Early life and education.

Didymus became blind at the age of four, before he had learned to read. He was a loyal follower of Origen, and opposed Arian and Macedonian teachings.  Despite his blindness, Didymus excelled in scholarship because of his incredible memory. He found ways to help blind people to read, experimenting with carved wooden letters similar to Braille systems used by the blind today. He recalled and contemplated information while others slept.

Teacher in Alexandria.

According to Rufinus, Didymus was "a teacher in the Church school", who was "approved by Bishop Athanasius" and other learned churchmen. Later scholars believed he was the head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria. However, the Catechetical School of Alexandria may not have existed in Didymus' time, and Rufinus may have been referring to a different school. Didymus remained a layman all his life and became one of the most learned ascetics of his time. Palladius, Rufinus, and Jerome were among his pupils.  Rufinus was Didymus's pupil for eight years. When he translated Origen's "De principiis" into Latin, he referenced Didymus's commentary on it. Jerome mentions Didymus's contributions to his ideas in the prefaces of many of his books, and called Didymus "Didymus the Seeing." Rufinus remained loyal to Didymus after Jerome condemned Didymus and Origen. Didymus was viewed as an orthodox Christian teacher and was greatly respected and admired up until at least 553. Socrates of Constantinople compared Didymus's faithfulness to the Nicene Creed to Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nazianzus. In his position as a teacher, he held discussions and learned from Jews, pagans, Manichees, and other Christian teachers. Records of Didymus's lectures and the questions students asked show that he taught the same educated pupils multiple times.  Several Oriental Orthodox Churches refer to him as St. Didymus the Blind.

Second Council of Constantinople.

In 553 the Second Council of Constantinople condemned his works, along with those of Origen and Evagrius, but not his person. In the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, and in the 787 Second Council of Nicaea, Didymus was again linked with and condemned with Origen. Many unconventional views became associated with Origen, and the 15 anathemas attributed to the council condemn a form of apocatastasis along with the pre-existence of the soul, animism (in this context, a heterodox Christology), and a denial of real and lasting resurrection of the body.

Works.

As a result of his condemnation, many of his works were not copied during the Middle Ages and were subsequently lost. Of his lost compositions we can gather a partial list from the citations of ancient authors which includes "On Dogmas, On The Death of Young Children, Against the Arians, First Word," and others. One of Didymus's lost works is a commentary on Origen's "First Principles" which, according to Jerome, tried to interpret an orthodox understanding of the Trinity from Origen's theology. In it, he assumed the pre-existence of souls and Apocatastasis. He staunchly defended the doctrine of the Trinity. He argued that Christ's body and soul were human, but that Christ was sinless.  Excerpts from Didymus's Biblical commentary have been found in the Catena.  Modern knowledge of Didymus has been greatly increased by a group of 6th or 7th century papyrus codices discovered in 1941 at a munitions dump near Toura, Egypt (south of Cairo). These include his commentaries on Zechariah, Genesis 1-17, part of Job and parts (of uncertain authenticity) on Ecclesiastes and Psalms 20-46. In these commentaries, Didymus discusses long quotations from the Bible, and refrains from speculation, which he considered sophistry. However, he interprets scriptures allegorically, seeing symbols everywhere. For example, he wrote that the mountains in Zachariah represented the two Testaments of the Bible. Didymus saw an individual's movement towards virtue as emerging from their interaction with scripture.  Didymus probably wrote a treatise called "On The Holy Spirit" (written sometime before 381 in Greek), which was preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome. "Commentary on the Catholic Epistles" also is dubiously attributed to Didymus. The treatise "Against the Manichees" was also probably written by Didymus. There has been greater doubt over two further works traditionally attributed to Didymus. "On The Trinity", identified in the eighteenth century as being Didymus' work, saw twentieth-century doubts, largely on grounds of lack of 'provenance' and alleged inconsistencies with the commentaries discovered at Tura in 1941, but many would still see this as Didymus' work. Additionally, scholars do not believe that Didymus authored the work preserved as books 4 and 5 of Basil's "Against Eunomius".  Within the Commentary on Zechariah, Didymus shows himself to be a thoroughly intertextual reader of scripture. He moves from the text he is commenting on to a wide variety of other passages, quoting less frequently from the historical books which do not suit his allegorical method. Besides the gift of having a mind like a concordance, he also shows familiarity with philosophical terms and categories of the Stoics, Epicureans, and Pythagoreans (from whom, with Philo, he derives his occasional number symbolism hermeneutic). His works also seem to cite passages from the deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament as well as Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Acts of John. According to Bart Ehrman, his canon extended to at least include Barnabas and the Shepherd. It has been suggested by R.M. Grant regarding Origen's similarly expanded canon that while he lived in Alexandria he accepted the broader tradition of the church in Alexandria, but upon moving to Caesarea and finding the books were not accepted there henceforth manifested greater reserve towards them. Why Didymus would not have inherited his teachers later hesitation is unclear. Among his peers his hermeneutical method seems to have been met with mixed reactions. Jerome, who requested his commentary and considered him a mentor, is still baffled by Didymus's use of what he considered apocryphal works. Readers such as Diodore in Antioch found his hermeneutical approach somewhat gratuitous and arbitrary. What none seem to deny, however, is that Didymus was unhindered by blindness in his remarkable ability to recall the sacred text.

Thought.

Thoroughly Trinitarian, Didymus' makes God completely transcendent and only capable of being spoken of by images and apophatic means. He repeatedly emphasizes that God's essence is beyond essence, and uses a term only seen otherwise in Cyril of Alexandria, "without quantity." There can be seen in his works influence from the Cappadocian Fathers, focusing the concept of Hypostasis (philosophy) to express the independent reality of the three persons of the Trinity rather than beginning with the one divine substance (ουσια) as his starting point. Within these three persons, the Father is the root of the Divinity, the Spirit proceeds from the Father, and the Son is generated. Didymus seemed very concerned with stressing the equality of the persons of the Trinity. In Georges Florovsky's opinion, "Didymus does not strive for precision in his formulations. This is a general feature of the school of Alexandria."  In combating the heresies of the Manichaean Docetists and Apollinarians, we should not be surprised to find Didymus insisting on the fullness of the human nature of Christ. He concludes there must be two natures united in Christ, not speculating on precisely how these work together but restricting himself to the expression "a single Christ." In his atonement theory, Didymus does not mention deification, but rather focuses on the ransom and the restoration of the image and the likeness. The fragmentary nature of his writing at this point does not allow us to draw definite conclusions, but he does speak of "universal salvation." Jerome, probably correctly, accused Didymus of confessing the ultimate restoration of the devil.  Didymus seems to have also accepted the pre-existence of souls, and considers the afterlife as a process of purification, though, according to Florovsky, he rejects metempsychosis. He describes the Day of the Lord as an internal illumination of the soul, and in the future world he believes that evil "as a quality" will no longer exist. For him, as in Clement and Origen, the "true" gnostics possess a divine philosophy, one which allows them to defend themselves against heretics by giving a clear confession of the faith. Throughout his theology the influence of Origen is revealed, various aspects of which, particularly his eschatology, must have led to the condemnation of his works.

In literature.

Didymus the Blind is portrayed in "Flow Down Like Silver, Hypatia of Alexandria" by Ki Longfellow.

Further reading.

Primary Sources  Secondary sources

Didymus the Blind (alternatively spelled Dedimus or Didymous) (c. 313398) was a Christian theologian in the Church of Alexandria, where he taught for about half a century. He was a student of Origen, and, after the Second Council of Constantinople condemned Origen, Didymus's works were not copied. Many of his writings are lost, but some of his commentaries and essays survive. He was intelligent and a good teacher, but not especially original.

Didymus (lat.; gr. Didymos, * 310 oder 313 in Alexandria; † um 398 ebenda), genannt der Blinde, war ein antiker christlicher Schriftsteller.


Types and details.

The piccolo trumpet in B is a transposing instrument, which sounds a minor seventh higher than written. It is, however, rarely written for specifically; it is often just used at the player's discretion to cover high material as appropriate.  The soprano trumpet in D, also known as the "Bach trumpet", was invented in about 1890 by the Belgian instrument maker Victor Mahillon to play the high trumpet parts in music by Bach and Handel.  The modern piccolo trumpet enables players to play the difficult trumpet parts of Baroque music, such as Bach's second Brandenburg Concerto and Mass in B minor. Adolf Scherbaum was the first to specialize in the piccolo trumpet repertoire and to discover new baroque works, doing original transcriptions. Maurice André further developed the modern piccolo repertoire, playing the instrument for 50 years.  The sound production technique is basically the same as that used on the larger B trumpet. Air pressure and tonguing are different, and players use a shallower mouthpiece for the piccolo trumpet. Almost all piccolo trumpets have four valves instead of three — the fourth valve usually lowers the pitch by a fourth. This extends the low range and provides alternate fingerings and improved intonation for some notes.

Use in "Penny Lane" and elsewhere.

The piccolo trumpet solo in the Beatles' "Penny Lane", which introduced the instrument to pop music, was played by David Mason. Paul McCartney was dissatisfied with the initial attempts at the song's instrumental fill (one of which is released on "Anthology 2"), and was inspired to use the instrument after hearing Mason's performance in a BBC radio broadcast of the second Brandenburg Concerto and asking George Martin what the "tremendously high" trumpet was. Eventually Mason recorded the solo using a piccolo trumpet in A. The piccolo trumpet was also used to quote Bach's Invention no. 8 in F major (BWV 779) during the fade-out of "All You Need Is Love".  Use of the instrument is now commonplace in many musical genres. Maurice André, Otto Sauter, Guy Touvron, Reinhold Friedrich, Adolf Scherbaum, Ludwig Güttler, Wynton Marsalis, and Håkan Hardenberger are some well-known piccolo trumpet players.

The smallest of the trumpet family is the piccolo trumpet, pitched one octave higher than the standard B trumpet. Most piccolo trumpets are built to play in either B or A, using a separate leadpipe for each key. The tubing in the B piccolo trumpet is one-half the length of that in a standard B trumpet. Piccolo trumpets in G, F, and even high C are also manufactured, but are rarer.

Die Piccolotrompete oder Kleine Trompete ist ein Blechblasinstrument und bezeichnet eine Ventil-Trompete mit höherer Stimmung und schlankerer Schallstück-Form als die üblichen („normalen“) C- und B-gestimmten Trompeten. Es gibt sie in den Stimmungen F, G, hoch B/A und hoch H/C. In den hohen Stimmungen ist sie in der Regel mit einem zusätzlichen vierten Quart-Ventil ausgestattet, um damit auch noch tiefere Töne spielen zu können. Teilweise ist das vierte Ventil auch im Rohrverlauf des 3. Ventils ausgeführt, so dass sich die Ventile nur in Kombination spielen lassen. Moderne Piccolotrompeten sind meistens mit Triggervorrichtungen ausgestattet, um die oftmals schlechte Intonation (die aus ungünstiger Mensur resultierende Verschiebung der Naturtöne) des Instrumentes nicht komplett durch den Ansatz ausgleichen zu müssen.


Terminology.

In South Korea, the period is usually described as the "Japanese forced occupation" (). Other terms, although often considered obsolete, include

Background.

Political turmoil in Korea.

Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876.

On 27 February 1876, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, also known in Japan as the Japanese–Korea Treaty of Amity (,, ) was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted Western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry in 1854. However, the treaty ended Korea's status as a protectorate of China, forced open three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted extraterritorial rights to

Imo Incident.

The Daewongun, who remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the West, helped organize the Mutiny of 1882, an anti-Japanese outbreak against Queen Min and her allies. Motivated by resentment of the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, the Daewongun's forces, or "old military", killed Japanese training cadre, and attacked the Japanese legation. Japanese

Gapsin coup.

The struggle between the Heungseon Daewongun's followers and those of Queen Min was further complicated by competition from a Korean independence faction known as the Progressive Party ("Gaehwa-dang"), as well as the Conservative faction. While the former sought Japan's support, the latter sought China's support. On December 4, 1884, the Progressive Party, assisted by the Japanese, attempted a coup (Gapsin coup)

Donghak Revolution and First Sino-Japanese War.

The outbreak of the Donghak peasant revolution in 1894 provided a seminal pretext for direct military intervention by Japan in the affairs of Korea. In April 1894, the Korean government asked for Chinese assistance in ending the Donghak peasant revolt. In response, Japanese leaders, citing a violation of the Convention of Tientsin as a pretext, decided upon military intervention to challenge China. On 3 May 1894,

Assassination of Queen Min.

The Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorō, orchestrated a plot against 43-year-old Queen Min (later given the title of "Empress Myeongseong"), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by Japanese agents. In 2001, Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. The documents included the testimony of King Gojong, several witnesses of the assassination, and Karl Ivanovich Weber's report to Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky,

Democracy protests and the proclamation of the Korean Empire.

After the Royal Refuge, some Korean activists established the Independence Club () in 1896. They claimed that Korea should negotiate with Western powers, particularly Russia, to counterbalance the growing influence of Japan. In 1897, this club had destroyed the 1537 Yeongeunmun, a special gate where Chinese envoys had been escorted and received, and contributed to the construction of Independence Gate

Prelude to annexation.

Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms" in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military. These reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the Russo-Japanese War from 8 February 1904, to 5 September 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan's last rival to influence in Korea. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interest" in Korea.  Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 and the "reforms" were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to 1,000

Japan–Korea annexation treaty (1910).

In May 1910, the Minister of War of Japan, Terauchi Masatake, was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after the previous treaties (the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean domestic politics. On 22 August 1910, Japan effectively annexed Korea with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 signed by Ye Wanyong, Prime Minister of Korea, and Terauchi Masatake, who became the first Japanese Governor-General of Korea.  The treaty became effective the same day and was published one week later. The treaty stipulated:  Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared already void in the

Pre-World War II (1910–41).

Japanese migration and land ownership.

From around the time of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, Japanese merchants started settling in towns and cities in Korea seeking economic opportunity. By 1910 the number of Japanese settlers in Korea had reached over 170,000, comprising the largest single overseas-Japanese community in the world at the time. The Japanese leadership, convinced that their own country was overcrowded – especially in rural areas – encouraged farmers to emigrate.  Many Japanese settlers showed interest in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese

Anthropology and cultural heritage.

In 1925, the Japanese government established the Korean History Compilation Committee, and it was administered by the Governor-General of Korea and engaged in collecting Korean historical materials and compiling Korean history. According to the "Doosan Encyclopedia", some mythology was incorporated. The committee said that Korea had once hosted a Japanese colony called Mimana, which has since been debated by academic scholarship.  The Japanese government conducted excavations of archeological sites and preserved artifacts found there. The Japanese administration also relocated some artifacts; for instance, a stone monument (), which was originally located in the Liaodong Peninsula, was taken out of its context and moved to Pyongyang.  The National Palace Museum of Korea, originally built as the "Korean Imperial Museum" in 1908 to preserve the treasures in the Gyeongbokgung, was retained under the Japanese

Anti-Chinese riots of 1931.

In 1931, Korean immigrants in Manchuria led to a series of anti-Chinese riots erupted throughout Korea in 1931. Due to a waterway construction permit, in the small town of Wanpaoshan near Changchun, "violent clashes" broke out between the Chinese and Korean in 2 July. The Chosun Ilbo, a major Korean newspaper, misreported that many Koreans had died in the clashes, sparking a Chinese exclusion

Order to change names.

Attempts were made to introduce the modern household registration system. This brought about the abolishment of the Korean caste system. In 1911, the proclamation "Matter Concerning the Changing of Korean Names" () was issued, barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and retroactively reverting the names of Koreans who had already registered under Japanese names back to the original Korean ones. By 1939, however, this position

World War II.

National Mobilization Law.

Deportation of forced labor.

Korean migration had increased after World War I and accelerated after 1930; in 1939, there were 981,000 Koreans living in the Japanese archipelago as internal migrants. The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million by the end of the war, according to estimates by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. In 1946, some 1,340,000 ethnic Koreans were repatriated to Korea, with 650,000 choosing to remain in Japan, where they now form the Zainichi Korean community. A 1982 survey by the Korean Youth Association showed that conscripted laborers accounts for 13 percent of first-generation Zainichi Koreans. From 1939, labor shortages as a result of conscription of Japanese males for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of

Korean service in the Japanese military.

Japan did not draft ethnic Koreans into its military until 1944 when the tide of WW II turned against it. Until 1944, enlistment in the Imperial Japanese Army by ethnic Koreans was voluntary, and highly competitive. From a 14% acceptance rate in 1938, it dropped to a 2% acceptance rate in 1943 while the raw number of applicants increased from 3000 per annum to 300,000 in just five years during World War II. Korea produced seven generals and numerous field grade officers (Colonels, Lieutenant-Colonels and Majors) during 35 years of colonial governance by Japan, despite institutionalized discrimination. The first and the best-known general was Lieutenant General and Crown Prince Yi Un. The other six were graduates of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. They were: Lieutenant General Jo Seonggeun; Major General Wang Yushik; Lieutenant General Viscount Yi Beyongmu; Major General Yi Heedu; Major General Kim Eungseon (also military aide and personal guard to Prince Yi Un); and Lieutenant General Hong Sa-ik, who was executed for war crimes committed while commanding the prison camps in the southern Philippines in 1944–1945. Other Japanese Army officers of South Korean origin moved onto successful careers in the post-occupation period. Examples include Park Chung-hee, who became president of South Korea, Chung Il-kwon (정일권,丁一權), prime minister from 1964 to 1970, and Paik Sun-yup, South Korea's youngest general, famous for his defense during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter during the Korean War. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the Korean Liberation Army.  Officer cadets had been joining the Japanese Army since before the annexation by attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed the Gando Special Force. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of Jiandao. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General Paik Sun-yup, who served in

Independence and division of Korea.

Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the impending overrun of the Korean Peninsula by Soviet forces, Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese occupation.  American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the

Korean independence movement.

Upon Emperor Gojong's death, anti-Japanese rallies took place nationwide, most notably the March 1st Movement of 1919. A declaration of independence was read in Seoul. It is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. The Japanese violently suppressed the protests: According to Korean records, 46,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded; according to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1,409 wounded. About 7,000 people were killed by Japanese police and soldiers during the 12 months of demonstrations.  After suppression of the uprising, some aspects of Japanese rule considered most objectionable to Koreans were removed. The military police were replaced by a civilian force, and freedom of the press was permitted to a limited extent. Two of the three major Korean daily newspapers, the "Dong-a Ilbo" and the "Chosun Ilbo," were established in 1920.  Objection to Japanese rule over Korea continued, and the 1 March Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea by Korean émigrés in Shanghai on 13 April 1919. The modern South Korean government considers this Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea the "de jure" representation of the Korean people throughout the period of Japanese rule.  The Japanese occupation of Korea after annexation was largely uncontested militarily by the smaller, poorly armed, and poorly trained Korean army. Many former soldiers and other volunteers left the Korean Peninsula for Manchuria

Economy and exploitation.

Economic output in terms of agriculture, fishery, forestry and industry increased by tenfold from 1910 to 1945 as illustrated on the chart to the right. Princeton's Atul Kohli concluded that the economic development model the Japanese instituted played the crucial role in Korean economic development, a model that was maintained by the Koreans in the post-World War II era.  Randall S. Jones wrote that "economic development during the colonial period can be said to have laid the foundation for future growth in several respects." According to Myung Soo Cha of Yeungnam University, "the South Korean developmental state, as symbolized by Park Chung Hee, a former officer of the Japanese Imperial army serving in wartime Manchuria, was closely modeled upon the colonial system of government. In short, South Korea grew on the shoulders of the colonial achievement, rather than emerging out of the ashes left by the Korean War, as is sometimes asserted."  A 2017 study found that the gradual removal of trade barriers (almost fully completed by 1923) after Japan's annexation of Korea "increased population growth rates more in the regions close to the former border between Japan and Korea than in the other regions. Furthermore, after integration, the regions close to Korea that specialized in the fabric industry, whose products were the primary goods exported from Japan to Korea, experienced more population growth than other regions close to Korea did."  There were some modernization efforts by the late 19th century prior to annexation. Seoul became the first city in East Asia to have electricity, trolley cars, water, telephone, and telegraph systems all at the same time, but Korea remained a largely backward agricultural economy around the start of the 20th century. "Japan's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan's growing need for rice. Japan also began to build large-scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire-wide program of economic self-sufficiency and war preparation." In terms of exports, "Japanese industry as a whole gained little... and this is certainly true for the most important manufacturing sector, cotton textiles. This export trade had little impact, positive or negative, on the welfare of Japanese consumer." Likewise in terms of the profitability of Japanese investors: colonial Korea made no significant impact.  According to scholar Donald S. Macdonald, "for centuries most Koreans

Changes to Korean culture under Japanese rule.

Newspaper censorship.

In 1907, the Japanese government passed the Newspaper Law which effectively prevented the publication of local papers. Only the Korean-language newspaper "Taehan Maeil Sinbo" () continued its publication, because it was run by a foreigner named Ernest Bethell. For the first decade of colonial rule, therefore, there were no Korean-owned newspapers whatsoever, although books were steadily printed and there were several

Education.

Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a free public education system modeled after the Japanese school system with a pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the Keijō Imperial University in Seoul. As in Japan itself, education was viewed primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen" (황민화; 皇民化; "Hwangminhwa") with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction. Japanese religious groups such as Protestant Christians willingly supported the Japanese authorities in their effort to assimilate Koreans through education.  During colonial times, elementary schools were known as "Citizen Schools" (; ; "gungmin

Japanese policies for the Korean language.

In the initial phase of Japanese rule, students were taught in Korean in public schools established by ethnic Korean officials who worked for the colonial government. While prior to this schools in Korea had used mostly Hanja, during this time Korean came to be written in a mixed Hanja–Korean script influenced by the Japanese writing system, where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in Korean script. Korean textbooks from this era included excerpts from traditional Korean stories such as "Heungbujeon" ().  In 1921, government efforts

Removal and return of historical artifacts.

The Japanese rule of Korea also resulted in the theft of tens of thousands of cultural artifacts to Japan. The issue over where these articles should be located began during the U.S. occupation of Japan. In 1965, as part of the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea, Japan returned roughly 1,400 artifacts to Korea, and considered the diplomatic matter to have been resolved. Korean artifacts

Anthropology and religion.

Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages, serving as evidence that Korea was "backwards" and needed to be modernized.  As Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, Korea became more vital to the internal communications and defense of the Japanese empire against the Soviet Union. Japan decided in the 1930s to make the Koreans become more loyal to the Emperor by requiring Korean participation in the State Shinto devotions, and by weakening the influences of both Christianity and traditional religion.  The primary building of Gyeongbokgung palace was demolished and the Japanese General Government Building was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung. Sungnyemun, the gate in Seoul that was an iconic symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs (later removed by the South Korean government after independence).

Christianity and Communism.

Protestant missionary efforts in Asia were nowhere more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. In the days Korea was under Japanese control, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Catholics

Legacy.

Many Koreans became victims of Japanese brutalities during the colonial period. Korean villagers hiding resistance fighters were dealt with harshly, often with summary execution, rape, forced labour, and looting. Starting on 1 March 1919, an anti-Japanese demonstration continued to spread, and as the Japanese national and military police could not contain the crowds, the army and even the navy were also called in. There were several reports of atrocities. In one instance, Japanese police in the village of Jeam-ri, Hwaseong herded everyone into a church, locked it, and burned it to the ground. They also shot through the burning windows of the church to ensure that no one made it out alive. Many participants of the 1 March Movement were subjected to torture and execution.

Result of the name changes.

Although officially voluntary, and initially resisted by the Japanese Colonial Government, 80% of Koreans voluntarily changed their name to Japanese in 1940. Many community leaders urged the adoption of Japanese names to make it easy for their children to succeed in society and overcome discrimination.  A study conducted by the United States Library of Congress states that "the Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names". This name change policy, called "Changssi-gaemyeong" (; ) (also known as sōshi-kaimei), was part of Japan's assimilation efforts. This was heavily resisted

Forced laborers and comfort women.

During World War II, about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan. Comfort women, who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of sexual slavery, came from all over the Japanese empire. Historical estimates range from 10,000 to 200,000, including an unknown number of Koreans. However, 200,000 is considered to be a conservative number by modern historians, and up to 500,000 comfort women are estimated to be taken. These women faced an average of 29 men and up to 40 men per day, according to one surviving comfort woman. However, of the 500,000, less than 50 are alive. Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment; business records, often from Korean subcontractees of Japanese companies, showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries. There is evidence that the

Koreans in Unit 731.

Koreans, along with many other Asians, were experimented on in Unit 731, a secret military medical experimentation unit in World War II. The victims who died in the camp included at least 25 victims from the former

Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan.

Colonial Korea was subject to the same "Leprosy Prevention Laws" of 1907 and 1931 as the Japanese home islands. These laws directly and indirectly permitted the quarantine of patients in

Atomic bomb casualties.

Many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. According to the secretary-general of a group named Peace Project

South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators.

Collaborators of the Imperial Japanese Army were prosecuted in the postwar period as Chinilpa, or "friendly to Japanese". In 2006 South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun appointed an investigation commission into the issue of locating descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators from the times of the 1890s until the collapse of Japanese rule in 1945.  In 2010, the commission

List of Governors-General of Korea.

Below is a list of Governors-General of Korea under Japanese rule:

Japanese Korea (, "Dai-Nippon Teikoku [Chōsen]") was the period when Korea was under Japanese rule, between 1910 and 1945. Joseon Korea came under the Japanese sphere of influence in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 and a complex coalition of the Meiji government, military, and business officials began a process of Korea's political and economic integration into Japan. The Korean Empire became a protectorate of Japan in 1905 in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 and the country was indirectly ruled by the Japanese through the Resident-General of Korea. Japan formally annexed the Korean Empire in 1910 in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, without the consent of Gojong, the regent of the Korean Emperor Sunjong. The Japanese Empire had established the Korean Peninsula as a colony of Japan administered by the General Government based in Keijō ("Gyeongseong") which governed Korea with near-absolute power.

Am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts geriet Korea unter japanische Herrschaft. 1905 wurde Korea japanisches Protektorat und 1910 vollständig als japanische Kolonie mit dem Namen Chōsen in das Japanische Kaiserreich durch Annexion eingegliedert. Die Kolonialherrschaft über die Koreanische Halbinsel endete offiziell mit der Kapitulation Japans am 15. August 1945, de facto aber erst vollständig mit der Übergabe der Provinz an die US-amerikanische Siegermacht am 9. September 1945 bzw. de jure mit der Gründung der Republik Korea am 15. August 1948. Nordkorea (Demokratische Volksrepublik Korea) wird von Japan nicht anerkannt, sondern Südkorea (Republik Korea) als Repräsentant für ganz Korea. Daher wird die Aufhebung des Annexionsvertrages von der damaligen Kolonialmacht zu eben diesem Datum „interpretiert“.


Evolution.

The ancestors of "Drosophila" and the mosquitoes diverged. The culicine and "Anopheles" clades of mosquitoes diverged between and. The Old and New World "Anopheles" species subsequently diverged between and. "Anopheles darlingi" diverged from the African and Asian malaria vectors ∼. The "Anopheles gambiae" and "Anopheles funestus" clades diverged between and. A molecular study of several genes in seven species has provided additional support for an expansion of this genus during the Cretaceous period.  The "Anopheles" genome, at 230–284 million base pairs (Mbp), is comparable in size to that of "Drosophila", but considerably smaller than those found in other culicine genomes (528 Mbp–1.9 Gbp). Like most culicine species, the genome is diploid with six chromosomes.  The only known fossils of this genus are those of "Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus" contained in Dominican amber from the Late Eocene ( to ) and "Anopheles rottensis" contained in German amber from the Late Oligocene ( to ).

Systematics.

The genus "Anopheles" Meigen (nearly worldwide distribution) belongs to the subfamily Anophelinae together with another two genera: "Bironella" Theobald (Australia only) and "Chagasia" Cruz (Neotropics). The taxonomy remains incompletely settled. Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics – wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, chromosome structure, and more recently, on DNA sequences. In the taxonomy published by Harbach et al in 2016, it was shown that three species of "Bironella: confusa, gracilis," and "hollandi" are phylogenetically similar "Anopheles kyondawensis" than other "Bironella" species. The same phylogeny also argues that, based on genetic similarity, "Anopheles implexus" is actually divergent from the common ancestor to the "Anopheles" genus, raising new questions regarding taxonomy and classification.  The genus has been subdivided into seven subgenera based primarily on the number and positions of specialized setae on the gonocoxites of the male genitalia. The system of subgenera originated with the work of Christophers, who in 1915 described three subgenera: "Anopheles" (widely distributed), "Myzomyia" (later renamed "Cellia") (Old World) and "Nyssorhynchus" (Neotropical). "Nyssorhynchus" was first described as "Lavernia" by Frederick Vincent Theobald. Frederick Wallace Edwards in 1932 added the subgenus "Stethomyia" (Neotropical distribution). "Kerteszia" was also described by Edwards in 1932, but then recognised as a subgrouping of "Nyssorhynchus". It was elevated to subgenus status by Komp in 1937, and it is also found in the Neotropics. Two additional subgenera have since been recognised: "Baimaia" (Southeast Asia only) by Harbach "et al." in 2005 and "Lophopodomyia" (Neotropical) by Antunes in 1937.  Two main groupings within the genus "Anopheles" are used: one formed by the "Celia" and "Anopheles" subgenera and a second by "Kerteszia", "Lophopodomyia" and "Nyssorhynchus". Subgenus "Stethomyia" is an outlier with respect to these two taxa. Within the second group, "Kerteszia" and "Nyssorhynchus" appear to be sister taxa.  The number of species currently recognised within the subgenera is given here in parentheses: "Anopheles" (206 species), "Baimaia" (1), "Cellia" (216), "Kerteszia" (12), "Lophopodomyia" (6), "Nyssorhynchus" (34) and "Stethomyia" (5).  Taxonomic units between subgenus and species are not currently recognised as official zoological names. In practice, a number of taxonomic levels have been introduced. The larger subgenera ("Anopheles", "Cellia" and "Nyssorhynchus") have been subdivided into sections and series which in turn have been divided into groups and subgroups. Below subgroup but above species level is the species complex. Taxonomic levels above species complex can be distinguished on morphological grounds. Species within a species complex are either morphologically identical or extremely similar and can only be reliably separated by microscopic examination of the chromosomes or DNA sequencing. The classification continues to be revised.  Subgenus "Nyssorhynchus" has been divided in three sections: "Albimanus" (19 species), "Argyritarsis" (11 species) and "Myzorhynchella" (4 species). The "Argyritarsis" section has been subdivided into "Albitarsis" and "Argyritarsis" groups.  The "Anopheles" group was divided by Edwards into four series: "Anopheles" (worldwide), "Myzorhynchus" (Palearctic, Oriental, Australasian and Afrotropical), "Cycloleppteron" (Neotropical) and "Lophoscelomyia" (Oriental); and two groups, "Arribalzagia" (Neotropical) and "Christya" (Afrotropical). Reid and Knight (1961) modified this classification and consequently subdivided the subgenus "Anopheles" into two sections, "Angusticorn" and "Laticorn" and six series. The Arribalzagia and Christya Groups were considered to be series. The Laticorn Section includes the "Arribalzagia" (24 species), "Christya" and "Myzorhynchus" series. The "Angusticorn" section includes members of the "Anopheles", "Cycloleppteron" and "Lophoscelomyia" series.  All species known to carry human malaria lie within either the "Myzorhynchus" or the "Anopheles" series.

Life stages.

Like all mosquitoes, anophelines go through four stages in their life cycles: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The first three stages are aquatic and together last 5–14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature. The adult stage is when the female "Anopheles" mosquito acts as malaria vector. The adult females can live up to a month (or more in captivity), but most probably do not live more than two weeks in nature.

Eggs.

Adult females lay 50–200 eggs per oviposition. The eggs are quite small (about 0.5 × 0.2 mm). Eggs are laid singly and directly on water. They are unique in that they have floats on either side. Eggs are not resistant to drying and hatch within 2–3 days, although hatching may take up to 2–3 weeks in colder climates.

Larvae.

The mosquito larva has a well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax and a nine-segment abdomen. It has no legs. In contrast to other mosquitoes, the "Anopheles" larva lacks a respiratory siphon, so it positions itself so that its body is parallel to the surface of the water. In contrast, the feeding larva of a nonanopheline mosquito species attaches itself to the water surface with its posterior siphon, with its body pointing downwards.  Larvae breathe through spiracles located on the eighth abdominal segment, so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microorganisms in the surface microlayer. They dive below the surface only when disturbed. Larvae swim either by jerky movements of the entire body or through propulsion with the mouth brushes.  Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth. First-stage larvae are about 1 mm in length; fourth-stage larvae are normally 5–8 mm in length.  The process from egg-laying to emergence of the adult is temperature dependent, with a minimum time of seven days.  The larvae occur in a wide range of habitats, but most species prefer clean, unpolluted water. Larvae of "Anopheles" mosquitoes have been found in freshwater or saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps, rice fields, grassy ditches, the edges of streams and rivers, and small, temporary rain pools. Many species prefer habitats with vegetation. Others prefer habitats with none. Some breed in open, sun-lit pools, while others are found only in shaded breeding sites in forests. A few species breed in tree holes or the leaf axils of some plants.

Pupae.

Pupa is also known as tumbler.The pupa is comma-shaped when viewed from the side. The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax with the abdomen curving around underneath. As with the larvae, pupae must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraces. After a few days as a pupa, the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax splits and the adult mosquito emerges. The pupal stage lasts around 2–3 days in temperate areas.

Adults.

The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species, and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days, but it can take 10–14 days in tropical conditions.  Like all mosquitoes, adult "Anopheles" species have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen.  The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. It contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors, as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting proboscis used for feeding, and two maxillary palps. These palps also carry the receptors for carbon dioxide, a major attractant for the location of the mosquito's host.  The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax.  The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.  "Anopheles" mosquitoes can be distinguished from other mosquitoes by the palps, which are as long as the proboscis, and by the presence of discrete blocks of black and white scales on the wings. Adults can also be identified by their typical resting position: males and females rest with their abdomens sticking up in the air rather than parallel to the surface on which they are resting.  Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.  Males live for about a week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. Males cannot feed on blood, as it appears to produce toxic effects and kills them within a few days, around the same lifespan as a water-only diet. Females will also feed on sugar sources for energy, but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking.  The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.  In a study by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine researchers found that female mosquitoes carrying malaria parasites are significantly more attracted to human breath and odours than uninfected mosquitoes. The research team infected laboratory-raised "Anopheles gambiae" mosquitoes with Plasmodium parasites, leaving a control group uninfected. Then tests were run on the two groups to record their attraction to human smells. Female mosquitoes are particularly drawn to foot odours, and one of the tests showed infected mosquitoes landing and biting a prospective host repeatedly. The team speculates that the parasite improves the mosquitoes' sense of smell. It may also reduce its risk aversion.

Habitat.

Although malaria is nowadays limited to tropical areas, most notoriously the regions of sub-Saharan Africa, many "Anopheles" species live in colder latitudes (see this map from the CDC). Indeed, malaria outbreaks have, in the past, occurred in colder climates, for example during the construction of the Rideau Canal in Canada during the 1820s. Since then, the "Plasmodium" parasite (not the "Anopheles" mosquito) has been eliminated from first world countries.  The CDC warns, however, that ""Anopheles" that can transmit malaria are found not only in malaria-endemic areas, but also in areas where malaria has been eliminated. The latter areas are thus constantly at risk of reintroduction of the disease.

Susceptibility to become a vector of disease.

Some species are poor vectors of malaria, as the parasites do not develop well (or at all) within them. There is also variation within species. In the laboratory, it is possible to select strains of "A. gambiae" that are refractory to infection by malaria parasites. These refractory strains have an immune response that encapsulates and kills the parasites after they have invaded the mosquito's stomach wall. Scientists are studying the genetic mechanism for this response. Genetically modified mosquitoes refractory to malaria possibly could replace wild mosquitoes, thereby limiting or eliminating malaria transmission.

Malaria transmission and control.

Understanding the biology and behavior of "Anopheles" mosquitoes can help understand how malaria is transmitted, and can aid in designing appropriate control strategies. Factors affecting a mosquito's facility to transmit malaria include its innate susceptibility to "Plasmodium", its host choice and its longevity. Factors that should be taken into consideration when designing a control program include the susceptibility of malaria vectors to insecticides and the preferred feeding and resting location of adult mosquitoes.  On December 21, 2007, a study published in PLoS Pathogens found the hemolytic C-type lectin CEL-III from "Cucumaria echinata", a sea cucumber found in the Bay of Bengal, impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic "A. stephensi". This could potentially be used to control malaria by spreading genetically modified mosquitoes refractory to the parasites, although numerous scientific and ethical issues must be overcome before such a control strategy could be implemented.

Preferred sources for blood meals.

One important behavioral factor is the degree to which an "Anopheles" species prefers to feed on humans (anthropophily) or animals such as cattle or birds (zoophily). Anthropophilic "Anopheles" are more likely to transmit the malaria parasites from one person to another. Most "Anopheles" mosquitoes are not exclusively anthropophilic or zoophilic, including the primary malaria vector in the western United States, "A. freeborni". However, the primary malaria vectors in Africa, "A. gambiae" and "A. funestus", are strongly anthropophilic and, consequently, are two of the most efficient malaria vectors in the world.  Once ingested by a mosquito, malaria parasites must undergo development within the mosquito before they are infectious to humans. The time required for development in the mosquito (the extrinsic incubation period) ranges from 10–21 days, depending on the parasite species and the temperature. If a mosquito does not survive longer than the extrinsic incubation period, then she will not be able to transmit any malaria parasites.  It is not possible to measure directly the lifespans of mosquitoes in nature, but indirect estimates of daily survivorship have been made for several "Anopheles" species. Estimates of daily survivorship of "A. gambiae" in Tanzania ranged from 0.77 to 0.84, meaning at the end of one day, between 77% and 84% will have survived.  Assuming this survivorship is constant through the adult life of a mosquito, less than 10% of female "A. gambiae" would survive longer than a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. If daily survivorship increased to 0.9, over 20% of mosquitoes would survive longer than the same period. Control measures that rely on insecticides (e.g. indoor residual spraying) may actually impact malaria transmission more through their effect on adult longevity than through their effect on the population of adult mosquitoes.

Patterns of feeding and resting.

Most "Anopheles" mosquitoes are crepuscular (active at dusk or dawn) or nocturnal (active at night). Some feed indoors (endophagic), while others feed outdoors (exophagic). After feeding, some blood mosquitoes prefer to rest indoors (endophilic), while others prefer to rest outdoors (exophilic), though this can differ regionally based on local vector ecotype, and vector chromosomal makeup, as well as housing type and local microclimatic conditions. Biting by nocturnal, endophagic "Anopheles" mosquitoes can be markedly reduced through the use of insecticide-treated bed nets or through improved housing construction to prevent mosquito entry (e.g. window screens). Endophilic mosquitoes are readily controlled by indoor spraying of residual insecticides. In contrast, exophagic/exophilic vectors are best controlled through source reduction (destruction of the breeding sites).

Gut flora.

Because transmission of disease by the mosquito requires ingestion of blood, the gut flora may have a bearing on the success of infection of the mosquito host. This aspect of disease transmission has not been investigated until recently. The larval and pupal gut is largely colonised by photosynthetic cyanobacteria, while in the adult, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes predominate. Blood meals drastically reduce the diversity of organisms and favor enteric bacteria.

Insecticide resistance.

Insecticide-based control measures (e.g. indoor spraying with insecticides, bed nets) are the principal ways to kill mosquitoes that bite indoors. However, after prolonged exposure to an insecticide over several generations, mosquito populations, like those of other insects, may evolve resistance, a capacity to survive contact with an insecticide. Since mosquitoes can have many generations per year, high levels of resistance can evolve very quickly. Resistance of mosquitoes to some insecticides has been documented with just within a few years after the insecticides were introduced. Over 125 mosquito species have documented resistance to one or more insecticides. The evolution of resistance to insecticides used for indoor residual spraying was a major impediment during the Global Malaria Eradication Campaign. Judicious use of insecticides for mosquito control can limit the evolution and spread of resistance. However, use of insecticides in agriculture has often been implicated as contributing to resistance in mosquito populations. Detection of evolving resistance in mosquito populations is possible, so control programs are well advised to conduct surveillance for this potential problem. In Malawi and other places, a shrub known as mpungabwi ("Ocimum americanum") is used to repel mosquitoes.

Eradication.

With substantial numbers of malaria cases affecting people around the globe, in tropical and subtropical regions, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where millions of children are killed by this infectious disease, eradication is back on the global health agenda.  Although malaria has existed since ancient times, its eradication was possible in Europe, North America, the Caribbean and parts of Asia and southern Central America during the first regional elimination campaigns in the late 1940s. However, the same results were not achieved in sub-Saharan Africa.  Though the World Health Organization adopted a formal policy on the control and eradication of the malaria parasite since 1955, only recently, after the Gates Malaria Forum in October 2007, did key organizations start the debate on the pros and cons of redefining eradication as a goal to control malaria. Clearly, the cost of preventing malaria is much less than treating the disease, in the long run. However, eradication of mosquitoes is not an easy task. For effective prevention of malaria, some conditions should be met, such as conducive conditions in the country, data collection about the disease, targeted technical approaches to the problem, very active and committed leadership, total governmental support, sufficient monetary resources, community involvement, and skilled technicians from different fields, as well as an adequate implementation.  Currently, there are proposals to eradicate "Anopheles gambiae," the main vector for malaria, with a CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system. This system aims to eradicate the species through introducing a gene that would cause female sterility, thus causing the gene to be unable to replicate. It has been demonstrated in a study by Kyrou et al that such a gene drive system can suppress an entire caged "An. gambiae" population through targeting and deleting the "dsx" gene, which is vital for female fertility. By utilizing the conservation tendencies of selfish genes, Kyrou et al demonstrated full suppression of the population within 7-11 generations, which is about less than a year. Of course, this has raised concerns with both the efficiency of a gene drive system as well as the ethical and ecological impact of such an eradication program. Therefore, there have been efforts to use the gene drive system to more efficiently introduce genes of "Plasmodium" resistance into the species, such as targeting and knocking out the "FREP1" gene in "Anopheles gambiae." Such systems may generate less ecological impact, as the species are not removed from the ecosystem, though concerns regarding efficiency still linger.  Researchers in Burkina Faso have created a strain of the fungus "metarhizium pinghaense" genetically engineered to produce the venom of an Australian funnel-web spider; exposure to the fungus caused populations of "Anopheles" mosquitoes to crash by 99% in a controlled trial. A wide range of strategies is needed to achieve malaria eradication, starting from simple steps to complicated strategies which may not be possible to enforce with the current tools.  Although mosquito control is an important component of malaria control strategy, elimination of malaria in an area does not require the elimination of all "Anopheles" mosquitoes. For instance, in North America and Europe, although the vector "Anopheles" mosquitoes are still present, the parasite has been eliminated. Some socioeconomic improvements (e.g., houses with screened windows, air conditioning), once combined with vector reduction efforts and effective treatment, lead to the elimination of malaria without the complete elimination of the vectors. Some important measures in mosquito control to be followed are: discourage egg-laying, prevent development of eggs into larvae and adults, kill the adult mosquitoes, do not allow adult mosquitoes into places of human dwelling, prevent mosquitoes from biting human beings and deny them blood meals.  Research in this sense continues, and a study has suggested sterile mosquitoes might be the answer to malaria elimination. This research suggests using the sterile insect technique, in which sexually sterile male insects are released to wipe out a pest population, could be a solution to the problem of malaria in Africa. This technique brings hope, as female mosquitoes only mate once during their lifetimes, and in doing so with sterile male mosquitoes, the insect population would decrease. This is another option to be considered by local and international authorities that may be combined with other methods and tools to achieve malaria eradication in sub-Saharan Africa.

Parasites.

A number of parasites of this genus are known to exist, including microsporidia of the genera "Amblyospora", "Crepidulospora", "Senoma" and "Parathelohania".  Microsporidia infecting the aquatic stages of insects, a group that includes mosquitoes and black flies, and copepods appear to form a distinct clade from those infecting terrestrial insects and fish. Two distinct life cycles are found in this group. In the first type, the parasite is transmitted by the oral route and is relatively species nonspecific. In the second, while again the oral route is the usual route of infection, the parasite is ingested within an already infected intermediate host. Infection of the insect larval form is frequently tissue-specific, and commonly involves the fat body. Vertical (transovarial) transmission is also known to occur.  Few phylogenetic studies of these parasites have been done, and their relationship to their mosquito hosts is still being determined. One study suggested "Parathelohania" is an early diverging genus within this group.  The parasite "Wolbachia" bacteria have also been studied for use as control agents.

Anopheles () is a genus of mosquito first described and named by J. W. Meigen in 1818. About 460 species are recognised; while over 100 can transmit human malaria, only 30–40 commonly transmit parasites of the genus "Plasmodium", which cause malaria in humans in endemic areas. "Anopheles gambiae" is one of the best known, because of its predominant role in the transmission of the most dangerous malaria parasite species (to humans) – "Plasmodium falciparum".

Anopheles (), auch Malaria-, Gabel- oder Fiebermücken genannt, ist eine Gattung in der Familie der Stechmücken (Culicidae) und namensgebend für die Unterfamilie Anophelinae. Die Gattung umfasst etwa 420 Arten, wobei weltweit rund 40 Arten als Überträger von Malaria auftreten können. Malariamücken sind mit etwa sechs Millimetern relativ klein und haben einen schmächtigen Körperbau, sind aber dennoch an ihrer Körperhaltung gut erkennbar: der Körper befindet sich meistens in einem Winkel von etwa 30 bis 45° zum Untergrund. Es gibt zahlreiche Arten und Unterarten, die teilweise aufgrund ihrer großen Ähnlichkeit nur von Spezialisten zu unterscheiden sind.


Site.

The Verizon Building is located in the Financial District/Tribeca neighborhoods of Lower Manhattan. It occupies an entire city block bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street and the World Trade Center to the south, Washington Street to the east, and Barclay Street to the north. Adjacent buildings include 7 World Trade Center to the east and One World Trade Center to the south. The block is parallelogram-shaped, measuring about along West and Washington Streets, along Vesey and Barclay Streets. The total area of the block is.  Prior to the 19th century, the Verizon Building's site was located off the shore of the North River (now Hudson River), but the shore from Vesey Street north to King Street was infilled during the mid-19th century, and docks were constructed west of West Street. A wholesale market called the Washington Market was established on the future Verizon Building block in 1812 or 1813. To support the market and the nearby food businesses, about 35 three- to five-story brick structures were erected on the block. By the time the Verizon Building was erected, the site was located along the shoreline of the Hudson River. In the 1970s, Battery Park City was built on filled land along the shore, severing the Verizon Building from the waterfront.

Design.

The Verizon Building was designed by Ralph Thomas Walker in the Art Deco style, although it was described at the time of its completion as being "Modernistic" or "Modern Perpendicular". The Verizon Building measures tall and contains 32 stories, with mezzanines above the ground, 17th, and 31st stories. The Verizon Building is regarded by architectural critics as being the first Art Deco skyscraper. It was also the first major structure that Walker designed for McKenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin, and as such, was aesthetically distinguished from the firm's previous commissions.  Walker intended the Barclay–Vesey Building to be "as modern as the telephone activity it houses". His design took several elements from Eliel Saarinen's proposal for Chicago's Tribune Tower, as well as from Walker's own entry in the design competition for the Tribune Tower. Such elements included the Verizon Building's setbacks or architectural recessions; its vertical piers; and its pyramidal roof, which had been a defining feature of Walker's Tribune Tower proposal. The Verizon Building's architecture has been compared to San Antonio's Milam Building, the largest pre-stressed concrete and brick office building and the first to have an integrated designed-in air conditioning system. Walker subsequently designed other Art Deco buildings in the New York City area, such as the New Jersey Bell Headquarters Building (1929), 60 Hudson Street (1930), 1 Wall Street (1931), and 32 Avenue of the Americas (1932), as well as telephone buildings in Upstate New York.

Form.

The Verizon Building contains numerous setbacks on its exterior. Though setbacks in New York City skyscrapers were mandated by the 1916 Zoning Resolution in order to allow light and air to reach the streets below, they later became a defining feature of the Art Deco style. The lowest ten floors of the Verizon Building occupy the entire block area. Above the 10th floor, there are setbacks on the north and south facades, as well as narrow and deep light courts to the west and east, creating an "H"-shaped floor plan from the 11th to the 17th floors. There are smaller setbacks at each corner on the 13th floor. The building rises as a tower above the 17th floor, though smaller wings flank the tower's northern and southern facades on the 18th and 19th floors. The rectangular tower is aligned with buildings on Broadway to the east, and so is parallel to Barclay and Vesey Streets.  During the design process, Walker had considered plans for "a series of stacked blocks connected by blunt transitions", though this proposal lacked a unified sense of character. The appearance of unity was later attained through the inclusion of piers on the facade.  The Verizon Building's form was also influenced by its interior use. There were numerous functions that did not necessitate sunlight and could operate using artificial light, such as the central operating system and the mechanical space, which was placed inside the building's core. The office space, conversely, was placed on the exterior walls, so the Verizon Building did not require light courts that were as extensive as in nearby buildings. Also as a result, the base could occupy the entire lot area, with setbacks located on higher levels than in other office buildings.

Facade.

Walker was inspired by Maya architecture in designing the facade. Above the granite base, the exterior is clad with brick in hues of green, gold, and buff, a material that Walker preferred for its texture and color. There is cast-stone ornamentation on the building's upper floors, as well as patterned motifs and limestone decoration on the lower floors; when possible, these features were created using the help of machines. The Verizon Building also contains serrated stone-and-light-brick parapets, which, when combined with the building's vertical piers, give a naturalistic "alpine" look to the setbacks. When taken as a whole, the materials of the facade were intended to give an impression of stability and mass. The facade also serves a protective purpose: the steel frame is enclosed within, heavy masonry in the exterior infill walls. The western and eastern facades of the Verizon Building consist of 19 vertical bays, and the northern and southern facades contain 23 bays.  Walker sought to incorporate a program of ornament to attract the interests of passersby and to temper the building's large mass. For the Barclay–Vesey Building, Walker eschewed traditional motifs, such as egg-and-dart patterns, which he saw as cliched. He wrote that the decorative elements should be "so complicated in its structure as not to be readily comprehended; its framework should be as hidden as the steel structure itself." The ornamental program on the facade was carried out by Ulysses Ricci and John De Cesare. It includes complex foliage; babies and animal heads; and a bell above the door, symbolizing the telephone company. Though Walker characterized the ornamental program as "free and flowing", it was actually rigid and complex. Architectural critic Lewis Mumford stated that the ornamental program at ground level was so extensive that it was "a rock garden".

Base.

The main facades are on West and Washington Streets to the east and west, respectively. At the center of each side, there are large entrance portals that are three bays wide and two stories tall. These portals contain bronze-framed doorways with decorative motifs. Above the doors are bronze screens with vine-and-grape ornamentation; these formerly also contained motifs of bells to represent the New York Telephone Company. The main entrance portals are framed with a decorative limestone lintel depicting a bird and human figures. The limestone friezes above each set of doors depict a bell flanked by a Mongolian and a Native American, which respectively symbolize the Eastern world and the Western world. On the West Street facade, the main entrance portal is flanked on either side by two single-width double-height bays, a triple-width double-height bay, and another single-width double-height bay. These double-height bays contain storefronts. From top to bottom, the storefronts at the base are generally composed of a solid panel, glazed glass, and a decorative transom.  There is an enclosed, arched arcade above the Vesey Street sidewalk on the southern facade, measuring long by wide and tall. There are 12 arches in total; each corresponds to two window bays above, except the westernmost arch, which corresponds to one window bay. The arches are supported by brick piers while the ceilings are composed of Guastavino tiles. The arcade was a compromise design because the city wanted to expand the street during the building's construction, while Walker wanted a larger base. The arcade was called "one of the most comfortable shopping fronts in New York City" when the Barclay–Vesey Building was completed, but because it was so dark, the arcade did not receive too much pedestrian traffic. Nevertheless, numerous enterprises were located in the arcade, including a circulating library. The Vesey Street storefronts were converted to office space by the 2000s.  The north facade also contains storefronts set within double-width, double-height arches. Two of the central arches were converted into rectangular garage openings.

Upper stories.

On the second through 32nd floors, the window design is mostly consistent. Most window openings contain three-over-three sash windows, though some openings have been covered with louvered grates, especially in places where there are mechanical or communications equipment. The second-story windows are generally topped by elaborate triangular limestone surrounds that contain carvings of birds, grapes, and vines, except at the corners of the building, where the second-story windows contain lintels and sills with carvings of grapes and vines. The third-story windows also contain sills with grape and vine carvings. The fourth- through 32nd-story windows have plain, undecorated sills and windows. Each window bay is separated by vertical limestone piers.  Above the 28th story especially, there are cast-stone decorative elements. The 30th floor, 31st floor, and 31st-floor mezzanine contains five triple-height arched windows on each facade. Stone piers protrude above the rooftop level, which contains some mechanical equipment.

Features.

In his design for the Verizon Building, Walker believed that the structure should serve "as a machine which had definite functions to perform for the benefit of its occupants." The design scheme for the interior is a continuation of that on the facade, which was a relatively rare stylistic choice of the time, since many contemporary buildings were being designed with modern-styled exteriors and historically-styled interiors. Mumford likened this continuity in interior and exterior design to the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, Henry Hobson Richardson, and Louis Sullivan, which also exhibited such consistency. As with the exterior, there is masonry encasing interior structures. Brick, cinder, concrete, and other masonry materials encase interior steel columns, beams, girders, and other structural elements. Walker also created the interior elements by machine when it was possible.  The interior space covers. The structure was split into two different mechanical sections: the 18th through 32nd floors, and the basements through the 16th floor. The 17th floor housed the mechanical equipment, which was unusual since other buildings' mechanical equipment were usually contained on their roofs or in their basements. There are 26 elevators to transport tenants to upper floors. The second through 16th floors are served by two elevator lobbies, while the 18th through 32nd floors are served by a single elevator lobby.

Lobby.

The lobby runs between the West and Washington Street entrances to the west and east, with a vaulted ceiling. The interior of the lobby includes buff-colored veined marble walls and floors. Toward the center of the lobby, there are two alcoves each on the north and south walls, which lead to the elevator banks. The northern alcoves both contain eight elevators while the southern alcoves both contain four elevators. All of the elevator alcoves contain painted ceilings and ornate bronze fixtures for ventilation and lights. A telephone alcove is also located off the lobby. Since the upper floors' residential overhaul in the 2010s, the western half of the lobby is still used by Verizon, but the eastern half is used as a residents' lounge.  The decoration program of the lobby is also in the Art Deco style. These works were designed by Ricci and De Cesare, and executed by Edgar Williams and Mack, Jenney & Tyler. The elevator doors are framed by bronze surrounds, while the elevator lobbies feature Levanto marble walls. Other doorways leading from the lobby, as well as the fluted pilasters along the lobby's length, are also made of Levanto marble. The doors from the lobby are made of bronze, as are the capitals of the pilasters, which incorporate grape-and-vine motifs.  The lobby features inlaid bronze medallions in the floor, which depict the construction of the telephone system. The medallion on the eastern side depicts a female telephone operator, and that on the western side depicts a lineworker. There are twelve ceiling murals that depict how human communication has progressed, from Aztec runners to the telephone. Nine murals—five at the western entrance and four at the eastern entrance—demonstrate the ancient methods of communication. The three center murals depict modern communication. Bronze chandeliers with complex ornamentation hang from the ceiling over the bronze medallions on the floor. On the ceiling are "angelic figures", which appear to be holding the chandeliers.

Other floors.

The lowest ten floors above the basements were intended for use as office space serving the central telephone offices, and could handle live structural loads of up to, depending on the intended uses of each floor section. The 29th floor included New York Telephone's executive offices, and the 31st floor contained an assembly room that could hold 6,500 workers. When the Barclay–Vesey Building opened, it contained an auditorium at ground level and a gymnasium on the ground floor's mezzanine. There was also a training school for workers.  The stories above the 10th floor have been converted into 157 luxury condominium units. There is a separate lobby for residents on the Barclay Street side, which connects to the original lobby. The penthouse apartment, a duplex unit on the 31st and 32nd floors, covers with a living room, advertised as the largest in the city. The building also contains an wading pool and a lap pool. Other features of the residential portion of the Verizon Building include rooms for wine-tasting and billiards; music practice; a fitness center; a children's playroom; and a residents' lounge.  The Verizon Building has five sub-basement levels, which house communications equipment. At the time of the September 11 attacks, Verizon was using the building as a main telecommunications switching center in Lower Manhattan, handling approximately 200,000 phone lines and 3.6 million data circuits. These circuits traveled as far north as 42nd Street. In emergencies, the 17th floor could provide services to the building's base.

History.

Planning and construction.

Planning.

The New York Telephone Company began to grow rapidly after World War I. An internal review of the organizational structure found that its New York City operations were housed in multiple buildings across the city, and were thus inefficient. The company's president from 1919 to 1924, Howard Ford Thurber, sought to centralize the company's operations into a single large headquarters to "satisfy the present demands and to reasonably anticipate future requirements". In the early 1920s, the New York Telephone Company started acquiring the entire block between West, Barclay, Washington, and Vesey Streets. The site was chosen "because real estate values in that vicinity were much lower" compared to the area around Broadway. The company owned the entire block by 1923, by which it had spent $1.5 million on acquisitions.  In April 1923, the company announced that it intended to build a new headquarters at a projected cost of $11.5 million. The structure was to house 6,000 employees from the company's six central offices, who would work with 120,000 telephones, as well as mechanical equipment to support the company's equipment. The initial design called for a height of, with of office space, and of commercial ground-floor storefronts. In addition, the building would be erected with a steel-and-concrete frame, as well as facade trim made of limestone and buff-colored brick. The building was to be designed by Ralph Walker of Kenzie, Voorhees & Gmelin, who wanted to create a "strong corporate image" for the structure. At the time, construction was expected to be completed in July 1925.  It is likely that Walker started planning the Barclay–Vesey Building in late 1922, while he was still designing the Tribune Building. Walker sought to ensure that the proposed headquarters would comply with the 1916 Zoning Resolution while also being spacious and relatively inexpensive. Accordingly, he created designs for buildings containing 10, 16, 26, 29, 32, 36, and 42 floors. Walker also tested out different architectural styles, such as the Gothic and Italian Renaissance styles, before settling on a "modernistic" Art Deco style. The 32-story proposal, with setbacks at the 10th, 13th, 17th, and 19th floors, was ultimately deemed the most efficient. The blueprints for the 32-story proposal were submitted to the New York City Department of Buildings in June 1923.

Construction.

Foundation work began on June 20, 1923, and since the site was mostly artificial fill with riprap buttressing, water from the Hudson River sometimes leaked through to the foundation. The building's foundation needed to descend to the level of the bedrock, and the earth was described as having a slimy consistency below water level. Since the bedrock was deeper than originally anticipated, this allowed the builders to include five basement levels, rather than four. To keep out the water and slime-like earth, the builders erected a cofferdam with 22 caissons. The builders then laid down permanent steel struts to hold back the cofferdam; not only was this likely the first such use of steel bracing, it saved $30,000 compared to the temporary wood bracing that had been used in previous projects.  During construction, almost 700 workers were employed for the project at any given time; tradesmen, such as plumbers and electricians, worked with concrete and steel contractors in overlapping shifts, in order to reduce delays. The superstructure incorporated of steel across its above-ground and below-ground sections, and the builders used six derricks to lift the girders from the street. Four temporary stairways, each containing 351 steps, were built to facilitate the construction of the upper floors. The floor arches were built starting in October 1924, and on average, one floor was completed per week. New York Telephone's vice president James S. McCulloh placed both the first and the last rivets.  The first employees moved to the Barclay–Vesey Building on February 19, 1926. All construction on the Barclay–Vesey Building was completed by June 1926. However, the New York City Department of Buildings did not declare the building to be completed until April 1927.

20th-century use.

New York Telephone originally had four dial telephone exchanges at the Barclay–Vesey Building. Two additional exchanges were activated in 1928, which would be able to serve 125,000 additional subscribers; at the time, Lower Manhattan was one of the busiest telephone districts in the world. During the mid-20th century, office space was gradually removed to make room for additional equipment.  In 1970, the company signed an agreement to move its executive offices to 1095 Avenue of the Americas, a proposed 53-story speculative development near Bryant Park in Midtown Manhattan, which would be larger than the existing West Street offices. Two years later, the New York Telephone offices had moved out of the Barclay–Vesey Building, though the switching offices remained. When NYNEX was formed as a result of the breakup of the original AT&T in 1984, the building became NYNEX's headquarters. Improvements in technology resulted in the invention of smaller telephone equipment, leading to an increase in available office space at the Barclay–Vesey Building. By the 1990s, some office workers were moving back into the Barclay–Vesey Building.  The exteriors and ground-floor lobbies of the Barclay–Vesey Building and two other telecommunications buildings were designated city landmarks by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1991. New York Telephone supported the designation, and the company's own media had previously described the building as a "landmark". The Barclay–Vesey Building became the headquarters of Bell Atlantic following Bell Atlantic's 1997 merger with NYNEX. Subsequently, in 2000, the building became Verizon Communications' headquarters after Verizon was formed from the merger of Bell Atlantic and GTE.

21st-century use.

Damage and restoration.

At the time of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Verizon Building was being renovated. The Verizon Building had been adjacent to 7 World Trade Center to the east and the World Trade Center's Twin Towers to the south, and when the three buildings collapsed during the attacks, the south and east facades were severely damaged by falling steel beams. The collapse of the World Trade Center causing partial collapses on some floor slabs close to the windows, though the building as a whole was not in immediate danger of collapse. Debris also sliced water mains, flooding the basements. As a result, underground cable vaults belonging to Verizon, along with other underground utility infrastructure, were heavily damaged from water and debris. The Verizon Building received only moderate damage because its thick-masonry design gave the building added strength. The masonry allowed the structure to absorb much of the energy from debris hitting the building, and damage was restricted mostly to impact points. Although no fires were observed in the Verizon Building, the ground-floor murals were damaged by smoke.  Tishman Realty & Construction, which had been planning work on the building prior to the attacks, did a quick assessment of the building in the days after the attack. William F. Collins AIA Architects was the lead architectural firm working on the restoration, while Tishman Interiors managed the project. The Excalibur Bronze Foundry and Petrillo Stone were hired as specialists to restore the intricate ornamental detail in the facade and in the lobby. Facade restoration involved carving motif designs in the ornamental limestone, and restoring the ceiling murals in the lobby. For the murals in the lobby, hypodermic needles were used to inject acrylic resin to restore the paint and plaster. On the executive office floors, workers restored the barrel-vaulted ceilings, plaster friezes, and other elements. Restoration of the building also involved replacing a corner column; A+ Construction of Rye, New York was responsible for this work. The building's 23 elevators were also upgraded, new fire alarms, building command systems, and chillers installed, and restrooms made accessible to those with disabilities.  Restoration of the building took three years, at a cost of $1.4 billion. "The New York Times" stated that the project would cost "three-quarters of the Chrysler Building's estimated total value." Throughout the restoration, the building continued to serve as a telephone switching center. In 2004, the New York Landmarks Conservancy awarded Tishman Interiors the Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for its restoration work on the Verizon Building. The restoration was complete by late 2005. That December, Verizon announced it would move its offices from 1095 Avenue of the Americas to 140 West Street, where there would be space for 1,500 employees; the operations hub was relocated to Verizon's campus in Basking Ridge, New Jersey. The Verizon Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2009.

Partial sale and residential conversion.

The building was partially flooded by storm surges from Hurricane Sandy in 2012, which seeped into the basement levels, took all except one of the elevators out of service, and damaged the lobby murals. The next year, Verizon sold off the top floors to developer Ben Shaoul, the head of Magnum Real Estate. Verizon retained the 28th and 29th floors as well as the ground through 10th stories. In conjunction with this sale, Verizon moved 1,100 employees to Downtown Brooklyn and relocated others to 1095 Avenue of the Americas. To prevent against future flood damage, Verizon installed a storm surge barrier in front of the building.  Following Verizon's sale of the top floors, it was announced that Magnum Real Estate would convert the upper floors to a condominium complex known as 100 Barclay. Shaoul and the CIM Group added 157 units to the Verizon Building, and the condos were first listed for sale in early 2016. However, 100 Barclay's residential units remained largely unoccupied by 2019, leading Magnum Real Estate to reduce the penthouse's asking price from $59 million to $39 million. To fill up the unused units, Magnum Real Estate also started advertising to renters.

Critical reception.

The Barclay–Vesey Building received much positive acclaim when it was completed. New York Telephone dubbed the headquarters "a symbol of service and progress", while Mumford said that the design "expresses the achievements of contemporary American architecture...better than any other skyscraper I have seen." Joseph Pennell called the Barclay–Vesey Building "the most impressive modern building in the world", and Talbot Hamlin predicted it would be "a monument of American progress in architecture." So iconic was the building, it was on the frontispiece of the English version of "Toward an Architecture" by Le Corbusier. These favorable reviews have continued through the 21st century: the 2009 "Guide to New York City Landmarks" described the building as "one of the most significant structures in skyscraper design".  The design received awards from civic groups as well. In February 1927, the Architectural League of New York awarded Walker a gold medal of honor for the design, lauding its "quality of excellence" and saying that "A result has been achieved expressive of a high degree of skill and good taste in both general mass and in interesting detail." That October, the Broadway Association gave the New York Telephone Company an award for the Barclay–Vesey Building, calling it a "contribution to civic advancement."  Praise also focused on specific elements of the Barclay–Vesey Building. The architect Harvey Wiley Corbett said that the ornamental program was "straightforward and appropriate and eminently right". Following the September 11 attacks, Verizon's corporate-real-estate manager praised the Verizon Building's resilience, referring to the building as a "tank".  There were also some negative reviews. In 1991, New York Times architectural writer Phillip Lopate stated that "the corporate publicity aspects of the Barclay–Vesey lobby seem, by today's standards, overdone and kitschy" compared to Walker's later 60 Hudson Street commission, which was austere. Furthermore, though Mumford largely liked the design, he found the base–tower transition and the building's general shape to be an "annoying defect".

The Verizon Building (previously known as the Barclay–Vesey Building and the New York Telephone Company Building) is a 32-story office and residential building at 140 West Street in Lower Manhattan, New York. The Verizon Building was designed in the Art Deco style by Ralph Walker of Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker, and was Walker's first major commission as well as one of the first Art Deco skyscrapers. It occupies the entire block bounded by West Street to the west, Barclay Street to the north, Vesey Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east, abutting the World Trade Center.

Das New York Telephone Building (auch Verizon Building) ist ein New Yorker Wolkenkratzer aus dem Jahr 1930 direkt neben dem Ground Zero. Das Gebäude ist aufgrund seiner Lage an den entsprechenden Straßen auch als Barclay-Vesey Building bekannt. Es dient heute als Firmensitz des US-amerikanischen Telekommunikationsunternehmens Verizon Communications. Das Gebäude hat 32 Stockwerke und ist 152 Meter hoch, damit jedoch weit davon entfernt, zu den 200 höchsten Bauwerken New Yorks zu gehören. Das New York Telephone Building ist ein Beispiel für die Art-Déco-Architektur.