Overview.

Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests, which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war.  Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. They had seen (or participated in) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona (1912), Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin (1912), the Armory Show in New York (1913), SVU Mánes in Prague (1914), several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at De Moderne Kunstkring, Amsterdam (between 1911 and 1915). Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists. Dada subsequently combined these approaches.  Many Dadaists believed that the'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality. For example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest "against this world of mutual destruction."  According to Hans Richter Dada was not art: it was "anti-art." Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend.  As Hugo Ball expressed it, "For us, art is not an end in itself... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in."  A reviewer from the "American Art News" stated at the time that "Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a "reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide."  Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path... [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege."  To quote Dona Budd's "The Language of Art Knowledge", Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich. Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition. The origin of the name Dada is unclear; some believe that it is a nonsensical word. Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara's and Marcel Janco's frequent use of the words "da, da," meaning "yes, yes" in the Romanian language. Another theory says that the name "Dada" came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French–German dictionary happened to point to 'dada', a French word for 'hobbyhorse'. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature, poetry, art manifestos, art theory, theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works.  The creations of Duchamp, Picabia, Man Ray, and others between 1915 and 1917 eluded the term Dada at the time, and "New York Dada" came to be seen as a post facto invention of Duchamp. At the outset of the 1920s the term Dada flourished in Europe with the help of Duchamp and Picabia, who had both returned from New York. Notwithstanding, Dadaists such as Tzara and Richter claimed European precedence. Art historian David Hopkins notes:  Ironically, though, Duchamp's late activities in New York, along with the machinations of Picabia, re-cast Dada's history. Dada's European chroniclers—primarily Richter, Tzara, and Huelsenbeck—would eventually become preoccupied with establishing the pre-eminence of Zurich and Berlin at the foundations of Dada, but it proved to be Duchamp who was most strategically brilliant in manipulating the genealogy of this avant-garde formation, deftly turning New York Dada from a late-comer into an originating force.

History.

Dada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism, Cubism and Expressionism; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years. However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope. Its adherents were based in cities all over the world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others. There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin.  Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy. On 14 July 1916, Ball recited the ; In 1917, Tzara wrote a second, considered one of the most important Dada writings, which was published in 1918.  Tristan Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of "Dadaist disgust"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality. In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like a preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void.  The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed. Some of the artists even faced imprisonment. These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver. As the artists' well-known "sarcastic laugh" started to come from the audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact. Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order.

Zürich.

There is some disagreement about where Dada originated. The movement is commonly identified with the Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the "Holländische Meierei" bar in Zurich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball. Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich. Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco.  The name "Cabaret Voltaire" was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire, whose novel "Candide" mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day. Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp, and Janco. These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber, Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at the Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. Having left Germany and Romania during World War I, the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland. They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time. They used techniques of shock, provocation and "vaudevilleian excess" were all tools to subvert the conventions they believed had caused the Great War. The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the "status quo":  Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made "the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events" visible. According to Ball, performances were accompanied by a "balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs." Influenced by African music, arrhythmic drumming and jazz were common at Dada gatherings.  After the cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf.  Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review "Dada" beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris.  Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault, created "literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada".  After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Others, such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber, would remain in Zürich into the 1920s.

Berlin.

"Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence... Fear was in everybody's bones" – Richard Hülsenbeck  Raoul Hausmann, who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto "Synthethic Cino of Painting" in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and the art critics who promoted it. Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: "the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul". In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses. Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art: The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists. Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven, less political nature. According to Hans Richter, a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet “aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada”, several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: “its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature”; “inexhaustible energy”; “mental freedom which included the abolition of everything”; and “members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world”, who would “turn their rebelliousness even against each other”.  In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Following the October Revolution in Russia, by then out of the war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield, Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period. Johannes Baader, the uninhibited Oberdada, was the “crowbar” of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann.  After the war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others. In all, over 200 works were exhibited, surrounded by incendiary slogans, some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi's "Entartete Kunst" exhibition in 1937. Despite high ticket prices, the exhibition lost money, with only one recorded sale.  The Berlin group published periodicals such as "Club Dada", "Der Dada", "Everyman His Own Football", and "Dada Almanach". They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution.

Cologne.

In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped.

New York.

Like Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Arthur Cravan, fleeing conscription in France, was also in New York for a time. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg.  The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities "Dada," but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as "The Blind Man", "Rongwrong", and "New York Dada" in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for "museum" art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book "Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets" Marsden Hartley included an essay on "".  During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous "Fountain", a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the "Fountain" has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art". As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of "The Fountain" with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993.  Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical "391" in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924.  By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation.

Paris.

The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists.  Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called "Parade". First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's "Le Sacre du printemps" had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with.  Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of "Dada", "Le Cannibale", and "Littérature" featured Dada in several editions.)  The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the "Salon des Indépendants" in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, "Explicatif" bearing the word "Tabu". In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play "The Gas Heart" to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" "Handkerchief of Clouds" in 1924.

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in "De Stijl" such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called "Dutch Dada campaign" in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled "What is Dada?"), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano. Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in "De Stijl", although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called "Mécano" (1922–3). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, "The Next Call" (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen.

Georgia.

Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves "41st Degree" (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the temperature of a high fever) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd, whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists. After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events.

Yugoslavia.

In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski. Aleksić used the term "Yougo-Dada" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara.

Italy.

The Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art. It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome, featuring paintings, quotations from Tristan Tzara, and original epigrams such as "True Dada is against Dada". The most notable member of this group was Julius Evola, who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism, as well as a right-wing philosopher.

Japan.

A prominent Dada group in Japan was Mavo, founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and. Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji, Eisuke Yoshiyuki, Shinkichi Takahashi and Katué Kitasono.  In the Tsuburaya Productions's "Ultra Series", an alien named Dada was inspired by Dadaism movement, with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series, "Ultraman", its design by character artist Toru Narita. Dada's design is primarily monochromatic, and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes, in reference to the movement and, in particular, to chessboard and Go patterns. On May 19, 2016, in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo, the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher.  Butoh, the Japanese dance-form originating in 1959, can be considered to have direct connections to the spirit of the Dada movement, as Tatsumi Hijikata, one of Butoh's founders, "was influenced early in his career by Dadaism".

Russia.

Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia, however, avant-garde art was widespread due to the Bolshevik's revolutionary agenda. The, a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals achieved infamy after one of its members suggested that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the "Pampushka" (Pameatnik Pushkina – Pushkin monument) on the "Tverbul" (Tverskoy Boulevard) to clean the shoes of anyone who desired it, after Mayakovsky declared that he was going to cleanse Russian literature. The Russian Orthodox priest Seraphim Rose considered Dadaism to be a contributor to the growing nihilism of the 20th century. For more information on Dadaism's influence upon Russian avant-garde art, see the book "Russian Dada 1914–1924".

Poetry.

Dadists used shock, nihilism, negativity, paradox, randomness, subconscious forces and antinomianism to subvert established traditions in the aftermath of the Great War. Tzara's 1920 manifesto proposed cutting words from a newspaper and randomly selecting fragments to write poetry, a process in which the synchronous universe itself becomes an active agent in creating the art. A poem written using this technique would be a "fruit" of the words that were clipped from the article.  In literary arts Dadaists focused on poetry, particularly the so-called sound poetry invented by Hugo Ball. Dadaist poems attacked traditional conceptions of poetry, including structure, order, as well as the interplay of sound and the meaning of language. For Dadaists, the existing system by which information is articulated robs language of its dignity. The dismantling of language and poetic conventions are Dadaist attempts to restore language to its purest and most innocent form: "With these sound poem, we wanted to dispense with a language which journalism had made desolate and impossible."  Simultaneous poems (or "poèmes simultanés") were recited by a group of speakers who, collectively, produced a chaotic and confusing set of voices. These poems are considered manifestations of modernity including advertising, technology, and conflict. Unlike movements such as Expressionism, Dadaism did not take a negative view of modernity and the urban life. The chaotic urban and futuristic world is considered natural terrain that opens up new ideas for life and art.

Music.

Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called "sound poems", while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920. Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote "Dada music", while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings. Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career, although he is primarily associated with musical Impressionism.

Legacy.

While broadly based, the movement was unstable. By 1924 in Paris, Dada was melding into Surrealism, and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including Surrealism, social realism and other forms of modernism. Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art.  By the dawn of the Second World War, many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States. Some (Otto Freundlich, Walter Serner) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler, who actively persecuted the kind of "degenerate art" that he considered Dada to represent. The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature.  Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements, including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society. Upon breaking up in July 2012, anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement.  At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment. Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play "Travesties" (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters. French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek "Lénine Dada" (1989).  The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo. The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee, and Dan Jones. After their eviction, the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada. The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum.  Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society. In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris. In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings, including interviews with artists such as Tzara, Picabia, Schwitters, Arp, and Huelsenbeck, and musical repertoire including Satie, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Picabia, and Nelly van Doesburg.  Musician Frank Zappa was a self-proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement:In the early days, I didn't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of. You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea—AND a nice, short name for it.

Art techniques developed.

Dadaism also blurred the line between literary and visual arts:  Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism.

Collage.

The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc. to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life. They also invented the “chance collage" technique, involving dropping torn scraps of paper onto a larger sheet and then pasting the pieces wherever they landed.

Cut-up technique.

Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves, Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto: <poem style="margin-left: 2em;"> TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM Take a newspaper. Take some scissors. Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem. Cut out the article. Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag. Shake gently. Next take out each cutting one after the other. Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag. The poem will resemble you. And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility, even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd. </poem>

Photomontage.

The Dadaists – the "monteurs" (mechanics) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media. A variation on the collage technique, photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press. In Cologne, Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war.

Assemblage.

The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless (relative to the war) pieces of work including war objects and trash. Objects were nailed, screwed or fastened together in different fashions. Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall.

Readymades.

Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art, which he called "readymades". He would add signatures and titles to some, converting them into artwork that he called "readymade aided" or "rectified readymades". Duchamp wrote: "One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the'readymade.' That sentence, instead of describing the object like a title, was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal. Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations, would be called'readymade aided.'" One such example of Duchamp's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back, signed "R. Mutt", titled "Fountain", and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year, though it was not displayed.

References.

Sources

External links.

Manifestos

Dada () or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland, at the Cabaret Voltaire (circa 1916); New York Dada began circa 1915, and after 1920 Dada flourished in Paris. Developed in reaction to World War I, the Dada movement consisted of artists who rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society, instead expressing nonsense, irrationality, and anti-bourgeois protest in their works. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, and sculpture. Dadaist artists expressed their discontent toward violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical far-left. There is no consensus on the origin of the movement's name; a common story is that the German artist Richard Huelsenbeck slid a paper knife (letter-opener) at random into a dictionary, where it landed on "dada", a colloquial French term for a hobby horse. Jean Arp wrote that Tristan Tzara invented the word at 6 pm on 6 February 1916, in the Café de la Terrasse in Zurich. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group. Still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning (or no meaning at all) in any language, reflecting the movement's internationalism.

Dadaismus oder Dada war eine künstlerische und literarische Bewegung, die 1916 von Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Tristan Tzara, Richard Huelsenbeck, Marcel Janco und Hans Arp in Zürich begründet wurde und sich durch Ablehnung „konventioneller“ Kunst und Kunstformen – die oft parodiert wurden – und bürgerlicher Ideale auszeichnet. Vom Dada gingen erhebliche Impulse auf die Kunst der Moderne bis hin zur zeitgenössischen Kunst aus.


History.

In 1938, Vasilios and Aphrodite Haseotes purchased a single-cow farm in Cumberland, Rhode Island, which eventually grew into the largest dairy farm in Southern New England. Cumberland Farms opened a dairy store in Bellingham, Massachusetts, in 1958 and the first convenience store in the northeastern United States in 1962.  In the late 1960s the Cumberland Farms had a successful ad campaign that helped expand their franchise, in part due to catchy jingles written by Brad Delp, who later co-founded the rock band Boston with Tom Scholz.  Cumberland Farms had been a two-thirds limited partner in the Gulf Oil company since 1993, while it has owned the rights to sell gasoline under the Gulf name throughout the United States since 1986. In 2016, Cumberland Farms sold its portion of Gulf Oil.  In September 2010, Cumberland Farms sold 61 locations, then in June 2011 closed an additional 29 stores. According to management, these sales and closures were to redeploy capital to their remaining stores and new builds.  In July 2018, Cumberland Farms closed several Florida locations to focus their attention on the state's East Coast.  In the past, Cumberland Farms television ads have featured actor David Hasselhoff. In spring 2019, Cumberland Farms TV ads began using retired pro wrestling star, "The Nature Boy", Ric Flair.  In April 2019, Cumberland Farms was reported to have retained Bank of America to explore a possible sale of the entire chain.  On July 31, 2019, U.K. based EG Group announced having entered a binding agreement to purchase Cumberland Farms.

Cumberland Farms, colloquially known as Cumby's, is a regional chain of convenience stores based in Westborough, Massachusetts, operating primarily in New York, New England and Florida. Cumberland Farms operates 566 retail stores, gas stations, and a support system including petroleum and grocery distribution operations in 8 states: Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Its original colors were navy blue and orange, but in 2009, they rebranded with a new logo and colors (navy blue and green). The new logo change marked the beginning of the transformation of Cumberland Farms stores from older, legacy stores to new AIM stores that now include numerous new fresh food items such as pizza, chicken sandwiches, subs, and a roller grill. Cumberland Farms offers a large assortment of food service items, candy, snacks, and chilled drinks, which it calls "The Chill Zone", along with Cumberland Farms branded chips, pastries, candy, and coffee, etc.

Cumberland Farms ist ein US-amerikanisches Unternehmen mit Firmensitz in Framingham, Massachusetts. Das Unternehmen ist im Einzelhandel tätig und befindet sich im Besitz der griechischen Unternehmerfamilie Haseotes. Verkaufsstandorte befinden sich vorwiegend in Neuengland bzw. den US-amerikanischen Ostküstenstaaten. Das Unternehmen betreibt des Weiteren an seinen Filialen Tankstellen.


Club career.

Palmeiras.

Born in Guarulhos, São Paulo, Braz graduated with Palmeiras' youth setup. He made his professional debut on 10 February 2007, coming on as a substitute for Dininho in a 1–1 home draw against Bragantino for the Campeonato Paulista championship.  Braz appeared more regularly in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, after the arrival of new manager Vanderlei Luxemburgo. However, after struggling with injuries, he lost his starting spot.

Panathinaikos.

On 19 January 2009 Braz signed a four-and-a-half year deal with Greek giants Panathinaikos in a free transfer, after alleging irregularities with his contract. He made his debut for the side on 15 March, replacing fellow countryman Marcelo Mattos in a 1–0 away defeat of Thrasyvoulos.

Flamengo.

On 21 July 2009, after appearing rarely, Braz signed a one-year loan deal with Flamengo. He made his debut on 9 August, starting in a 1–0 home win over Corinthians.  A backup to Álvaro and Ronaldo Angelim, Braz contributed with one goal in ten appearances as his side lifted the league trophy in the last round. On 12 August 2010, Flamengo acquired 60% of his rights, with the player signing a new four-year deal.

Santos.

On 18 May 2012 Braz moved to Santos, along with Flamengo teammate Rafael Galhardo, in an exchange for Ibson. He acted mainly as a backup to Edu Dracena and Durval during his first year, appearing in only seven matches.

Loan to Vitória.

In January 2013, after being deemed surplus to requirements by manager Muricy Ramalho, Braz was loaned to Vitória. However, in August he was left out of the first-team squad, later accusing the club of not paying his wages. He eventually returned to Santos in December.

Return to Santos.

Shortly after his return to "Peixe", new manager Oswaldo de Oliveira granted his place in the first-team. Profiting from Dracena and Gustavo Henrique's injuries, he was later first-choice in the end of the 2014 Campeonato Paulista, and remained a starter in Série A.  On 6 September 2014 Braz scored his first goals for Santos, netting a brace in a 3–1 home win against his former side Vitória. He played his 100th game for the club on 4 October of the following year, starting in a 3–1 home win against Fluminense.  A regular starter, Braz played his 200th match for the club on 5 April 2018, in a 1–0 away win against Estudiantes de La Plata.

Loan to Sivasspor.

On 8 August 2018, Braz was loaned to Süper Lig side Sivasspor for one year, with an option to buy for a fee of € 2 million.

Grêmio.

On 25 May 2019, Santos announced the signing of Marinho, while Braz moved to Grêmio as a part of the deal.

International career.

Braz was capped at under-18 and under-20 levels for Brazil.

David Braz de Oliveira Filho (born 21 May 1987), known as David Braz, is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Grêmio as a central defender.

David Braz de Oliveira Filho (* 21. Mai 1987 in Guarulhos, Bundesstaat São Paulo), bekannt unter dem Namen David Braz, ist ein brasilianischer Fußballspieler.


Taxonomy.

It was thought that the genus "Todus" was established in 1760, after the split from the kingfisher from the genus "Alcedo". However, the exact historical relationship between the genus "Todus" and other close relatives was not confirmed until around 2004 when a paper was published on the molecular phylogenic relationships for the tody species. Mitochondrial DNA and nuclear gene sequences were used to discover the heterogeneity among genes in these species. Genus "Todus" is monophyletic and a relatively old group based on divergence approximations. todies are closer to the "Baryphthengus" and "Hylomanes" genera, from the family Momotidae, than the "Ceryle" and "Chloroceryle" genera, from the family Alcedinidae. The family Todidae likely derived from a motmot-like ancestor during the Oligocene period. The "Palaeotodus emryi" is the only tody that is known to be from the late Pleistocene, and it is a close relative of the tody motmot ("Hylomanes momotula"), the primitive genus of the Momotidae and possibly the closest living relative to the todies. It is believed that the Todidae were once widespread across North America but when there was a decrease in tropical conditions there, it is thought that this led to the confinement of the motmot-tody group to the Neotropics.  The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is a member of the genus, "Todus", which is composed of five species restricted to Greater Antilles. All five species are very similar morphologically. Local names for the Jamaican tody include rasta bird, robin and robin redbreast. The Cuban tody ("Todus multicolor") are confined to the island of Cuba and can be found throughout the island, but tend to be more concentrated in shoreline habitats. The narrow-billed tody ("Todus angustirostris") and the broad-billed tody ("Todus subulatus") are both endemic to Hisponiola, composed of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The narrow-billed tody is mainly found in very humid montane forest while the broad-billed tody generally inhabits very dry forest and subdesert areas. However, both of these species can be found in either habitat and are most equally distributed in dry, lower montane forests. The Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") is only found on the island of Puerto Rico. Similar to other tody species, they can be found in a variety of habitats ranging from the moist, Luquillo Rainforest to the more dry, limestone forest.

Description.

The Jamaican tody is a small, chunky bird that averages about 9 cm (or 4.25”) in size. The wing size for all tody species ranges between 42.8mm and 50.3mm. The Jamaican tody's wing size is right in the middle of these sizes, about 46mm, compared to the Cuban and Puerto Rican todies which tend to have smaller wings and the broad-billed tody which has the largest. The wing size of the Jamaican tody correlates with their average flight distance which is about 1.5m, and their maximum flight distance which is 26m. The average weight of the Jamaican tody is around 6.4 grams. They have a bright green head, red throat and a long, broad and flat red bill. They look very similar to the Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") but have a whitish breast that is blended with green, becoming even slightly yellow on the abdomen and under tail-coverts. The Jamaican tody also has blue-gray subauricular feathers. Their legs and feet are reddish brown. Todies are generally a sexually monomorphic genus. However, some tody species have different eye colors between males and females, but in the Jamaican tody, this iris color is unpredictable. Jamacain todies are very quiet birds during nonbreeding months but can be heard more frequently during the spring and summer. The vocalizations of the Jamaican tody are predominately a loud beep sound and a throat-rattle. (see external link below) The loud beep is a nasal sounding note that is similar in length to the loud beep of the Puerto Rican tody. The throat-rattling is a rapid, harsh-sounding noise that is made with an open bill of about 3mm and is produced often in territorial defense.

Distribution and habitat.

The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is endemic to Jamaica. They are found all around the island and can be seen near the semi-arid coast or in the humid mountains. They generally travel in pairs and can be found most commonly in forested areas, occurring in second-growth, untouched habitats. These are the mesic limestone forests, arid limestone forests, montane forest, shaded coffee plantations and even in the mangroves. The Jamaican tody is most visible during the spring and summer months, and are much more silent and easy to find during the fall and winter.

Ecology and behavior.

Maintenance behavior.

Todies can be found generally performing two bathing techniques, bathing in flight after a dive and bathing is wet plant leaves or in light rain. They also perform bill-wiping where they will clean both sides of their beak, from base to tip, especially after eating or preening and fluffing their feathers. To fluff their head feathers, they will share their head back and forth in a fast, jerky movement. Todies also preen their feathers with their flat bills and this mainly occurs in their breast and wing areas on their body.

Breeding.

The Jamaican tody is a relatively quiet bird during the non-breeding season. However during the breeding season, they perform increased wing-rattling for both courtship and to show other todies that this is their territory. Courtship feeding has also been observed in the Jamaican tody where a dead insect is exchanged between two partners. In one observation of Jamaican tody copulation, the male chased the female a short distance and once she landed, he swooped down on her and held her crown while performing 29 cloacal contacts in the span of 35 seconds. Soon after, tThroat-rattles were heard and the two todies flew away in separate directions.  Jamaican todies can sometimes be found digging, in which they mainly use their rhamphotheca to create a nesting site. Their eggs are laid in unlined chambers near the end of their burrows, which are holes created in the soil on top of the hard, limestone habitats. The eggs are round, shiny and white, except when they are freshly laid and have a pinkish tint to them. They lay between 1 and 4 white eggs during their breeding season which lasts from December to July. The average size of a Jamaican tody egg is about 16.1 mm long and 13.3 mm wide. One egg is laid each night until the clutch is finished, and then eggs are incubated between 21 and 22 days before hatching asynchronously. Once the young emerge from the shell, the eggs are left in the chamber. While the burrows are generally occupied by todies, other species can sometimes be found inhabiting their homes such as spiders, field mice and lizards.

Food and feeding.

The Jamaican tody uses a sit-and-watch foraging strategy to capture its prey, which is similar to other todies in the genus "Todus" that can be found on nearby islands in the West Indies. They nearly entirely feed on insects and the larvae of insects but will occasionally eat fruit as well. The majority of their foraging is done below nine-tenths of the maximum canopy height of the forest, and is done in both dry and wet forests. From a perch, Jamaican todies scan the undersides and occasionally, uppersides of leaves for insects in which they will swoop down or up, respectively to catch insects. The smaller insects are swallowed in air while the larger ones are smashed against twigs before consuming. This insect consumption occurs almost continuously throughout the day, where they will eat around 1 to 2 insects per minute if available. The method of drinking for the Jamaican tody has not been observed but it is assumed that they get most of their water from leaf droplets and food they consume.

Threats to survival.

Forest fragmentation may have an impact on the Jamaican tody. When the todies were translocated between 0.6km and 4km in a study, only 62% returned to their territories. Increasing the number of tree coverage seemed to increase normal bird movement and therefore supports the need to increase protection of forested areas as well as increase restoration of tree coverage in deforested areas. Aside from humans, other todies and loud noises, such as cars, may seem threatening to the Jamaican tody and cause them to display territorial behavior. These displays include wing-flicking, flank displays where the flank feathers expand over the edge of lower wings, and a horizontal glare, where the Jamaican tody will stare down an opponent as a form of intimidation. Territorial vocalizations can also be heard and include throat-rattles and loud beeps. The major predatory threat to the Jamaican tody is the Indian mongoose. They do this by destroying tody burrows that house young that are still in their nestling stage.

Relationship to humans.

A large number of avian habitats in Jamaica are being altered by humans for both settlement as well as farming purposes. Coffee production is a large export for Jamaica and with coffee farms comes a great amount of biodiversity, some more welcomed than others. The pest control services provided by birds was examined in Jamaica's Blue Mountains. The most common pest found was the coffee berry borer, since there entire life is spent inside of coffee berries. The Jamaican tody was found to be one of the top five birds on coffee farms in the Blue Mountains that help to keep the number of pests under control, leading to more saleable fruit, increased coffee yields and increased income for farmers.

Status.

According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Jamaican tody is classified as least concern. The justification for this classification is that although they live in a small range, they still meet the size criterion and do not have greater than 30% decrease in population size over 10 years.

The Jamaican tody ("Todus todus") is a member of the genus, "Todus", which is composed of five species restricted to Greater Antilles. All five species are very similar morphologically. Local names for the Jamaican tody include rasta bird, robin and robin redbreast. The Jamaican tody is a small, chunky bird that averages about 9 cm (or 4.25”) in size. The average weight of the Jamaican tody is around 6.4 grams. They have a bright green head, red throat and a long, broad and flat red bill. They look very similar to the Puerto Rican tody ("Todus mexicanus") but have a whitish breast that is blended with green, becoming even slightly yellow on the abdomen and under tail-coverts. The Jamaican tody also has blue-gray subauricular feathers. Their legs and feet are reddish brown. The Jamaican tody is endemic to Jamaica. They are found all around the island and can be seen near the semi-arid coast or in the humid mountains. Their eggs are laid in unlined chambers near the end of their burrows, which are holes created in the soil on top of the hard, limestone habitats. They lay between 1 and 4 white eggs during their breeding season which lasts from December to July. They nearly entirely feed on insects and the larvae of insects but will occasionally eat fruit as well. According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Jamaican tody is classified as least concern.

Der Jamaikatodi oder Grüntodi ("Todus todus") ist eine Vogelart aus der Ordnung der Rackenvögel (Coraciiformes) und der Familie der Todis. Er wird gelegentlich der umstrittenen Ordnung der Eisvogelartigen (Alcediniformes) zugeteilt.


Biography.

Budanov was born in 1963 in Khartsyzk, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union. He graduated from the Tank Military School in Kharkiv and went on officer career in the Soviet Army, particularly, serving with the Soviet base in Hungary.  At the fall of the Soviet Union, Budanov was serving in Belarus, but he refused Belarusian citizenship and was transferred to the Siberian Military District, and then to Chechnya. In 1999 Budanov graduated from the Malinovsky Military Armored Forces Academy, receiving the rank of Guards Colonel.  According to the father of Budanov's victim, Budanov's tank regiment had been encamped just outside Tangi-Chu since February 2000, and Budanov himself had a notorious reputation among villagers. About ten days before the murder, Budanov reportedly arbitrarily searched and looted several homes in Tangi Chu, and two days before the incident he reportedly looted and threatened to torch several other homes.  From 2001 to 2003, Russian courts tried Colonel Yuri Budanov on the charges of March 27, 2000, kidnapping, rape (an allegation later withdrawn by the prosecution) and brutal murder of Elza Kungaeva, an 18-year-old Chechen woman whom Budanov alleged of being a sniper for Chechen rebels who were attacking his unit. He admitted killing her in a fit of rage, but denied the rape charges.  He was assassinated by Yusup-Khadzhi Temirkhanov on 10 June 2011 in Moscow, Russia.

Prosecution.

Arrest.

Budanov was arrested on March 29, 2000. According to press reports, Budanov claimed that Kungaeva was a suspected sniper, and that he had gone into a rage while questioning her.  Colonel-General Anatoly Kvashnin, then chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, appeared on national television to announce to President Vladimir Putin and the nation the arrest of Budanov in the grisly case. Kvashnin accused Budanov of "humiliating" and murdering Kungayeva, and denounced the colonel's behavior as "barbaric and "disgraceful."  In a stark contrast, Lieutenant-General Vladimir Shamanov, who was Budanov's commanding officer, exhibited strong sympathy towards him. He said that Budanov was one of his best commanders and offered this challenge: ""To [Budanov's] enemies I say: Don't put your paws on the image of a Russian soldier and officer.""  The Chechen rebels offered to exchange nine recent OMON special police captives for Budanov. After the Russian side refused the offer, the prisoners were executed on the morning of April 4, 2000.

Charges.

In relation to the case of Kungayeva, Budanov was charged with three crimes: kidnapping resulting in death, abuse of office accompanied by violence with serious consequences, and murder of an abductee. No charges have been brought expressly for the beating and torture Kungaeva endured prior to her death. He was also charged in the beating up of a subordinate officer, threatening superior officers with a weapon, and other crimes.  Budanov claimed that he detained Kungaeva on suspicion of being a sniper, and that he killed her during interrogation. The investigation, however, reportedly found that no member of the Kungaev family had in any way been suspected of involvement in the anti-Russian activity.  Budanov used his official position and a combat vehicle to remove Kungaeva from her home, and detained Kungaeva at a military installation; he was thus charged with exceeding his official position with violence resulting in serious consequences, which is punishable by three to ten years of imprisonment (article 286.3 of the criminal code).

Lack of a rape prosecution.

The forensic physician, a Captain in the Russian military medical service, found three tears in her hymen and one in the mucous membrane of her rectum, and the report concludes that she was penetrated anally and vaginally by a blunt object before death.  Three of Budanov's subordinates, Sergeants Li En Shou and Grigoriev and a Private Yegorev, were found responsible. Charges against all three were simultaneously brought and dropped under the May 26, 2000 amnesty law.

Trial.

The trial began on April 9, 2003, in Rostov-on-Don. Legal proceedings against Budanov, who underwent several retrials, lasted a total of 2 years and 3 months.  Witnesses included Yahyayev, the person in the town administration, who according to Budanov had given him the picture representing Chechen snipers. However, Yahyayev said he had given no such picture to Budanov. General Shamanov came to defend Budanov during trial. He expressed his solidarity with the defendant, as did Colonel-General Gennady Troshev and numerous other Russian soldiers and civilians who picketed the court. According to a poll, 50% of the Russians asked supported the demands of picketers to release Colonel Budanov from custody; 19% did not support these demands.  In a controversial decision, Budanov was initially found not guilty by reason of temporary insanity on December 31, 2002, and committed to a psychiatric hospital for further evaluation and the length of the treatment would have been decided by his doctor.  However, in the beginning of March 2003 the supreme court invalidated the sentence and ordered a new trial. This took place in the same place but with a new judge. The sentence of 10 years of imprisonment was given on July 25, 2003.  The judge who convicted Budanov, Vladimir Bukreyev, himself was convicted of bribe-taking and sentenced to 10 years of imprisonment on July 6, 2009.

In prison.

On 21 September 2004, Shamanov, now the Ulyanovsk regional governor, signed a pardon for Yury Budanov; Interfax quoted the head of the Ulyanovsk pardons commission, Anatoly Zherebtsov, as saying that if Putin backed the recommendation, Budanov would also get back his military rank and awards.  The commission's decision sparked outrage in Chechnya. ""Whether in jail or freed, Budanov will remain a person who has committed a grave crime, which took the life of an innocent girl,"" Taus Dzhabrailov, the head of Chechnya's parliament, told Interfax. Ramzan Kadyrov said: ""The Ulyanovsk commission's decision is like spitting on the soul of the long-suffering Chechen people."" Kadyrov also made statements that "If any of Elza's friends should meet [Budanov] I don't want to predict how they will act. The Chechen people do not consider him to be a human being, and as a war criminal, he does not deserve to be. One might be able to forgive his crime to some extent if he had killed a man. But to sexually assault a girl cannot be forgiven. He is beneath contempt. He has brought shame on the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation."  In February 2006, a Russian prison official announced that Budanov, who was serving his 10-year sentence, might be released early on good behaviour. The Chechen regional branch of the United Russia party addressed the State Duma and the Russian President with a request not to grant amnesty to Yuri Budanov. The same month, on the petition of Budanov's attorney, with account of good behaviour of the inmate, the former colonel was removed from the strict custody colony to a settlement-colony.  On 24 December 2008, a court granted him a release on parole. This was the fifth attempt by Budanov's lawyers to obtain him a release on parole. Four applications before that were rejected. Victim's lawyers appealed to overturn the decision (thus the delay in release), but without success. Budanov was released on 15 January 2009, 15 months before completion of his conviction term. The decision was protested by Chechnya's human rights ombudsman, Nurdi Nukhazhiyev, who accused Russian judges of "double standards" with regard to Russians and Chechens.  The lawyer for the Kungayeva family, Stanislav Markelov, who had attempted a last-minute appeal against the release of Budanov, was shot dead in Moscow on 19 January 2009 along with Anastasia Baburova, a 25-year-old journalist for "Novaya Gazeta". However, the investigation of Markelov's murder showеd in November 2009 that the murder was probably unrelated to this case, but committed by Neo-Nazis as a revenge for Markelov's support of Marxist activists as a lawyer.

Assassination and funeral.

Yuri Budanov was assassinated around 11:30 on 10 June 2011 in central Moscow (Hamovniki, Komsomolski prospekt), Russia. Six silenced shots were fired, four of which struck Budanov in the head. The killer escaped in a car driven by an accomplice. The car was subsequently found partially burned several blocks from the site of the attack. A gun believed to be a Makarov PM was found with a silencer inside the car. Budanov's wife witnessed the assassination and was held by Russian authorities. Russian police investigators commented that the attack was carefully planned and they considered blood revenge as one of the likely motives. One witness to the murder described the driver of the car from which the six shots were fired as being of Slavic appearance. Dokku Umarov claimed responsibility for the assassination as he sat by the commander of the Riyadus-Salikhiyn Brigade saying "I am addressing you today about a joyous occasion: yesterday, on 10 June, Allah by his will brought us a great celebration, punishing one of the sadists, the reprobate, the killer Budanov. The same fate, the same revenge awaits the others. Let these celebrations happen more often for Muslims." Upon the release of a video by Umarov, one of the investigators in the case said that "We have been expecting this kind of statement for a long time because the 'Chechen version' is one of the main ones we are working with. Nevertheless, these types of terrorist statements will not alter the course of our probe. We are studying all the leads."  His funeral was attended by such Russian right-winged leaders as Vladimir Zhirinovsky and accompanied by a three-gun salute. The Moscow police is reported to have made a dozen arrests immediately before closing most of the investigation to the press.  On 7 May 2013, Yusup Temerkhanov was convicted by a jury of Budanov's murder and sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment. According to investigation, Temerkhanov's motive was revenge for his father, who was killed in 2000 during the Second Chechen War. Temerkhanov's defense lawyer, Murad Musayev, was charged with trying to bribe two jury members to find his client not guilty, but the charges against Musayev were dropped in February 2015 due to statute of limitations. Two jury members in question, Diana Lomonosova and Vitali Pronin, were also charged with taking that bribe of 6,000,000 rubles. Pronin plead guilty to the charges during his trial. Lomonosova was amnestied on 28 April 2015 due to being older than 50. Pronin was sentenced to a suspended sentence of one year and immediately amnestied on 5 May 2015. Temerkhanov denied any involvement and pleaded not guilty. He died while serving his sentence in a penal colony in Siberia in August 2018. Chechnya president Ramzan Kadyrov praised Temerkhanov as "people's hero" after attending his memorial service.

Yuri Dmitrievich Budanov (; 24 November 196310 June 2011) was a Russian military officer convicted by a Russian court of kidnapping and murder in Chechnya.

Juri Dmitrijewitsch Budanow (; * 24. November 1963 in Charzyssk, Oblast Donezk, Ukrainische SSR; † 10. Juni 2011 in Moskau) war ein russischer Offizier, der für Kriegsverbrechen im Zweiten Tschetschenienkrieg rechtskräftig verurteilt wurde.


Biography.

Thomas Ruffin was born on November 17, 1787 at the residence of his maternal grandfather Thomas Roane at Newington in King and Queen County, Virginia. Ruffin graduated from Princeton University and studied law in North Carolina under Archibald Murphey. He commenced the practice of law in Hillsborough, North Carolina, where he also farmed. He was elected to several terms in the North Carolina House of Commons and served as a Superior Court judge from 1816 to 1818 and from 1825 to 1828. In 1828, the state called upon Ruffin to bring the State Bank of North Carolina out of debt as its new President, which he did in one year. The legislature then named him to the state Supreme Court.  "The election of former Superior Court Judge and State Bank President Ruffin to the bench in 1829 effectively ensured the North Carolina Supreme Court's survival", according to Martin Brinkley (see link below). Ranked by Harvard Law School Dean Roscoe Pound as one of the ten greatest jurists in American history, Ruffin singlehandedly transformed the common law of North Carolina into an instrument of economic change. His writings on the subject of eminent domain--the right of the state to seize private property for the public good—paved the way for the expansion of railroads into North Carolina, enabling the "Rip Van Winkle State" to embrace the industrial revolution. Ruffin's opinions were cited as persuasive authority by appellate tribunals throughout the United States. The influence his decisions exercised upon the nascent jurisprudence of the states then known as the Southwest (Alabama, Louisiana, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi), which were settled by emigrating North Carolinians in large numbers, made Ruffin a celebrated figure at home. Public veneration of the "stern prophet," as Ruffin was called, preserved his Court from destruction by populist politicians. Together, Justice William Gaston and Ruffin, whom his colleagues elected Chief Justice in 1833 (by a coin toss, according to a popular but probably apocryphal account), dominated their less-talented brother judges, rendering treatise-like opinions that inspired one contemporary to exclaim: "No State of the Union... not even the United States, ever had a superior Bench; few ever had its equal."  Ruffin wrote the decision in the case of "North Carolina v. Mann" (1829), which sanctioned the "absolute" power of a master over a slave.  Ruffin was also the author of "Dougherty v. Stepp" (1835), a staple of first-year Torts classes in American law schools used to teach students about the tort of trespass upon real property.  Ruffin retired in 1852 to his plantation in Alamance County, but the legislature called him back to the Court in 1858. He retired again after about one year, at the age of 78. His home after the end of the American Civil War until his death in 1870, the Ruffin-Roulhac House at Hillsborough, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.  In addition to his legal and political career, Ruffin was an innovative farmer, and was president of the state's Agricultural Society from 1854 to 1860.  Ruffin was also a trustee of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill for some 24 years.  The unincorporated community of Ruffin, in Rockingham Co., is named for Thomas Ruffin.

Thomas Ruffin (1787–1870) was an American jurist and Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court from 1829 to 1852 and again from 1858 to 1859. He was Chief Justice of that Court from 1833 to 1852.

Thomas Ruffin (* 16. November 1787 im King and Queen County, Virginia; † 15. Januar 1870 in Hillsborough, North Carolina) war ein US-amerikanischer Rechtsanwalt und zweimal, von 1829 bis 1852 sowie noch einmal von 1858 bis 1859, Richter am North Carolina Supreme Court. Ferner bekleidete er zwischen 1833 und 1852 das Amt des "Chief Justice" an jenem Gericht.


Background and career.

College and early career.

Kerzner graduated from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg with a BCom accounting degree as well as BCom (Hons) in Accounting and then took control of the family company. In 1962, he purchased the Astra Hotel in Durban. Following the success of that property, Kerzner built South Africa's first five-star graded hotel in Umhlanga, a village north of Durban – he opened this resort in December 1964 which he named the Beverly Hills Hotel.  Following the Beverly Hills, Kerzner built the 450-room Elangeni Hotel (now renamed Southern Sun Elangeni & Maharani), overlooking Durban's beachfront and, in 1969, in partnership with South African Breweries, he established the chain of Southern Sun Hotels, which by 1983 operated 30 luxury hotels with more than 7,000 rooms. In 1975, Kerzner opened his first hotel outside South Africa on the Indian Ocean Island of Mauritius, which he named "Le Saint Géran".

Sun City.

In 1979 Kerzner developed Sun City, the most ambitious resort project in Africa. Over a period of ten years he built four hotels, a man-made lake, two Gary Player designed championship golf courses and entertainment center with an indoor 6,000-seat multi-purpose arena at which he presented many superstars including Frank Sinatra, Liza Minnelli, Queen and Shirley Bassey. The arena was also the venue of many World Title fights promoted by Bob Arum. In 1985, Kerzner's Sun City, South Africa resort was the topic of anti-Apartheid rock album titled "Sun City" by a group of rock musicians calling themselves Artists United Against Apartheid.  In 1994, following the first multiracial elections in South Africa, Kerzner was asked by incoming President Nelson Mandela to arrange the VIP function at the Presidential Inauguration, which was attended by approximately a thousand people, including many of the world's leaders and heads of state.

Mohegan Sun.

In 1996, Kerzner opened the hugely successful Mohegan Sun casino in Uncasville, Connecticut in the United States and in 2000 opened the second phase of the project including a 1,200-room hotel through a joint venture with the Mohegan Tribe of Connecticut called Trading Cove Associates. TCA relinquished its management of the resort in 2002 but Kerzner through his company received a 5% dividend on the gross revenue generated by Mohegan Sun until 2014. The property is one of the largest gambling and entertainment complexes in the United States.

Late career.

As a result of the success of the Sun City resort with its Gary Player Country Club golf course (ranked number 1 in South Africa) he got involved in international hotel, leisure and gambling resorts; most notably for his role as the developer behind the well-known Atlantis Resort in the Bahamas. In that capacity in late 1994, Kerzner made his first major acquisition outside Africa through the purchase of the Paradise Island Resort in The Bahamas. This 1,150-room resort was in bankruptcy at the time. After acquiring the resort, Kerzner launched a major re-development and expansion program which transformed Paradise Island into a 2,300-room resort that included one of the world's largest man-made marine habitats and the Caribbean's biggest casino.  In 2002, Kerzner launched One&Only Resorts which currently operates eight properties in The Bahamas, Mexico, Mauritius, The Maldives, South Africa, Dubai and Hayman Island. New projects by the firm are also planned for China, Montenegro, and Saudi Arabia.  In early 2007, Kerzner expanded Atlantis, Paradise Island with 2 new hotels; The Cove, and The Reef, which added 1,100 new rooms to the property. This expansion which was overseen by Alan Leibman, which included 21 retail outlets and new restaurants by celebrity chefs Jean-Georges Vongerichten, Nobu Matsuhisa and Bobby Flay. Kerzner extended the Atlantis brand globally with the development of Atlantis, The Palm, Dubai, with 1,500-room, water-themed resort opened in late-September 2008 on The Palm Jumeirah – a multibillion-dollar leisure and residential development in Dubai. In September 2009, the "Mazagan Beach Resort" a luxury hotel in El Jadida, Morocco, was inaugurated by Kerzner himself accompanied by show business many celebrities.  In October 2013, Kerzner announced that he was building a new Atlantis hotel at Sanya, Hainan Island in China with China's Fosun International. The 62-hectare resort has 1,300 rooms and a water park like the other Atlantis hotels. The project is reported to have cost $1.63 billion.

Controversies, collusion, and apartheid involvement.

In 1984, Kerzner made a deal with Leslie Young, the Minister of Finance for Bophutatswana, that any investments by his company, Sun International, that had the effect of advertising apartheid abroad, would be tax-deductible. Sun International paid next to no money for taxes in South Africa due to tax breaks.  In 1987, an agreement between Young and Kerzner stated that 90% of taxes from entertainers in Bophutatswana would go back to Sun International, with any entertainer making more than R26,000 having to pay half their income to Bophutatswana.  In 1990, Kerzner was found to have paid R5 million to the Transkei Chief George Matanzima for gaming licenses, R2 million of which was said to be a bribe. The case surrounding this was dropped in 1997.  In 1997, Alan Greenblo was banned from publishing a biography on Kerzner, "Kerzner - Unauthorized". While Kerzner wanted sections of the book to be cut out, Witwatersrand Judge Monas Flemming banned it outright. Sections of the book were published in Noseweek the same year.

Personal life.

Kerzner was married four times. His first wife was Maureen Adler and together they had three children: Butch Kerzner, A drea Kerzner, and Beverly Kerzner Mace. His second wife was Shirley Bestbier; they had two children: Brandon Kerzner and Chantal Kerzner Sweeney. She later committed suicide soon after the birth of her second child.  His marriage to his third wife, Miss World 1974 Anneline Kriel, ended in divorce after five years. During a lengthy period in the 1990s, he dated the model Christina Estrada and got engaged, but never married her. He married his fourth wife, Heather Murphy in 2000 and they divorced in 2011.  Kerzner's son, Howard "Butch" Kerzner died on 11 October 2006 when the helicopter he was traveling in crashed near Sosua, in the Puerto Plata province of the Dominican Republic. He left behind his wife, Vanessa Kerzner, and two children Tai and Kailin. Sol Kerzner's daughter, Andrea, is the founder and CEO of Lalela, a charity dedicated to bringing the arts to at-risk youth in South Africa.  Kerzner was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award for his contributions to the industry during the International Hotel Investment Forum (IHIF) in March, 2019. Kerzner died of cancer on 21 March 2020.

Solomon Kerzner (23 August 1935 – 21 March 2020) was a South African accountant and business magnate. He founded both of South Africa's largest hotel groups, the Southern Sun Hotel Group and Sun International. He was also the Founder, Chairman, and CEO of Kerzner International. His career spanned more than 45 years in the resort industry. After Kerzner graduated with a B.Com (Accounting) and B.Com (Hons) (Accounting) from the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg and qualified as a Chartered Accountant, he took over the running of his family's hotel chain.

Solomon Solenoid Kerzner (* 23. August 1935 in Johannesburg; † 21. März 2020 in Kapstadt) war ein südafrikanischer Unternehmer und Hotelmagnat.


Biography.

Mellenthin was born in Breslau; his brother Horst von Mellenthin was also a World War II general. In 1924, Friedrich von Mellenthin enlisted in the Reichsheer; in 1932 he married Ingeborg von Aulock. He was assigned to the Prussian Military Academy in 1935. Between 1937 and June 1941, Mellenthin held several general staff positions in the Army; in June 1941, Mellenthin was posted to North Africa, where he served as a staff officer in the Afrika Corps until September 1942.  Until May 1944, Mellenthin served as chief of staff of the XXXXVIII Panzer Corps in the occupied Soviet Union, under General Hermann Balck, including the Battle of Kursk, the Battle of Kiev, and the spring 1944 retreat through the western Ukraine. In September 1944, Mellenthin followed Balck to the 4th Panzer Army and then to Army Group G in eastern France. On 28 December, Mellenthin was given command of 9th Panzer Division, which was then engaged in the Battle of the Bulge. From March to May 1945 he was chief of staff of the 5th Panzer Army.  Mellenthin surrendered to the British Army on 3 May 1945 and spent two and a half years in an internment camp. After his release, Mellenthin emigrated to South Africa, founded Trek Airways, worked together with Luxair and represented Lufthansa in Africa from 1961 until 1969. He died in Johannesburg in 1997.

Authorship and reception.

Mellenthin's book "Panzerschlachten", translated into English as "Panzer Battles", documents Wehrmacht's campaigns that he participated in. The book was reprinted six times in the U.S. between 1956 and 1976 and continues to be popular among readers who romanticize the German war effort. The veracity of Mellenthin's "Panzer Battles" and other works has been called into question over the years. The historian Wolfram Wette lists Mellenthin in the group of German generals who authored apologetic, uncritical studies on World War II, alongside Ferdinand Heim, Kurt von Tippelskirch, Waldemar Erfurth and others.  Critics point out that Mellenthin tends to downplay Wehrmacht's failures while extolling the fighting qualities of the German soldier. The historians Ronald Smelser and Edward J. Davies have characterized Mellenthin's works as part of the "exculpatory memoirs" genre that fed the post-war revisionist narrative, alongside books by Erich von Manstein, Heinz Guderian, Hans Rudel and Hans von Luck. Mellenthin blames Wehrmacht's defeat solely on the Soviet advantages in men and materiel, describing the Red Army as a "ruthless enemy, possessed of immense and seemingly inexhaustible resources". As the result, according to Mellenthin, the "endless waves of men and tanks" eventually "submerged" the supposedly superior Wehrmacht.  Wehrmacht's adversaries on the Eastern Front are consistently depicted in derogatory and racial terms, including in a section dedicated to the "Psychology of the Russian Soldier". According to Mellenthin, "Russian soldier" is a "primitive being", characterised by "mental sluggishness" and lacking a "religious or moral balance". He describes them as "primitive" "Asiatics".  "Panzer Battles" was instrumental in forming the misconceptions which influenced the U.S. view of Eastern Front military operations up to 1995, when Soviet archival sources became available to Western and Russian historians. The historian Robert Citino notes the influential nature of Mellenthin's works in shaping the perceptions of the Red Army in the West as "a faceless and mindless horde" whose idea of military art was to "smash everything in its path through numbers, brute force and sheer size". Citino includes "Panzer Battles" among the German officers' memoirs that are "at best unreliable and at worst deliberately misleading".

Friedrich von Mellenthin (30 August 1904 – 28 June 1997) was a German general during World War II. A participant in most of the major campaigns of the war, he became known afterwards for his memoirs "Panzer Battles", first published in 1956 and reprinted several times since then.

Friedrich Wilhelm von Mellenthin (* 30. August 1904 in Breslau; † 28. Juni 1997 in Johannesburg) war ein deutscher General (zuletzt Generalmajor), Geschäftsmann und Autor.


Overview.

The Ascender is the only one of GM's GMT360-based mid-size SUVs that was not actually GM-branded. The Ascender LWB was dropped after the 2006 model year. Reviews warned of a thin dealer network for warranty repairs, and the Kelley Blue Book projected a relatively low resale value similar to the TrailBlazer. However, Isuzu offers a seven-year/75,000-mile powertrain warranty, and substantial factory incentives. The Ascender ended production on June 6, 2008, as part of Isuzu's withdrawal from the United States market. The Ascender (along with the related GMC Envoy) were both replaced by the 2010 GMC Terrain, based on the GM Theta platform. 7-passenger versions of both SUVs were indirectly replaced by the GMC Acadia in 2007, based on the GM Lambda platform.  Engines:

Recall.

In 2012, General Motors and Isuzu recalled more than 258,000 SUVs in the U.S. and Canada to fix short-circuits in power window and door-lock switches that could cause fires. The recall covered Chevrolet TrailBlazer, GMC Envoy, Buick Rainier, Isuzu Ascender and Saab 9-7X SUVs from the 2006 and 2007 model years. The SUVs were sold or registered in the United States also including Hawaii and Alaska and Canada as well.  General Motors announced the recall of 316,357 vehicles in late 2014, primarily in North America, to fix malfunctioning headlights. According to the company, a problem in the headlamp driver module could have led to temporary or permanent malfunctioning of the low-beam headlamps and daytime running lamps. This increased the possibility of an accident. However, the high-beam headlamps, marker lamps, turn signals and fog lamps are not affected by the issue. The vehicles that were covered under the recall are the 2006–2009 Buick LaCrosse sedans; 2006–2007 Chevrolet Trailblazer, GMC Envoy and Buick Rainier SUVs; and 2006–2008 Saab 9-7X and Isuzu Ascender SUVs.

The Isuzu Ascender is a mid-size SUV built by General Motors for Isuzu. The 7-passenger Ascender was introduced for the 2003 model year as a replacement for the Isuzu Trooper. The 5-passenger Ascender was introduced for the 2004 model year as a replacement for the Isuzu Rodeo and the Isuzu Axiom.

Der Isuzu Ascender war ein SUV, das ab 2003 von General Motors in den USA gefertigt wurde. Zunächst gab es nur eine 7-Sitzer-Variante, die den Isuzu Trooper ersetzte und im Grunde ein GMC Envoy mit Isuzu-Firmenzeichen war. Im Modelljahr 2005 wurde auch ein 5-Sitzer als Nachfolger der Modelle Rodeo und Axiom vorgestellt. Ab diesem Jahr gab es auch einen V8 mit Zylinderabschaltung. Einst bot Isuzu eine komplette Modellpalette von PKWs, LKWs und SUVs an, aber der Ascender war nun der letzte Personenwagen der Marke, der in den USA zum Verkauf stand, bis die auch schlecht verkäufliche i-Serie eingeführt wurde. Ein Verkauf des Ascender in Kanada kam nicht in Frage, da sich Isuzu aus diesem Markt bereits zurückgezogen hatte. Der Ascender ist der einzige der sechs mittelgroßen SUVs, der nicht von einer 100%igen GM-Marke gefertigt wurde, da Isuzu bis Frühjahr 2006 nur teilweise GM gehörte. Der 7-sitzige Ascender wurde ab 2007 nicht mehr angeboten und auch den V8-Motor gibt es nicht mehr. Artikel in Automagazinen warnen die Käufer vor einem dünnen Händlernetz für Garantiereparaturen und das "Kelley Blue Book" nennt einen relativ geringen Wiederverkaufswert, ähnlich wie beim Chevrolet TrailBlazer. Aber Isuzu bietet eine 7-Jahres-/75.000-Meilen-Garantie für den Antriebsstrang und verschiedene andere Garantieleistungen an.


Education and early career.

Jóhanna was born in Reykjavík. Her father is Sigurður Egill Ingimundarson. She studied at the Commercial College of Iceland, a vocational high school operated by the Chamber of Commerce. After graduating with her commercial diploma in 1960, she worked as a flight attendant with Icelandic Airlines (a predecessor of Icelandair) from 1962 to 1971, and as an office manager from 1971 to 1978.  She was active in the trade union movement from early in her professional life, presiding over the Board of the Icelandic Cabin Crew Association in 1966 and 1969 and over the Board of Svölurnar, Association of Former Stewardesses in 1975. She was also a member of the Board of the Commercial Workers' Union from 1976 to 1983.

Political career.

Jóhanna was elected to the Althing in 1978 on the list of the Social Democratic Party for the Reykjavík constituency. She enjoyed early success in her parliamentary career, serving as deputy speaker of the Althing (Iceland's parliament) in 1979 and in 1983–84. She was elected vice-chairman of the Social Democratic Party in 1984, a post she held until 1993. She was also Minister of Social Affairs in four separate Cabinets from 1987 to 1994, when she left the Social Democratic Party after losing the leadership contest to form a new party, National Awakening; the two parties remerged in 2000 to form the present Social Democratic Alliance. Her 1994 declaration "Minn tími mun koma!" ("My time will come!"), after she lost the contest for the leadership of the Social Democratic party, has become an iconic phrase in the Icelandic language.  From 1994 to 2003, she was an active member of the opposition in the Althing, serving on numerous parliamentary committees. After the 2003 elections, in which she stood in the Reykjavík South constituency (after the split of the old Reykjavík constituency), she was re-elected deputy speaker of the Althing. The 2007 elections, in which she stood in the Reykjavík North constituency, saw the return of the Social Democratic Alliance to government in coalition with the Independence Party, and Jóhanna was named Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security.

Prime Minister.

Icelandic financial crisis, protests and elections.

On 26 January 2009, Prime Minister Geir Haarde tendered the coalition government's resignation to the President of Iceland, Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The move followed fourteen weeks of protests over the government's handling of the financial crisis, protests that had intensified from 20 January.  After talks with the leaders of the five parties represented in the Althing, the President asked the Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement to form a new government and to prepare for elections in the spring.  Jóhanna was proposed as Prime Minister for the new government; two reasons for this were her popularity among the general public and her good relations with the Left-Green Movement. An opinion poll by Capacent Gallup in December 2008 found 73% approval of her actions as a minister, more than any other member of the Cabinet: she was also the only minister to have improved her approval ratings over 2008.  The new government needed the support of the Progressive Party in the Althing. Negotiations continued up to the evening of 31 January, and the new Cabinet was appointed on 1 February. Independent polling showed that Jóhanna and Steingrímur J. Sigfússon, leader of the Left-Green Movement, the other party in the coalition government, enjoyed considerable support outside their own parties.  On 25 April 2009, a parliamentary election was held in Iceland, following the protests now known as the Kitchenware Revolution that resulted from the Icelandic financial crisis.  The Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement, which formed the outgoing coalition government under Jóhanna, both made gains and together had an overall majority of seats in the Althing. The Progressive Party also made gains, and the new Citizens' Movement, formed after the January 2009 protests, gained four seats. The Independence Party, which had been in power for eighteen years until January 2009, lost a third of its support and nine seats in the Althing. On 10 May 2009, the new government was announced, with Jóhanna staying on as Prime Minister.

Overcoming the financial crisis.

There were several referenda to decide about the Icesave Icelandic bank debts, center of the country's financial crisis. The first Icesave referendum (), was held on 6 March 2010. The proposal was resoundingly defeated, with 93% voting against and less than 2% in favor.  After the referendum, new negotiations commenced. On 16 February 2011, the Althing agreed to a repayment deal to pay back the full amount starting in 2016, finalising before 2046, with a fixed interest rate of 3%. The Icelandic president once again refused to sign the new deal on 20 February, calling for a new referendum. Thus, a second referendum would be held on 9 April 2011 also resulting in "no" victory with a lesser percentage. After the referendum failed to pass, the British and Dutch governments said that they would take the case to the European courts.  At a session on 28 September 2010, the Althing voted 33–30 to indict the former Prime Minister Geir Haarde, but not the other ministers, on charges of negligence in office. He stood trial before the "Landsdómur", a special court to hear cases alleging misconduct in government office, used for the first time since it was established in the 1905 Constitution. He was convicted of one charge.

New Icelandic constitution process.

Once in power, the left coalition led by Jóhanna—comprising the Social Democratic Alliance, the Left-Green Movement, the Progressive Party and the Liberal Party—inspired largely by the citizen protests, agreed to convene a constitutional assembly to discuss changes to the Constitution, in use since 1905.  Taking its cue from nationwide protests and lobbying efforts by civil organisations, the new governing parties decided that Iceland's citizens should be involved in creating a new constitution and started to debate a bill on 4 November 2009 about that purpose. Parallel to the protests and parliament deliverance, citizens started to unite in grassroots-based think-tanks. A National Forum was organised on 14 November 2009, Þjóðfundur 2009, in the form of an assembly of Icelandic citizens at the Laugardalshöll in Reykjavík, by a group of grassroots citizen movements collectively called "the Anthill". 1,500 people were invited to participate in the assembly; of these, 1,200 were chosen at random from the national registry. On 16 June 2010 the Constitutional Act was finally accepted by parliament and a new Forum was summoned. The Constitutional Act prescribed that the participants of the Forum had to be randomly sampled from the National Population Register. The Forum 2010 came into being due to the efforts of both governing parties and the Anthill group. A seven-member Constitutional Committee, appointed by the parliament, was charged with the supervision of the forum and the presentation of its results, while the organization and facilitation of the National Forum 2010 was done by the Anthill group that had organized the first Forum 2009.  The process continued in the election of 25 people of no political affiliation on 26 October 2010. The Supreme Court of Iceland later invalidated the results of the election on 25 January 2011 following complaints about several faults in how the election was conducted, but the Parliament decided that it was the manner of the election, and not the results, that had been questioned, and also that those 25 elected candidates would be a part of a Constitutional Council and thus the Constitutional change went on.  On 29 July 2011 the draft was presented to the Parliament, which finally agreed in a vote on 24 May 2012, with 35 in favor and 15 against, to organize an advisory referendum on the Constitutional Council's proposal for a new constitution no later than 20 October 2012. The only opposing parliament members were the former governing right party, the Independence Party. Also a proposed referendum on the discontinuing of accession talks with the European Union by some parliamentarians of the governing left coalition was rejected, with 34 votes against and 25 in favor.

Women's rights and ban on striptease.

In 2010, her government banned strip clubs, paying for nudity in restaurants, and other means of employers profiting from employees' nudity – the first such ban in a Western democratic country. Jóhanna commented; "The Nordic countries are leading the way on women's equality, recognizing women as equal citizens rather than commodities for sale." Responding to the policy change radical feminist Julie Bindel, writing for The Guardian, stated that Iceland had become the most feminist country in the world. Asked what the most important gender issue today is, she answered "To fight the pay gap between men and women".

Personal life.

Jóhanna married Þorvaldur Steinar Jóhannesson in 1970 and the couple had two sons named Sigurður Egill Þorvaldsson and Davíð Steinar Þorvaldsson (born 1972 and 1977).  After their divorce in 1987, she joined in a civil union with Jónína Leósdóttir (born 1954), an author and playwright, in 2002. In 2010, when same-sex marriage was legalised in Iceland, Jóhanna and Jónína changed their civil union into a marriage, thus becoming one of the first same-sex married couples in Iceland.  In 2017, she released a biography entitled "Minn tími" ("My Time"), the biography covers one of the most contentious periods in Icelandic history; from the financial crash of autumn 2008, through protests and emergency elections the following year, and the difficult recovery period that followed leading Iceland’s first left wing government.

Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir (; born 4 October 1942) is an Icelandic politician and the former Prime Minister of Iceland. She became active in the trade union movement, serving as an officer.

Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir [] (* 4. Oktober 1942 in Reykjavík) ist eine isländische Politikerin (Allianz). Von Februar 2009 bis Mai 2013 führte sie als isländische Premierministerin eine Regierung aus sozialdemokratischer Allianz und Links-Grüner Bewegung, ehe sie von Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson in ihrem Amt abgelöst wurde.


Geography.

The source of the Finke River is in the Northern Territory's MacDonnell Ranges, and the name Finke River is first applied at the confluence of the Davenport and Ormiston Creeks, just north of Mount Zeil. From here the river meanders for approximately to the western edge of the Simpson Desert in northern South Australia. It flows through the West MacDonnell and Finke Gorge National Parks.  Usually the river is a string of waterholes, but it can become a raging torrent during rare flood events. In extreme events, water from the Finke River flows into the Macumba River, which empties into Lake Eyre, a total distance from headwater streams of around. Major tributaries include Ellery Creek, and the Palmer and Hugh Rivers.

History.

"Wangkangurru ("also known as "Arabana/Wangkangurru, Wangganguru, Wanggangurru, Wongkangurru)" is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on Wangkangurru country. It is closely related to Arabana language of South Australia. The Wangkangurru language region was traditionally in the South Australian-Queensland border region taking in Birdsville and extending south towards Innamincka and Lake Eyre, including the local government areas of the Shire of Diamantina as well as the Outback Communities Authority of South Australia"."

Names.

The Finke River was named by John McDouall Stuart in 1860 after an Adelaide man, William Finke, who was one of the promoters of his expedition.  The Indigenous name for the river in parts of the Northern Territory, usually taken as "Larapinta", may have been incorrectly translated by its first transcriber, the explorer Ernest Giles. In August 1872, while camped at Charlotte Waters Telegraph Station, Giles was the first "outsider" to record the Arrernte name for the Finke River. He incorrectly deduced from his conversations with Southern Arrernte that the name was derived from the gigantic mythological snake (known as the Rainbow Serpent) which was believed to have created the river, and thought that "larapinta" meant snake in the local language. However in July 1876, Rev. Georg A. Heidenreich, the Superintendent of the Finke River Mission Station, appears to have been the first to have confirmed the Western Arrernte name of the river, which was actually ""Lara Beinta"", which means "Salt River". This translation is now widely accepted because the Finke contains certain waterholes that are constantly salty (one of which is named "Salt Hole" in English). The legend of its derivation from the serpent is nonetheless held by the local people.  The original spelling was a deliberate choice used for the main exit road west from Alice Springs, Larapinta Drive, as it leads to the Finke River at Hermannsburg; the name was also used for an Alice Springs suburb and the Larapinta Trail. (Larapinta, Queensland may have a different derivation.)

Antiquity of the Finke River.

The Finke River is frequently cited as the oldest river in the world. Its age has been deduced from observation and analysis of various factors in the geology of the area. In places such as the James Range, the Finke flows through deeply incised meanders. Because meanders only form on flat plains, the river must have formed before the ranges were pushed up; this happened in a mountain building event referred to as the Alice Springs Orogeny which peaked between 400 and 300 million years ago (Devonian to Carboniferous Periods, both within the Paleozoic Era). It is not possible to say with absolute confidence that it is the very oldest river, but it is certainly one of the oldest rivers in the world.  However, southern parts of its course must be much younger, because the areas where the Finke now flows near the southern edge of the Northern Territory, and further south, were under the sea during the Mesozoic Era, part of the Great Artesian Basin.  The antiquity of the Finke River is not unique, but applies equally to other large mountain-sourced river systems in central Australia, such as the Todd and Hale Rivers and many others, because most of the central Australian mountain belts formed at around the same time. There are other eroded mountain ranges of equal or greater age to the MacDonnell Ranges, both in Australia and on other continents, so present rivers in those areas may have evolved from ancestral streams of equal and greater antiquity than the Finke.

The Finke River, or Larapinta (Arrernte), is a river in central Australia, one of four main rivers of the Lake Eyre Basin and thought to be the oldest riverbed in the world. It flows for only a few days a year and when this happens, its water usually disappears into the sands of the Simpson Desert, rarely if ever reaching Lake Eyre.

Der Finke River ist ein Fluss im Süden des australischen Territoriums Northern Territory und im Norden von South Australia. Er ist einer der längsten Flüsse Zentralaustraliens. Es handelt sich um ein intermittierendes Gewässer: Er fällt außerhalb der Regenzeit trocken und besteht in der Regel lediglich aus einer Reihe von Wasserlöchern. Als "Upside-Down-River" fließt jedoch oft auch Wasser unterhalb seines trockenen Flussbetts. Während der seltenen Unwetter kann er aber zu einem reißenden Strom werden.