Origins.

The origins of the Russian Navy can be traced back to the period between the 4th and the 6th century. The first Slavic flotillas consisted of small sailing ships and rowboats, which had been seaworthy and able to navigate in riverbeds. During the 9th through 12th centuries, there were flotillas in the Kievan Rus' consisting of hundreds of vessels with one, two, or three masts. Riverine vessels in 9th century Kievan Rus guarded trade routes to Constantinople. The citizens of Novgorod are known to have conducted military campaigns in the Baltic Sea (e.g., the siege of Sigtuna in 1187)—although contemporary Scandinavian sources state that the fleet was from Karelia or Estonia. "Lad'ya" ("ладья" in Russian or sea boat) was a typical boat used by the army of Novgorod (length 30 meters with a width of five to six meters, and two or three masts, with the armament of battering rams and catapults, complement: 50 to 60 men). There were also smaller sailboats and rowboats, such as "ushkuys" ("ушкуи") for sailing in rivers, lakes and skerries, "kochis" ("кочи"), and "nosads" ("носады"), used for cargo transportation.  During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossacks conducted military campaigns against the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, using sailboats and rowboats. The Don Cossacks called them "strugs" ("струг"). These boats were capable of transporting up to 80 men. The Cossack flotillas numbered 80 to 100 boats. The centralized Russian state had been fighting for its own access to the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Azov since the 17th century. By the end of that century, the Russians had accumulated some valuable experience in using riverboats together with land forces.  Under Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich, the construction of the first three-masted ship to be built entirely within Russia was finished in 1636. She was built in Balakhna by Danish shipbuilders from Holstein with a European design. She was christened the "Frederick". In 1667–69, the Russians tried to build naval ships in a village of Dedinovo on the shores of the Oka River for the purpose of defending the trade routes along the Volga River, which led to the Caspian Sea. In 1668, they built a 26-gun ship, the "Oryol" ("Орёл", or eagle), a yacht, a boat with a mast and bowsprit, and a few rowboats.  During much of the seventeenth century Russian merchants and Cossacks, using koch boats, sailed across the White Sea, explored the rivers Lena, Kolyma and Indigirka, and founded settlements in the region of the upper Amur. Unquestionably the most celebrated Russian explorer was Semyon Dezhnev, who, in 1648, sailed the entire length of present-day Russia along the Arctic coast. Rounding the Chukotsk Peninsula, Dezhnev passed through the Bering Sea and sailed into the Pacific Ocean.

Structure.

Since 2012 the headquarters of the Russian Navy (Russian Navy Main Staff) is once again located in the Admiralty in Saint Petersburg. Russian naval manpower is a mixture of conscripts serving one-year terms and volunteers (Officers and Ratings). In 2006 the IISS assessed there were 142,000 personnel in the Russian Navy. As of 2008 the conscription term was reduced to one year and a major downsizing and reorganization were underway. In 2008, plans were announced to move the headquarters to the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, the historic location of the headquarters of the Imperial Russian Navy. The Navy Staff finally relocated there in November 2012.  The Russian Navy is organised into four combat services - the Surface Forces, the Submarine Forces, the Naval Aviation and the Coastal Troops. Additionally the navy also includes support units afloat and ashore. It does not include special forces. The Naval Spetsnaz brigades are part of the Main Intelligence Directorate attached to the respective fleets and the Counter-Diversionary Forces and Assets ("ПДСС") (which are units, protecting the Navy from incursions of enemy special forces) fall within the Coastal Forces.  During the Cold War the Soviet Armed Forces made the distinction between the various naval commands. The main fleets were the Northern and the Pacific Fleet. They were tasked with independent operations on the high seas and for that reason included strategic surface, submarine and air forces, including the country's naval nuclear deterrent. Due to the limited geography of the Baltic and the Black Seas the respective Baltic and Black Sea Fleets were given a more circumspect role in support of adjacent ground formation (the Main Command of the Troops of the Western Direction in Legnica (Poland) and the Main Command of the Troops of the South-Western Direction in Chișinău. These two fleets were armed with shorter-range weapon systems than the main fleets (diesel-electric submarines, Sukhoi Su-24 fighter-bombers and a larger quantity of frigates and corvettes). Due to the closed nature of the Caspian Sea (still connected to the Baltic and Black Seas through the Volga River and the system of rivers and canals and navigable for ships of corvette size) its Caspian Flotilla had an even more limited role than the Fleets and played a defensive role supporting the Main Command of the Troops of the Southern Direction in Baku.  With the end of the Cold War a significant reduction in forces followed. Before the 2008 Russian military reform, the four fleets were ranked as equal in status to the six Military Districts. With the reform measures taking action four new Joint Strategic Commands were formed and the Fleets were subordinated to them with status equal to the Ground Forces and the Air Forces armies. Due to Russia's increased interests in the Arctic region the decision to put the Northern Fleet under the Joint Strategic Command West (later renamed to Western Military District) was reverted in 2014 and on December 12 it became the basis for the newly formed fifth Northern Fleet Joint Strategic Command.

Military districts and fleets.

The Russian Navy consists of four fleets and one flotilla with 3 of 4 fleets and the Caspian Flotilla subordinated to the newly formed Military Districts-Joint Operational Strategic Commands.

Joint Strategic Command Northern Fleet.

Northern Fleet.

The Russian Northern Fleet, established as a modern formation in 1933, is headquartered at Severomorsk and spread around various bases in the greater Murmansk area. It is the main fleet of the Russian Navy and currently comprises  The Northern Fleet also includes many corvettes, patrol ships, light amphibious ships and support and logistic ships.

Western Military District – Western Joint Strategic Command.

Baltic Fleet.

The Baltic Fleet, established on 18 May 1703, is based in Baltiysk and Kronshtadt, with its headquarters in the city of Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast. The Fleet consists of;  The Baltic Fleet also includes many corvettes, patrol ships, minehunters, light amphibious ships and support vessels.

Southern Military District – Southern Joint Strategic Command.

Black Sea Fleet.

The Black Sea Fleet, established on 2 May 1783, is based at the Sevastopol, Karantinnaya, and Streletskaya Bays in Sevastopol which is also the location of its headquarters, and at Novorossiysk

Caspian Flotilla.

The Caspian Flotilla, established on 4 November 1722, is based in Astrakhan and Makhachkala with its headquarters in Astrakhan. The Fleet consists of;  The Caspian Flotilla also includes 4 artillery and 3 rocket corvettes and some patrol ships.

Eastern Military District – Eastern Joint Strategic Command.

Pacific Fleet.

The Pacific Fleet, established on 10 May 1731, is headquartered in Vladivostok and based around Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy. The Fleet consists of;  The Pacific Fleet also includes coastal combatants such as corvettes, patrol ships, mine warfare ships, light amphibious ships, and support vessels. There are also naval aviation and coastal troops and naval infantry components.

Future and modernization.

Russia's military budget expanded from 1998 until 2015, but economic problems including a sharp decline in oils led to budget cuts in 2016. Higher expenditure led to an increase in numbers of ships under construction, initially focusing on submarines, such as the conventional "Petersburg" ("Lada")-class and nuclear "Severodvinsk" ("Yasen")-class. Some older vessels have been refitted as well. "Jane's Fighting Ships" commented in 2004 that the construction programme was too focused on Cold War scenarios, given the submarine emphasis. According to the Russian Defense Ministry, share of modern armament in the Navy has reached more than 50% in 2014. A report from December 2019 estimated the figure at 68%.  The "Steregushchiy"-class corvettes, the lead ship of which was laid down on 21 December 2001, is the first new surface construction since the collapse of the Soviet Union, while the new Admiral Sergei Gorshkov class frigates marks the first attempt of the Navy to return to the construction of large blue water capable vessels. The Russian Navy plans to procure two new classes of destroyer, the general-purpose Project 21956 in the 2010s and the Leader-class anti-air destroyer in the 2020s. The latter will likely carry the S-500 anti-ballistic missile system.  A rearmament program approved in 2007 placed the development of the navy on an equal footing with the Strategic Missile Forces for the first time in Soviet and Russian history.

Main Naval Parade in St. Petersburg.

Since 2017, by the decree of the President of Russia dated 27 July 2017, the tradition of holding the Main Naval Parade in St. Petersburg on the Navy Day has been restored. The parade

Deployments and increase in activity.

In the last years of the 1990s naval activity was very low. Even at the height of the Kosovo War, a planned task group deployment to the Mediterranean was reduced to the dispatch of the intelligence ship "Liman". 2003 saw a major increase in activity, including several major exercises. A May joint exercise with the Indian Navy saw two Pacific Fleet destroyers and four vessels from the Black Sea Fleet, led by the "Slava"-class cruiser "Moskva", deployed for three months into the Indian Ocean. The largest out-of-area deployment for a decade, the INDRA 2003 exercise, was highlighted by a series of missile launches by two Tu-160s and four Tu-95s, which made a round trip flight from Engels-2 air base near Saratov to the exercise area. In August 2003 the Navy also participated in the Far Eastern exercise Vostok 2003, which saw the "Slava"-class cruiser "Varyag" and the "Sovremennyy"-class destroyer "Bystryy" active, as well as an amphibious landing carried out by three Pacific Fleet Ropucha class landing ships. Warships and helicopters from the Japanese and South Korean navies also took part. The Northern Fleet followed in January 2004 when thirteen ships and seven submarines took part in exercises in the Barents Sea. The involvement of "Admiral Kuznetsov" and nuclear-powered cruiser "Pyotr Velikiy" was overshadowed however by two ballistic missile launch failures, made more embarrassing because President Vladimir Putin was afloat aboard the Typhoon-class SSBN "Arkhangelsk" to witness the tests. Neither of the "Delta IV"-class "Novomoskovsk" nor "Kareliya" were able to successfully launch what were apparently RSM-54 SLBMs. Former navy commander-in-chief Vladimir Kuroyedov's early dismissal may have resulted from these gaffes. He was replaced by Admiral Vladimir Masorin in September 2005.  Embarrassment for the navy had continued, with a mine accident during rehearsals for the Baltic Fleet's celebration of Navy Day in St. Petersburg in July 2005 and the "Priz-"class mini-submarine AS-28 having to be rescued by a joint British/U.S. effort using a Royal Navy unmanned submersible in the Far East in early August 2005. However exercises and operations continued; Peace Mission 2005 in August 2005 involved a new level of cooperation between Russia and the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy. Two months later the Slava-class cruiser "Varyag" led Russian participation in INDRA 2005, held off Visakhapatnam between 14 and 20 October 2005. It included surface firings, air defence, and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) exercises.  Admiral Vladimir Vysotskiy became Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Navy on 11 September 2007, having moved up from the Northern Fleet, which he had commanded since September 2005.  On 16 October 2008, the speaker of Russia's upper house of parliament did not preclude Russia asking for a resumption of a naval presence in Yemen. Authorities in the Middle East country had been calling on Moscow to help fight piracy and possible terrorist threats. The U.S.S.R. had a major naval support base on Socotra Island of the former socialist state of South Yemen, which merged with North Yemen in 1990 to form the present-day Yemen. Speaking to journalists in Sanaʽa, the capital of Yemen, Federation Council Speaker Sergey Mironov said the new direction of Russia's foreign and defense policies and an increase in its naval missions would be taken into consideration when making a decision on the request. "It's possible that the aspects of using Yemen ports not only for visits by Russian warships, but also for more strategic goals will be considered," he said. Mironov also said a visit to Russia by the president of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, could take place in the near future and that the issue of military technical cooperation could be raised during his visit. Security Council chief Nikolay Patrushev said on 6 August 2012 that Russia will build a string of naval bases along its northern coast in the Arctic zone to serve as resupply bases for Russian warships and border guard vessels.

Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea.

Main article:

The Russian Navy (, VMF) is the naval arm of the Russian Armed Forces. It has existed in various forms since 1696, the present iteration of which was formed in January 1992 when it succeeded the Navy of the Commonwealth of Independent States (which had itself succeeded the Soviet Navy following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late December 1991).

Die Seekriegsflotte der Russischen Föderation (/ Transkription "Wojenno-Morskoi Flot Rossiskoi Federazii – WMF Rossii") ist eine der sechs Teilstreitkräfte der seit 1992 bestehenden russischen Streitkräfte. Die internationale Bezeichnung für ein Schiff der russischen Seekriegsflotte ist „RFS“-„Russian Federation Ship“ (Schiff der Russischen Föderation).


In biochemistry.

The anion is abbreviated PP, standing for "inorganic pyrophosphate". It is formed by the hydrolysis of ATP into AMP in cells.  For example, when a nucleotide is incorporated into a growing DNA or RNA strand by a polymerase, pyrophosphate (PP) is released. Pyrophosphorolysis is the reverse of the polymerization reaction in which pyrophosphate reacts with the 3′-nucleosidemonophosphate (NMP or dNMP), which is removed from the oligonucleotide to release the corresponding triphosphate (dNTP from DNA, or NTP from RNA).  The pyrophosphate anion has the structure, and is an acid anhydride of phosphate. It is unstable in aqueous solution and hydrolyzes into inorganic phosphate: or in biologists' shorthand notation:  In the absence of enzymic catalysis, hydrolysis reactions of simple polyphosphates such as pyrophosphate, linear triphosphate, ADP, and ATP normally proceed extremely slowly in all but highly acidic media.  This hydrolysis to inorganic phosphate effectively renders the cleavage of ATP to AMP and PP irreversible, and biochemical reactions coupled to this hydrolysis are irreversible as well.  PP occurs in synovial fluid, blood plasma, and urine at levels sufficient to block calcification and may be a natural inhibitor of hydroxyapatite formation in extracellular fluid (ECF). Cells may channel intracellular PP into ECF. ANK is a nonenzymatic plasma-membrane PP channel that supports extracellular PP levels. Defective function of the membrane PP channel ANK is associated with low extracellular PP and elevated intracellular PP. Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase (ENPP) may function to raise extracellular PP.  From the standpoint of high energy phosphate accounting, the hydrolysis of ATP to AMP and PP requires two high-energy phosphates, as to reconstitute AMP into ATP requires two phosphorylation reactions.  The plasma concentration of inorganic pyrophosphate has a reference range of 0.58–3.78 μM (95% prediction interval).

Terpenes.

Isopentenyl pyrophosphate converts to geranyl pyrophosphate the precursor to tens of thousand of terpenes and terpenoids.

As a food additive.

Various diphosphates are used as emulsifiers, stabilisers, acidity regulators, raising agents, sequestrants, and water retention agents in food processing. They are classified in the E number scheme under E450:  In particular, various formulations of diphosphates are used to stabilize whipped cream.

In chemistry, pyrophosphates are phosphorus oxyanions that contain two phosphorus atoms in a P-O-P linkage. A number of pyrophosphate salts exist, such as NaHPO. Often pyrophosphates are called diphosphates. The parent pyrophosphates are derived from partial or complete neutralization of pyrophosphoric acid. Important salts include disodium pyrophosphate and tetrasodium pyrophosphate. The pyrophosphate bond is also sometimes referred to as a phosphoanhydride bond, a naming convention which emphasizes the loss of water that occurs when two phosphates form a new P-O-P bond, and which mirrors the nomenclature for anhydrides of carboylic acids. Pyrophosphates are found in ATP and other nucleotide triphosphates, which are very important in biochemistry.

Diphosphate (auch Pyrophosphate, Abkürzungen PP und engl. ) sind Salze und Ester der Diphosphorsäure HPO. Diphosphate sind Kondensate von zwei Phosphaten. Sie sind über eine P–O–P-Säureanhydrid-Bindung miteinander verknüpft (Konstitutionsformel [(OP)–O–(PO)]). Die Ester dieser Verbindungen verfügen zusätzlich über eine C–O–P-Bindung und haben die allgemeine Konstitutionsformel R–O–[(PO)–O–(PO)] (R: organischer Rest).


Early life.

Franck was born in Antwerp to the Belgian banker Louis Franck and his British wife, Evelyn. After her birth the family moved almost immediately to London. A year later, her father joined the British army, and the rest of the family were evacuated to the United States, spending the remainder of the Second World War on Long Island and in Arizona.  Franck's father was an amateur art collector who often took his daughter to galleries and museums. Franck was in boarding school from the age of six onwards, and her mother sent her a postcard every day, frequently of paintings. Ms. Franck, attended Heathfield School, an all-girls boarding school close to Ascot in England, and studied the history of art from the age of 14. "I had a wonderful teacher who really galvanized me," she says. "In those days she took us on outings to London, which was the big excitement of the year for me."

Career.

Franck studied art history at the University of Madrid and at the Ecole du Louvre in Paris. After struggling through her thesis (on French sculptor Henri Gaudier-Brzeska and the influence of cubism on sculpture), she said she realized she had no particular talent for writing, and turned to photography instead.  In 1963, Franck's photography career started following trips to the Far East, having taken pictures with her cousin’s Leica camera. Returning to France in 1964, now possessing a camera of her own, Franck became an assistant to photographers Eliot Elisofon and Gjon Mili at "Time-Life." By 1969 she was a busy freelance photographer for magazines such as "Vogue," "Life" and "Sports Illustrated," and the official photographer of the Théâtre du Soleil (a position she held for 48 years). From 1970 to 1971 she worked in Paris at the Agence Vu photo agency, and in 1972 she co-founded the Viva agency.  In 1980, Franck joined the Magnum Photos cooperative agency as a "nominee", and in 1983 she became a full member. She was one of a very small number of women to be accepted into the agency.  In 1983, she completed a project for the now-defunct French Ministry of Women's Rights and in 1985 she began collaborating with the non-profit International Federation of Little Brothers of the Poor. In 1993, she first traveled to the Irish island of Tory where she documented the tiny Gaelic community living there. She also traveled to Tibet and Nepal, and with the help of Marilyn Silverstone photographed the education system of the Tibetan Tulkus monks. In 2003 and 2004 she returned to Paris to document the work of theater director Robert Wilson who was staging La Fontaine's fables at the Comédie Française.  Nine books of Franck's photographs have been published, and in 2005 Franck was made a chevalier of the French Légion d'Honneur.  Franck continued working even after she was diagnosed with bone cancer in 2010. Her last exhibition was in October 2011 at the Maison Européenne de la Photographie. The exhibit consisted of 62 portraits of artists "coming from somewhere else” collected from 1965 through 2010. This same year, there were collections of portraits shown at New York's Howard Greenberg Gallery and at the Claude Bernard Gallery, Paris.

Work.

Franck was well known for her documentary-style photographs of important cultural figures such as the painter Marc Chagall, philosopher Michel Foucault and poet Seamus Heaney, and of remote or marginalized communities such as Tibetan Buddhist monks, elderly French people, and isolated Gaelic speakers. Michael Pritchard, the Director-General of the Royal Photographic Society, observed: "Martine was able to work with her subjects and bring out their emotions and record their expressions on film, helping the viewer understand what she had seen in person. Her images were always empathetic with her subject." In 1976, Frank took one of her most iconic photos of bathers beside a pool in Le Brusc, Provence. By her account, she saw them from a distance and rushed to photograph the moment, all the while changing the roll of film in her camera. She quickly closed the lens just at the right moment, when happened to be most intense.  She cited as influences the portraits of British photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, the work of American photojournalist Dorothea Lange and American documentary photographer Margaret Bourke-White. In 2010, she told "The New York Times" that photography "suits my curiosity about people and human situations." She worked outside the studio, using a 35 mm Leica camera, and preferring black and white film. The British Royal Photographic Society has described her work as "firmly rooted in the tradition of French humanist documentary photography."

Personal life.

Franck was often described as elegant, dignified and shy.  In 1966, she met Henri Cartier-Bresson, thirty years her senior, when she was photographing Paris fashion shows for "The New York Times." In 2010, she told interviewer Charlie Rose "his opening line was, ‘Martine, I want to come and see your contact sheets.’" They married in 1970, had one child, a daughter named Mélanie, and remained together until his death in 2004.  Throughout her career Franck, who was sometimes described as a feminist, was uncomfortable being in the shadow of her famous husband and wanted to be recognized for her own work. In 1970, the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London planned to stage Franck's first solo exhibition: when she saw that the invitations included her husband's name and said he would be present at the launch, she cancelled the show. Franck once said that she put her husband's career ahead of her own. In 2003 Franck and her daughter launched the Henri Cartier-Bresson Foundation to promote Cartier-Bresson's photojournalism, and in 2004 Franck became its president.  Franck was diagnosed with leukemia in 2010, and died in Paris in 2012 at 74 years old.

Martine Franck (2 April 1938 – 16 August 2012) was a British-Belgian documentary and portrait photographer. She was a member of Magnum Photos for over 32 years. Franck was the second wife of Henri Cartier-Bresson and co-founder and president of the Henri Cartier-Bresson Foundation.

Martine Franck (* 2. April 1938 in Antwerpen; † 16. August 2012 in Paris) war eine belgische Fotografin. Sie war Mitglied der berühmten Fotoagentur "Magnum Photos" und Mitbegründerin der "Fondation Henri-Cartier-Bresson."


Women's and gender histories.

Women's historians and scholars have made the differentiation between the terms “gender” and “sex.” Sex was determined to be the biological makeup of an individual, while gender was determined to be the chosen identity of an individual. Natsuki Aruga has argued that the work of women's historians regarding gender has helped to solidify the distinction between gender and sex. Women's studies and feminism form part of the base of gender studies, of which gender history is a sub-field. Kathleen Brown has stated that there is a level of difficulty in determining a distinction between women's and gender studies as there is no singular and overarching definition of what it means to be a woman. This in turn leads to difficulty in determining a distinction between women's and gender histories.  While some historians are hesitant to accept the title of "women's historian," others have taken on the title willingly. Those who have accepted the title tend to place a large emphasis on the study of the welfare state in relation to feminist history and the role that gender has played as an organizational factor of the state. The focus of feminist historians has also drifted to Democratic Party policy and the realm of policy, including pay-equity, which is a part of both social and political history.

Impact.

Despite its relatively short life, gender history (and its forerunner women's history) has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s, when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes, but always making an impact of some kind on the historical discipline. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle, even though they may be more politically groundbreaking in the end. By 1970, gender historians turned to documenting ordinary women's expectations, aspirations and status. In the 80s with the rise of the feminist movement, the focus shifted to uncovering women' oppression and discrimination. Nowadays, gender history is more about charting female agency and recognizing female achievements in several fields that were usually dominated by men.

Within the profession.

According to historian Joan Scott, conflict occurred between Women's History historians and other historians in a number of ways. In the American Historical Association, when feminists argued that female historians were treated unequally within the field and underrepresented in the association, they were essentially leveling charges of historical negligence by traditional historians. Notions of professionalism were not rejected outright, but they were accused of being biased.

Supplementary history.

According to Scott, the construction of Women's History as "supplementary" to the rest of history had a similar effect. At first glance, a supplement simply adds information which has been missing from the greater story, but as Scott points out, it also questions why the information was left out in the first place. Whenever it is noticed that a woman found to be missing from written history, Women's History first describes her role, second, examines which mechanisms allowed her role to be omitted, and third, asks to what other information these mechanisms were blind.

Gender theory.

Finally, the advent of gender theory once again challenged commonly held ideas of the discipline, including those scholars studying Women's History. Post-modern criticism of essentialising socially constructed groups, be they gender groups or otherwise, pointed out the weaknesses in various sorts of history. In the past, historians have attempted to describe the shared experience of large numbers of people, as though these people and their experiences were homogeneous and uniform. Women have multiple identities, influenced by any number of factors including race and class, and any examination of history which conflates their experiences, fails to provide an accurate picture.

History of Masculinity.

The history of masculinity emerged as a specialty in the 1990s, evidenced by numerous studies of men in groups, and how concepts of masculinity shape their values and behavior. Gail Bederman identified two approaches: one that emerged from women's history and one that ignored it:

Gender in religion.

All over the world, religion is formed around a divine, supernatural figure. While the idea of the divine, supernatural figure varies from religion to religion, each one is framed around different concepts of what it means to be male and female. Furthermore, the religion of a culture usually directly corresponds or is influenced by the culture's gender structure, like the family structures and/or the state. Therefore, the religious structure and the gender structure work together to form and define a culture, creating the defining structures of equality and uniformity.

Gender history is a sub-field of history and gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of women's history. The discipline considers in what ways historical events and periodization impact women differently from men. For instance, in an influential article in 1977, "Did Women have a Renaissance?", Joan Kelly questioned whether the notion of a Renaissance was relevant to women. Gender historians are also interested in how gender difference has been perceived and configured at different times and places, usually with the assumption that such differences are socially constructed. These social constructions of gender throughout time are also represented as changes in the expected norms of behavior for those labeled male or female. Those who study gender history note these changes in norms and those performing them over time and interpret what those changes say about the larger social/cultural/political climate.

Die Geschlechtergeschichte ist eine Disziplin der Geschichtswissenschaft, die sich mit der historischen Ausprägung und Veränderlichkeit von Weiblichkeit, Männlichkeit und des Verhältnisses der Geschlechter zueinander befasst. Dabei geht es insbesondere um die Frage, wie kulturelle Geschlechterrollen das Denken, Fühlen und Handeln von Menschen geprägt haben.


History.

Frankfurt had an institute for the teaching of music since 1878. The Hoch Conservatory flourished and had a worldwide reputation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Through teachers like the pianist Clara Schumann and composers Joachim Raff, Bernhard Sekles and Engelbert Humperdinck, the Hoch Conservatory attracted students from around the world, including the composers Hans Pfitzner, Edward MacDowell, Percy Grainger, Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch, and the conductors Otto Klemperer and Hans Rosbaud.  In April 1933, when the National Socialists came to power in Germany, the director Bernhard Sekles, Mátyás Seiber, head of the world's first jazz department, and twelve other members of the teaching staff who were Jewish or foreign, were removed from their positions. Later, the Hoch Conservatory was degraded to a Music School ("Musikschule des Dr Hoch's Konservatorium"). In 1938 the "Hochschule für Musik" was established. In 1940 its name was the "Staatliche Hochschule für Musik – Dr Hoch's Konservatorium", but in 1942 the subtitle "Dr Hoch's Konservatorium" was dropped, leaving the full name as "Staatliche Hochschule für Musik". In his testament Joseph Hoch, benefactor of the conservatory, had stipulated that the name "Dr Hoch's Konservatorium" should never be changed. The "Hochschule" thus became a new and separate institution, distancing itself from the conservatory its history.  In the closing stages of World War II, both institutions closed down. After the war both were reopened, and they now work together in a three-tier system of the Hochschule, the Hoch Conservatory and the Music School. Helmut Walcha, who had taught the organ at the Hoch Conservatory from 1933 to 1938, initiated the reopening of the Hochschule in 1947. The first department to be reopened was that of church music, followed by the department of school music and, in 1949, the seminar for the teaching of music.  In the summer of 1950, the violinist Walther Davisson, who had studied and taught at the Hoch Conservatory, became artistic director of both the Hochschule and the Hoch Conservatory. Under his directorship the Department of Performance was, step by step, restarted in instrumental and vocal training. During this post-war period, teaching was still taking place in private homes and in the partly renovated conservatory building – which was still in ruins. (It was unfortunately pulled down later.) Not until 1956 did the Hochschule have its own building: it was given the Radio-House of the Hessischer Rundfunk, built in 1933.  The development of the Hochschule continued through the 1950s and 60s: including the establishment of the opera school and opera-choir school (1954 and 1958), the drama school (1960) and the dance school (1961). In the 1960s the Studio for New Music and the Studio for Early Music were initiated. Later, departments of jazz and popular music were opened and in 1982 the department of musicology was established. From 1989 the Hochschule was given the right to offer graduate studies in the teaching of music and musicology.  From 1990 until 1993 the Hochschule's new main building and library were built. The Historical Performance Practice and Contemporary Music Institutes were founded in 2005.

References.

Sources

The Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts () is a state Hochschule for music, theater and dance in Frankfurt and is the only one of its kind in the Federal State of Hesse. It was founded in 1938.

Die Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Frankfurt am Main ist eine staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Tanz und die einzige ihrer Art im Bundesland Hessen.


Taxonomy.

There are currently 15 recognised species of "Antechinus" with a number of subspecies. A few species of New Guinean "Antechinus" were recognised, however, these have been reclassified into the genus "Murexia". The interspecific relations of the genus "Antechinus" are still under review. The currently accepted phylogeny is the presence of four clades within the "Antechinus" genus. The clades generally are formed by species with similar geographic distributions.  Clade 1 (dusky antechinus)  Clade 2  Clade 3 (brown antechinus)  Clade 4

Diet.

"Antechinus" are mainly insectivorous, but the exact composition of their diet can vary by species and habitat. "Antechinus" mainly eat beetles, insect larvae and spiders. Amphipods, millipedes and centipedes are also quite common in their diets. It has been found that after a fire, ants make up the majority of their diet - this is thought to be because ants are the only insect present in any number after the fire. It has been reported that "Antechinus" also eat vertebrates, mainly small reptiles, such as skinks, or mammals, such as feathertail gliders. This is likely to occur most commonly when the "Antechinus" are food stressed. The remains of plants have been found in "Antechinus" stool, likely accidentally ingested while searching for other food. Studies on "Antechinus" diet usually use faecal samples which may be unreliable in detecting soft bodied prey.  "Antechinus" are usually classified as dietary generalists as they eat a wide variety of invertebrates as well as some vertebrates. They are also classified as opportunists because they feed on most of the prey available to them However, they do show preference for some prey, i.e. beetles, spiders and larvae, especially when they are not food stressed.  The microhabitat and foraging techniques vary between species. Smaller species, such as "A. stuartii," are scansorial and mainly hunt in trees. They have been observed jumping between branches to catch flying insects. The larger species of "Antechinus", such as "A. swainsonii," are completely ground dwelling and forage in the leaf litter.  The efficiency of "Antechinus" hunting increases with their age as they learn which prey are the best to eat. "Antechinus" have been observed scraping slugs on rocks and other objects to remove the mucus and make them more palatable.

Reproduction.

"Antechinus" have an extremely unusual reproductive system. The females are synchronously monoestrous with mating occurring over a short 3 week period. The males experience mass mortality after mating, with male survival only observed in very rare cases. Females often mate twice and in some cases three times in their lives. The gestation period varies by species between 25 and 35 days. The offspring are independent after about 90–100 days, depending on the species. This development period is rather long compared with other, similarly sized marsupials.

Timing of the breeding season.

The timing of the breeding season differs between species and also with the location of populations. The breeding season is in winter or early spring, from July to September. The timing of the breeding season changes very little at the same location between different years. The rate of change of photoperiod, the length of day, determines the commencement of the breeding season. Different species respond to different critical rates of change, for example 80% of "A. stuartii" ovulate when the photoperiod is increasing by a rate of 97-117s/day. The critical rate also varies by location within species.  "Antechinus" live in the relatively stable environments along the east coast of Australia. Responding to the photoperiod, rather than temperature or rainfall, allows "Antechinus" to have young developing before the seasonal increase of food experienced rather than waiting for the increase of food and possibly missing the window of opportunity. The timing of mating ensures that the offspring are weaning when there is a large amount of food available in the environment. The timing of this increase in food changes throughout the different ranges of the various species of "Antechinus", a reason that different species have different mating seasons.  Many species of "Antechinus" occur sympatrically. Whenever two or more species of "Antechinus" occur together, the critical rate of change of photoperiod which triggers ovulation differs between the species. This reproductive isolation may have led to sympatric speciation. There is a possible genetic link that would allow for the selection of specific responses to different rates of change of photoperiod. The slightly different timings of reproduction by these sympatric species may also mean that they can take advantage of different increases of food in the spring and summer. Larger species of "Antechinus" usually mate first meaning that the smaller species may have evolved later mating times to reduce competition and capitalise on later increases in food.  "A. swainsonii" and "A. minimums" occur in Tasmania and their reliance on the rate of change of the photoperiod for reproduction is less certain. This is because in higher latitudes the photoperiod changes much faster. Animals that mate when the photoperiod is changing by 35-90s/day would only have 2–3 days in Tasmania compared with 2 weeks in New South Wales.  Females control the synchrony of mating, with males reproductively mature and ready to mate 4–5 weeks before the breeding season. Males have been selected to be ready before the females to ensure the maximum amount of time for mating.

Reproductive anatomy.

"Antechinus" do not have a complete pouch as in other marsupials but simply a flap of skin covering the teats. The number of teats in "Antechinus" species varies between different populations of the same species. The number of teats can be anywhere from 6 to 13. Populations in which females have 6 teats are found in lower latitudes where the environment is more stable. In higher latitudes, there are populations with 8 to 12 nipples. Odd numbers of teats only occur in transition zones and probably occur when populations with a different number of teats mate. The number of nipples is thought to correlate with the number of young that can be supported. In more seasonal environments, where more nipples occur, there is a larger increase in the availability of food for supporting the young. Females with fewer nipples are more likely to survive until the next breeding season. This is thought to be because it is less stressful to raise a smaller litter. The rate of survival of females to reproduce twice differs between species. The larger species, e.g. "A. swainsonii" are more likely to survive to reproduce for a second time.

Mating behaviour.

Mating is intense for "Antechinus" and can last up to 12 hours in some species. The males mate with multiple females and the litters have multiple fathers. During the short breeding window males expand their home range and are often active during night and day.  Males disperse from the nests once they are physiologically independent. Mothers initiate this dispersal but are tolerant of unrelated males in the nest. Inbreeding avoidance is likely to explain this behaviour.

Male semelparity.

Male die-off occurs because of an increase in free corticosteroids in the blood, which causes a suppression of the immune system and gastrointestinal ulcers and which result in male mortality. An increase in free corticosteroids is thought to allow males to utilise their reserve energy and maximise their reproductive effort, even though the increase is usually fatal. If there was no male die-off there would still be a small likelihood of males surviving to the next mating period. Thus, it is far better for the males to invest heavily in one breeding season than attempt to survive to the next one.  There are a few possible evolutionary advantages to evolve synchronous mating. It may ensure that as many matings as possible occur during the period of time. It also ensures that males can put all their effort into one short breeding season. Another possible advantage of synchronous mating is to swamp predators with large amounts of offspring after weaning.

Torpor.

Torpor is periodic lowering of body temperature and metabolic rate to reduce energy consumption. Many marsupials undergo torpor as well as some birds and placental mammals. There are two types of torpor: hibernation which is long term (weeks or months) and daily torpor which is usually only a few hours. Daily torpor involves a less extreme lowering of body temperature and metabolic rate than hibernation. "Antechinus" undergo daily torpor.  Unlike hibernation, daily torpor is not simply reliant on ambient air temperatures. "Antechinus" can move into torpor on summer days with temperatures in the range of 25-30 °C. This is called spontaneous torpor. Induced torpor occurs when food and water are restricted – this is most easily observed in a laboratory environment as restriction of food in the wild is hard to determine. Torpor of "Antechinus" in the wild is likely to be the result of a combination of factors.  "Antechinus" are small mammals and thus have a high surface/volume ratio which results in high heat loss. They also have a high metabolic rate and normothermic temperatures of around 35 °C. Going into torpor allows them to greatly reduce metabolic rates, sometimes up to 80% This reduces both the food and water requirements of the animal.  Torpor in "Antechinus" usually occurs during rest periods, either in the early morning after nightly foraging or the late afternoon before nightly foraging. However, going into torpor during the night is not uncommon. Torpor allows the animals to conserve energy while they are not foraging. The substantial savings in water requirements during torpor may also help "Antechinus" cope with droughts.  Body mass is an important factor for the induction of torpor, with larger animals less likely to go into torpor and more likely to stay in torpor for shorter periods of time. This means that males go into torpor less frequently than females. Lactating females do not go into torpor. Torpor in "Antechinus" can last for one to nine hours and in extreme cases nearly 20 hours. The body temperatures of these animals drop significantly. In female "A. flavipes" the minimum body temperature during torpor can be around 20 °C. In males it is higher, around 30 °C. Smaller animals have a lower body temperature during torpor.  An increase in the induction of torpor in "Antechinus" has been found to occur after intense bushfires. Intense bushfires destroy the dense undergrowth that provide "Antechinus" with shelter and food. After intense bush fires "Antechinus" were recorded as eating mainly ants, which usually forms a very small part of their diet. Increasing the occurrences of torpor, in both males and females, is thought to help with survival after an intense bushfire by reducing the need for foraging and thus avoiding predators. It has been shown that smoke, ash and charcoal provide a cue for torpor induction.  Increasing body temperature after torpor is energetically costly and reduces some of the metabolic savings. However, animals have been observed basking to help increase their body temperature without increasing their food intake.  Females that have survived to a second year go into torpor much more frequently than females that are in their first year, even though second-year females are larger. It is thought that this is because first-year females are still growing and thus need more food which requires more time spent foraging. Older females are also more experienced at foraging and may meet their energy requirements faster.

Threats.

"A. arkos" and "A. argentus" are currently listed as endangered. The main threats to these species, indeed all species of "Antechinus", are habitat destruction and introduced animals.  Deforestation and habitat destruction removes the complex understorey habitat which "Antechinus" require for protection from predators and for food. "Antechinus" also nest in tree hollows, which only form in senescent trees.  Introduced predators also threaten "Antechinus" populations with foxes and cats predating upon "Antechinus". There is also competition between "Antechinus" and introduced rats and mice for habitat and food which may be detrimental to "Antechinus" numbers. Pigs, cattle and horses trample their habitats.  Changed fire regimes since European arrival have resulted in more intense bushfires which can negatively impact "Antechinus" populations by destroying understorey vegetation and removing most of their preferred food.  Climate change threatens several high altitude species, especially those in northern Queensland.

Antechinus // ('ant-echinus') is a genus of small dasyurid marsupial endemic to Australia. They resemble mice with the bristly fur of shrews. They are sometimes also called broad-footed marsupial mice, pouched mice, route rat and/or Antechinus shrews. However, these common names are considered either regional or archaic and the modern common name for the animals is Antechinus.

Die Breitfuß-Beutelmäuse ("Antechinus") sind eine Beuteltiergattung aus der Familie der Raubbeutler (Dasyuridae). Die 15 Arten dieser Gattung leben im östlichen Australien und auf Tasmanien.


Ahmadnagar Sultanate.

The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was founded by Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I, who was the son of Nizam-ul-Mulk Malik Hasan Bahri. Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I was the governor of Junnar. After defeating the Bahmani army led by general Jahangir Khan on May 28, 1490, he declared independence and established dynastic rule over Ahmadnagar. The territory of the sultanate was located in the northwestern Deccan, between the sultanates of Gujarat and Bijapur. Initially, his capital was in Junnar. In 1494, the foundation was laid for the new capital of Ahmadnagar. Malik Ahmed Shah, after several attempts, secured the fortress of Daulatabad in 1499.  After Malik Ahmed Shah's death in 1510, his son Burhan, a boy of seven, was installed in his place. Burhan Shah I died in Ahmadnagar in 1553. He left six sons, of whom Hussain succeeded him. After the death of Hussain Shah I in 1565, his son Murtaza (a minor) ascended the throne. While Murtaza was a child, his mother, Khanzada Humayun Sultana, ruled as a regent for several years. Murtaza Shah annexed Berar in 1574. On his death in 1588, his son Miran Hussain ascended the throne; but his reign lasted only a little more than ten months, as he was poisoned. Ismail, a cousin of Miran Hussain was raised to the throne, but the actual power was in the hands of Jamal Khan, the leader of the Deccani group in the court. Jamal Khan was killed in the battle of Rohankhed in 1591; and soon Ismail Shah was also captured and confined by his father Burhan, who ascended the throne as Burhan Shah. After the death of Burhan Shah, his eldest son Ibrahim ascended the throne. Ibrahim Shah died only after a few months in a battle with the Bijapur Sultanate. Soon, Chand Bibi, the aunt of Ibrahim Shah, proclaimed Bahadur, the infant son of Ibrahim Shah, as the rightful Sultan; and she became regent. In 1596, a Mughal attack led by Murad was repulsed by Chand Bibi.  After the death of Chand Bibi in July 1600, Ahmadnagar was conquered by the Mughals, and Bahadur Shah was imprisoned. But Malik Ambar, and other Ahmadnagar officials, defied the Mughals and declared Murtaza Shah II as sultan in 1600 at a new capital, Paranda. Malik Ambar became prime minister and "Vakil-us-Saltanat" of Ahmadnagar. Later, the capital was shifted first to Junnar and then to a new city Khadki (later Aurangabad). After the death of Malik Ambar, his son Fath Khan surrendered to the Mughals in 1633 and handed over the young Nizam Shahi ruler Hussain Shah, who was sent as a prisoner to the fort of Gwalior. But soon Shahaji with the assistance of Bijapur, placed an infant scion of the Nizam Shahi dynasty, Murtaza, on the throne but acted as regent. In 1636, Aurangzeb, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, finally annexed the sultanate to the Mughal empire, after defeating Shahaji.

Berar Sultanate.

The Berar Sultanate was founded by Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk, who was born a Kannadiga Hindu, but was captured as a boy by Bahmani forces, which were on an expedition against the Vijayanagara empire, and reared as a Muslim. In 1490, during the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate, Imad-ul-Mulk, then governor of Berar, declared independence and founded the Imad Shahi dynasty of the Berar Sultanate. He established the capital at Achalpur (Ellichpur), and Gavilgad and Narnala were also fortified by him.  Upon his death in 1504, Imad-ul-Mulk was succeeded by his eldest son, Ala-ud-din. In 1528, Ala-ud-din resisted the aggression of Ahmadnagar with help from Bahadur Shah, Sultan of Gujarat. The next ruler of Berar, Darya, first tried to ally with Bijapur, to prevent the aggression of Ahmadnagar, but was unsuccessful. Later, he helped Ahmednagar on three occasions against Bijapur. After his death in 1562, his infant son Burhan succeeded him; but in 1574 Tufal Khan, one of Burhan's ministers, usurped the throne. In the same year, Murtaza I, Sultan of Ahmadnagar, annexed Berar to his sultanate. Burhan, Tufal Khan, and Khan's son Shamshir-ul-Mulk, were taken to Ahmadnagar and confined to a fortress where all of them subsequently died.

Bidar Sultanate.

Bidar was the smallest of the five Deccan sultanates. Qasim Barid, founder of the Barid Shahi dynasty, joined the service of Bahmani ruler Mahmud Shah Bahmani () as a "sar-naubat" (commander), and later became a "mir-jumla" (governor) of the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1492, he became de facto ruler of Bahmani, although Sultan Mahmud Shah Bahmani remained as the nominal ruler.  After Mahmud Shah Bahmani's death in 1504, his son Amir Barid controlled the administration of the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1528, with the flight of the last Bahmani ruler, Kalimullah, from Bidar, Amir Barid became practically an independent ruler. Amir Barid was succeeded by his son Ali Barid, who was the first to assume the title of "shah". Ali Barid participated in the Battle of Talikota and was fond of poetry and calligraphy.  The last ruler of the Bidar Sultanate, Amir Barid Shah III, was defeated in 1619, and the sultanate was annexed to the Bijapur Sultanate.

Bijapur Sultanate.

Located in southwestern India, straddling the Western Ghats range of southern Maharashtra and northern Karnataka, the Bijapur Sultanate was ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty from 1490 to 1686. The Adil Shahis were originally provincial governors of the Bahmani Sultanate; but with the break-up of the Bahmani state after 1518, Ismail Adil Shah established an independent sultanate. Ismail Adil Shah and his successors embellished the capital at Bijapur with numerous monuments.  The Adil Shahis fought the Vijayanagara Empire, which lay to the south, across the Tungabhadra River, but fought the other Deccan sultanates as well. However, the five sultanates combined forces to decisively defeat Vijayanagar at the Battle of Talikota in 1565, after which the empire broke up, Bijapur seizing control of the Raichur Doab. In 1619, the Adil Shahis conquered the neighbouring sultanate of Bidar, which was incorporated into their realm.  Later in the 17th century, the Marathas revolted successfully under Shivaji's leadership, captured major parts of the sultanate, and its capital, Bijapur. The weakened sultanate was conquered by Aurangzeb in 1686 with the fall of Bijapur, bringing the dynasty to an end.

Golconda Sultanate.

The dynasty's founder, Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk, migrated to Delhi from Persia with some of his relatives and friends in the beginning of the 16th century. Later he migrated south to the Deccan and served the Bahmani Sultan Mohammed Shah I. Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk conquered Golconda and became the governor of the Telangana region in 1518, after the disintegration of the Bahmani sultanate. Soon after, he declared his independence and took the title of "Qutb Shah".  The dynasty ruled for 171 years, until the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's army besieged and conquered Golconda in 1687.

Cultural contributions.

The rulers of the Deccan sultanates made a number of cultural contributions in the fields of literature, art, architecture, and music.  An important contribution was the development of the Dakhani language, which, having started development under the Bahamani rulers, developed into an independent spoken and literary language during this period by continuously borrowing from Arabic-Persian, Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu. Dakhani later became known as Dakhani Urdu to distinguish it from North Indian Urdu.  Deccani miniature painting—which flourished in the courts of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda—is another major cultural contribution of the Deccan sultanates.  Architectural splendors of Deccan such as Charminar and Gol Gumbaz belong to this period. The religious tolerance displayed by the Nizam Shahi, Adil Shahi, and Qutb Shahi rulers is also worthy of mention.

Ahmadnagar.

The Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar enthusiastically patronised miniature painting, the earliest surviving of which are found as the illustrations of the manuscript "Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi" (c.1565), which is now in the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal, Pune. A miniature painting of Murtaza Nizam Shah (c.1575) is in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, while another one is in the Raza Library in Rampur. The "Running Elephant" is in an American private collection, the "Royal Picnic" is in the India Office Library in London, and the "Young Prince Embraced by a Small Girl", most likely belonging to the Burhan Nizam Shah II period, is in the Edwin Binney 3rd Collection of South Asian Works in the San Diego Museum of Art.  The earliest notable architecture of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar is the tomb of Ahmad Shah I Bahri (1509), at the centre of Bagh Rouza, a garden complex. The Jami Masjid also belongs to the same period. The Mecca Masjid, built in 1525 by Rumi Khan, a Turkish artillery officer of Burhan Nizam Shah I, is original in its design. The Kotla complex was constructed in 1537 as a religious educational institution. The impressive Farah Bagh was the centrepiece of a large palatial complex completed in 1583. Other monuments in Ahmednagar of the Nizam Shahi period are the Do Boti Chira (tomb of Sharja Khan, 1562), Damri Masjid (1568), and the tomb of Rumi Khan (1568). The Jami Masjid (1615) in Khirki (Aurangabad) and the Chini Mahal inside the Daulatabad fort were constructed during the late Nizam Shahi period (1600–1636). The tomb of Malik Ambar in Khuldabad (1626) is another impressive monument of this period. The Kali Masjid of Jalna (1578) and the tomb of Dilawar Khan (1613) in Rajgurunagar also belong to this period.  During the reign of Ahmad Shah I Bahri, his keeper of imperial records, Dalapati, wrote an encyclopedic work, the "Nrisimha Prasada", where he mentioned his overlord as "Nizamsaha". It is a notable instance of the religious tolerance of the Nizam Shahi rulers.

Berar.

The ruined palace of "Hauz Katora", west of Achalpur, is the only notable surviving Imad Shahi monument.

Bidar.

The main architectural activities for the Barid Shahi rulers were building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the most notable monument in Bidar. The tomb consists of a lofty domed chamber, open on four sides, located in the middle of a Persian four-square garden. The "Rangin Mahal" in Bidar, built during the reign of Ali Barid Shah, is a complete and exquisitely decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar from this period are the tomb of Qasim II and the Kali Masjid.  An important class of metalwork known as Bidriware originated in Bidar. This metalwork consists of a black metal, usually a zinc alloy, inlaid with intricate designs in silver, brass, and sometimes copper.

Bijapur.

The Adil Shahi rulers contributed greatly to architecture, art, literature, and music, as Bijapur developed into a cosmopolitan city under their rule and attracted many scholars, artists, musicians, and Sufi saints from Rome, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, and Turkestan. The Adil Shahi kings were known for their tolerance towards Hindus and non-interference in their religious matters. They employed Hindus to high posts, especially as officers overseeing accounts and administration, whose documents were maintained in Marathi.  Amongst the major architectural works in the Bijapur Sultanate, one of the earliest is the unfinished Jami Masjid, which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive monuments built during the reign of Ibrahim II was the Ibrahim Rouza which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists of a paired tomb and mosque. Ibrahim II also planned to construct a new twin city to Bijapur, Nauraspur, whose construction began in 1599 but was never completed. The greatest monument in Bijapur is the Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, which was completed in 1656, and whose hemispherical dome measures across. The other important architectural works from this period are the "Chini Mahal", the "Jal Mandir", the "Sat Manzil", the "Gagan Mahal", the "Anand Mahal", and the "Asar Mahal" (1646), all in Bijapur, as well as the "Kummatgi" ( from Bijapur), the Panhala Fort ( from Kolhapur), and Naldurg Fort ( from Solapur).  Persian artists of the Adil Shahi court have left a rare treasure of miniature paintings, some of which are well preserved in Europe's museums. The earliest miniature paintings are ascribed to the period of Ali Adil Shah I. The most significant of them are the paintings in the manuscript of "Nujum-ul-Ulum" (Stars of Science) (1570), kept in the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin, which contains about 400 miniature paintings. Two other illustrated manuscripts from the period of Ali Adil Shah I are "Jawahir-al Musiqat-i-Muhammadi" in the British Library, which contains 48 paintings, and a Marathi commentary of Sarangadeva's "Sangita Ratnakara" kept in the museum of City Palace, Jaipur, which contains 4 paintings. But the most miniature paintings come from the time of Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II. One of the most celebrated painters of his court was Maulana Farrukh Hussain. The miniature paintings of this period are preserved in the Bikaner Palace, the Bodleian Library in Oxford, the British Museum and Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the Muśee Guimet in Paris, the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersberg, and the Náprstek Museum in Prague.  Under the Adil Shahi rulers many literary works were published in Dakhani. Ibrahim Adil Shah II himself wrote a book of songs, "Kitab-i-Nauras", in Dakhani. This book contains a number of songs whose tunes are set to different "ragas" and "raginis". In his songs, he praised the Hindu goddess Sarasvati along with the Prophet and Sufi saint Hazrat Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz. A unique "tambur" (lute) known as Moti Khan was in his possession. The famous Persian poet laureate Muhammad Zuhuri was his court poet. The "Mushaira" (poetic symposium) was born in the Bijapur court and later travelled north.

Golconda.

Qutb Shahi rulers appointed Hindus in important administrative posts. Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah appointed Murari Rao as "Peshwa", second to only "Mir Jumla" (prime minister).  One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the fortified city of Golconda, which is now in ruins. The nearby Qutb Shahi tombs are also noteworthy. In the 16th century, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah decided to shift the capital to Hyderabad, east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original monument in the Deccan, the Charminar, in the heart of the new city. This monument, completed in 1591, has four minarets, each. The construction of the Mecca Masjid, located immediately south of the Charminar, was started in 1617, during the reign of Muhammad Qutb Shah, but completed only in 1693. The other important monuments of this period are the Toli Masjid, Shaikpet Sarai, Khairtabad Mosque, Taramati Baradari, Hayat Bakshi Mosque, and the Jama Masjid at Gandikota..  The Qutb Shahi rulers invited many Persian artists, such as Shaykh Abbasi and Muhammad Zaman, to their court, whose art made a profound impact on the miniature paintings of this period. The earliest miniature paintings were the 126 illustrations in the manuscript of "Anwar-i-Suhayli" (c. 1550–1560) in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The illustrations "Sindbad Namah" in the India Office Library and "Shirin and Khusrau" in the Khudabaksh Library in Patna most probably belong to the reign of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah. The 5 illustrations in a manuscript of the "Diwan-i-Hafiz" (c.1630) in the British Museum, London, belong to the reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah. The most outstanding surviving Golconda painting probably is the "Procession of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah Riding an Elephant" (c. 1650) in the Saltykov-Shtshedrine State Public Library in St. Petersberg. Their painting style lasted even after the dynasty was extinct and evolved into the Hyderabad style.  The Qutb Shahi rulers were great patrons of literature and invited many scholars, poets, historians and Sufi saints from Iran to settle in their sultanate. The sultans patronized literature in Persian as well as Telugu, the local language. However, the most important contribution of the Golconda Sultanate in the field of literature is the development of the Dakhani language. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah was not only a great patron of art and literature but also a poet of a high order. He wrote in Dakhani, Persian, and Telugu and left an extensive "Diwan" (collection of poetry) in Dakhani, known as "Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah". Apart from the praise of God and the Prophet, he also wrote on nature, love and contemporary social life. Kshetrayya and Bhadrachala Ramadasu are some notable Telugu poets of this period.  The Qutb Shahi rulers were much more liberal than their other Muslim counterparts. During the reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah, in 1634, the ancient Indian sex manual Koka Shastra was translated into Persian and named "Lazzat-un-Nisa" (Flavors of the Woman).

The Deccan sultanates were five late-medieval Indian kingdoms—on the Deccan Plateau between the Krishna River and the Vindhya Range—that were ruled by Muslim dynasties: namely Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda. The sultanates had become independent during the break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate. In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year. Golconda became independent in 1518, and Bidar in 1528.

Als Dekkan-Sultanate werden die fünf Sultanate Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur und Golkonda auf dem Dekkan in Zentralindien zusammengefasst, die um die Wende vom 15. zum 16. Jahrhundert aus dem Bahmani-Sultanat hervorgegangen waren. Bijapur, Ahmadnagar und Berar errangen im Jahr 1490 ihre Selbständigkeit, Bidar im Jahr 1492 und Golkonda im Jahr 1512.


Life and career.

Sylla was born on the island of Sainte-Marie, Analanjirofo, off the east coast of Madagascar. He was the son of Albert Sylla, who served as Foreign Minister under Madagascar's first President, Philibert Tsiranana, until being killed in a plane crash in July 1967. He served as Foreign Minister himself from 1993 to 1996, under President Albert Zafy. He was an opponent of President Didier Ratsiraka and was one of the lawyers advising Marc Ravalomanana when he was elected Mayor of Antananarivo in 1999. Sylla was also a founder of the Toamasina section of the National Committee for the Observation of Elections.  Sylla backed Ravalomanana in the crisis that followed the December 2001 presidential election and argued Ravalomanana's case before the High Constitutional Court. On February 26, 2002, in the midst of the crisis, Ravalomanana named Sylla as Prime Minister, a few days after Ravalomanana declared himself president. After Ravalomanana was sworn in for a second time in early May, Sylla was reappointed as Prime Minister on May 9.  Later in 2002, Sylla became the Secretary General of the ruling Tiako I Madagasikara (TIM) party; this marked the first time that he had ever been a member of a political party.  Sylla resigned as Prime Minister on 19 January 2007, at the end of Ravalomanana's first term; his resignation was accepted by Ravalomanana, who appointed Charles Rabemananjara as Prime Minister on 20 January.  In the September 2007 parliamentary election, Sylla stood as a TIM candidate in the Sainte-Marie constituency, winning with 51.04% of the vote according to provisional results. When the new session of the National Assembly began, Sylla was elected as President of the National Assembly on October 23, 2007; he was the only candidate and received 123 votes from the 124 deputies present, with one blank vote.  As President of the National Assembly, Sylla was an "ex officio" member of the national political bureau of TIM and therefore remained on the political bureau at TIM's May 2008 congress.  Sylla was a Catholic, a Côtier, and had dual Malagasy and French nationality.

Role in 2009 political crisis.

During the 2009 Malagasy political crisis, Sylla participated in negotiations between President Ravalomanana and opposition leader Andry Rajoelina on February 24, 2009. Subsequently, at an opposition rally on March 14, 2009, Sylla announced that he was joining the opposition and said that Ravalomanana should resign; according to Sylla, that was the only solution and "as President of the National Assembly, I have to recognise reality."  Rajoelina appointed Sylla as President of the Transitional Congress on 8 September 2009; he also appointed a new government on the same date. He ostensibly did so in the spirit of the Maputo agreement between Malagasy political leaders, which called for the creation of a national unity government, but the opposition denounced Rajoelina's appointments, and Sylla was considered to have completely broken with Ravalomanana.  Sylla died on 26 December 2009 after a long illness.

Jacques Hugues Sylla (July 1946 – 26 December 2009) was a Malagasy politician. He was the Prime Minister of Madagascar under President Marc Ravalomanana from February 2002 to January 2007. He subsequently served as the President of the National Assembly of Madagascar from October 2007 to March 2009.

Jacques Sylla (* 22. Juli 1946 auf der Insel Sainte Marie; † 26. Dezember 2009 in Antananarivo) war Premierminister von Madagaskar.


Effect.

Contrary to what its name suggests, the "turbo" button was intended to let a computer run slower than the speed for which it had been designed.  With the introduction of CPUs which ran faster than the original 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 used in the IBM Personal Computer, programs which relied on the CPU's frequency for timing were executing faster than intended. Games in particular were often rendered unplayable. To provide some compatibility, the "turbo" button was added.  Disengaging turbo mode slows the system down to a state compatible with original 8086/8088 chips.  The average user, who was not relying on outdated software, would have wanted to take care that they always had turbo mode activated, to get the most performance out of their computer.

Switching.

On most systems, turbo mode was with the button pushed in, but since the button could often be wired either way, on some systems it was the opposite. On some systems the turbo button was linked to a turbo LED or two-digit segmented display on the system case, although in almost all cases the indicated MHz wasn't a measure of the actual processor clocks, but the two "fast" and "slow" display options set by jumpers on the motherboard (or a daughterboard linked to the button), or on some later machines, set in the BIOS software.  Some systems also supported keyboard combinations -- and -- for switching turbo mode on and off; ITT Xtra used -- to toggle.  Some keyboards had a turbo button as well, located near right Shift. Unlike the turbo button that was common on computer cases, the turbo button on the keyboards did not control the clock rate of the CPU; rather, it controlled the keyboard repeat rate.

Use.

The feature was relatively common on systems running 286 to 486 CPUs, and rarely on first generation Pentium CPU equipped computers. The MHz displays largely disappeared or were reprogrammed to display "HI"/"LO" when CPU speeds reached 100 MHz, since most systems only had a two-digit display.  As new PC computers continued to get faster and had a wide variety of available speeds, it became impossible for software to rely on specific CPU speed. As software began to rely on other timing methods, turbo became mostly irrelevant to new programs.

Software implementations.

While the implementation of an actual hardware turbo button has disappeared on modern machines, software developers have compensated with software replacements. One example is DOSBox, which offers an adjustable emulation rate. Modern PCs that support ACPI power management may provide software controls to switch ACPI performance states or other CPU throttling modes. This is used for power saving or to prevent CPU overheating rather than for compatibility because modern applications use the real time clock for timing instead of the CPU clock.

On personal computers, the turbo button is a button which provides two run states for the computer: normal speed or an enhanced "turbo" speed. It was relatively common on personal computers using the Intel 80286, Intel 80386 and Intel 80486 processors, from the mid 1980s to mid 1990s.

Die Turbo-Taste sorgte bei PCs der 8086er- bis Pentium-1-Ära für einen Wechsel der Taktfrequenz, um die Rechenleistung steuern zu können. Wahlweise konnte die volle Rechenleistung genutzt werden oder eine reduzierte, indem das Taktsignal verringert wurde (meistens auf die Hälfte oder ein Drittel des normalen Taktes, häufig auf die Frequenz des ISA-Bus), aber auch durch Hilfsmaßnahmen wie das Abschalten des Level-1-Cache oder eine Verringerung der Taktfrequenz des Front Side Bus.


Barangays.

Abulug is politically subdivided into 20 barangays. In 1957, barrio Colonia was renamed to Libertad.

Demographics.

In the, the population of Abulug, Cagayan, was people, with a density of.

Economy.

Java Commercial Center - A commercial complex which houses hotel, boutiques, salons, financial firms, shopping center, restaurants and one of the largest drugstore companies in the Philippines, the Mercury Drug.  Hyundai Abulug Satellite - A car dealer company located along Maharlika Highway, Calog Sur, Abulug, Cagayan.

Banks.

Philippine Resources Savings Bank - Abulug Maharlika Highway, Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Ficobank - Abulug Maharlika Highway, Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Rural Bank of Luna (Ap.) - Abulug Calog Road, Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Claveria Agri-based MPC Maharlika Highway, Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Claveria Farmers MPC Maharlika Highway, Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Masisit -Dacal MPC - Abulug Libertad, Abulug, Cagayan  Cooperative Bank of Cagayan - Abulug Maharlika Highway, Calog Sur, Abulug, Cagayan

Tourist Spots.

Lucban Bridge - is the seventh longest bridge in the Philippines. The bridge has a length of 825 linear meters, consists of 12 spans with 436.90 linear meters in total length approaches.  Miraculous Image of Santa Rosa de Lima  Rio de Abulug/Abulug River  Sta. Rosa Dragon Fruit Platations  Wine Making Industry  Junction Luna

Education.

College:  F.L. Vargas College - Abulug Campus  High School:  Abulug School of Fisheries  Abulug National Rural and Vocational High School  Libertad National High School  Divine Word High School - Dana-ili  F.L. Vargas College - High School Department  Lyceum of Abulug  Elementary:  Abulug Central Elementary School  Alinunu Elementary School  Bagu Elementary School  Banguian Elementarry SchoolSchool  Calog Norte Elementary School  Calog Sur Elementary School  Canayun Elementary School  Dana-ili Elementary School  Dugo Elementary School  Guiddam Eementary School  Libertad Elementary School  Lucban Elementary School  Macugay Elementary School  Muru Elementary School  Pinaron Elementary School  Pinili Elementary School  San Agustin Elementary School  San Julian Elementary School  Sawang Elementary School  Sirit Elementary School  Santa Filomena Elementary School  Santa Rosa Elementary School  Santo Tomas Elementary School  Tayak Elementary School  F. L. Vargas College - Elementary Department  Training Centers:

Notable People.

Maja Ross Andres "Aka Maja" Salvador - a model, singer, dancer, actress and producer of ABS-CBN management and she is regarded as the "Dance Princess". She is from Canayun, Abulug, Cagayan  Jeth Roy U. Rosario - a professional basketball player of TNT ka Tropa of PBA. He is from Alinunu, Abulug, Cagayan  Marlan Sabbun - Manguba - a professional dancer; Mrs. World Philippines 2014. She is from Centro, Abulug, Cagayan  Jamiko Allan "Aka Miko" Manguba - a singer and winner of the boyband show "To the Top" of GMA Network. The son of Marlan Sabbun- Manguba, the Mrs. World 2014.

', (; ; ), officially the ', is a in the province of,. According to the, it has a population of people.

Abulug ist eine Stadtgemeinde in der philippinischen Provinz Cagayan. Die Gemeinde liegt im Norden der Provinz und grenzt im Süden an die Provinz Apayao. Sie wurde 1572 als Ortschaft "Tulug" gegründet und 1629 in Abulug umbenannt. Auch der Fluss, der den Ort durchquert und in die Luzonstraße mündet, heißt Abulug. Der größte Teil der Bevölkerung gehört zum Volksstamm der Ibanag. Die wichtigsten Wirtschaftszweige sind die Landwirtschaft und die Fischerei.


Life.

The son of the mathematician George David Birkhoff, Garrett was born in Princeton, New Jersey. He began the Harvard University BA course in 1928 after less than seven years of prior formal education. Upon completing his Harvard BA in 1932, he went to Cambridge University in England to study mathematical physics but switched to studying abstract algebra under Philip Hall. While visiting the University of Munich, he met Carathéodory who pointed him towards two important texts, Van der Waerden on abstract algebra and Speiser on group theory.  Birkhoff held no Ph.D., a qualification British higher education did not emphasize at that time, and did not even bother obtaining an M.A. Nevertheless, after being a member of Harvard's Society of Fellows, 1933–36, he spent the rest of his career teaching at Harvard. From these facts can be inferred the number and quality of Birkhoff's papers published by his 25th year.  During the 1930s, Birkhoff, along with his Harvard colleagues Marshall Stone and Saunders Mac Lane, substantially advanced American teaching and research in abstract algebra. In 1941 he and Mac Lane published "A Survey of Modern Algebra", the second undergraduate textbook in English on the subject (Cyrus Colton MacDuffee's "An Introduction to Abstract Algebra" was published in 1940). Mac Lane and Birkhoff's "Algebra" (1967) is a more advanced text on abstract algebra. A number of papers he wrote in the 1930s, culminating in his monograph, "Lattice Theory" (1940; the third edition remains in print), turned lattice theory into a major branch of abstract algebra. His 1935 paper, "On the Structure of Abstract Algebras" founded a new branch of mathematics, universal algebra. Birkhoff's approach to this development of universal algebra and lattice theory acknowledged prior ideas of Charles Sanders Peirce, Ernst Schröder, and Alfred North Whitehead; in fact, Whitehead had written an 1898 monograph entitled "Universal Algebra". Further, in 1935, Birkhoff showed that any equivalence between expressions that holds for all possible forms of operator subject to some equational axioms must have a finite proof using certain underlying rules about equality. However, frequently it remains undecidable whether or not a particular equivalence holds (for the reason that the proofs can become very long).  During and after World War II, Birkhoff's interests gravitated towards what he called "engineering" mathematics. During the war, he worked on radar aiming and ballistics, including the bazooka. In the development of weapons, mathematical questions arose, some of which had not yet been addressed by the literature on fluid dynamics. Birkhoff's research was presented in his texts on fluid dynamics, "Hydrodynamics" (1950) and "Jets, Wakes and Cavities" (1957).  Birkhoff, a friend of John von Neumann, took a close interest in the rise of the electronic computer. Birkhoff supervised the Ph.D. thesis of David M. Young on the numerical solution of the partial differential equation of Poisson, in which Young proposed the successive over-relaxation (SOR) method. Birkhoff then worked with Richard S. Varga, a former student, who was employed at Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory of the Westinghouse Electronic Corporation in Pittsburgh and was helping to design nuclear reactors. Extending the results of Young, the Birkhoff–Varga collaboration led to many publications on positive operators and iterative methods for "p"-cyclic matrices.  Birkhoff's research and consulting work (notably for General Motors) developed computational methods besides numerical linear algebra, notably the representation of smooth curves via cubic splines.  Birkhoff published more than 200 papers and supervised more than 50 Ph.D.s. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was a Guggenheim Fellow for the academic year 1948–1949 and the president of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics for 1966–1968. He won a Lester R. Ford Award in 1974.

Garrett Birkhoff (January 19, 1911 – November 22, 1996) was an American mathematician. He is best known for his work in lattice theory.

Garrett Birkhoff (* 19. Januar 1911 in Princeton, New Jersey, USA; † 22. November 1996 in Water Mill, N.Y., USA) war ein US-amerikanischer Mathematiker, der sich mit Algebra und Angewandter Mathematik (Hydrodynamik) befasste.


Early career.

Bertie was born in London as the elder son of the James Bertie (youngest son of the 7th Earl of Abingdon) and Lady Jean Crichton-Stuart (daughter of the 4th Marquess of Bute). He was the fifth cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth II, by common descent from King George III and his wife Charlotte Sophia.  He was educated at the English Roman Catholic public school, Ampleforth College, and graduated in Modern History from Christ Church, Oxford. He also attended the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London. From 1948 to 1950, he carried out military service in the Scots Guards, becoming a commissioned officer in 1949. After a short experience in the commercial sector, he taught modern languages (particularly French and Spanish but also German, Dutch, Tibetan and Maltese) for twenty-three years at Worth School, a Benedictine public school in Sussex, England. He was a judo black belt and taught judo at Worth School.

Grand Master of the Order of Malta.

Bertie was admitted to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM) in 1956. He became a Knight of Justice in the order by taking Perpetual Vows in 1981 (the equivalent of a monk).  He also joined the government of the Order in 1981 as a member of the Sovereign Council, and in April 1988, he was elected Grand Master. Subsequently, he was Hospitaller of the Sanctuary of Lourdes, which is the annual pilgrimage site of SMOM. He succeeded the late Angelo de Mojana, the Milanese nobleman who had served the Order as Grand Master since 1962 and accomplished a great deal of modernization to the organization. Although it is considered sovereign, the Order of Malta is also a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church, so Bertie's election needed the ratification of Pope John Paul II, which was obtained on 11 April 1988.  Bertie described the aims of the Order as "to help the poor and the sick; that is and always has been our primary aim":

Personal life.

Bertie never married or had children. He died in Rome from cancer on 7 February 2008, aged 78.

Titles, styles and honours.

Titles and style.

His full title was: "His Most Eminent Highness Fra' Andrew Willoughby Ninian Bertie, Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta, Most Humble Guardian of the Poor of Jesus Christ".

Andrew Willoughby Ninian Bertie (15 May 1929 – 7 February 2008) was Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta from 1988 until his death in 2008.

Andrew Willoughby Ninian Bertie (* 15. Mai 1929 in London; † 7. Februar 2008 in Rom) war vom 8. April 1988 bis zu seinem Tod der 78. Großmeister des Malteserordens.


Moderation.

All questions are read by a team of moderators to make sure they are within the moderation code, which prohibits insulting statements, incitement, discrimination, questions concerning private life, and requests that are bound to discretion.  Questions that violate the code are not activated and published, but the politician is informed about the incident. Beyond that, the project is strongly committed to neutrality and stays above party politics. In addition to general information about deputies, their voting behavior in issues that attract special public attention is documented.

Statistics.

In average, the website counts 6,800 visitors a day and about three million page impressions per month. More than 80% of all MPs of the federal parliament answer questions through Parliament Watch. In Germany, the project covers the federal parliament, the European parliament, nine state parliaments and 54 parliaments on the communal level. All in all the digital voters' memory counts 143,507 questions and 115,921 answers (as of 31 January 2013).

Media partnerships.

The project has several partnerships with online outlets of the following media:

Landesparlamente.

Due to "abgeordnetenwatch"'s success in the German Bundestag, fundraising groups were established in August 2007 in order to make the site available for Germany's 16 "Landesparlamente" ("states"). Donations and sustaining members in each state enable the implementation of the project on the state level; each state's portal is activated once 90 days' advance financing is accrued.

Hamburgische Bürgerschaft.

abgeordnetenwatch.de is based in Hamburg; the project started in December 2004 for the Hamburgische Bürgerschaft ("Hamburg Parliament") after a successful referendum to reform and democratize the electoral system. The online dialog on abgeordnetenwatch.de enabled the citizens to get to know their politicians better and make a more qualified decision in the elections. After the election, the site made it possible to ask questions of members of Hamburg's "Bezirksversammlungen" ("Diets of the borough").  After the establishment of the city parliament that was elected in February 2008, the project was temporarily stopped until enough funding was provided. It was no longer possible to administer abgeordnetenwatch.de on a volunteer basis.

Controversy.

During the 2007 election campaigns in the German states of Rheinland-Pfalz, Baden-Württemberg, Saxony-Anhalt, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Berlin, and Bremen, it was also possible to question the candidates.  In Bremen, candidates of the Social Democratic Party ("Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands", SPD) and The Left ("Die Linke") launched a boycott against the project because right-wing candidates had not been excluded. However, the boycott was interrupted by Social Democrat Helga Ziegert, and Joachim Weihrauch from The Left enhanced his Parliamentwatch profile during the election.

Profile enhancements.

The site publishes basic information about each candidate at no cost. For a €179 fee, candidates can add a photo and web link, announce specific dates and events regarding election campaigns, and publish a résumé of their political work and goals. The proceeds from profile enhancements contribute to the project's budget.

Other countries.

So far further Parliament Watch projects can be found in Ireland, Austria, Luxemburg and Tunisia. In addition, Parliament Watch inspires similar projects in other countries, e.g., Malaysia.

Parliamentwatch (abgeordnetenwatch.de) is an Internet portal that allows German citizens to question their representatives in the German parliament (the Bundestag) publicly. The independent, nonpartisan site aims to increase transparency in government and deepen German democracy. Questions and answers are published, as well as the voting records of the deputies. Users of the site can contact representatives of the Bundestag, German deputies of the European Parliament and of the German federal states.

abgeordnetenwatch.de ist eine überparteiliche und institutionell unabhängige Internetplattform, welche die Möglichkeit eröffnet, Abgeordnete verschiedener Parlamente öffentlich zu befragen. Sie wurde von Gregor Hackmack und Boris Hekele gegründet. Ihr Träger ist der eingetragene Verein Parlamentwatch. Neben Fragen und Antworten sind berufliche Qualifikationen, Mitgliedschaft in Ausschüssen, anzeigepflichtige Nebentätigkeiten sowie das Abstimmungsverhalten der Abgeordneten bei wichtigen Parlamentsentscheidungen öffentlich einsehbar.


Biography.

Of Russian descent with Tatar roots on his paternal side, Volkoff was the son of a Russian émigré who earned his living in France washing cars. Vladimir grew up with his family's memories of the lost motherland and loyalty to their new homeland. He was a great grandnephew of the composer Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.  After studying at the Sorbonne in Paris and the university of Liège, Volkoff taught English at Amiens from 1955-57. He served as an intelligence officer in the French army during the Algerian War, where he learnt how war is fought as much in the shadows and the embassies as in the open air of the battlefield.

America.

After his demobilisation, Volkoff travelled to the United States to teach French and Russian literature. He worked as a translator (1963–65), and a professor of French and Russian from 1966-77. Fascinated by the powerful country teeming with contradictions, he remained there for almost three decades, returning to France in 1992. Among his "American" works are "L'Agent triple" (1962), "Métro pour l'enfer" (1963), "Les Mousquetaires de la République" (1964) and "Vers une métrique française" (1977).  Throughout the 1970s under his pseudonym Lieutenant X, Volkoff published stories for teenagers in the "Langelot" series of Hachette's Bibliothèque verte imprint, featuring the adventures of the eponymous hero, a young French secret agent. In these works Volkoff showed his taste for romantic intrigues and plot twists, and his profound understanding of the balance of forces prevailing in the world.  In the later 1970s, with the standoff between East and West a constant reality, Volkoff's writings analyzed the ideological combat between two opposing conceptions of the world and of freedom with a solid geopolitical background.  An avid competitive fencer, Volkoff was a valued member of the Georgia Division of the AFLA and the Atlanta (and later, Macon) fencing community during his time in America. He claimed to have begun learning to fence in a stint in the Foreign Legion. His book "The Traitor," translated from the French by J.F. Bernard and published by Doubleday and Company was written and published during his time in Atlanta (1973); it was published under another pseudonym, Lavr Divomlikoff (a reshuffling of the letters of his name).

Return to Europe.

Volkoff's 1979 novel "Le retournement" ("The Turnaround") earned him international acclaim and was translated into a dozen languages. Dedicated to Graham Greene, whom Volkoff greatly admired, the novel's title refers to the intelligence manoeuvre of turning an uncovered enemy agent to one's own side. The book tells a story of espionage in which the American, French and Soviet intelligence services do battle, but also of a spiritual overturning which, unknown to these secret services, almost makes a martyr of the main character.  In 1980 Volkoff published "Les humeurs de la mer", a vast contemporary fresco in four volumes: "Olduvaï", "La leçon d'anatomie" ("The Anatomy Lesson"), "Intersection" and "Les maîtres du temps" ("Masters of Time"). With "Le montage" ("The Set Up"; winner of the Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française, 1982) Volkoff illustrated the methods and networks of tricks and traps of Soviet "disinformation" in Europe; the idea of this novel could have come from Alexandre de Marenches, director of the SDECE, who may have provided the factual basis for its plot.  In 1985, inspired by his American experience, he published "Le professeur d'histoire" ("The History Teacher"), in which he portrayed a comic confrontation between a literary man filled with tradition and a young heiress surfing the wave of modernism.  Power, manipulation, battles of influence and disinformation take a central role in many of his books, such as "L'Interrogatoire" (1988) and "Les Hommes du Tsar" (1989), a historical novel about Russia from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the advent of the Romanovs.  In the 1990s Volkoff published "Le Bouclage" (1990), a novel about the insecurity of large cities, and "La Trinité du Mal ou réquisitoire pour servir au procès posthume de Lénine, Trotski et Staline" ("The Trinity of Evil, or an indictment for the posthumous trial of Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin") (1991).  The fall of the Berlin Wall opened Volkoff's work to all kinds of disinformation and manipulation campaigns, not just those of communist regimes. Volkoff established a place for the term "désinformation" in the French language with his books "La Désinformation Arme de guerre" (republished in 2004 by Les éditions L'Age d'Homme), "La Crevasse" (1996), "Petite histoire de la désinformation" ("A short history of disinformation") (1999), "Désinformation flagrant délit" (1999), "L'Enlèvement" (2000) and "Manuel du politiquement correct" ("Handbook of the Politically Correct") (2001).  In the 2000s he returned to his Slavic roots, publishing several texts on Russian history and orthodoxy, and publicly declared his support for Vladimir Putin's policies.  In addition, Volkoff wrote historical biographies such as "Vladimir", "Le Soleil Rouge" ("The Red Sun") and "Tchaikovsky", and also wrote for the theatre. He was awarded the Grand Prix Jean Giono for his work in 1995 and in the same year was made a "Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur".

Family.

Vladimir Volkoff is survived by his widow and 2nd wife, Carla Denise Volkoff. He is also survived by his only child, Tatiana Gfoeller-Volkoff from his first marriage.

Vladimir Volkoff (7 November 1932 in Paris – 14 September 2005 in Bourdeilles, Dordogne), was a French writer of Russian extraction. He produced both literary works for adults and spy novels for young readers under the pseudonym Lieutenant X. His works are characterised by themes of the Cold War, intelligence and manipulation, but also by metaphysical and spiritual elements.

Vladimir Volkoff (* 7. November 1932 in Paris; † 14. September 2005 in Bourdeilles) war ein französischer Schriftsteller und Autor von Spionageromanen, Science-Fiction und historischen Büchern.


History.

Almond milk was first invented in the Islamic Middle East and appears in cookbooks of the region from the 13th century onward, where it would later spread from the Levant to Europe. In the Middle Ages, almond milk was known in both the Islamic world and Christendom. As a nut, almonds are permitted for consumption by these religions during fasting seasons, such as Lent and Ramadan. Historian Carolyn Walker Bynum notes that "medieval cookbooks suggest that the aristocracy observed fasting strictly, if legalistically. Meat-day and fish-day recipes were not separated in medieval recipe collections, as they were in later, better-organized cookbooks. But the most basic dishes were given in fast-day as well as ordinary-day versions. For example, a thin split-pea puree, sometimes enriched with fish stock or almond milk (produced by simmering ground almonds in water), replaced meat broth on fast days; and almond milk was a general (and expensive) substitute for cow's milk." In Persian cuisine, an almond milk based dessert called "harireh badam" (almond gruel) is traditionally served during Ramadan.

Commerce.

In the United States, almond milk remained a niche health food item until the early 2000s, when its popularity began to increase. In 2011 alone, almond milk sales increased by 79%. In 2013, it surpassed soy milk as the most popular plant-based milk in the U.S. As of 2014 it comprised 60 percent of plant-milk sales and 4.1 percent of total milk sales in the US.  Common brands of almond milk include Blue Diamond's Almond Breeze and WhiteWave Foods' Silk PureAlmond.  Within the Italian regions of Sicily, Apulia, Calabria, and Campania, almond milk is a protected traditional agricultural product.

Nutrition.

If unfortified, almond milk has less vitamin D than fortified cows' milk; in North America cows' milk must be fortified with vitamin D, but vitamins are added to plant milks on a voluntary basis. Because of its low protein content, almond milk is not a suitable replacement for breast milk, cows' milk, or hydrolyzed formulas for children under two years of age.

Production.

The general production method involves soaking and grinding the almonds in an excess of water. A milky white liquid is obtained after filtering the almond pulp (flesh). Almond milk can also be made by adding water to almond butter. In commercial production, the almond milk is homogenised with high pressure and pasteurised for greater stability and shelf life.  In July 2015, a class action lawsuit was placed in New York against two American manufacturers, Blue Diamond Growers and White Wave Foods, for false advertising on the product label about the small amount of almonds (only 2%) actually in the final product. In October 2015, a judge denied the consumers' request for an injunction.

Sustainability.

Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley, where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner.  Almond sustainability is challenged because of the high amount of water needed to grow almonds: a single glass of almond milk requires roughly of water to produce. Among plant-based milks, almond milk requires substantially more water during the growing and production stages than soy, rice or oat milk (graph). Cow's milk requires more water to produce than almond milk, and in 2014, California produced 42.3 billion pounds of cow's milk, while in the same year California produced only 2.14 billion pounds of almonds.  Sustainability strategies implemented by the Almond Board of California and almond farmers include:

See also.

Other plant milks:

Almond milk is a plant milk manufactured from almonds with a creamy texture and nutty flavor, although some types or brands are flavored in imitation of dairy milk. It does not contain cholesterol, saturated fat or lactose, and is often consumed by those who are lactose-intolerant and others, such as vegans who avoid dairy products. Commercial almond milk comes in sweetened, unsweetened, vanilla and chocolate flavors, and is usually fortified with micronutrients. It can also be made at home using a blender, almonds and water.

Mandelmilch ist ein aus Mandeln (den Samen vom Mandelbaum) und Wasser hergestelltes pflanzliches Getränk. Milchersatz darf in der EU nicht mit der Bezeichnung "Milch" in Verkehr gebracht werden. In der Verordnung heißt es ausdrücklich: "Der Ausdruck „Milch“ ist ausschließlich dem durch ein- oder mehrmaliges Melken gewonnenen Erzeugnis der normalen Eutersekretion, ohne jeglichen Zusatz oder Entzug, vorbehalten." Daher werden Produkte im Handel als „Mandelgetränk“ oder „Mandeldrink“ o. ä. verkauft. Auch in diversen Pflegeprodukten findet Mandelmilch Anwendung.