Medical uses.

Copper IUDs are a form of long-acting reversible contraception and are one of the most effective forms of birth control available. The type of frame and amount of copper can affect the effectiveness of different copper IUD models. The failure rates for different models vary between 0.1 and 2.2% after 1 year of use. The T-shaped models with a surface area of 380 mm2 of copper have the lowest failure rates. The TCu 380A (ParaGard) has a one-year failure rate of 0.8% and a cumulative 12-year failure rate of 2.2%. Over 12 years of use, the models with less surface area of copper have higher failure rates. The TCu 220A has a 12-year failure rate of 5.8%. The frameless GyneFix also has a failure rate of less than 1% per year. Worldwide, older IUD models with lower effectiveness rates are no longer produced.  Unlike other forms of reversible contraception, the typical use failure rate and the perfect use failure rate for the copper IUDs are the same because the IUD does not depend on user action. A 2008 review of the available T-shaped copper IUDs recommended that the TCu 380A and the TCu 280S be used as the first choice for copper IUDs because those two models have the lowest failure rates and the longest lifespans. The effectiveness of the copper IUD (failure rate of 0.8%) is comparable to tubal sterilization (failure rate of 0.5%) for the first year. However, the effects of the copper IUD are reversible, which can be viewed as either an advantage or a disadvantage, depending on a person's goals for contraception.

Emergency contraception.

It was first discovered in 1976 that the copper IUD could be used as a form of emergency contraception (EC). The copper IUD is the most effective form of emergency contraception. It is more effective than the hormonal EC pills currently available. The pregnancy rate among those using the copper IUD for EC is 0.09%. It can be used for EC up to 5 days after the act of unprotected sex and does not decrease in effectiveness during the 5 days. An additional advantage of using the copper IUD for emergency contraception is that it can be used as a form of birth control for 10–12 years after insertion.

Removal and return to fertility.

Removal of the copper IUD should also be performed by a qualified medical practitioner. Fertility has been shown to return to previous levels quickly after removal of the device. One study found that the median amount of time from removal to planned pregnancy was three months for those women using the TCu 380Ag.

Side effects.

Expulsion: Sometimes the copper IUD can be spontaneously expelled from the uterus. Expulsion rates can range from 2.2% to 11.4% of users from the first year to the 10th year. The TCu380A may have lower rates of expulsion than other models. Unusual vaginal discharge, cramping or pain, spotting between periods, postcoital (after sex) spotting, dyspareunia, or the absence or lengthening of the strings can be signs of a possible expulsion. If expulsion occurs, the woman is not protected against pregnancy. If an IUD with copper is inserted after an expulsion has occurred, the risk of re-expulsion has been estimated in one study to be approximately one third of cases after one year. Magnetic resonance imaging may cause dislocation of a copper IUD, and it is therefore recommended to check the location of the IUD both before and after MRI.  Perforation: Very rarely, the IUD can move through the wall of the uterus. Risk of perforation is mostly determined by the skill of the practitioner performing the insertion. For experienced medical practitioners, the risk of perforation is 1 per 1,000 insertions or less. If perforation does occur it can damage the internal organs, and in some cases surgery is needed to remove the IUD.  Infection: The insertion of a copper IUD poses a transient risk of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in the first 21 days after insertion. However, it is a small risk and is attributable to preexisting gonorrhea or chlamydia infection at the time of insertion, and not to the IUD itself. Proper infection prevention procedures have little or no effect on the course of gonorrhea or chlamydia infections, but is important in helping protect both clients and providers from infection in general. Such infection prevention practices include washing hands and then putting on gloves, cleaning the cervix and vagina, making minimal contact with non-sterile surfaces (using a "no touch insertion technique") and, after the procedure, washing hands again and then processing instruments. The device itself carries no increased risk of PID beyond the time of insertion.  Cramping: Many women feel cramping or pain during the IUD insertion process and immediately after as a result of cervix dilation during insertion. Taking NSAIDS before the procedure can reduce discomfort, as can the use of a local anaesthetic. Misoprostol 6 to 12 hrs before insertion can help with cervical dilation. Some women may have cramps for 1 to 2 weeks following insertion. The copper IUD can also increase cramps during a woman's period. This symptom will clear up for some women in 3 to 6 months, but may not for others.  Heavier periods: The copper IUD increases the amount of blood flow during a woman's menstrual periods. On average, menstrual blood loss increases by 20–50% after insertion of a copper-T IUD; increased menstrual discomfort is the most common medical reason for IUD removal. This symptom may clear up for some women after 3 to 6 months, but may not for others.  Irregular bleeding and spotting: For the first 3 to 6 months after insertion, the copper IUD can cause irregular periods and spotting between periods. String problems: A small portion of men report that they can feel the strings during intercourse. In this case, strings can be trimmed. However, very short strings can prevent the woman from checking the strings for expulsion. Medical ultrasonography may be required in such cases to check the location of the IUD.  Pregnancy: Although rare, if pregnancy does occur with the copper IUD in place there can be serious side effects. The risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using an IUD is lower than the risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using no form of birth control. However, of pregnancies that do occur during IUD use, a higher than expected percentage (3–4%) are ectopic. If a pregnancy occurs with the IUD in place there is a higher risk of miscarriage or early delivery. If this occurs and the IUD strings are visible, the IUD should be removed immediately by a clinician. Although the Dalkon Shield IUD was associated with septic abortions (infections associated with miscarriage), other brands of IUD are not. IUDs are also "not" associated with birth defects.  Some barrier contraceptives protect against STIs. Hormonal contraceptives reduce the risk of developing pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), a serious complication of certain STIs. IUDs, by contrast, do "not" protect against STIs or PID.

Contraindications.

A category 3 condition indicates conditions where the theoretical or proven risks usually outweigh the advantages of inserting a copper IUD. A category 4 condition indicates conditions that represent an unacceptable health risk if a copper IUD is inserted.  Women should not use a copper IUD if they:  A full list of contraindications can be found in the World Health Organization (WHO) "Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use" and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) "United States Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use".  While nulliparous women (women who have never given birth) are somewhat more likely to have side effects, this is not a contraindication for IUD use. Overall, IUDs are safe and acceptable also in young nulliparous women. The same is likely the case for virgin women, unless there is a microperforate hymen that obstructs any insertion of the IUD.

Device description.

There are a number of models of the copper IUD available around the world. Most copper devices consist of a plastic core that is wrapped in a copper wire. Many of the devices have a T-shape similar to the hormonal IUD. However, there are "frameless" copper IUDs available around the world as well. ParaGard is the only model currently available in the United States. At least three copper IUD models are available in Canada, two of which are a slimmer T-shape version used for women who have not had children. Early copper IUDs had copper around only the vertical stem, but more recent models have copper sleeves wrapped around the horizontal arms as well, increasing effectiveness. Some newer models also contain a silver core instead of a plastic core to delay copper fragmentation as well as increase the lifespan of the device. The lifespan of the devices range from 3 years to 10 years; however, some studies have demonstrated that the TCu 380A may be effective through 12 years.  Its ATC code is.

Insertion.

The copper IUD must be inserted by a qualified medical practitioner. A copper IUD can be inserted at any phase of the menstrual cycle, but the optimal time is right after the menstrual period, when the cervix is softest and the woman is least likely to be pregnant. The insertion process generally takes five minutes or less. The procedure can cause cramping or be painful for some women. Before placement of an IUD, a medical history and physical examination by a medical professional is useful to check for any contraindications or concerns. It is also recommended by some clinicians that patients be tested for gonorrhea and chlamydia, as these two infections increase the risk of contracting pelvic inflammatory disease shortly after insertion. Immediately prior to insertion, the clinician will perform a pelvic exam to determine the position of the uterus. After the pelvic exam, the vagina is held open with a speculum. A tenaculum is used to steady the cervix and uterus. Uterine sounding may be used to measure the length and direction of the cervical canal and uterus in order to decrease the risk of uterine perforation. The IUD is placed using a narrow tube, which is inserted through the cervix into the uterus. Short monofilament plastic/nylon strings hang down from the uterus into the vagina. The clinician will trim the threads so that they only protrude 3 to 4 cm out of the cervix and remain in the upper vagina. The strings allow the patient or clinician to periodically check to ensure the IUD is still in place and to enable easy removal of the device.  The copper IUD can be inserted at any time in a woman's menstrual cycle as long as the woman is not pregnant. An IUD can also be inserted immediately postpartum and post-abortion as long as no infection has occurred. Breastfeeding is not a contraindication for the use of the copper IUD. The IUD can be inserted in women with HIV or AIDS as it does not increase the risk of transmission. Although previously not recommended for nulliparous women (women who have not had children), the IUD is now recommended for most women who are past menarche (their first period), including adolescents.  After the insertion is finished, normal activities such as sex, exercise, and swimming can be performed as soon as it feels comfortable. Strenuous physical activity does not affect the position of the IUD.

Types.

Many different types of copper IUDs are currently manufactured worldwide, but availability varies by country. In the United States, only one type of copper IUD is approved for use, while in the United Kingdom, over ten varieties are available. One company, Mona Lisa N.V. offers generic versions of many existing IUDs.

Frameless IUDs.

The frameless IUD eliminates the use of the frame that gives conventional IUDs their signature T-shape. This change in design was made to reduce discomfort and expulsion associated with prior IUDs; without a solid frame, the frameless IUD should mold to the shape of the uterus. It may reduce expulsion and discontinuation rates compared to framed copper IUDs.  Gynefix is the only frameless IUD brand currently available. It consists of hollow copper tubes on a polypropylene thread. It is inserted through the cervix with a special applicator that sutures the thread to the fundus (top) of the uterus; the thread is then cut with a tail hanging outside of the cervix, similar to frame IUDs. When this tail is pulled, the suture comes undone and the device can be removed. This requires more force than removing a T-shaped IUD, but results in comparable discomfort during removal. Gynefix is not approved for use in the United States.

Mechanism of action.

The copper IUD's primary mechanism of action is to prevent fertilization. Copper acts as a spermicide within the uterus. The presence of copper increases the levels of copper ions, prostaglandins, and white blood cells within the uterine and tubal fluids.  Although not a primary mechanism of action, some experts in human reproduction believe there is sufficient evidence to suggest that IUDs with copper can disrupt implantation, especially when used for emergency contraception. Despite this, there has been no definitive evidence that IUD users have higher rates of embryonic loss than women not using contraception. Therefore, the copper IUD is considered to be a true contraceptive and not an abortifacient.

Usage.

Globally, the IUD is the most widely used method of reversible birth control. The most recent data indicates that there are 169 million IUD users around the world. This includes both the nonhormonal and hormonal IUDs. IUDs are most popular in Asia, where the prevalence is almost 30%. In Africa and Europe the prevalence is around 20%. As of 2009, levels of IUD use in the United States are estimated to be 5.5%. Data in the United States does not distinguish between hormonal and nonhormonal IUDs. In Europe, copper IUD prevalence ranges from under 5% in the United Kingdom to over 10% in Denmark in 2006.

History.

According to popular legend, Arab traders inserted small stones into the uteruses of their camels to prevent pregnancy during long desert treks. The story was originally a tall tale to entertain delegates at a scientific conference on family planning; although it was later repeated as truth, it has no known historical basis.  Precursors to IUDs were first marketed in 1902. Developed from stem pessaries (where the stem held the pessary in place over the cervix), the'stem' on these devices actually extended into the uterus itself. Because they occupied both the vagina and the uterus, this type of stem pessary was also known as an "interuterine device". Use of "interuterine" devices was associated with high rates of infection; for this reason, they were condemned by the medical community.  The first intrauterine device (contained entirely in the uterus) was described in a German publication in 1909, although the author appears to have never marketed his product.  In 1929, Ernst Gräfenberg of Germany published a report on an IUD made of silk suture. He had found a 3% pregnancy rate among 1,100 women using his ring. In 1930, Gräfenberg reported a lower pregnancy rate of 1.6% among 600 women using an improved ring wrapped in silver wire. Unbeknownst to Gräfenberg, the silver wire was contaminated with 26% copper. Copper's role in increasing IUD efficacy would not be recognized until nearly 40 years later.  In 1934, Japanese physician Tenrei Ota developed a variation of the "Gräfenberg ring" that contained a supportive structure in the center. The addition of this central disc lowered the IUD's expulsion rate. These devices still had high rates of infection, and their use and development was further stifled by World War II politics: contraception was forbidden in both Nazi Germany and Axis-allied Japan. The Allies did not learn of the work by Gräfenberg and Ota until well after the war ended.  The first plastic IUD, the "Margulies Coil" or "Margulies Spiral", was introduced in 1958. This device was somewhat large, causing discomfort to a large proportion of women users, and had a hard plastic tail, causing discomfort to their male partners. The modern colloquialism "coil" is based on the coil-shaped design of early IUDs.  The "Lippes Loop", a slightly smaller device with a monofilament tail, was introduced in 1962 and gained in popularity over the Margulies device.  The stainless steel single-ring IUD was developed in the 1970s and widely used in China because of low manufacturing costs. The Chinese government banned production of steel IUDs in 1993 due to high failure rates (up to 10% per year).  Howard Tatum, in the US, conceived the plastic T-shaped IUD in 1968. Shortly thereafter Jaime Zipper, in Chile, introduced the idea of adding copper to the devices to improve their contraceptive effectiveness. It was found that copper-containing devices could be made in smaller sizes without compromising effectiveness, resulting in fewer side effects such as pain and bleeding. T-shaped devices had lower rates of expulsion due to their greater similarity to the shape of the uterus.  The poorly designed Dalkon Shield plastic IUD (which had a multifilament tail) was manufactured by the A. H. Robins Company and sold by Robins in the United States for three and a half years from January 1971 through June 1974, before sales were suspended by Robins on June 28, 1974 at the request of the FDA because of safety concerns following reports of 110 septic spontaneous abortions in women with the Dalkon Shield in place, seven of whom had died. Robins stopped international sales of the Dalkon Shield in April 1975.  Tatum developed many different models of the copper IUD. He created the TCu220 C, which had copper collars as opposed to copper filament, which prevented metal loss and increased the lifespan of the device. Second-generation copper-T IUDs were also introduced in the 1970s. These devices had higher surface areas of copper, and for the first time consistently achieved effectiveness rates of greater than 99%. The last model Tatum developed was the TCu380A, the model that is most recommended today. In addition to T-shaped IUDs, there are also U-shaped IUDs (such as the Multiload) and 7-shaped Gravigard Copper 7 (with a mini version for nulliparous women introduced in the 1980s). More recently, a frameless IUD called Gynefix was introduced.

Brands.

The ParaGard T-380A is an IUD with copper, manufactured and marketed in the United States by The Cooper Companies. It is the only copper-containing intrauterine device approved for use in the U.S. (three hormonal uterine devices, Mirena, Skyla and Liletta are also approved). The ParaGard consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame wound with copper wire, along with two monofilament threads to aid in removal of the IUD.  The ParaGard T 380A was developed in the 1970s by the Population Council and Finishing Enterprises Inc. (FEI). The Population Council's ParaGard new drug application (NDA) was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and FEI began manufacturing it for distribution outside the United States in 1984. GynoPharma (originally GynoMed) began marketing it in the U.S. in May 1988. On August 2, 1995, Ortho-McNeil acquired GynoPharma and began marketing ParaGard in the U.S. On January 1, 2004, FEI Women's Health acquired the patent from the Population Council and U.S. marketing rights from Ortho-McNeil. On November 10, 2005, Duramed Pharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of Barr Pharmaceuticals, acquired FEI Women's Health and ParaGard. On July 18, 2008, it was announced that Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. would acquire Barr Pharmaceuticals.  On Nov. 01, 2017, The Cooper Companies acquired Paragard from Teva Pharmaceutical Industries for approximately $1.1 billion.  The original FDA approval of ParaGard in 1984 was for 4 years continuous use, this was later extended to 6 years in 1989, then 8 years in 1991, then 10 years in 1994. (ATC code )

Intrauterine device (IUD) with copper also known as intrauterine coil, is a type of intrauterine device which contains copper. It is used for birth control and emergency contraception within five days of unprotected sex. It is one of the most effective forms of birth control with a one-year failure rate around 0.7%. The device is placed in the uterus and lasts up to twelve years. It may be used by women of all ages regardless of whether or not they have had children. Following removal, fertility quickly returns. Side effects include heavy menstrual periods, painful periods, or the device may come out. It is less recommended in people at high risk of sexually transmitted infections as it may increase the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease in the first three weeks after insertion. If a woman becomes pregnant with an IUD in place removal is recommended. Rarely, uterine perforation can occur during insertion. The copper IUD is a type of long-acting reversible birth control. It primarily works by killing the sperm. The copper IUD came into medical use in the 1970s. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$0.37–3.00 per IUD. In the United Kingdom they cost the NHS about £10 GBP. In the United States they cost around $750. They are used by more than 170 million women globally.

Die Kupferkette ist ein Intrauterinpessar (IUP), das in die Gebärmutter eingesetzt wird und der Schwangerschaftsverhütung bei der Frau dient. Anwendung, Wirkprinzip, Wirksamkeit und Risiken entsprechen denen anderer üblicher IUPs. Fehlschläge beim Einsetzen und Ausstoßungen im ersten Jahr waren beim ersten Modell namens Flexigard, das 1988 auf den Markt kam, signifikant höher. Bei dem momentan erhältlichen Modell der Kupferkette namens GyneFix konnten jedoch keine erhöhten Ausstoßungsraten festgestellt werden.


John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton

John Harding, 1. Baron Harding of Petherton

Early life and First World War.

Born the son of Francis Ebenezer Harding and Elizabeth Ellen Harding (née Anstice) and educated at Ilminster Grammar School and King's College London, Harding started as a boy clerk in December 1911, earning promotion to assistant clerk in the Post Office in July 1913 and then to full clerk in the Second Division of the Civil Service in April 1914.  Harding became a part-time soldier, joining the 11th (County of London) Battalion (Finsbury Rifles) of the London Regiment, a unit of the British Army's Territorial Force, being commissioned as a second lieutenant on 15 May 1914. During the First World War (1914–1918) he was attached to the Machine Gun Corps and fought in the Gallipoli Campaign in August 1915. He transferred to the regular armed forces as a lieutenant in the Somerset Light Infantry on 22 March 1917 and was assigned to the Middle Eastern theatre of operations. He took part in the Third Battle of Gaza in November 1917 and was subsequently awarded the Military Cross.  During the interwar period Harding adopted the name "John", which his Regular Army comrades preferred, and in 1921 was posted to India. Promoted to captain on 11 October 1923 and later attended the Staff College, Camberley. He joined the general staff at headquarters Southern Command in 1930 before becoming brigade major of the 13th Infantry Brigade in 1933. He became a company commander with the 2nd Battalion with promotion to major on 1 July 1935. After a tour as a staff officer in the Directorate of Operations at the War Office, he was further promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1938.

Second World War.

Harding served in the Second World War, initially as Commanding Officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry, in which capacity he served in Waziristan and was mentioned in despatches, before joining the staff of Middle East Command in October 1940 and then becoming a brigadier General Staff (BGS) of the Western Desert Force (WDF) in December. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for services in that role. When Generals Richard O'Connor and Philip Neame were captured in April 1941, Harding took temporary command of the WDF, in which capacity he took the decision to hold Tobruk. He was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel on 9 August 1941 (with seniority backdated to 1 January 1941) and was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO).  Harding went on to be BGS of XIII Corps (the new name adopted by the former WDF) in August 1941 and, having been mentioned in dispatches in early 1942 and awarded a Bar to his DSO in February 1942. He was promoted to acting major-general on 26 January 1942 and became Deputy Director of Military Training Middle East Command, in which capacity he was again mentioned in despatches in the summer of 1942.  He was appointed General Officer Commanding (GOC) of the 7th Armoured Division in September 1942. He led the division in the Second Battle of El Alamein in October–November. He led his forward headquarters from a tank and then a jeep and, during the pursuit of the Axis forces to Tripoli, was subsequently wounded by shell splinters in January 1943. He was awarded a second Bar to his DSO for his conduct in late January 1943. At the same time his rank of major-general was made temporary.  He returned to the United Kingdom and, despite losing three fingers from his left hand, recovered relatively quickly. On 10 November 1943 he was promoted to acting lieutenant general and assumed command of VIII Corps, which was to take part in the invasion of Normandy. Soon afterwards, however, he was posted to the Italian Front in January 1944 to become Chief of Staff to General Sir Harold Alexander, then commanding the 15th Army Group, later designated the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI) before reverting to 15th Army Group in December 1944. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 16 June 1944 for his service in Italy, and promoted to the substantive rank of major general on 13 July 1944. He played a large part in the planning for Operation Diadem, the Fourth and final Battle of Monte Cassino and led to the capture of Rome and the destruction of a large portion of the enemy's forces and the subsequent fighting on the Gothic Line. He went on to take command of XIII Corps in Italy in March 1945, leading it through the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, arriving in Trieste just after the German surrender in May and the end of World War II in Europe. He was also awarded the Legion of Merit in the Degree of Commander by Harry S. Truman, the President of the United States, for his conduct during the war on 14 May 1948.

Postwar.

Promoted after the war to lieutenant general on 19 August 1946, Harding succeeded Alexander as commander of British forces in the Mediterranean in November 1946. He became General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) Southern Command in July 1947 and went on to be Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C), Far East Land Forces on 28 July 1949 at the early stages of the Malayan Emergency. Having been promoted to full general on 9 December 1949, made Aide-de-Camp General to H.M. The King on 21 October 1950 and advanced to a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the King's Birthday Honours 1951, Harding became Commander-in-Chief of the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) on 30 August 1951.  Harding was appointed Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) on 1 November 1952: in this capacity he advised the British government on the response to the Mau Mau Uprising. He was promoted to field marshal on 21 July 1953, and retired from the army on 29 September 1955.  Harding was also Colonel of the North Somerset Yeomanry from 2 February 1949, Colonel of the 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles from 18 May 1951 (to 1961), Colonel of the Somerset Light Infantry from 13 April 1953, Colonel of the Life Guards from 26 April 1957 and Colonel of the Somerset and Cornwall Light Infantry from 6 October 1959.

Cyprus and later career.

On 3 October 1955, Harding was assigned the post of Governor of the British colony of Cyprus. As Governor of Cyprus, Harding sought to restore the relations with the United Kingdom, by negotiating with both the Greek-Cypriot and the Turkish-Cypriot communities on the island, while the British Government was negotiating with the Greek and Turkish governments. Harding took strict measures to improve the security situation in Cyprus, EOKA having declared an armed struggle against the British on 1 April 1955. To this end, Harding instituted a number of unprecedented measures including curfews, closures of schools, the opening of concentration camps, the indefinite detention of suspects without trial and the imposition of the death penalty for offences such as carrying weapons, incendiary devices or any material that could be used in a bomb. A number of such executions took place often in controversial circumstances (e.g. Michalis Karaolis) leading to resentment, in Cyprus, the United Kingdom and in other countries.  Implementing the policy of the British Government, Harding also attempted to use negotiations to end the Cyprus crisis. However, negotiations with Archbishop Makarios III were unsuccessful and, eventually, Harding exiled Makarios to the British colony of Seychelles. On 21 March 1956 EOKA made an assassination attempt on Harding's life which failed as the time bomb under his bed failed to go off. It was not long after this that Harding offered a reward of £10,000 for General George Grivas, the leader of EOKA.  Facing growing criticism in the United Kingdom about the methods he used and their lack of effectiveness, Sir John Harding resigned as Governor of Cyprus on 22 October 1957 and was replaced by Sir Hugh Foot.  In January 1958, Harding was created Baron Harding of Petherton. In retirement he became Non-Executive Chairman of Plessey as well being the first Chairman of the Horse Race Betting Levy Board. His interests included his membership of the Finsbury Rifles Old Comrades Association in which he participated until late in his life. He died at his home in Nether Compton in Dorset on 20 January 1989.

Family.

In 1927 he married Mary Rooke; they had one son: John Charles Harding, 2nd Baron Harding of Petherton.

External links.

Field Marshal Allan Francis Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton, (10 February 1896 – 20 January 1989), known as John Harding, was a senior British Army officer who fought in both the First World War and the Second World War, served in the Malayan Emergency, and later advised the British government on the response to the Mau Mau Uprising. He also served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), the professional head of the British Army, and was Governor of Cyprus from 1955 to 1957 during the Cyprus Emergency.

Allan Francis Harding, 1. Baron Harding of Petherton GCB, CBE, DSO & Two Bars, MC, genannt John Harding (* 10. Februar 1896 in South Petherton, Somerset; † 20. Januar 1989 in Nether Compton, Dorset), war ein britischer Feldmarschall, Gouverneur von Zypern und Chef des Imperialen Generalstabes.


Mars Science Laboratory.

Several sites in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle have been proposed as areas to send NASA's next major Mars rover, the Mars Science Laboratory. Miyamoto Crater was in the top 7 sites chosen. Among the top 33 landing sites was Iani Chaos. Holden Crater is believed to have once been a lake. Eberswalde Crater contains a delta. There is a great deal of evidence that Miyamoto Crater once contained rivers and lakes. Many minerals, such as clays, chlorides, sulfates, and iron oxides, have been discovered there. Miyamoto Crater displays Inverted relief in the form of inverted channels. The picture below shows an inverted channel in Miyamoto. Inverted channels formed from accumulated sediments that were cemented by minerals. These channels eroded into the surface, then the whole area was covered over with sediments. When the sediments were later eroded away, the place where the river channel existed remained because the hardened material were resistant to erosion.  In an article published in January 2010, a large group of scientists endorsed the idea of searching for life in Miyamoto Crater because of inverted stream channels and minerals that indicated the past presence of water.  The aim of the Mars Science Laboratory is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a later mission could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12 mile wide, smooth, flat circle is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded. They would like to examine sediment layers.  The seven finalists were:

Miyamoto is a crater lying situated within the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle (MC-19) region of the planet Mars, west of the Plains of Meridiani. The crater is wide. The crater's northeastern half is filled with rocks formed in the presence of water and include minerals of iron and sulfur, which likely settled on lake bottoms or in groundwater systems. In the southwestern half of the crater floor, erosion has stripped these materials away, instead revealing clays and other materials like those found in the most ancient Martian rocks. More than 3.5 billion years old, they date to the Noachian era at which time, liquid water was likely present at the surface and could have created an environment favorable to life.

Miyamoto ist ein Krater auf dem Mars, westlich der Meridiani Planum. "Miyamoto" hat einen Durchmesser von ca. 160 Kilometern. Die nordöstliche Hälfte des Kraters ist von Felsen bedeckt, die augenscheinlich durch Wasser geformt wurden und Eisen- und Schwefelmineralien enthalten, wie sie sich typischerweise auf dem Grund von Seen und Grundwassertümpeln ablagern. In der südwestlichen Kraterhälfte sind diese Ablagerungen durch Erosion abgetragen und enthüllen Lehmschichten und andere Materialien, wie sie sonst in den ältesten Marsgesteinen gefunden werden. Mit einem Alter von mehr als 3,5 Milliarden Jahren datieren sie in eine Zeit, in der wahrscheinlich Oberflächenwasser auf dem Mars vorkam und möglicherweise günstige Lebensbedingungen schuf.


Functional equation and integer arguments.

The Barnes "G"-function satisfies the functional equation  with normalisation "G"(1) = 1. Note the similarity between the functional equation of the Barnes G-function and that of the Euler Gamma function:  The functional equation implies that "G" takes the following values at integer arguments:  and thus  where formula_8 denotes the gamma function and "K" denotes the K-function. The functional equation uniquely defines the G function if the convexity condition: formula_9 is added.

Reflection formula 1.0.

The difference equation for the G function, in conjunction with the functional equation for the gamma function, can be used to obtain the following reflection formula for the Barnes G function (originally proved by Hermann Kinkelin):  The logtangent integral on the right-hand side can be evaluated in terms of the Clausen function (of order 2), as is shown below:  The proof of this result hinges on the following evaluation of the cotangent integral: introducing the notation formula_12 for the logcotangent integral, and using the fact that formula_13, an integration by parts gives  Performing the integral substitution formula_15 gives  The Clausen function – of second order – has the integral representation  However, within the interval formula_18, the absolute value sign within the integrand can be omitted, since within the range the 'half-sine' function in the integral is strictly positive, and strictly non-zero. Comparing this definition with the result above for the logtangent integral, the following relation clearly holds:  Thus, after a slight rearrangement of terms, the proof is complete:  Using the relation formula_21 and dividing the reflection formula by a factor of formula_22 gives the equivalent form:  Ref: see Adamchik below for an equivalent form of the reflection formula, but with a different proof.

Reflection formula 2.0.

Replacing z with (1/2) − "z"" in the previous reflection formula gives, after some simplification, the equivalent formula shown below (involving Bernoulli polynomials):

Taylor series expansion.

By Taylor's theorem, and considering the logarithmic derivatives of the Barnes function, the following series expansion can be obtained:  It is valid for formula_27. Here, formula_28 is the Riemann Zeta function:  Exponentiating both sides of the Taylor expansion gives:  Comparing this with the Weierstrass product form of the Barnes function gives the following relation:

Multiplication formula.

Like the Gamma function, the G-function also has a multiplication formula:  where formula_33 is a constant given by:  Here formula_35 is the derivative of the Riemann zeta function and formula_36 is the Glaisher–Kinkelin constant.

Asymptotic expansion.

The logarithm of "G"("z" + 1) has the following asymptotic expansion, as established by Barnes:  Here the formula_38 are the Bernoulli numbers and formula_36 is the Glaisher–Kinkelin constant. (Note that somewhat confusingly at the time of Barnes the Bernoulli number formula_40 would have been written as formula_41, but this convention is no longer current.) This expansion is valid for formula_42 in any sector not containing the negative real axis with formula_43 large.

Relation to the Loggamma integral.

The parametric Loggamma can be evaluated in terms of the Barnes G-function (Ref: this result is found in Adamchik below, but stated without proof):  The proof is somewhat indirect, and involves first considering the logarithmic difference of the Gamma function and Barnes G-function:  where  and formula_47 is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.  Taking the logarithm of the Weierstrass product forms of the Barnes function and Gamma function gives:  A little simplification and re-ordering of terms gives the series expansion:  Finally, take the logarithm of the Weierstrass product form of the Gamma function, and integrate over the interval formula_50 to obtain:  Equating the two evaluations completes the proof:  And since formula_21 then,

In mathematics, the Barnes G-function "G"("z") is a function that is an extension of superfactorials to the complex numbers. It is related to the gamma function, the K-function and the Glaisher–Kinkelin constant, and was named after mathematician Ernest William Barnes. It can be written in terms of the double gamma function.

Die Barnessche formula_1-Funktion, typischerweise mit formula_2 bezeichnet, ist eine Funktion, die eine Erweiterung der Superfakultäten auf die komplexen Zahlen darstellt. Sie steht in Beziehung zur Gammafunktion, der formula_3-Funktion und der Konstanten von Glaisher-Kinkelin und ist nach dem Mathematiker Ernest William Barnes benannt.


Early life.

Xhafer Ibrahim Deva was born in Mitrovica, Kosovo Vilayet, Ottoman Empire on 21 February 1904. He was the seventh son of Ibrahim Deva, a wood merchant from Đakovica. Prior to the Balkan Wars, he attended a German-language school in Salonika. Afterwards, he studied commerce at Robert College, an American private boarding school in Istanbul's Arnavutköy neighbourhood. He graduated in 1922 and travelled to Egypt, where he briefly worked for a bank in Alexandria. Suffering from rheumatism, he left Egypt and sought treatment in Austria. He studied forestry in Vienna before returning to Mitrovica in 1933 and setting up a lumber business that lasted until 1941.

World War II.

The Kingdom of Italy invaded the Albanian Kingdom on 7 April 1939, and deposed its monarch, King Zog I. Afterwards, they re-established the Albanian state as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy,  By 1941, Deva was the first Kosovo Albanian political leader to declare himself ready to collaborate with the Germans in the event of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. Having been in contact with the "Abwehr" (the German military intelligence) for some time, he met Hermann Neubacher, the German special representative for southeastern Europe, in Belgrade prior to the invasion and had given the latter his support.  The Axis powers invaded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. Afterwards, the country was dismantled and the Wehrmacht established the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia under a military government of occupation. The territory included most of Serbia proper, with the addition of the northern portion of Kosovo and the Banat. Italian Albania was expanded to include adjacent parts of Yugoslavia incorporated mainly from the Yugoslav "banovinas" (regional subdivisions) of Vardar and Morava. Most of Kosovo was annexed to Albania and in the beginning Albanians living there enthusiastically welcomed the Italian occupation. Although officially under Italian rule, the Albanians controlled the region and were encouraged to open Albanian language schools, which had been banned by the Yugoslav government. The Italians also gave the inhabitants Albanian citizenship and allowed them to fly the Albanian flag.  Later that year, Deva worked with the Balli Kombëtar and the Germans to establish a pro-German Albanian government in Kosovo linked to the Albanian nation. He quickly became the Balli Kombëtar's most powerful figure, instructing members to follow a militant interpretation of Islam. The most capable Kosovo Albanian politician of the war, he was then appointed head of the local administration in German-occupied Mitrovica. After the capitulation of Italy, Deva and Bedri Pejani, assisted by the German emissary Franz von Schweiger, set up the Second League of Prizren on 16 September 1943. The league, whose aim was to defend the borders of Greater Albania, declared "jihad" (holy war) against Slavs, Gypsies and Jews and sought to create an ethnically cleansed Greater Albania. Between 4 and 7 December 1943, 400 soldiers of Kosovo Regiment commanded by Deva surrounded Peć and committed mass murder of local Serbs and Montenegrins, killing at least 300 people. Deva subsequently placed the newly established units of Balli Kombëtar under the command of the Germans.  Together with Pejani and Ibrahim Biçakçiu, a landowner from Elbasan, he later helped create a national committee of twenty-two Albanian and Kosovo Albanian leaders which declared Albania independent and which elected an executive committee under Biçakçiu to form a provisional government. On 5 November, Deva was appointed Minister of the Interior in the Tirana Government of Rexhep Mitrovica and collaborated with the Germans to oppose the spread of Communist forces in the north, effectively giving him direct command over the forces of the new government.  On 4 February 1944, police units under his authority massacred 86 residents of Tirana suspected of being anti-fascists. Later, Deva began recruiting Kosovo Albanians to join the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian). In May, he visited Germany with Ago Agaj, the Albanian Minister of National Economy. On 16 June, Mitrovica's government was dissolved and Deva lost his position as Minister of the Interior. He was then appointed leader of the Second League of Prizren, and took charge of anti-Partisan operations around the town in September.  With the Allied victory in the Balkans imminent, Deva was also involved in a last-ditch attempt to set up an anti-Communist government in Kosovo, and received large caches of weapons and ammunition from SS General Josef Fitzthum and Neubacher's special representative, Karl Gstottenbauer. He and his men also engaged in collecting food and radio equipment from withdrawing German soldiers and attempted to purchase further weapons from them in order to organize a "final solution" of the Slavic population of Kosovo. Nothing came of this as the powerful Yugoslav Partisans prevented any large-scale ethnic cleansing of Slavs from occurring. According to German reports from November 1944, Deva had a force of about 20,000 armed men at his disposal. Historian Jozo Tomasevich writes that this number is likely exaggerated, but concedes that large groups of Kosovo Albanians were active in the region at the time.  Historical review of Deva's role in World War II has become more complicated as, while his atrocities and collaboration with the Axis continue to be acknowledged and condemned, his role in saving Jews within Albania proper has also come to light. In the spring of 1944, the Nazi occupiers again asked for a list of Jews, which had earlier been refused by Albanian collaborationist authorities; upon hearing the grave situation, two of the local Jewish leaders sought the council of Mehdi Frasheri, a government official, for help; Frasheri referred them to Xhafer Deva, who apparently on the one hand had a "good reputation for protecting Jews" yet on the other "had become known for the terror he exercised across the streets of Tirana along with his hordes". Xhafer Deva, then the interior minister of the Albanian quisling government, reportedly told two Jewish delegates that he had the list, and agreed that he would protest the matter with the Germans. He refused to hand the list over to the Germans and rejected their requests to gather Jews in one place, purportedly because of the Albanian besa custom of hospitality. To the Germans, Deva argued that he would not hand over the list as he would not accept "interference in Albanian affairs". Deva informed the leaders of the Jewish community that he had successfully refused the German request afterward. In June 1944, the German government asked for the list of Jews again, and the Albanian collaborationist government refused yet again.

Exile and death.

As the war in Albania drew to a close, Deva fled to Croatia and then to Austria in December, where he was resettled with the help of the Reich Foreign Ministry as the Germans evacuated Albania and Kosovo. There, he joined other anti-Communist Albanians in exile and took care of the ailing Rexhep Mitrovica. From late 1945 until early 1947, he lived in western Austria, at a safe distance from Soviet forces. In 1947, Deva moved via Italy to Damascus in Syria, where he helped publish an exile newspaper entitled "Bashkimi i Kombit" (). In 1956, he immigrated to the United States and briefly lived in New York and Boston. In 1960, he moved to Calaveras County, California, and worked as an assistant supervisor at the mailing department of Stanford University in Palo Alto until his retirement in 1972. In his years in exile, Deva led the Third League of Prizren and played an active role in organizing anti-Communist resistance. He died on 25 May 1978, aged 74. Files released after his death showed that Deva was one of 743 suspected fascist war criminals recruited by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the Cold War.

Xhafer Ibrahim Deva (21 February 1904 – 25 May 1978) was a Kosovo Albanian politician during World War II. A notable local politician in Kosovo and in Axis-occupied Albania, he took charge German-occupied Mitrovica and worked with the Germans to establish a pro-German Albanian government in Kosovo. Following the capitulation of Italy from the war, he helped form a provisional government under German occupation and set up the Second League of Prizren alongside other Albanian nationalists. On 5 November 1943, he was appointed Minister of the Interior of Albania and was effectively given direct command of the forces of the newly formed Albanian government. On 4 February 1944, police units subordinate to him massacred 86 residents of Tirana suspected of being anti-fascists. Deva was later involved in recruiting Kosovo Albanians to join the 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian). He lost his position as Minister of the Interior with the dissolution of the Albanian government on 16 June, and subsequently became leader of the Second League of Prizren and led anti-Partisan operations around Prizren in September. Soon after, he fled to Croatia and then to Austria with the help of the Germans, where he joined other anti-Communist Albanians. After the war, he moved via Italy to Damascus, where he helped publish an exile newspaper entitled "Bashkimi i Kombit" (). In 1956, he immigrated to the United States and briefly lived in New York and Boston before moving to Calaveras County, California in 1960. Here, he worked as an assistant supervisor at the mailing department of Stanford University in Palo Alto until his retirement in 1972. During this time, he led the Third League of Prizren and played an active role in organizing anti-Communist resistance until his death on 25 May 1978. Files released after his death showed that he had been recruited by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) while living in the United States.

Xhafer Ibrahim Deva (* 21. Februar 1904 in Mitrovica, Vilâyet Kosovo, Osmanisches Reich; † 25. Mai 1978, San Francisco, Vereinigte Staaten) war ein führender albanischer Politiker des Faschismus, Mitglied der Balli Kombëtar und Innenminister des seit Ende 1943 deutsch besetzten Großalbanien.


Orbit and classification.

"Wirt" is both a member of the main-belt's Phocaea family () and a Mars-crossing asteroid, whose orbit crosses that of Mars. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.6–3.2 AU once every 3 years and 8 months (1,342 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.34 and an inclination of 24° with respect to the ecliptic.  The asteroid's observation arc begins two weeks after its official discovery with the first recorded observation at Lick Observatory on 22 November 1950.

Physical characteristics.

"Wirt" has been characterized as a stony S-type asteroid.

Rotation period.

Between 2005 and 2010, several rotational lightcurve were obtained for this asteroid from photometric observations taken by astronomers Donald Pray, Petr Pravec, Peter Kušnirák, Walter Cooney, Rui Goncalves and Raoul Behrend, as well as at the Palomar Transient Factory. The lightcurves gave a well-defined rotation period between 3.689 and 3.690 hours with a brightness variation between 0.12 and 0.26 magnitude ().

Satellite.

During the photometric observations in December 2005, a minor-planet moon in orbit of "Wirt" was discovered. The binary asteroid has diameter ratio of 0.25, and the moon's orbital period is 18.97 hours. It measures approximately 1.89 kilometer in diameter.

Diameter and albedo.

According to the survey carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the asteroid measures 6.66 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.19, while the "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes an albedo of 0.23 and calculates a diameter of 6.65 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 13.1.

Naming.

It was named after American astronomer Carl Wirtanen (1910–1990), a discoverer of minor planets and comets, who was a long-time contributor of astrometric observations at Lick Observatory. It is one of the rare cases where the asteroid had been named after its discoverer. Wirtanen is known for several surveys conducted at Lick Observatory such as the "Lick proper motion program with respect to galaxies" and the "Shane-Wirtanen survey". The official naming citation was published by the MPC on 1 January 1981 ().

2044 Wirt, provisional designation, is a binary Phocaea asteroid and Mars-crosser, approximately 6.7 kilometers in diameter. The minor-planet moon has an estimated diameter of 1.89 kilometer.

(2044) Wirt ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 8. November 1950 vom US-amerikanischen Astronomen Carl Alvar Wirtanen am Lick-Observatorium entdeckt wurde.


Early history.

The first European in the area was explorer Edward John Eyre, who passed through the area on his passage from Streaky Bay to the head of Spencer Gulf in late 1839.  The area was first settled in the 1870s by lease-holding pastoralists who moved north up the Eyre Peninsula during the 1870s and 1880s. They lightly stocked the land and relied on the limited water supplies and intermittent open grass lands to raise their stock. It was more intensively settled for wheat farming from 1908, when overseas demand for wheat increased in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The large tracts of mallee scrub began to be cleared to facilitate this, and soon regular mail services were established from the port at Cowell. Bags of wheat had to be loaded onto bullock drays which carried the produce to Cowell 76 km south.  In 1913, Kimba was connected by narrow gauge railway to Port Lincoln. This development encouraged a number of new wheat farmers to move into the area. Two years later the township of Kimba was officially proclaimed and service industries began to move into the district.  Education within the town is provided by the Kimba Area School where around 170 students from reception to year 12 attend.

National Radioactive Waste Management Facility.

Two properties in the Kimba district were nominated in 2017 for a proposed National Radioactive Waste Management Facility, to store low-level and intermediate-level nuclear waste. One is owned by Brett and Michelle Rayner, and the other is owned by Andrew and Dale Baldock. A third proposed site is located at Barndioota in the Flinders Ranges.  In 2017, a Kimba town vote demonstrated support for further investigation of the prospect. The result of the vote was 396 to 294 in favour. Opposition to the project has been expressed by community groups "No Radioactive Waste on Agricultural Land in Kimba or SA" and the "Against Radioactive Waste Action Group".  On 1 February 2020 federal resources minister, Matt Canavan, announced that of Jeff Baldock's Napandee property, west of Kimba, would provide the location to permanently store low-level waste. The facility would also temporarily store intermediate-level waste from Lucas Heights nuclear reactor, until a suitable permanent site was found.  The federal government is allocating a community development package to boost the skills of local businesses and workers to build and run the dump. The facility would cost, and create 45 jobs during construction and 25 ongoing jobs.

Culture.

An large-scale public artwork known as "The Big Galah" welcomes visitors to Kimba as they enter the township. The Kimba Art Prize is held annually by the District Council of Kimba. Selected works are displayed in the Kimba Institute in September, and an award is presented to a local artist. In 2017, the art prize received 150 entries from around South Australia and interstate.  In 2017 a high mural was completed on the town's grain silos by Melbourne artist Cam Scale, part of the silo art projects that extend across South Australia and Victoria.

Climate data and extremes.

Kimba is located within a dry (arid and semi arid) climate zone (Köppen climate classification "BSh"), where precipitation is less than the total potential evapotranspiration. The region is characterised by hot summers and relies on cool winter rainfall for cereal (dominantly wheat and barley with smaller amounts of oats and canola) agriculture. Grazing is also practised, largely that of merino sheep for wool production with smaller amounts of cattle grazing. Water for stock is sourced solely from rainfall due to the paucity of reliable groundwater in the district, and often summer thunderstorms can supplement the winter rainfall for grazing purposes.  Kimba and the associated Buckleboo agricultural area is one of a small number of communities on Eyre Peninsula located significantly to the north of Goyders Line in South Australia. This line represents a remarkable development in climatic understanding from the 19th century in that it was the first recognition of the vagaries of highly variable rainfall and climatic conditions with respect to European style agriculture.

Soils and geomorphology.

The Kimba district is dominated by calcareous earths, containing distinctive calcrete profiles and varying degrees of development, with minor ferruginous red-brown earths and local pisolitic regions. The major exception is to the south west of the Kimba District, within the Corrobinnie Depression, a palaeochannel which is now filled with deep sands. Much of this region is unsuitable for agriculture and comprises the Pinkawillinie Conservation Park. Locally grey loams and gypsum bearing flats are developed, with minor evaporites surrounding playa lakes, such as Lake Gilles at the eastern end of the district.  Small rounded hills in the form of Wild Dog Hill occur in the Kelly region to the east of Kimba township, with two ranges, Botanella Hills and the Wilcherry Range comprising uplands to the north east. The Gawler Ranges located in the pastoral country to the far north, the Cleve Uplands to the south, and the Corrobinnie Depression comprise distinct geomorphic boundaries to the District Council of Kimba.

Kimba is a rural service town on the Eyre Highway at the top of Eyre Peninsula in the Australian state of South Australia. At the 2016 census, Kimba had a population of 629 and it has an annual rainfall of. There is an tall statue of a galah beside the highway, marking halfway between the east and west coasts of Australia. The Gawler Ranges are north of the highway near the town.

Kimba ist ein kleiner Ort, der im Norden der Eyre-Halbinsel in South Australia am Eyre Highway liegt. Die Stadt befindet sich 350 Kilometer östlich von Ceduna und 150 Kilometer westlich von Port Augusta. Kimba ist ein Wort der Aborigine für Buschfeuer.


Tripartite, Ergative and Accusative systems.

A tripartite language does not maintain any syntactic or morphological equivalence (such as word order or grammatical case) between the core argument of intransitive verbs and either core argument of transitive verbs. In full tripartite alignment systems, this entails the agent argument of intransitive verbs always being treated differently from each of the core arguments of transitive verbs, whereas for mixed system intransitive alignment systems this may only entail that certain classes of noun are treated differently between these syntactic positions.  The arguments of a verb are usually symbolized as follows:  The relationship between accusative, ergative, and tripartite alignments can be schematically represented as follows:  "See morphosyntactic alignment for a more technical explanation."  The term'subject' has been found to be problematic when applied to languages which have any morphosyntactic alignment other than nominative-accusative, and hence, reference to the 'agent' argument of transitive sentences is preferred to the term'subject'.

Types of tripartite systems.

Languages may be designated as tripartite languages in virtue of having either a full tripartite morphosyntactic alignment, or in virtue of having a mixed system which results in tripartite treatment of one or more specific classes of nouns.

Full tripartite systems.

A full tripartite system distinguishes between S, A and O arguments in all classes of nominals. It has been claimed that Wangkumara has the only recorded full tripartite alignment system.

Example.

Wangkumara consistently differentiates marking on S, A, and O arguments in the morphology, as demonstrated in example (1) below: In the above example, the intransitive case in (a) is glossed NOM, in accordance with Breen's original transcription. Across (1), we see differential case suffixes for each of intranstive (NOM), ergative (ERG), and accusative (ACC) case.  The same tripartite distinction is clear in the pronominal system:  In the above examples, we see the first person singular pronoun taking different forms for each of the S, A, and O arguments (marked NOM, ERG and ABS respectively), indicating the tripartite alignment in pronominal morphology.  Syntactic surveys of Wangkumara suggest this is generally true of the language as a whole. Hence, Wangkumara represents a case of a full tripartite alignment.

Mixed systems.

More common than full tripartite systems, mixed system tripartite alignments either demonstrate tripartite alignment in some subsection of the grammar, or else lacks the ergative, the accusative, or both in some classes of nominals. An example of the former kind of mixed system may be Yazghulami, which exhibits tripartite alignment but only in the past tense. An example of the latter would be Nez Perce, which lacks ergative marking in the first and second person.  The following examples from Nez Perce illustrate the intransitive-ergative-accusative opposition that holds in the third person:  In the above examples, (2a) demonstrates the intranstive case marking (here coded as NOM), while (2b) demonstrates differential ergative and accusative markings. Thus, Nez Perce demonstrates tripartite differentiations in its third person morphology.

Realizations of tripartite alignment.

Syntactic tripartite alignment.

Passive and anti-passive constructions.

Ainu also shows the passive voice formation typical of nominative-accusative languages and the antipassive of ergative-absolutive languages. Like Nez Percé, the use of both the passive and antipassive is a trait of a tripartite language.

In linguistic typology, tripartite alignment is a type of morphosyntactic alignment in which each of the single argument of an intransitive verb and the two main arguments of a transitive verb are treated distinctly in the grammatical system of a language.

Eine Ergativ-Akkusativ-Sprache (engl. "tripartite language" „dreigeteilte Sprache“) ist eine Sprache, die das Subjekt eines intransitiven Satzes, das Subjekt eines transitiven Satzes und das Objekt eines transitiven Satzes jeweils unterschiedlich markiert. Verfügt die Sprache über ein System morphologischer Kasus, werden die unterschiedlichen syntaktischen Funktionen wie folgt bezeichnet:


Description.

The 14Tr is a two-axle trolleybus with unibody construction. Its structure consists of mutually welded elements: the frame, side walls, roof and ends. Each component is welded together from steel shapes and castings. The body is covered with a steel skin; the section below the windows is thermally insulated and soundproofed. The interior is surfaces with plastic paneling. Domestic buses have three twin-leaf folding doors on the right side, while export units only have two. Transverse passenger seats are covered in leatherette. Electrical equipment uses the same thyristor pulse control as the 9Tr trolleybus.

Production and operation.

Between 1972 and 1998, 3,263 14Tr trolleybuses were built, plus two bodies that were used for the prototype TV-14Tr trolley-train (a total of 3,265 units).

Electric Transit, Inc..

From 1994 to 2004, Electric Transit, Inc. (a joint venture between Škoda and AAI Corporation) assembled 297 14Tr-based trolleybuses for the transit operators in two cities of the United States: Dayton, Ohio and San Francisco, designated 14TrE/E2 ("E" for "E"xport) and 14TrSF ("S"an "F"rancisco), respectively. To meet "Buy America" requirements for federally-subsidized transit vehicle purchases, incomplete "shells" were manufactured at the Škoda plant in the Czech Republic and shipped to an American facility in Hunt Valley, Maryland for initial fitting-out. Final fitting-out was performed at leased facilities in the client cities.  Summary  14TrM production started in 1995 and continued until 2003. A planned order for Gatchina, Russia was cancelled when construction of the trolleybus system stopped in 2005.

The Škoda 14Tr was a Czech trolleybus produced from 1981 to 1998. Prototypes were built in 1972 and 1974. After the unsuccessful attempt to merge the Karosa ŠM 11 bus and the Škoda T 11 trolleybus and the cancelled Škoda 13Tr project, a new style of trolleybus was designed in the early 1970s, designated the 14Tr. Development was halted because of plans to replace trolleybuses by diesel buses, but the 1973 oil crisis led to a re-evaluation and work on the 14Tr resumed.

Der Škoda 14Tr ist ein Oberleitungsbus des (damals) tschechoslowakischen Herstellers Škoda. 14 ist die fortlaufende Baureihennummer, die Abkürzung "Tr" steht für "Trolejbus".


Background and education.

Carpenter was born in Moretown, Vermont in the Mad River Valley of the Green Mountain range. His pioneering forebears were English, and came to America soon after the Pilgrims. His grandfather Cephas Carpenter (1770–1860) helped establish Moretown, owned a store, served as a colonel in the militia and took part in the War of 1812. Cephas Carpenter served in local office including justice of the peace, and though not a member of the bar, possessed wisdom and eloquence that led to a career as an advocate in the local courts.  His son Ira Carpenter (1798–1862) was chiefly a farmer, but he also gained prominence through positions such as justice of the peace, postmaster and state legislator.  Grandson Merritt displayed intelligence and oratorical talents at an early age, impressing people with his abilities to recite Cicero and "exhort" at religious revivals. He also displayed an aversion to physical work.  After an explosive argument with a schoolmaster, the 13-year-old Carpenter was expelled from school. He was dissatisfied with the limits of Moretown, and left home to live and study law under the tutelage of family friend (and future Vermont governor) Paul Dillingham in nearby Waterbury. For four years Carpenter attended the local grade school while absorbing Dillingham's law library. Having received an appointment to the United States Military Academy through Vermont Congressman John Mattocks, Carpenter continued his studies, but he disliked military life and resigned in August 1845, citing poor health.  He returned to live in Dillingham's home and managed his law office while Dillingham was then a congressman in Washington, D.C. Upon Carpenter's admission to the Vermont bar in November 1847 Dillingham offered to make him his law partner, but Carpenter declined so he could further his law studies under Rufus Choate of Boston. Choate was also impressed with Carpenter, and after a few months he too offered him a partnership, but Carpenter sought to make a name and career for himself in the West.

Wisconsin attorney.

After reading that the territory of Wisconsin had passed its constitution and was soon to become a state, Carpenter chose to migrate west and begin his career as a lawyer in Beloit on the endorsement of that spot by the New England Emigrating Society's Dr. Horace C. White. Arriving in June 1848, Carpenter quickly established a reputation as a successful and affordable attorney, attracting much acclaim from the local community.  His practice was interrupted by a painful inflammation of his eyes which rendered him blind. After traveling to New York to seek treatment, his sight gradually recovered after a year as he convalesced in the Waterbury home of his mentor Dillingham. Before returning to Wisconsin he became engaged to Dillingham's daughter Catherine, and they married five years later.  In 1850 Carpenter returned to resume his law practice in Beloit using a new name, Matthew (Matt) Hale Carpenter, after Sir Matthew Hale, the noted English jurist of the 17th century. Despite an earlier warning from Choate to steer clear of politics, Carpenter successfully ran for Rock County district attorney, serving from 1850 to 1852 and 1854 to 1856. He was a Democrat in the tradition of Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson, but he disdained the party's pro-slavery platform while also rejecting Whig Party notions of opposing slavery based on "higher law"—the idea that individual belief of right and wrong permitted an individual to violate objectionable statutes and ordinances. After appearing to lose a close election for another term as Rock County district attorney in 1854, Carpenter successfully argued that courts could look beyond election board certifications and re-examine voter returns, resulting in the election being overturned.

"Gardner v. Tisdale".

In 1855 Carpenter discovered that many Beloit residents did not hold legal title to their land because it was sold to them by someone who had pre-empted the land but had not received official title from the government (Congress had previously outlawed the pre-emption of non-agricultural land). Carpenter put forth the theory that the original pre-emptor was still technically the owner of the property. After several complicated transactions, some of which included Paul Dillingham selling new titles to the landowners, and appeals as far as the United States Supreme Court, which included participation by Dillingham, Rufus Choate, Abraham Lincoln and other prominent attorneys, Carpenter's legal theory was rejected in a similar case, so the Wisconsin case was withdrawn.

Barstow-Bashford election dispute.

Wisconsin's gubernatorial election of 1855 was thrown into doubt when incumbent Democratic governor William A. Barstow was ruled the 157-vote victor over Republican Coles Bashford by a board of canvassers friendly to Barstow. Discrepancies were discovered in the election returns and political tensions rose as both parties claimed the office and swore in their candidates. Hired by Barstow, Carpenter stalled by repeatedly postponing the case before the state supreme court. He claimed that they held no jurisdiction because elections were matters of the executive branch, which had ruled Barstow the winner. Nevertheless, the court did claim jurisdiction and the ability to examine election tallies (as Carpenter had previously argued for his own election for district attorney). Barstow then resigned, elevating Lieutenant Governor Arthur MacArthur to the governorship. After the court ruled that Bashford was the rightful governor, MacArthur gave up the office. Barstow subsequently refused to pay Carpenter his fee.  Despite his defeat Carpenter had demonstrated his legal prowess to the state. A high volume of his cases required his presence in federal court in Milwaukee, leading to him locating his practice there in 1858. He was also coaxed there by Democratic party boss Josiah Noonan, who arranged a law partnership between Carpenter and Edward G. Ryan, another highly regarded attorney and a force in the state Democratic Party. Despite their excellent credentials, they proved to be temperamentally incompatible, and ended their partnership the next year.  By the time Carpenter moved to Milwaukee he had become adept in the area of railroad litigation and sued many railroads on behalf of investors left holding bonds made worthless by fraudulent manipulation. His debut before the U.S. Supreme Court resulted in his winning a judgment against the La Crosse and Milwaukee Railroad Company. He was also successful as part of a team of lawyers defending abolitionist Sherman Booth from a charge of rape.

Loyal Democrat during the Civil War.

Carpenter supported Democrat Stephen Douglas in the 1860 presidential election, viewing Republican Abraham Lincoln as an honest but incompetent sectional candidate. Yet, he warned those in his party that he saw secession as treason, and he would be "the first man to raise a musket" in defense of the Constitution. Following the Confederates' attack on Fort Sumter in 1861, Carpenter did not enlist but became a rousing speaker in support of the Union cause.  While he saw that many federal actions would be unconstitutional in peacetime, he reasoned that arbitrary arrests and suspensions of "habeas corpus" were acts of self-preservation during wartime and thereby permitted. He also became an early advocate for emancipation, but only as a war measure rather than an act of humanity. Excluded from meetings of the Democratic leadership, Carpenter joined other like-minded party members of the "Loyal Democracy" in considering a third party in Wisconsin, but nothing came of it.  Personal letters he had written saying Lincoln was "idiotic" found their way into newspapers, but Carpenter supported him for re-election in 1864 by making numerous pro-Union and pro-Lincoln speeches.

Defining the Reconstruction Acts.

Carpenter was the key attorney in a series of landmark cases before the U.S. Supreme Court which helped define states' rights by determining the legality of the Reconstruction acts passed by Congress.  "Ex parte Garland" dealt with the disbarment from federal courts of Southern lawyers who refused to take an oath swearing they had not taken up arms or assisted the Confederacy. Carpenter argued that the act passed on January 24, 1865 was ex post facto (the war had since ended) and a bill of attainder (it punished without a trial). In December 1865 the court upheld his argument with the majority opinion employing phrases from Carpenter's brief.  "Ex parte McCardle" concerned the legal authority of the occupying Union Army. Confederate Colonel William L. McCardle, the editor of the "Vicksburg Times", was charged with defying military authority by inciting rebellion, libeling federal officials, and intimidating voters. After the circuit court denied him a writ of habeas corpus, McCardle appealed to the Supreme Court. Carpenter argued that the court lacked jurisdiction over a president's official acts, as in a similar case of his, "Georgia vs. Grant". Rather than claiming the Union's "right of conquest," Carpenter said the Southern states had surrendered their constitutional protections when they had seceded, essentially reverting to territories.  After he concluded his eloquent arguments, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton hugged him, declaring "Carpenter, you have saved us!" Even McCardle's attorney Jeremiah S. Black lauded him as "the first Constitutional lawyer in the country." However, Radical Republicans in Congress feared that the reconstruction acts would be ruled unconstitutional, so they quickly pushed through a law repealing the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867, barring jurisdiction in pending cases and preventing a clear decision from being rendered by the court.  In the Slaughterhouse cases Carpenter represented the Crescent City Livestock Landing and Slaughterhouse Company, which had been granted a monopoly on all slaughterhouse business in New Orleans by the carpetbag state legislature of Louisiana in 1869. Butchers and cattle dealers thrown out of work by the law obtained an injunction from a district court, claiming they had been denied equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment and deprived of property under the due process clause. Making a plea for states' rights, Carpenter contended that the amendment had been intended solely to elevate African Americans and had no bearing on economic statutes passed by a state. He also warned of too many powers being centralized in the federal government. The court concurred in Carpenter's narrowing of the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment.  In "Bradwell vs. Illinois", Carpenter sought to broaden the amendment's protections in the case of the editor of the Chicago "Legal News", Myra Bradwell, who had been denied admission to the bar of the Illinois Supreme Court because she was a woman. Representing Bradwell, Carpenter argued that no class of people could be excluded from practicing the legal profession. The federal court disagreed, questioning the propriety of ruling on a state's qualifications for admission to the bar.  These cases brought Carpenter handsome fees, national acclaim, and much derision from the losing factions. He'd also won the support of Stanton and President Ulysses S. Grant, who both urged him to run as a Republican for the U.S. Senate.

Republican senator.

Following the Civil War Carpenter's transformation from a Jeffersonian Democrat into a Republican was complete. Despite reports that he backed President Andrew Johnson's policies, he made speeches supporting the Radical congress. He called for the enfranchisement of African-American men and invited members of the Loyal Democracy to join the Republicans, as he himself did in the summer of 1867 with his support for Governor Lucius Fairchild's re-election.  With high-profile backing Carpenter ran successfully for the senate seat occupied by James R. Doolittle, a "Johnsonized" Republican who had fallen out of favor with his party. With his victory he solidified his status with the "Madison Regency," a Republican group that included former governor and Johnson's Postmaster General Alexander Randall, Madison postmaster Elisha W. Keyes and "Wisconsin State Journal" editor and Republican state central committee chairman Horace Rublee. After Rublee was appointed minister to Switzerland by President Grant, Keyes became party chairman and closely coordinated with Carpenter to distribute federal patronage jobs to political allies.  Once in the Senate, Carpenter moderated his views to the degree that he became one of the spokesmen of the emerging Stalwart Republicans. He opposed any "fundamental conditions" placed on states wishing to be readmitted to the Union, and favored blanket amnesty for former Confederates. Carpenter was known as one of the staunchest supporters of the corrupt Grant administration. In the Senate he presented an unabashed defense of political patronage, mocking the idea of civil service reform. He also feuded with Liberal Republican senators Charles Sumner and Carl Schurz over many issues. He delivered a sarcastic denunciation of Sumner's wide-reaching civil rights amendment to the Confederate amnesty bill. As the chair of an investigating committee he also debunked Sumner and Schurz's claim that the War Department had broken its neutrality when it sold outmoded rifles to France during the Franco-Prussian War. Despite such skirmishes Carpenter was a respected figure in the senate, being elected president pro tempore by his colleagues in 1871. He also served as chairman of the Committee on Enrolled Bills (42nd Congress) and the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense (42nd and 43rd Congresses).  As part of another committee inquiry, Carpenter went to Louisiana to investigate election claims in order to determine the rightful governor of the contested state. His report was highly critical of both factions, but he urged the recognition of Republican governor William P. Kellogg. Years later Carpenter's impartiality was called into question when personal letters revealed a close relationship between the two, including a "desperately short" Carpenter asking Kellogg for a $1,000 loan.

Drawing fire from press and party.

As Carpenter's influence grew within the Grant administration, so did the condemnations from the press. One of his Senate investigations resulted in two journalists being jailed for not divulging the source of a leaked treaty. Opposition newspapers like the "New York Tribune" responded by not only criticizing Carpenter's methods, but by also condemning his moral character by bringing his private life into question. Later in his term editors accused Carpenter of trying to effectively "gag" newspapers by advancing a bill that would allow judicial process to be served upon the agents (i.e. interviewers) of persons involved in civil suits.  In 1873 Carpenter angered many in his own party by taking positions that ran counter to the stalwart doctrine. In a spirit of reform he boldly owned up to administration excesses such as the Credit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," defending them in a speech in Janesville. In a speech at Ripon he denounced the railroads, insisting they were public highways paid for with government land grants. He also stated his belief that the government has a right as well as a duty to regulate corporations.  Wishing to make the "Milwaukee Sentinel" into a more reliable organ for the state Republican party, Carpenter and other backers bought the paper and forced out editor Alexander M. Thomson, who had been instrumental in getting Carpenter elected senator. Thomson was now deemed too critical of the party machine. His ousting made him a lifelong enemy of Carpenter. The "Sentinel" soon was seen as Carpenter's personal mouthpiece.  Despite the incessant criticism, Carpenter was seen as being easily re-elected in 1875. Nevertheless, a surprise bolt by disgruntled Republicans combined with votes by calculating Democrats resulted in the election of Angus Cameron, a La Crosse Republican.

Out of office and under scrutiny.

In 1875 Carpenter was implicated in the Whiskey Ring scandal that funneled federal liquor tax revenues to some states' Republican parties. Although he was close to key participants in the Milwaukee ring, no evidence emerged to prove his involvement.  During this time he was also defending Grant's Secretary of War William W. Belknap against charges that he had accepted money in exchange for the appointment of a post trader. Despite Belknap's immediate resignation outraged House Democrats proceeded with his impeachment. Carpenter portrayed Belknap as the hapless victim of a social-climbing wife, but his legal victory relied on his assertion that jurisdiction over Belknap ended with his resignation.  Also in 1875 Carpenter was defense counsel for officials of the Miners’ National Association (MNA) in an important labor case that sought to apply the legal concept of conspiracy to union picketing and organization efforts. The case grew out of a coal miners' strike in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania which was supported by the MNA, then numerically one of the largest American trade unions. First over fifty of the striking workers were tried upon a charge of criminal conspiracy and thirty-six of them were convicted with some sentenced to jail, although they appeared to have been guilty of no more than peaceful picketing. Then John Siney, the president of the MNA, and Xingo Parks, one of the union’s best organizers, were tried on the same charge. Siney was acquitted, but Parks convicted, although pardoned shortly thereafter.  Following the disputed presidential election of 1876, Carpenter was hired by supporters of the Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden to examine Louisiana's vote counts and argue for victory over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. Carpenter's first-hand accounts of the corrupt Republican state administration gave the Democrats some reason for hope, but ultimately the partisan make-up of the special electoral commission (7 Republicans, 6 Democrats) and its refusal to look behind the certified counts made many of their rulings a forgone conclusive win for Hayes.

Return to the senate.

Despite ongoing press criticism and declining health, in 1878 Carpenter launched a bid for the senate seat occupied by Republican Timothy Howe. With the help of a strong lobby, he won over enough votes in the legislature to prevail over state party boss (and former friend) Elisha W. Keyes.  Carpenter's second term as senator lacked the political drama of his Reconstruction years. He spoke in favor of President Rutherford B. Hayes's maintenance of federal troops at southern polling places. He also vigorously opposed the Democrats' proposed pardoning of General Fitz-John Porter for ignoring General John Pope's orders at Manassas in 1863, arguing that the power of pardon resides solely with the president. Carpenter remained a loyal supporter of President Grant in his quest for a third term, igniting bitter debates between Carpenter and White House aspirant Senator James G. Blaine of Maine.

Death.

While Carpenter's evident declining health was attributed to his indulgent lifestyle, he also suffered from the lung congestion of Bright's disease. After a cycle of relapses and recoveries he died on February 24, 1881 at his Washington, D.C. home surrounded by friends and family. He was buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee.

Family.

In 1855 Carpenter married Caroline Dillingham, the daughter of Paul Dillingham. They were the parents of four children. Daughters Ada and Annie were born and died in 1860. The other two lived to adulthood—a daughter named Lilian (1857–1942) and a son named Paul Dillingham Carpenter (1867–1932). Paul D. Carpenter was an attorney in Milwaukee and also served as judge of the county court.

Matthew Hale Carpenter (born Decatur Merritt Hammond Carpenter; December 22, 1824 – February 24, 1881) was an American attorney and U.S. Senator representing the state of Wisconsin. He served in the Senate from 1869 to 1875 and again from 1879 to 1881. Recognized as an authority on constitutional law, he made some of the most important legal arguments of 19th-century America. Carpenter presented cases before the U. S. Supreme Court involving such matters as states' rights and regulation of corporations. Originally a Democrat, he evolved into a Republican during the Civil War, and helped perpetuate the party's political machinery in Wisconsin. His sustained support for President Ulysses S. Grant's administration despite allegations of corruption lost him the backing of reformers, and his legal arguments in favor of Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden in the disputed presidential election of 1876 outraged many Republicans. A gifted orator, he was dubbed "the Webster of the West."

Matthew Hale Carpenter (* 22. Dezember 1824 in Moretown, Washington County, Vermont als "Decatur Merritt Hammond Carpenter"; † 24. Februar 1881 in Washington, D.C.) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker, der den Bundesstaat Wisconsin im US-Senat vertrat.


Biography.

Early life and influence.

He was born in New York and raised in Puerto Rico. Nicknamed "El Filósofo del Rap", ("The Philosopher of Rap"), Luis Armando Lozada Cruz adopted the professional name Vico C. Vico C describes reggaeton as "essentially hip-hop but with a flavor more compatible to the Caribbean." Though he maintains they are of the same essence, Vico C believes the difference lies in the quintessential music style; the beat or rhythm of the music.  As one of the founders of hip hop in Spanish, Vico C was able to show that it was possible for one to be able to rap entirely and compellingly in Spanish using just occasional English phrases or slang terms. He can be seen in the rap movement as far back as its "underground" days ghostwriting and producing music for other young performers in the Puerto Rican rap scene.  Vico C grew up in the "Puerta de Tierra" barrio in San Juan. He got enrolled in acting classes by the age of nine and began his professional rapping career in 1985. At first, he used to go to bodegas (grocery stores) or pharmacies, buy home recording tapes, record himself singing his songs and then sell the tapes to friends or family. Vico C was discovered by DJ Negro in 1985 whom immediately saw the great potential of hip hop in Spanish and chose to record Vico's earliest demos. Upon the positive reaction from the barrio, DJ Negro brought Vico to the most successful hip hop promoter in Puerto Rico, Jorge Oquendo (also known as 'El Sexy Boy'). Jorge Oquendo formed the record label 'Prime Records' with Vico C as the lead artist of the label. Prime Records eventually received a distribution deal via Sony BMG Latin. Prime Records is one of the most successful and influential record labels in the history of Spanish rap and reggaeton known for being the home to legendary acts such as DJ Negro, Vico- C, El General, Lisa M, Falo, Brewley MC and more.  In May 2019 he suffered seizures resulting from an allergic reaction to medication and was hospitalized but recovered.

Career.

In 1985, Spanish rap in Puerto Rico was not at a popular high, and Vico-C was the first one to rap in Spanish in Puerto Rico, considered the Godfather of Spanish Hip Hop and the pioneer of this genre, there were others who followed in his footsteps, rapping in the ghettos. Brewley MC, Piro JM, Jimmy MC, Bimbo, (Lisa M, Jelly Dee Franceska, came afterward) Ruben DJ was the first rapper to sound on the radio by releasing "La Escuela" after Vico C fame was already known on the whole island for his underground lyrics. Brewley MC also recorded "El Sida Rap with Green Records". Vico C entered the charts with his song "La Recta Final" which he personally designed the album cover for, with his artistic talents. Vico C was signed to Prime Records and started touring to venues in New York, Chicago, Miami, Mexico, Venezuela, El Salvador, Panama, the Dominican Republic.  Vico C, in 1992 released his singles "Saborealo" and "María" which became gold and platinum albums, respectively. In 1994, he established his own record company VC Records, promoting such singers as Lissy Estrella, Francheska, and Lisa M who were originally his back up dancers. In 1990, Vico C was involved in a near-fatal motorcycle accident. His injuries led to his abuse of heroin, cocaine, and alcohol.  Soon after, he became an evangelical Christian and went into a voluntary semi-retirement. In 1998, he resurfaced, with the "rambunctious", Christian rap CD "Aquel Que Había Muerto". The new CD went gold and in 1999, he returned to the touring scene with his concert "Antes y después". Soon after, he released a sequel to "Aquel Que Había Muerto". With that, he earned the Latino Rap of the year award by Billboard.  In 2003, Vico C released an album titled "En Honor A La Verdad". While it was not a major hit it still sold well and one of the album's singles "El Bueno, El Malo y El Feo", referring to Eddie Dee, himself and Tego Calderón respectively. The single was widely heard. The single was a great combination of the best "Conscience" subgenre of rap artists.  Vico C's recent albums include "Desahogo", in early 2005. The album was a success and born June 3, 2006, he came back with another concert, "El Encuentro".  Many consider Vico C to be a pioneer of rap. Music industry figures called him the "father and creator of rap". He has worked alongside artists including Big Boy, Eddie Dee, Héctor & Tito, Tego Calderón. He has also worked with producers Baby Ranks, Tony Touch and Luny Tunes.  He has sung alongside salsa singer Gilberto Santa Rosa and cumbia group Kumbia Kings.  Vico C tries to maintain a Christian theme throughout his music. His brother Jay Lozada is a salsa musician.  In 2020 music by Vico C was part of the annual Banco Popular Christmas songs compilation album.

Legacy.

Vico C is renowned as the most influential artist in the history of Spanish Hip Hop and Reggaeton throughout Latin America and Spain. Vico is recognized for having lyrics that were thoughtful, insightful, socially conscious as well as catchy and danceable songs for all kind of audiences. The musical blueprint implemented by DJ Negro and Vico C is the precursor of the genre now known as reggaeton. Many Spanish hip hop/reggaeton journalists and experts consider Vico C as the greatest or one of the greatest artists in the history of the genre.

Accolades.

American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Awards.

Grammy Awards.

Latin Grammy Awards.

!scope="row"|2002!scope="row"|2003!scope="row"|2004!scope="row"|2005!scope="row" rowspan="2"|2010!scope="row"|2017

Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame.

Lo Nuestro Awards.

!scope="row"|2003!scope="row" rowspan="2"|2006

Luis Armando Lozada Cruz (born September 8, 1971), better known as Vico C, is an American rapper and songwriter. Widely regarded as the "Father of Latin Hip Hop", as well as the founding father of reggaeton, Vico C has played an influential role in the development of Latin American hip hop and urban music.

"Luis Armando Lozada Cruz" (* 8. September 1971 in New York) ist ein unter dem Namen Vico C bekannter amerikanischer Rapper und Reggaeton-Sänger.


Early life and career.

Sandberg was born in Amersfoort, the Netherlands in 1897 and studied art in Amsterdam. He became a follower of the Mazdaznan movement. As a young man he traveled, serving as an apprentice to a printer in Herrliberg, Switzerland. In 1927, he visited Vienna, where he studied Otto Neurath's Isotype system at the "Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum in Wien". At this time, he also visited the Dessau Bauhaus and met Naum Gabo, a pioneer of kinetic art.  Returning to Amsterdam, Sandberg started work as a graphic designer, utilizing his printing skills and Neurath's Isotype system. In 1928, he started a long relationship with the Stedelijk Museum, and in 1932 became a member of VANK, the Dutch Society for Arts and Crafts. He soon joined the committee that determined the exhibitions of the museum. From 1937 to 1941, he served as the museum's curator of modern art.

Participation in the Dutch resistance.

During the Second World War, Sandberg was active in the Dutch resistance movement, preparing forged documents for Jews and others wanted by the Gestapo. Other prominent individuals in the Raad van Verzet (Resistance Council) included painter and author Willem Arondeus, sculptors Gerrit van der Veen and Frits van Hall, cellist Frieda Belinfante, poet Martinus Nijhoff, dancer Suzy van Hall, lawyer Lau Mazirel, and composer and conductor Jan van Gilse. Within a short time, the Nazis began to expose the false documents by comparing the names with those in the local population registry. To hinder the Nazis, on 27 March 1943, Sandberg was among those who took part in planning the bombing of the Amsterdam Public Records Office. Thousands of files were destroyed, and the attempt to compare forged documents with the registry was hindered. Arondeus and ten others were later arrested and executed by firing squad. His wife and son were arrested and incarcerated for several months.  From December 1943 to April 1945, Sandberg went into hiding as Henri Willem van den Bosch to avoid arrest. During his time on the run, he formulated the "Experimenta Typographica", a series of 19 experimental typography pamphlets.""  For his participation in the resistance movement and helping to save the lives of Jews during the war, Sandberg was recognized as Righteous Among The Nations on 26 November 1968.

Contributions to the Stedelijk Museum.

Sandberg began working for the Stedelijk Museum in 1928 and was appointed curator in 1937. During his tenure as curator, Sandberg expanded the museum and developed new exhibition techniques, for which he gained international renown. He applied his graphic design and typography skills to over 300 catalogues. After the war in 1945, he served as director of the museum until his retirement in 1962.  In his retirement, he served on the committees for the Beaubourg in Paris and the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.  Sandberg has also given his name to the master's degree's design and art school, the Sandberg Instituut in Amsterdam, established in 1997 (part of Rietveld Academie)

Jonkheer Willem Jacob Henri Berend Sandberg (24 October 1897 – 9 April 1984) known as Willem Sandberg was a Dutch typographer, museum curator, and member of the Dutch resistance during World War II.

Willem Sandberg, eigentlich: Jonkheer Willem Jacob Henri Berend Sandberg (* 24. Oktober 1897 in Amersfoort, Niederlande; † 9. April 1984 in Amsterdam) war ein niederländischer Grafiker, Typograf und Grafikdesigner, spezialisiert auf Gebrauchsgrafik, Museumsdirektor und international auch bekannt für seine Plakatkunst und Kataloggestaltungen.


Distribution.

The native distribution of this slug species is European. It is native to Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Islands. It occurs widely in Europe, but is more rare and restricted to cultivated fields in the southeast, particularly in the Balkans, and is probably absent from Greece and the Bulgarian mountains. In the north and central European lowlands, Great Britain, and Ireland, it is probably the most widely occurring slug. In northern Scandinavia it is scarce, and is mainly found as a synanthrope.  This species occurs in countries and islands including:  The species has been widely introduced as a synanthrope to many regions:

Description.

As all other "Deroceras" it has a short keel at the back of the body. "Deroceras reticulatum" is very variable in colour, creamy or light coffee cream, rarely blackish spotted (slugs with spots may appear blackish). Behind the mantle there is the dark spots form a reticulate pattern. The skin is thick. Mucus is colourless, on irritation milky white. The slug cannot be distinguished from many other "Deroceras" species based only on its external appearance.  This slug can be up to 40–60 mm long (preserved 25–30 mm). The size varies according to the habitat.  Reproductive system: Penis is fleshy and with a silky sheen, in the shape of an irregular sac, in fully mature specimens divided into 2 parts by a deep lateral constriction. Penial gland has very variable shape, usually a few branches or a single long branch. Stimulator is large, conical and narrow. Retractor of the penis is inserted laterally. Vas deferens opens into penis wall facing the external body side. Rectal caecum is large.  This slug can travel up to 40 feet (12.2 m) in one night.

Ecology.

Habitat.

"Deroceras reticulatum" is almost exclusively restricted to cultivated areas, usually in open habitats, in meadows, near roadsides, in ruins, gardens and parks, not inside forests. External appearance is very similar to "Deroceras rodnae", "Deroceras praecox" and the internal anatomy is very similar to "Deroceras turcicum", but those three species lives in natural habitats – in woods – and they co-occur with "Deroceras reticulatum" very rarely. It shelters under stones and ground litter (It does not burrow into the soil). It is active at night.

Feeding habits.

This species is omnivorous, feeding mainly on fresh leaves and fruits or seedings. "Deroceras reticulatum" is a serious pest of agricultural crops, garden cultivations and horticulture. After several years with continuous moist weather conditions abundance can seriously increase.

Life cycle.

Life cycle covers a few months, usually two generations. The main reproductive phase is in summer and autumn. It lays hundreds of eggs which hatch during early summer.  Maximum age is about a year. Slugs die at the first frosts. Usually only eggs hibernate, sometimes also juveniles.

Predators.

Various carabid beetles are predators of "Deroceras reticlatum", including:

Parasites.

The bacterium "Moraxella osloensis" is a mutualistic symbiont of the slug-parasitic nematode "Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita". In nature, "Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita" vectors "Moraxella osloensis" into the shell cavity of the slug host "Deroceras reticulatum" in which the bacteria multiply and kill the slug.  "Deroceras reticulatum" can transfer "Escherichia coli" on its body surface.  Parasites of "Deroceras reticulatum" include:

References.

This article incorporates CC-BY-2.0 text from the reference and public domain text from the reference.

Deroceras reticulatum, common names the "grey field slug" and "grey garden slug", is a species of small air-breathing land slug, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Agriolimacidae. This species is an important agricultural pest.

Die Genetzte Ackerschnecke oder Genetzter Ackerschnegel ("Deroceras reticulatum") ist eine Nacktschneckenart aus der Familie der Ackerschnecken (Agriolimacidae), die in die Unterordnung der Landlungenschnecken (Stylommatophora) gestellt wird. Sie gehört mit zu den häufigsten Nacktschneckenarten im Kulturland und kann bei entsprechenden Populationsgrößen spürbare wirtschaftliche Schäden an Kulturpflanzen verursachen.