011, as expected, Abdelilah Benkirane was nominated by the king as the new prime minister.  Soumia Benkhaldoun was appointed Minister Delegate to the Minister of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Executive Training.  On 9 July 2013, Istiqlal's six ministers resigned from the cabinet over subsidy reforms.

An early parliamentary election was held in Morocco on 25 November 2011, brought forward from 2012 and then postponed from 7 October 2011.

Am 25. November 2011 fand die erste Parlamentswahl in Marokko nach einer Verfassungsänderung unter dem Eindruck des Arabischen Frühlings statt.


Frontier conflict.

The conflict arose after a quarrel between Wurundjeri-william people and settler, James Anderson, over the right to harvest a potato crop on Wurundjeri land at what is now known as Warrandyte. A stand-off occurred and the clansmen moved to William Ryrie's Yering Station. Troopers of the Border Police led by Captain Henry Gisborne, who was Commissioner of Crown Lands, lured Jaga Jaga (Jacky-Jacky) and some of the Wurundjeri men to Yering station homestead where Jaga Jaga was captured and handcuffed. The other Wurundjeri men quickly retreated.  Wurundjeri men then approached the homestead with muskets and spears, whereupon Gisborne and his troopers mounted a counterattack, during which several shots were exchanged, the Wurundjeri choosing to retreat into the nearby billabongs. Having lured the troopers away as a diversion, other warriors approached the homestead and freed Jaga Jaga.  No white settlers or troopers were injured in the exchange, and injuries on the part of the Wurundjeri are unknown.  Gisborne later wrote to Superintendent (later Governor) Charles La Trobe saying "I am unable to account for their never having hit us as they are capital marksmen". There was no investigation of the incident initiated, no charges laid, and the incident was passed over.  Jaga Jaga, was also known as "Bor-rer bor-rer" and was the nephew of Billibellary, a ngurungaeta of the Wurundjeri people.

Commemoration.

On 13 January 2007 at the Yarra Flats Billabongs the Shire of Yarra Ranges with Murrundindi, ngurungaeta of the Wurundjeri people, unveiled a historical plaque and pictograph commemorating the "Battle of Yering" 167 years previously. The plaques were organised by "The Friends of the Yarra Flats Billabongs" in conjunction with "Yarra Ranges Friends in Reconciliation" and "Nillumbik Reconciliation Group".

The Battle of Yering was a conflict between Indigenous Australians of the Wurundjeri nation and the Border Police which occurred on 13 January 1840, on the outskirts of Melbourne.

Die Schlacht von Yering (englisch: "Battle of Yering") war eine Auseinandersetzung zwischen den Aborigines der Wurundjeri und der "Border Police", die sich am 13. Januar 1840 in der Umgebung des damaligen Melbourne ereignete.


History and description.

The bridge links the area of Lungotevere delle Armi to Piazzale delle Belle Arti.  The works for the building began in 1909 and were completed two years later. The bridge was designed and built by Giovanni Antonio Porcheddu, with the cooperation of the engineers Giaj and Parvopassu, on the occasion of the exhibition for celebrating the 50th anniversary of Italian unification. It is the first bridge in Rome made in reinforced concrete, since its creator, at that time, was the only Italian dealer of the patent of the Belgian François Hennebique.  The day of the inauguration (April 17, 1911), the spectators doubted that the structure, after the removal of the supporting scaffoldings, wouldn't have stood up; on the contrary, Porcheddu was so sure about the effectiveness and reliability of the new technique that he wanted to attend the demolition of the scaffolding on a little boat just below the arch of the bridge, together with his two youngest kids, Giuseppe and Ambrogia. During the ceremony, King Victor Emmanuel III offered Porcheddu the epithet "King of reinforced concrete".  In the middle of the bridge, on both bulwarks, are two inscriptions: INAVGVRATO L'11 MAGGIO DEL 1911 NEL CINQVANTENARIO DELLA PROCLAMAZIONE DI ROMA CAPITALE D'ITALIA DALL'AMMINISTRAZIONE POPOLARE CITTADINA AL RISORGIMENTO ITALIANO ("Inaugurated on May 11, 1911" "in the fiftieth anniversary of the proclamation" "of Rome as Capital of Italy" "by the popular city administration" "in memory of Italian Risorgimento") on one side, and PONTE IN CEMENTO ARMATO AD VNICA ARCATA DI 100 M. DI CORDA CON FRECCIA DI 10 M. COSTRVITO CON SISTEMA HENNEBIQUE DALLA SOCIETA PORCHEDDU ING.G.A ("Reinforced concrete bridge" "with a 100-meters-chord single arch" "and a 10-meters arch rise" "built" "with the Hennebique system" "by the company Porcheddu Ing. G.A") on the other.

Ponte del Risorgimento (or briefly Ponte Risorgimento) is a bridge that links Piazzale delle Belle Arti to Piazza Monte Grappa in Rome (Italy), in the Flaminio and Della Vittoria quarters.

Der Ponte del Risorgimento (oder einfacher "Ponte Risorgimento" bzw. "Risorgimentobrücke") ist eine 1911 erbaute Brücke über den Tiber in Rom. Sie zeichnet sich durch einen sehr flachen, weiten Bogen mit einem dünnen Scheitel aus. Sie war die erste Eisenbetonbrücke Italiens und hatte bei ihrer Eröffnung die größte Spannweite aller Betonbogenbrücken.


Ihr Menschen, rühmet Gottes Liebe, BWV 167

History and words.

Bach composed in his first year in Leipzig for St. John's Day, soon after he had taken up his position as Thomaskantor. He had delivered an ambitious cantata in 14 movements,, in the first service as cantor on 30 May 1723. In comparison, his first cantata for a saint's feast day in five movements is small scale.  The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Book of Isaiah, "the voice of a preacher in the desert" (), and from the Gospel of Luke, the birth of John the Baptist and the "Benedictus" of Zechariah (). The unknown poet took some phrases from the Gospel, such as the beginning of movement 2, "" (Praise be to the Lord God of Israel), as in the canticle. The poetry follows the thought that Jesus, born of a woman (), is predicted to redeem sins, which are represented by the image of the serpent. The poetry concludes with the request to sing praises like Zechariah, fulfilled in the closing chorale, the fifth stanza of Johann Gramann's "" (1549).

Scoring and structure.

The cantata in five movements is scored like chamber music for four vocal soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass), a four-part choir only in the closing chorale, clarino, oboe da caccia, oboe, two violins, viola, and basso continuo. The clarino only doubles the melody of the chorale.

Music.

Different from his first cantatas performed in Leipzig, Bach begins the cantata not with a chorus, but with an aria. Possibly Bach looked at the canticle of Zechariah as an individual's song of praise. The aria is accompanied only by the strings, sometimes a solo violin, sometimes a dense texture of all strings. The following recitative, referring to St. John and Jesus in the course of redemption, ends in an arioso on the lines (to delight with grace and love, and to lead to the kingdom of Heaven in true remorse). This arioso is accompanied by an ostinato movement in the continuo in "a semiquaver, quasi-Alberti figuration". The following duet, accompanied by an obbligato oboe da caccia (the first recorded use of the instrument), achieves a dense texture because the voices and the oboe operate in the same range, often in homophony. The middle section of the da capo structure is again in two different parts. The first part leaves the "three beats in a measure" of the opening section for "common time", four beats. A canon of the voices is accompanied by its beginning motif played both in the oboe and the continuo. The second part returns to the 3/4 but again in new material, endless jubilating runs and repetitions, expressing the joy that "we have, praise God, experienced".  The following recitative ends again in an arioso, when it comes to the request to sing praises like Zechariah. At this point the melody of the following chorale is already present in the bass voice on the words "" (and voice unto him a song of praise). The closing chorale is a general song of praise. Bach did not simply set the melody for four parts, as usual. Instead, he finally used all instruments and voices together. The oboe doubles the violin, a clarino (slide trumpet) comes in for its only appearance, doubling the soprano, the choir is embedded in a concerto of the orchestra. This chorale fantasia setting anticipates the closing chorales of Bach's "Christmas Oratorio" and "Ascension Oratorio", composed more than a decade later.

Recordings.

The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach Cantatas Website.

Johann Sebastian Bach composed the church cantata (You people, glorify God's love), 167 in Leipzig for the Feast of St. John the Baptist (German: "Fest Johannes des Täufers," also "Johannistag") and first performed it on 24 June 1723. It is part of his first cantata cycle in Leipzig.

Ihr Menschen, rühmet Gottes Liebe (BWV 167) ist eine Kirchenkantate von Johann Sebastian Bach. Er komponierte sie in Leipzig für das Fest Johannes des Täufers und führte sie am 24. Juni 1723 zum ersten Mal auf.


Background.

Geography.

After being defeated by General of Division Bonaparte's French army at the Battle of Borghetto, the Austrian army led by Feldzeugmeister Johann Beaulieu abandoned the line of the Mincio River, left a strong garrison in the fortress of Mantua, and retreated north to Trento. On 31 May, the French tried to rush the fortress but the attempt failed. The French invested the place on 3 June.  Together with Legnago, Verona, and Peschiera, Mantua forms part of the famous Quadrilateral of fortresses. To this day, the city is bounded on its north and east sides by a large lake formed by the Mincio River. In 1796, Mantua was nearly surrounded by water and connected by causeways to the fortified suburbs of Cittadella to the north and San Giorgio to the east. In the 18th century, the city was notoriously unhealthy in the warm months. The nearby marshes and lakes were an ideal breeding ground for malaria-carrying mosquitoes, though no one understood this at the time.  Mantua lies in the Po River basin. The Po lies 13 km to the south of the city and Peschiera on Lake Garda is 32 km north. Running due east, a major road connected with Padua via Legnago. Another highway went northeast to Verona and Vicenza. Both roads linked with the Austrian frontier. A number of north-to-south running rivers provide defensible positions on the north side of the Po. The most important river is the Adige which rises in the Alps and runs south on the east side of Lake Garda, going past Verona and Legnago.  From Trento in the north, Austrian armies had secure communications with Innsbruck across the Brenner Pass. An Austrian army at Trento had three ways to reach the Po valley in 1796. The first route used the roads running parallel with the Adige on the east side of Lake Garda. The second route went west of Lake Garda via Riva and Lake Idro to either Brescia or Lonato del Garda. The third route lay to the east through Levico Terme and Borgo Valsugana, then south along the Brenta River valley to Bassano del Grappa. By holding both Trento and Bassano, an Austrian army could move troops and supplies through the mountains without the French being able to interfere.

Siege and blockade.

First relief.

"The Castiglione 1796 Campaign Order of Battle shows French and Austrian units and organizations during the first relief of Mantua."  By requisitioning cannon from all over northern Italy, Bonaparte assembled a siege train of 179 heavy guns. Siege parallels were opened on 4 July and General of Division Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier put in command of operations. Feldmarschall-Leutnant Josef Franz Canto d'Irles commanded the 14,000-man Austrian garrison. Meanwhile, the Austrians replaced Beaulieu with Feldmarschall Wurmser as army commander in Italy.  Wurmser launched the first relief of Mantua at the end of July as a three-pronged attack by 49,000 men. Feldmarschall-Leutnant Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich led a column of 18,000 soldiers to the west of Lake Garda. Wurmser commanded 24,000 men of the two center columns which moved down the Adige River east of Lake Garda. Feldmarschall-Leutnant Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló and 5,000 troops hovered to the east near Vicenza. Bonaparte, who had only 44,000 soldiers, posted his divisions in an arc to protect his siege of Mantua. General of Division André Masséna's 15,000 men held Rivoli Veronese on the upper Adige, General of Division Pierre Augereau with 5,000 troops held Legnago, Sérurier's 10,000 soldiers besieged Mantua, General of Division Pierre François Sauret's 4,500 men defended the west side of Lake Garda, General of Division Hyacinthe Francois Joseph Despinoy's 5,500 covered Peschiera, and 4,000 others were in reserve or on the march.  Wurmser pushed Masséna back and Quosdanovich quickly seized Brescia, forcing Bonaparte to lift the siege on 1 August. The siege cannon being too heavy to move quickly, the French burned the gun carriages and withdrew. The garrison retrieved the abandoned gun tubes and dragged them into the city. Up to this point, the French besiegers suffered 1,200 killed and wounded, plus 898 captured. The defenders lost 492 killed or died of disease, 395 wounded, and 87 captured or deserted. There were also 3,275 soldiers on the sick list.  After a complex series of actions, Quosdanovich's column came to grief at the Battle of Lonato on 3 August and retreated. Bonaparte then turned on Wurmser and defeated him at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August. Before retreating up the Adige valley, Wurmser threw two brigades into the fortress and evacuated some of the sick. Because of the loss of his heavy cannons, Bonaparte could no longer try to reduce Mantua by breaching its walls. Instead, he was forced to blockade the city.

Second relief.

"The Bassano 1796 Campaign Order of Battle shows French and Austrian units and organizations during the second relief of Mantua." At the beginning of September, 14,000 Austrians under Feldmarschall-Leutnant Paul Davidovich held the upper Adige valley to the north. With the rest of the army, Wurmser marched down the Brenta valley to the vicinity of Bassano. The Austrian plan was for both corps to probe cautiously forward. If an opportunity arose, they were to march to Mantua's relief. Wurmser's chief-of-staff, Feldmarschall-Leutnant Franz von Lauer believed that the French were incapable of quickly reacting to an Austrian offensive. This proved to be a serious miscalculation. Bonaparte sent General of Division Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois and 10,000 men north on the west side of Lake Garda. Masséna with 13,000 and Augereau with 10,000 men advanced north up the Adige valley. General of Division Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine blockaded Mantua with 8,000 in General of Division Jean Sahuguet's division and a 2,000-man reserve.  Bonaparte's concentration of three divisions overwhelmed Davidovich at the Battle of Rovereto on 4 September. Leaving Vaubois in Trento to watch the remnants of Davidovich's corps, Bonaparte boldly decided to cut loose from his supply line and follow in Wurmser's wake. He directed Masséna and Augereau east through Levico and Borgo, then south down the Brenta valley. Augereau dispersed the Austrian rearguard at Primolano on 7 September. The two French divisions fell upon Wurmser and beat him badly at the Battle of Bassano on 8 September. Instead of retreating to the east, Wurmser joined the division of Mészáros and headed west for Mantua with Bonaparte in hot pursuit. Hoping to annihilate his adversary before he reached Mantua, the French commander sent Augereau to Padua to prevent Wurmser from escaping to the east and Masséna through Vicenza and Arcole.  Masséna intercepted General-major Peter Karl Ott von Batorkez's vanguard at Cerea on 11 September, but the Austrian gamely held on until Wurmser's main force came up to deal the French a bloody repulse. Aided by a local guide, Wurmser slipped past Sahuguet's blocking force to reach the fortress the next day. The 1,600-man Austrian rearguard surrendered to Augereau at Legnago on 13 September.  Wurmser arrived at the fortress with 10,367 infantry and 2,856 cavalry. On 15 September, the Austrian field marshal stood to fight a pitched battle on the east side of the Mincio, with his left flank at La Favorita Palace and his right in front of the San Giorgio suburb. Bonaparte sent Sahuguet to attack La Favorita and Augereau's division (temporarily led by General of Brigade Louis André Bon) to assault Wurmser's right. Masséna advanced in the center. Ott fought off Sahuguet all day, but the Austrian right and center crumbled. The Austrians withdrew into Cittadella and the French captured San Giorgio. Austrian losses numbered 2,452 men and 11 guns, while the French lost 1,500 and nine guns.  At this time, there were nearly 30,000 Austrians crowded into Mantua. Within six weeks, 4,000 died from wounds or sickness. During the next two weeks Wurmser organized foraging expeditions to the south of the city which gathered some supplies for the beleaguered garrison. On 23 September, a sortie by Ott and General-major Ferdinand Minckwitz suffered a stinging defeat at Governolo with 1,000 casualties. By 29 September, Kilmaine closely reinvested the fortress.

Third relief.

"The Arcola 1796 Campaign Order of Battle shows French and Austrian units and organizations during the third relief of Mantua."  Feldzeugmeister József Alvinczi began the third relief attempt in early November. Alvinczi and Quosdanovich led the 28,000 troops of the Friaul Corps from the Piave River toward the west. Meanwhile, Davidovich's Tyrol Corps was reinforced to 19,000 men. Bonaparte planned to hold the Austrians by deploying Vaubois with 10,500 men near Trento and Masséna with 9,500 at Bassano. Augereau lay at Verona with 8,500, Kilmaine blockaded Mantua with about 10,000 men, and there were 5,000 more in reserve units. After a clash at Cembra on 2 November, Davidovich pressed the outnumbered Vaubois back and captured Trento. At the Battle of Calliano the Tyrol Corps routed Vaubois on 7 November. Meanwhile, Bonaparte brought forward Augereau and Francois Macquard to attack Alvinczi at the Second Battle of Bassano on 6 November with 19,500 troops. In a bitter fight, the French were defeated. Bonaparte pulled the divisions of Augereau and Masséna back to Verona. He then sent Masséna to stabilize the situation in the Adige valley. Believing incorrectly that Masséna's division was present, Davidovich slowed his advance to a crawl. Issuing out of Verona, Bonaparte attacked the Austrians at the Battle of Caldiero on 12 November and was repulsed again.  At this point, the French commander almost decided to retreat to the Adda River. But Bonaparte soon realized that the Austrian generals were being slow to take advantage of their opportunities. He determined to attack the Austrians again, leaving Macquard and 3,000 men to hold Verona in Alvinczi's front. Taking every spare soldier from Vaubois and Kilmaine, Bonaparte sent Masséna and Augereau to cross the Adige south of the Austrian positions and turn the enemy left flank. In the Battle of Arcole which lasted from 15 to 17 November, Bonaparte defeated Alvinczi and caused him to withdraw to the east. Also on the 17th, Davidovich smashed Vaubois at Rivoli. Having temporarily disposed of Alvinczi, Bonaparte turned on the Tyrol Corps and sent it fleeing northward. While this was going on, Alvinczi reoccupied his former position at Caldiero and Arcole. But when he heard that Davidovich was no longer in the field, he withdrew the Friaul Corps to Bassano. With a horrible sense of timing, Wurmser tried to break out of Mantua on 23 November. The Austrians lost 789 men and captured 200 Frenchmen. When his prisoners informed him that Davidovich's corps was routed, Wurmser pulled back into the fortress. One source noted that the Arcole campaign cost the Austrians 17,832 casualties while estimating French losses at 19,500.

Fourth relief.

"The Rivoli 1797 Campaign Order of Battle shows French and Austrian units and organizations during the fourth relief of Mantua."  Alvinczi massed his main body of 28,000 men in the north for the fourth attempt to relieve Mantua. The Austrian commander sent Feldmarschall-Leutnant Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza with 6,200 men to move southeast from Bassano and demonstrate in front of Verona. Alvinczi ordered Feldmarschall-Leutnant Giovanni Marchese di Provera with 9,000 soldiers and a bridging train to advance from Padua, cross the Adige near Legnago, and relieve Mantua.  To defend against these forces, Bonaparte deployed Brevet General of Division Barthélemy Catherine Joubert's 10,300-man division near Rivoli in the upper Adige valley, Masséna's 9,000 men at Verona, Augereau's 9,000 troops behind the Adige near Legnago, General of Division Gabriel Venance Rey's 4,000 soldiers west of Lake Garda, and Sérurier's 10,000 blockading Mantua. A 2,000-man infantry brigade under General of Brigade Claude Perrin Victor and three small cavalry brigades remained in reserve.  On 7 January, Provera began to move and Bajalics started his advance the next day. By 10 January, Provera and Bajalics were menacing Legnago and Verona, while Alvinczi's army started its march from the north. On the afternoon of 13 January, Bonaparte realized the main Austrian attack was coming from the north. Accordingly, he ordered Masséna, Rey, and Victor to march to Joubert's aid. That night, Provera crossed the Adige above Legnago at Angiari and marched for Mantua, leaving 2,000 men as a bridge guard.  On 14 January, Bonaparte inflicted a severe drubbing on Alvinczi's army at the Battle of Rivoli. Leaving Joubert, Rey, and Victor to finish off Alvinczi's crippled army, the French commander ordered Masséna south the next day. Meanwhile, Augereau captured Provera's bridge guard and moved west. Provera's advance guard failed to break through Sérurier's blockade and a breakout attempt by Wurmser was repelled at dawn on 16 January. That day, surrounded by Masséna, Augereau, and Sérurier, and unable to get through to Mantua, Provera surrendered at La Favorita with 6,000 men. By this time, Alvinczi's main body lost 4,000 killed and wounded, plus a staggering 8,000 soldiers captured. The French suffered 3,200 casualties at Rivoli.

Capitulation.

After the Rivoli disaster, Wurmser held out two more weeks before capitulating on 2 February. During the siege and blockade, the Austrians reported 16,333 killed and wounded in action or died of disease. In recognition of his stout defense, the old field marshal was freed with his staff and an escort of 700 soldiers and 6 cannon. The rest of the garrison marched out with the honors of war and were paroled on the condition not to fight against France until exchanged. Only 16,000 Austrians were fit enough to march out under their own power. Historian David G. Chandler reports that as many as 18,000 Austrians and 7,000 French died during the siege. His health ruined, Canto d'Irles died shortly afterward. The fortress, with 325 cannon, passed into French control. Bonaparte also recovered the 179 guns lost in August 1796. While the Austrians desperately scraped together another army, Bonaparte consolidated his position in northern Italy by crushing the army of the Papal States at the Battle of Faenza. In March he launched a final offensive against Vienna.

Commentary.

It did not help their cause that the Austrian generals faced a military genius in Bonaparte. But they also pursued a flawed strategy. Chandler wrote, "Throughout the whole year, the lure of Mantua continued to exert a fatal attraction over the Austrian field forces and led them to one costly failure after another."  Chandler added, "In each of the four attempts to relieve Mantua, the Austrian high command divided their forces into unconnected parts routed along divergent lines of advance, which made coordinated effort impossible, hoping thereby to divert Bonaparte's attention and cause the fragmentation of his forces. In the event, however, they only laid their own forces open to defeat in detail, throwing away the chance of commanding a decisive numerical superiority on the critical battlefield, thus violating the principle of true economy of force."

During the Siege of Mantua, which lasted from 4 July 1796 to 2 February 1797 with a short break, French forces under the overall command of Napoleon Bonaparte besieged and blockaded a large Austrian garrison at Mantua for many months until it surrendered. This eventual surrender, together with the heavy losses incurred during four unsuccessful relief attempts, led indirectly to the Austrians suing for peace in 1797. The siege occurred during the War of the First Coalition, which is part of the French Revolutionary Wars. Mantua, a city in the Lombardy region of Italy, lies on the Mincio River.

Die Belagerung von Mantua war Teil des Italienfeldzuges von Napoleon Bonaparte, der vor allem gegen Österreich gerichtet war. Mantua nahm eine strategische Schlüsselstellung ein, weil es den Zugang nach Tirol beherrschte, und war schließlich die letzte österreichische Bastion in Norditalien. Die Belagerung begann Anfang Juni 1796. Wegen des Herannahen eines österreichischen Entsatzheeres musste Napoleon die Belagerung am 31. Juli aufheben. In verschiedenen Gefechten und Schlachten blieb Napoleon siegreich, sodass er seit Ende August die Stadt erneut blockieren ließ. Weitere Entsatzversuche der Österreicher schlugen fehl, und der inzwischen in der Stadt kommandierende Feldmarschall Dagobert Wurmser kapitulierte am 2. Februar 1797. Die Belagerung kostete nicht nur durch direkte Kriegshandlungen, sondern vor allem durch Seuchen auf beiden Seiten zahlreiche Opfer.


Description.

Blood parrots are often bright orange in coloration, but there are other colors that they can have naturally, such as red, yellow or gray. Other colors may be produced by dyeing the fish, which can shorten life expectancy. Some fish have been injected with a colored dye by the breeder. Another modification, generally considered inhumane by enthusiasts, involves cutting the tail while small which causes the fish to grow into a heart shape; these are usually sold under the name of "heart parrots". As the press has brought this practice to light, the majority of fish stockists will no longer sell these modified fish. Adult fish can grow to a length of 8 inches (20 centimeters) and reach an age of 10 to 15 years. Various breeds of blood parrots have been developed, such as the "King Kong parrot", which typically vary in color from red to yellow. They have fully functioning mouths with less of a nuchal deformity and grow larger. They are usually considered more valuable than the traditional blood parrots.

Genetic defects.

As a result of hybridization of the parent species, the fish have several anatomical deformities, including a beak-shaped mouth that cannot fully close, which they compensate for by crushing food with the throat muscles, a deformed nuchal hump, and compressed vertebrae. Some commercial foods have been developed specifically to be easy for blood parrots to ingest, and recently some blood parrots have been selectively bred to be able to completely close their mouths. Blood parrots sometimes can have deformed swim bladders, causing an awkward swimming pattern; and unusually large, and often deformed irises.

Breeding.

Male blood parrots generally are infertile, but successful breeding has occurred. Normally, a female blood parrot lays eggs on a hard surface, and both parents guard the eggs unless the brood develops fungus, at which time the eggs will be consumed by either the parents or other fish. However, fish farms have begun introducing male blood parrots injected with a hormone to increase fertility. Most female blood parrots are fertile.

Aquarium.

Blood parrots are hardy and may be housed by enthusiasts singly, in schools, or with complementary species under a variety of conditions. Sufficient lighting can be provided by a variety of compact fluorescent lamps without the use of T5 or halide fixtures. The fish are voracious eaters and generate significant uneaten debris during feeding. High volume filtration and frequent substrate suctioning is recommended to minimize nitrates.  They are often very shy in the aquarium and therefore they require hiding spots. These hiding spots make them feel more secure, more likely to adapt, and become more active in the new aquarium setup if they know where to hide if needed.

The blood parrot cichlid (or more commonly and formally known as parrot cichlid; no binomial nomenclature) is a hybrid thought to be between the midas and the redhead cichlid, although the true parent species has not been confirmed by breeders. The fish was first bred in Taiwan around 1986. Blood parrots should not be confused with other parrot cichlids or salt water parrotfish (family Scaridae). Natural colors of the fish are red, yellow, and grey: other colors are injected by breeders.

Der Papageienbuntbarsch, Red Parrot (Bloodparrot, Bloody Parrot), Parrot cichlide, manchmal auch Papageienbarsch genannt, ist ein rundlicher, hochrückiger deformierter Fisch mit einem eigenartig, fast schnabelartig geformten Maul und einem oft deutlich vom Rumpf unterscheidbaren Kopf mit großen Augen. Nach Auffassung von Fachleuten im Sinne von Tierschutzgesetz wird er als Qualzucht eingestuft.


Early life and education.

Xi was born on 15 October 1913, to a land-owning family, in rural Fuping County, Shaanxi. He joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in May 1926 and took part in student demonstrations in the spring of 1928, for which he was imprisoned by the ruling nationalist authorities. In prison, he joined the Communist Party of China in 1928.

Career.

Red Army.

In early 1930, he joined the Nationalists' Northwest Army under the command of Yang Hucheng and in March 1932, launched a coup within that army in Liangdang, Gansu. Subsequently, he joined Communist guerillas north of the Wei River. In March 1933, he joined Liu Zhidan and others in founding the Shaanxi–Gansu (Shaangan) Border Region Soviet Area, and became the chairman of the Soviet area government while leading guerillas in resisting Nationalist incursions and expanding the Soviet area. In early 1935, the Shaanxi–Gansu Border and Northern Shaanxi Soviet Areas merged to form the Revolutionary Base Area of the Northwest and Xi became one of the leaders of the base area. But in September 1935, he along with Liu Zhidan and Gao Gang were jailed during a Leftist rectification campaign within the party. By his own account, he was within four days of being executed when Mao Zedong arrived on the scene and ordered Xi and his comrades released. Xi's guerrilla base in the Northwest gave refuge to Mao Zedong and the party center, and allowed them to end the Long March. It is said that Xi's "Revolutionary Base Area of the Northwest saved the Party Center and the Party Center saved the revolutionaries of the Northwest." The base area eventually became the Yan'an Soviet, the headquarters of the Chinese Communist movement until 1947.

Sino-Japanese War.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Xi stayed in the Yan'an Soviet to manage civilian and military affairs, boost economic production within the Soviet, and implement party policies. He was known for evaluating policies based on empirical assessment and resisting "leftist" extremism in implementing party directives. At the 7th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in August 1945, he was named an alternate member of the Central Committee and became the deputy director of the party's organization department, in charge of making personnel decision. As World War II in China was winding down, he defeated Nationalist attack on the Yan'an Soviet at Futaishan and assisted the breakout of Wang Zhen's 359 Brigade from the North China Plains.

Chinese Civil War and post-war transition.

With the outbreak of full-scale civil war between Communists and Nationalists in early 1947, Xi remained in northwestern China to coordinate the protection and then recapture of the Yan'an Soviet Area. As political commissar, Xi and commander Zhang Zongxun defeated Nationalists west of Yan'an at the Battle of Xihuachi in March 1947. After Yan'an fell to Hu Zongnan on 19 March 1947, Xi worked on the staff of Peng Dehuai in the battles to retake Yan'an and capture northwest China.  Xi directed the political work of the Northwest Political and Military Affairs Bureau, which was tasked with bringing Communist governance to the newly captured areas of the Northwest. In this capacity, Xi was known for his moderate policies and the use of non-military means to pacify rebellious areas.  In July 1951, following the Communists' defeat of the Ma Clique armies in Qinghai, remnants of the Muslim warlords incited rebellion among Tibetan tribesmen. Among those who took up arms was chieftain Xiang Qian of the Nganglha Tribe in eastern Qinghai. As the PLA sent troops to quell the uprising, Xi Zhongxun urged for a political solution. Numerous envoys including Geshe Sherab Gyatso and the Panchen Lama went to negotiate. Though Xiang Qian rebuffed dozens of offers and the PLA managed to capture the chieftain's villages, Xi continued to pursue a political solution. He released captured tribesmen, offered generous terms to Xiang Qian and forgave those who took part in the uprising. In July 1952, Xiang Qian returned from hiding in the mountains, pledged his allegiance to the People's Republic and was invited by Xi to attend the graduation ceremony of the Nationalities College in Lanzhou. In 1953, Xiang Qiang became the chief of Jainca County. Mao compared Xi's deft treatment of Xiang Qian to Zhuge Liang's conciliation of Meng Huo in the "Romance of the Three Kingdoms".  Also in 1952, Xi Zhongxun halted the campaign of Wang Zhen and Deng Liqun to implement land reform and class struggle to pastoralist regions of Xinjiang. Xi, based on experience in Inner Mongolia, advised against assigning class labels and waging class struggle among pastoralists, but was ignored by Wang and Deng who directed the seizure of livestock from landowners and land from religious authorities. The policies inflamed social unrest in pastoralist northern Xinjiang where Ospan Batyr uprising had just been quelled. With the support of Mao, Xi reversed the policies, had Wang Zhen relieved from Xinjiang and released over a thousand herders from prison.  When the 14th Dalai Lama visited Beijing in 1954 for several months of political meetings and studies in Chinese and Marxism, Xi spent time with the Tibetan leader, who fondly recalled Xi as "very friendly, comparatively open-minded, very nice." As a gift, the Dalai Lama gave Xi an Omega watch. When the Dalai Lama's brother visited Beijing in the early 1980s, Xi was still wearing that watch.

Political career in Beijing, purge, rehabilitation and retirement.

In September 1952, Xi Zhongxun became chief of the party's propaganda department and supervised cultural and education policies. At the 8th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 1956, he was elected a member of the CPC Central Committee. In 1959, he became a vice-premier and worked under Zhou Enlai in directing the State Council's lawmaking and policy research functions.  In 1962, he was accused of leading an anti-party clique for supporting the "Biography of Liu Zhidan", and purged from all leadership positions. The biography, written by Li Jiantong () to commemorate Xi's former comrade who died a party martyr in 1936, was alleged to be a covert effort to subvert the party by rehabilitating Gao Gang, another former comrade who had been purged in 1954. Xi Zhongxun was forced to undergo self-critique and in 1965 was demoted to the position of a deputy manager of a tractor factory in Luoyang. During the Cultural Revolution, he was persecuted, jailed and spent long periods in confinement in Beijing. He regained his freedom in May 1975 and was assigned to another factory in Luoyang.  After the Cultural Revolution ended, Xi was fully rehabilitated at the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee in December 1978. From 1978 to 1981, he held leadership roles in Guangdong Province, successively as the second and then first provincial secretary, governor and political commissar of the Guangdong Military Region. In Guangdong, he stabilized the provincial government and began to liberalize the economy. When he first arrived in Guangdong, the provincial government was struggling to hold back the tide of Guangdong residents trying to flee to Hong Kong. At the time, daily wages in Guangdong averaged 0.70 yuan, about 1/100 of wages in Hong Kong. Xi understood the disparity in standards of living and called for economic liberalisation in Guangdong. To do so, he needed to win over leaders in Beijing skeptical of the market economy. In meetings in April 1979, he convinced Deng Xiaoping to permit Guangdong to make its own foreign trade policy decisions and to invite foreign investment to projects in experimental areas along the provincial border with Hong Kong and Macau and in Shantou, which has a large overseas diaspora. As for the name of the experimental areas, Deng said, "let's call them,'special zones', [after all, your] Shaanxi-Gansu Border Region began as a'special zone'." Deng added, "The Central Government has no funds, but we can give you some favorable policies." Borrowing a phrase from their guerrilla war days, Deng told Xi, "You have to find a way, to fight a bloody path out." Xi submitted a formal proposal on the creation of special zones, later renamed special economic zones and in July 1979, the party center and State Council approved the creation of the first four special economic zones.  In 1981, Xi returned to Beijing and was elected the deputy chair of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and also held the chair of the legal affairs committee. In this capacity, he oversaw the drafting of numerous laws. In September 1982, he was elected to the Politburo and the party secretariat. In 1987, Deng Xiaoping and powerful elder Chen Yun were dissatisfied with the liberal inclination of Hu Yaobang, and called a meeting to force Hu to resign General Secretary. Xi was the only one that defended Hu. He retired from public service in April 1988 and spent most of his retirement years in Shenzhen.

Personal life and death.

In 1936, Xi married Hao Mingzhu, the niece of revolutionary fighter Wu Daifeng, in Shaanxi. The union lasted until 1944, and the couple had three children: one son, Xi Fuping (aka Xi Zhengning), and two daughters, Xi Heping, and Xi Ganping. According to official records, Xi Heping died during the Cultural Revolution due to persecution, which historians have concluded means that she most likely committed suicide under duress. Little is known about Xi Ganping, except that she was retired by 2013 and regularly appears at meetings of red princelings. Xi Zhengning, meanwhile, was a researcher in the Ministry of Defence but later pursued a bureaucratic career; he died in 1998.  In 1944, Xi Zhongxun married Qi Xin, his second wife, and had four children: Qi Qiaoqiao, Xi An'an, Xi Jinping and Xi Yuanping. Xi Jinping became the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and Chairman of the Central Military Commission from 15 November 2012, and has been President of the People's Republic of China since March 2013.  Xi Zhongxun died 24 May 2002. His official obituary described him as "an outstanding proletarian revolutionary," "a great communist soldier," and "one of the main founders and leaders of the revolutionary base areas in the Shaanxi-Gansu border region."

Xi Zhongxun (15 October 1913 – 24 May 2002) was a Chinese communist revolutionary and a subsequent political official in the People's Republic of China. He is considered to be among the first generation of Chinese leadership. The contributions he made to the Chinese communist revolution and the development of the People's Republic, from the founding of Communist guerrilla bases in northwestern China in the 1930s to initiation of economic liberalization in southern China in the 1980s, are numerous and broad. He was known for political moderation and for the setbacks he endured in his career. He was imprisoned and purged several times. Xi was also the father of Xi Jinping, the current paramount leader of China and General Secretary of the Communist Party.

Xi Zhongxun () (* 15. Oktober 1913 in Fuping (Weinan), Shaanxi; † 24. Mai 2002) war ein kommunistischer chinesischer Politiker und Revolutionär sowie Mitglied des Staatsrat der Volksrepublik China. Er wird der ersten Führungsgeneration in der Volksrepublik China zugerechnet. Er war der Vater von Xi Jinping.


Biography.

Hatton was born in either Steubenville or Youngstown, Ohio (sources differ). His father, Rev. Robert Clopton Hatton, was a Methodist preacher. Early in his life, in 1842, his family moved to Tennessee. He graduated from Cumberland University, then studied law there at Cumberland School of Law. He established a successful practice in Lebanon, Tennessee, after passing the bar exam in 1850. He joined the Whig Party and was elected to the State Legislature in 1855. He unsuccessfully ran for governor in 1857. In 1858, he was elected US Representative from the 5th District as an Opposition Party candidate (the Whig party had collapsed). In the Thirty-sixth Congress, he served as chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of the Navy.  Hatton believed that the Union should be preserved and initially opposed secession. However, after President Lincoln called for volunteers to put down rebellion, Hatton became a secessionist. He formed a Confederate military unit, the Lebanon Blues, which became a part of the 7th Tennessee Infantry. Hatton was soon elected as colonel of the regiment, which was sent to western Virginia in July 1861.  In 1862, Hatton and his men were ordered to the Richmond area to oppose the Federal drive on the Confederate capital. During the resulting Peninsula Campaign, Hatton served with distinction, and on May 23, 1862, he was promoted to brigadier general of the 4th Brigade, 1st Division, Army of Northern Virginia; this appointment was not confirmed by the Confederate Congress. Just eight days later, he was shot in the head and killed while leading his Tennessee Brigade at the Battle of Fair Oaks.  His body was returned to Tennessee for burial, but because Middle Tennessee was occupied by Federal troops, he was temporarily buried at Knoxville. On March 23, 1866, he was reburied in Lebanon's Cedar Grove Cemetery. A statue of him was erected in Lebanon's town square in 1912.

Honors.

The Robert H. Hatton Camp #723 of the Sons of Confederate Veterans is named in his memory and honor.

External links.

Retrieved on 2009-05-03

Robert Hopkins Hatton (November 2, 1826 – May 31, 1862) was a lawyer and politician from Tennessee. He was a state legislator and US Representative, and a Confederate General during the American Civil War.

Robert Hopkins Hatton (* 2. November 1826 in Steubenville, Ohio; † 31. Mai 1862 bei Richmond Virginia) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1859 und 1861 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Tennessee im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Playing career.

Brodin signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Minnesota Wild on 12 July 2011.  On 3 November 2012, during the 2012–13 NHL lockout, Brodin made his debut with the Wild's American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate at the time, the Houston Aeros. In the game, as Brodin went into his defensive zone to retrieve the puck, Oklahoma City Barons forward Taylor Hall checked Brodin and broke his clavicle. The hit sidelined him for 11 weeks; Hall was given a five-minute major and game misconduct for intent to injure, although he received no further discipline. After the injury healed enough, Brodin was called-up to make his NHL debut against the Detroit Red Wings on 25 January 2013, where he skated 19:05 and earned his first point, an assist, in the Wild's 5–3 defeat.  Brodin skated in 45 games in his rookie season, mostly being paired with Ryan Suter. This duo became one of the top pairings with the Wild. On 14 March 2013, Brodin scored his first NHL goal, on Semyon Varlamov of the Colorado Avalanche; his parents were in attendance to see it. Brodin led all rookies in time on ice and tallied 2 goals and 9 assists for 11 points in his rookie year. He barely missed being named a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy for the NHL's best rookie. He has been praised by teammates, fans and opponents for playing very poised and playing a calm style of hockey, and his defensive partner Suter has said that Brodin plays like a 30-year-old veteran that has been around the league for 10 years.  In his sophomore season, Brodin played 79 games, and increased his point total to 19 points, with 8 goals and 11 assists.  On 12 October 2014, the Wild signed Brodin to a six-year, $25 million contract extension.

Jonas Brodin (born 12 July 1993) is a Swedish professional ice hockey player currently playing for the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was drafted tenth overall by the Wild in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft. Born in Karlstad, he was raised in Edsvalla.

Jonas Brodin (* 12. Juli 1993 in Karlstad) ist ein schwedischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit 2011 bei den Minnesota Wild in der National Hockey League unter Vertrag steht. Mit der schwedischen Nationalmannschaft gewann der Verteidiger bei der Weltmeisterschaft 2017 die Goldmedaille.


Name.

The origin of the town name is the plural form of the Romanian archaic word "dubăsar" ("boatman"), a derivative of "dubă" ("a small wooden boat"), so "Dubăsari" means "boatmen".

History.

Dubăsari is the site of one of the oldest settlements in Moldova, and the Transnistrian region. Stone Age artifacts have been found in the area, and there are several kurgans (presumed Scythian) around the city. First mentions of modern Dubăsari date to the beginning of the 16th century, as a fair populated by Moldavian peasants. The settlement became part of the Russian Empire in 1792, and was granted city status in 1795. It was part of Kherson Governorate from 1803 to 1922.  In 1924–1940, Dubăsari was part of the Soviet-created Moldavian ASSR. The town was heavily industrialized during the pre-WWII period. In the course of World War II, in 1940, when Bessarabia was occupied by the Soviet Union, it became part of the newly created Moldavian SSR. On 27 July 1941, the town was occupied by German and Romanian troops. It was re-captured by Soviet forces in the summer of 1944.  In 1951–1954, the Dubăsari dam, and a 48 MW hydroelectric power plant "Dubossarskaya GES" was constructed, and Dubossary Reservoir was formed.  Dubăsari and its suburbs were the site of major conflict during 1990–1992, that eventually culminated in the War of Transnistria (1992). Since then, it has been controlled by the breakaway administration of Transnistria.  The city's economy was significantly damaged during the war in 1992.

Population.

In 1989, the population of the city was 35,806, including 15,414 Moldovans, 10,718 Ukrainians, 8,087 Russians, and 1,587 others. According to the 2004 Census in Transnistria, the city had 23,650 inhabitants, including 8,954 Moldovans, 8,062 Ukrainians, 5,891 Russians, 153 Belarusians, 104 Bulgarians, 90 Armenians, 49 Poles, 66 Gagauzians, 46 Jews, 39 Germans, 31 Gypsies, and 165 others and non-declared.

Dubăsari (; Moldovan Cyrillic: "Дубэсарь") or Dubossary (; ; ) is a city in Transnistria, with a population of 23,650. Claimed by both the Republic of Moldova and the Transnistrian Moldavian Republic, the city is under the latter's administration, and functions as the seat of the Dubăsari (Dubossary) District.

Dubăsari (bzw. ; ) ist eine Bezirksstadt am Dnister in Transnistrien. Mit knapp 26.000 Einwohnern ist sie nach Tiraspol, Bender und Rîbnița die viertgrößte Stadt Transnistriens und Bezirkshauptstadt des Rajon Dubossary. Dubăsari liegt verkehrsgünstig, weil sich hier die Nord-Süd-Verbindung M4, die Hauptstraße Transnistriens von Tiraspol nach Rîbnița, und die Ost-West-Verbindung M21 von Chișinău nach Odessa kreuzen.


Career.

1989–98: En Vogue.

In July 1989, Robinson auditioned for a female group. Robinson was one of four women selected to become part of the group which became En Vogue. The four began recording their debut album in August 1989 and completed in December of the same year. In 1990, En Vogue released their first single "Hold On", which became a number-one single. Later this year, the group released their debut album "Born to Sing", which went platinum. The group released their next multi-platinum album "Funky Divas" in 1992. Robinson sang lead vocals on the album's top-charting singles which included "My Lovin' (You're Never Gonna Get It)", "Giving Him Something He Can Feel", and "Free Your Mind", which remains one of their signature songs. "Free Your Mind" won two MTV Video Music Awards, for "Best R&B Video" and "Best Dance Video". En Vogue released an EP in the Fall 1993, titled "Runaway Love". The extended play featured Robinson's lead vocals on the number-one hit "Whatta Man", which featured Salt-n-Pepa. The song also appeared on Salt-N-Pepa's "Very Necessary" album.  In 1996, En Vogue recorded "Don't Let Go (Love)" with Robinson singing lead vocals. The song featured on the soundtrack to the motion picture "Set It Off". Released in the autumn, it became the group's biggest hit to date going number one worldwide. It also sold millions of copies and became certified platinum by the RIAA. Inadvertently, it would also be the last En Vogue single to feature Robinson. One of Robinson's last performances with the group came in October of that year, when the group sang the last national anthem rendition in the history of Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta, which came in game five of the 1996 World Series. In response to the large commercial success of "Don't Let Go (Love)", the group steadfastly went to work on its third album. As the album was nearing completion, Robinson chose to leave the group in April 1997 after difficult contractual negotiations reached a stalemate. Despite Robinson's abrupt departure, En Vogue resolved to continue as a trio. Later that year, Robinson contributed to The Firm on their hit song "Firm Biz" which sampled Teena Marie's single "Square Biz". In 1998 Robinson recorded "Rock Steady" for the movie "Dr. Dolittle".

1999–2000: Lucy Pearl.

In 1999, Robinson appeared in and recorded the jazz classic "Drop Me Off in Harlem" for the movie "Life". Later the same year, Robinson joined Lucy Pearl. The group released their self-titled debut album Lucy Pearl in May 2000 on EMI Records, which sold over a million copies worldwide. The album's lead single "Dance Tonight" charted at number five on the R&B singles chart as well as at number thirty-five on the Billboard Hot 100. Following the release of their album, Lucy Pearl toured in the United States and internationally making several television appearances on shows that including "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", "The Chris Rock Show" and "Later with Jools Holland". In October 2000, Lucy Pearl released the second single "Don't Mess with My Man", which became the group's most successful single in the UK, peaking at number 20 in the UK Singles Chart. It also garnered success in France where it peaked at number 14. In the United States, the song was just as successful as their debut single "Dance Tonight", peaking at number thirty-five on the Billboard Hot 100. Shortly after the release of their second single, Robinson left the group due to the lack of fair compensation within the group. After unsuccessfully trying to negotiate a fair agreement with her bandmate Raphael Saadiq, Robinson quit the group and was replaced by Joi. However, Lucy Pearl disbanded in 2001 and did not release a second album.

2001–06: "Dawn" and return to En Vogue.

In 2001, Robinson had signed with Dr. Dre's Aftermath Records. After leaving Aftermath Records, Robinson released a solo album titled "Dawn", on "Q Records" a division of QVC and Atlantic Records in January 2002. Robinson also went on several national telecasts promoting the single. In 2005, after an eight-year absence, Robinson reunited En Vogue. With Robinson part of En Vogue (completing the original line-up), they went on to sign with one of the industry's largest management firms, The Firm Management Group. In September 2005, they joined Salt N Pepa for the girl groups' first-ever joint public performance of their 1994 hit, "Whatta Man" at "VH-1's Hip Hop Honors". They also earned another Grammy nomination for the single "So What the Fuss", which featured Stevie Wonder and Prince (on guitar). The group also appeared in the single's music video. After failing to agree on business terms, Robinson again chose to leave En Vogue and was replaced by Rhona Bennett. As a result, En Vogue was let go from The Firm.

2008–11: Solo career and final return to En Vogue.

In April, 2008, Robinson started touring and doing private events, performing songs she recorded with En Vogue and Lucy Pearl. Later that year, Robinson reunited with En Vogue and performed at the 2008 BET Awards along with Alicia Keys, SWV, and TLC. In 2009, Robinson joined En Vogue for their "20th Anniversary Tour". In 2010, all four members appeared on the cover of "Jet" magazine to promote their reunion tour. Following their reunion tour, Robinson decided not to record on the new En Vogue album due in the fall of 2011 after failing to reach an agreement. On September 26, 2011, Ellis, Jones & Herron without Robinson, debuted their new single "I'll Cry Later" from their forthcoming album that was planned for a December release. Negotiations for the album release resulted in Robinson leaving En Vogue which was discussed with Jones on "Access Hollywood" nearly a year later on October 17, 2012. Robinson and Jones talked about the contract issues and poor management of En Vogue.

2012: Heirs to the Throne.

In October 2012, Dawn and Maxine Jones appeared on "Access Hollywood" to announce they are forming a new girl group named Heirs to the Throne. The duo launched their website, Twitter, and Facebook for the new group. They also performed at several venues. The following year, Robinson and Jones parted ways and Jones went on to form her own group called "En Vogue to the Max". It was later announced that the former group mates Cindy Herron and Terry Ellis sued Maxine Jones for use of the En Vogue name and demanding $1 million for damages. However, Ellis and Herron could not demonstrate harm done to the company from Jones' use of the name. Robinson participated as a witness in the trial but ultimately stated that she was not directly involved in the dispute as she had surrendered her rights to use the name herself when she departed from the LLC years earlier.

2013–2018: "R&B Divas" and solo career.

In 2013, Robinson joined the cast of "". The series premiered on TV One on July 10, 2013. The series chronicles the lives of R&B singers Robinson, Lil Mo, Chanté Moore, Kelly Price, Claudette Ortiz, and Michel'le as they balance their music careers and personal lives. It is a spinoff to "". Throughout the series, Robinson introduced us to her celebrity boyfriend Christopher Nils Connolly. The reunion, which Robinson did not participate in, was filmed on August 6, 2013, with Wendy Williams as the host. Robinson turned down her option and will not be appearing in the second season of the show. Bravo have apparently shown interest in Robinson and Connolly doing their own reality show. Robinson was to begin touring with selected cast members from both "R&B Divas LA" and "Atlanta" within the United States. In November 2014, on TMZ Live, Robinson threatened to sue Lifetime if it did not change its marketing which falsely claimed the four original members were involved in "An En Vogue Christmas", a movie only consisting of two original En Vogue members: Cindy Herron, Terry Ellis; and Rhona Bennett. In 2017, Robinson told Hollywood correspondent Noreen Lanie she is working on a new album; however, a release date has not been confirmed.

2019–present: The Funky Divas.

In October 2019, Robinson reunited with En Vogue for an on-stage performance to salute music industry executive Sylvia Rhone at the City of Hope Gala 2019. This marked the first time all five members performed together. In late 2019, Robinson and Maxine Jones began touring under the group name The Funky Divas.

Artistry.

Voice and Vocal Range.

Dawn’s vocal range spans two octaves and five notes. She is a dynamic lyric soprano. As a member of En Vogue, Robinson was often credited for harmonizing the highest parts of their songs. Her lowest note was recorded on the song "Don't Let Go (Love)" wherein she sang an E3. Her highest note was recorded on “Part of Me" from their Born to Sing album, whereas she sang a Cnote in harmony. Robinson alternated first soprano with “Cindy Herron” in most of their harmonizing except on “Born to Sing” when “Terry Ellis” sang almost all of the higher notes in their harmony including “Hold On”. Dawn was known as the singer with the rock voice in the group, with a raspy, smooth-as-glass sound. Although she is credited with pitch-perfect accuracy by the group members, her live vocals could be pitchy. However her sound is noticeably missed after her departure and is distinguishably unique from the other 3 original singers given her commanding chest-range. She also sang lead vocals on their biggest hits including: "Whatta Man", "Don't Let Go (Love)", "Giving Him Something He Can Feel", and the lead bridge vocals on their signature song "My Lovin' (You're Never Gonna Get It)".

Personal life.

Robinson has been married once, to Andre "Dre" Allen from May 24, 2003 until 2010. As of 2012, Robinson has been in a personal relationship with former international soccer player and BMG recording artist Christopher Nils Connolly. Robinson stated on her reality show "R&B Divas LA" that she was looking forward to starting a family with Connolly. During an interview with Fubar Radio in July 2017, Robinson stated that they were no longer together.

Dawn Sherrese Robinson (born November 24, 1965 or 1968) (sources differ), is an American singer–songwriter, model, and actress. Robinson is best known as a founding member of the R&B/Pop group En Vogue, one of the world's best-selling girl groups of all time. Following her departure from En Vogue, Robinson joined Lucy Pearl and released their self-titled debut album "Lucy Pearl" in 2000, which went platinum worldwide and produced the successful singles "Dance Tonight" and "Don't Mess with My Man".

Dawn Robinson (* 24. November 1965 oder 1968; in New London, Connecticut, Vereinigte Staaten) ist eine US-amerikanische R&B/Soul/Dance-Pop-Sängerin. Sie war unter anderem Frontfrau der Gruppe En Vogue.


Biography.

Davis was born in Bedford County, Tennessee, son of McLin H. and Christina Lee (Shoffner) Davis; and brother of Norman Hezekiah Davis. He attended public schools, including The Webb School in Bell Buckle, Tennessee and Woolwine School in Tullahoma, Tennessee. From 1895 to 1897 he was a student at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. He married Carolyn Windsor on December 28, 1898, and they had five children, Windsor, Margaret, Ewin, Latham, and Carolyn. He graduated from Columbian (now The George Washington University Law School) in Washington, D.C. in 1899. He was admitted to the bar the same year and commenced practice in Tullahoma, Tennessee.

Career.

Davis was a delegate to all state Democratic conventions from 1900 to 1910. From 1910 through 1918, he was a judge of the Seventh Judicial Circuit of Tennessee. He also acted as Chairman of the district exemption board for the middle district of Tennessee in 1917 and 1918.  From 1903 to 1940, Davis was the director of the Traders National Bank of Tullahoma, and was a trustee of the Tennessee College for Women from 1906 to 1939. He was also a member of the Federal Trade Commission from May 23, 1923 until his death, serving as Chairman in 1935, 1940, and 1945.  Davis was elected as a Democrat to the Sixty-sixth Congress and to the six succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4, 1919 until March 3, 1933. During the Seventy-second Congress he was the chairman of the United States House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries. He was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1932. In 1936, he was a member of the American National Committee of the Third World Power Conference.  Among Davis's legislative acts was the so-called "Davis Amendment" to the 1927 Radio Act. The 1928 reauthorization of the Radio Act included a provision, sponsored by Davis, that required each region of the country to have equal allocations of radio licenses, station power, etc. This greatly complicated things for the Federal Radio Commission, who was in charge of licensing radio stations; they were required to deny station applications to otherwise qualified candidates simply because the new station would put a particular state or region over its quota. For example, the northeast had a greater population than the southwest, but was limited to the same number of stations as more sparsely populated areas. Likewise, many small communities in the southwest could have added a local station without increasing interference (because of their remoteness), but were prevented from doing so by the Davis Amendment. The Davis Amendment was ultimately repealed on June 5, 1936.

Death.

Davis died in Washington, D.C. on October 23, 1949 (age 73 years, 260 days) and is interred in Oakwood Cemetery in Tullahoma, Tennessee.

Ewin Lamar Davis (February 5, 1876October 23, 1949) was an American politician and a member of the United States House of Representatives for the 5th congressional district of Tennessee.

Ewin Lamar Davis (* 5. Februar 1876 im Bedford County, Tennessee; † 23. Oktober 1949 in Washington, D.C.) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1919 und 1933 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Tennessee im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Applications.

This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life, including central heating, air conditioning, steam turbines and in many other machines. Forced convection is often encountered by engineers designing or analyzing heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature than the stream (the case of a shuttle wing during re-entry, for example).

Mixed convection.

In any forced convection situation, some amount of natural convection is always present whenever there is gravitational forces present (i.e., unless the system is in free fall). When the natural convection is not negligible, such flows are typically referred to as mixed convection..

Mathematical analysis.

When analyzing potentially mixed convection, a parameter called the Archimedes number (Ar) parametrizes the relative strength of free and forced convection. The Archimedes number is the ratio of Grashof number and the square of Reynolds number, which represents the ratio of buoyancy force and inertia force, and which stands in for the contribution of natural convection. When Ar » 1, natural convection dominates and when Ar « 1, forced convection dominates.  When natural convection isn't a significant factor, mathematical analysis with forced convection theories typically yields accurate results. The parameter of importance in forced convection is the Péclet number, which is the ratio of advection (movement by currents) and diffusion (movement from high to low concentrations) of heat.  When the Peclet number is much greater than unity (1), advection dominates diffusion. Similarly, much smaller ratios indicate a higher rate of diffusion relative to advection.

Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of transport in which fluid motion is generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Alongside natural convection, thermal radiation and thermal conduction it is one of the methods of heat transfer and allows significant amounts of heat energy to be transported very efficiently.

Erzwungene Konvektion wird hervorgerufen durch äußere mechanische Einwirkung auf ein Fluid. Dadurch entstehen Druckunterschiede, welche ein Fließen des Fluids bewirken. Solche Einwirkungen können beispielsweise durch Pumpen oder Ventilatoren erzeugt werden.