Etymology.

The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish law (by then from the Mississippi River to Patagonia). The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed

History.

Pre-Columbian era.

Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and

European annexation.

Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.  Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it "Santa Fe". The name soon acquired

Colonial exchange.

In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.  In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies. In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves; therefore, the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England, and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Some people defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown. To protect the

Independence.

Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day. This movement followed the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.  A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty

20th century.

The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with

21st century.

The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.  After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in

Geography.

The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific Coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the "Llanos" (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.  Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama, to the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S and between longitudes 67° and 79°W.  Part of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño), these are divided into three branches known as "cordilleras" (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira, and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending northeast to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta.  Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed, and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach. At, Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.  East of the Andes lies the savanna of the "Llanos", part of the Orinoco River basin, and in the far southeast, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.  The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.  Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.

Government and politics.

The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.  As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as "corregimientos" or "comunas". All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.  The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.  The judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.  Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. Iván Duque won in the second round with 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival, Gustavo Petro. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2018.

Economy.

Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.6% of GDP; 19.6% of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6% in services, responsible for 33.4% and 59.9% of GDP respectively. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.  Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).  Total government expenditures account for 27.9 percent of the domestic economy. External debt equals 39.9 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016). The average national unemployment rate in 2017 was 9.4%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has free-trade zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.  The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.  The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from Renewable energy sources. 69.93% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 "Global Green Economy Index (GGEI)", ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.  Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.  Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.  In 2017, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% in "extreme poverty". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.  Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion.  The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017.

Demographics.

With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050.  The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.  The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.1 per thousand in 2016. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP in education.

Languages.

More than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also used in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.  Including Spanish, a total of

Ethnic groups.

Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites live all throughout the country, mainly in urban centers and the burgeoning highland and coastal cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo "campesinos" (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean

Religion.

The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not

Culture.

Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.  Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.

Literature.

Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the "Legend of Yurupary". In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos ("Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias"), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle ("El Carnero"), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.  Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as "costumbrismo" became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature).

Visual arts.

Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.  The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its "classical period". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.  Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.  Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point

Architecture.

Throughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila, Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads, and several circular plazas), and the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane, and mud. Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of

Music.

Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum of rhythms. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others. Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.  Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis

Popular culture.

Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion" (Bogotá).  Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with

Cuisine.

Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.  Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative

Sports.

Tejo is Colombia's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year" twice.  Colombia is a hub for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling

Health.

The overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Healthcare reforms have led to massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country, with health standards in Colombia improving very much since the 1980s. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist.  Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to

Education.

The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five ("Educación preescolar"). Basic education ("Educación básica") is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education ("Educación básica primaria") which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education ("Educación básica secundaria"), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education ("Educación media vocacional") that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.  After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a "bachiller", because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called "bachillerato" (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) to gain access to higher education ("Educación superior"). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.  "Bachilleres" (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.  Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.

Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia (), is a country largely in the north of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, the northwest by Panama, the south by Ecuador and Peru, the east by Venezuela, the southeast by Brazil, and the west by the Pacific Ocean. It comprises 32 departments and the Capital District of Bogotá, the country's largest city. With an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 square miles), Colombia is the fourth-largest country in South America, after Brazil, Argentina and Peru. It is also the 25th-largest country in the world, the fifth-largest country in Latin America, and the fourth-largest Spanish-speaking country.

Kolumbien (amtlich "República de Colombia", ; Kurzform auf Spanisch ) ist eine Republik im nördlichen Teil von Südamerika und bevölkerungsmäßig der zweitgrößte Staat Südamerikas. Sie grenzt sowohl an den Pazifischen Ozean als auch an das Karibische Meer und auf dem Festland im Nordwesten an Panama, im Osten an Venezuela, im Südosten an Brasilien, im Süden an Peru und im Südwesten Ecuador. Der Landesname ist von Christoph Kolumbus abgeleitet. Bogotá ist wirtschaftliches und kulturelles Zentrum Kolumbiens und Hauptstadt des Landes.


Orbit and classification.

"Lilofee" is a member of the Themis family (), a very large family of carbonaceous, low-inclination asteroids, named after 24 Themis. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.6–3.6 AU once every 5 years and 7 months (2,032 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.16 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic.  The asteroid was first identified as at Bergedorf Observatory in April 1915. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.

Physical characteristics.

"Lilofee" is an assumed carbonaceous C-type asteroid, which corresponds to the overall spectral type of the Themis family.

Lightcurves.

Since 2004, several rotational lightcurves of "Lilofee" were obtained from photometric observations by astronomers René Roy, Enric Forné and Robert Stephens. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 8.255 hours with a brightness variation of 0.57 magnitude ().  In 2013, an international study modeled a lightcurve with a concurring period of 8.24991 hours and found a spin axis of (n.a., −99.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Lilofee" measures between 27.29 and 36 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.07 and 0.198.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts an albedo of 0.08 and calculates a diameter of 34.04 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.7.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after the legendary mermaid/neck Lilofee, who lived in the small Mummelsee of the Black Forest in southwest Germany. Lilofee is also the title figure in the German folk-song "The beautiful young Lilofee" ("Die schöne junge Lilofee") by August Schnezler (1809–1853).  The asteroid was named by the discoverer (). The name was proposed by ARI-astronomer Johannes Riem, after whom 1025 Riema was named. The official naming citation was also mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

Lilofee (minor planet designation: 1003 Lilofee), provisional designation, is a carbonaceous Themistian asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 33 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 13 September 1923, by astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named after the Black Forrest mermaid "Lilofee" from German folklore.

(1003) Lilofee ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 13. September 1923 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


Personal life.

Nicks, the son of a sporting goods store owner, grew up in Brighton, England. He is the brother of Jennifer Nicks. Nicks moved to the United States in the 1960s and was briefly an undocumented alien but received his green card a few weeks later. He married American former ice dancer Yvonne Littlefield. He became a U.S. citizen around 2008.

Career.

Nicks began skating at age 10 or 11 after his father – who knew nothing about skating but wanted to sell skating equipment – put him in skates in order to learn more about them. John and Jennifer competed initially as singles skaters but agreed to train together in pair skating upon the request of the British association, which promised to support them. They made their first Olympic appearance at the 1948 Winter Olympics, where they finished 8th. Recalling the competition in a January 2013 interview, John said, "it was snowing so much they had to stop the skating after every three skaters to clear the snow." He was impressed by the American skaters at the event, in particular Dick Button – this would later influence his decision to come to the United States.  The Nicks siblings won the first of their four World medals, silver, at the 1950 World Championships. They won World bronze the next two seasons and competed at their second Olympics in 1952, where they finished 4th. The pair won gold at the 1953 World Championships in Davos, Switzerland. John said, "We were skating outdoors back then, and the temperature was, like, 28 degrees during a practice. It was so cold that I remember when I was taking off my boots that my laces were frozen." The siblings retired from competition after the event.  John moved to South Africa, where he skated in shows and began coaching, but moved back to England in 1960 and eventually on to Canada, coaching in Trail, British Columbia. Following the February 1961 crash of Sabena Flight 548, he received four offers of a coaching job in the United States and agreed to coach at a rink in Paramount, California owned by Frank Zamboni. He first appeared at the U.S. Championships as a coach in 1965.  As of 2012, Nicks coaches in Aliso Viejo, California. He has coached over 1,200 skaters during his career. In April 2013, he said he would no longer travel but would still coach Ashley Wagner at the Aliso Viejo Ice Palace. Nicks was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2000. He appeared as a judge on the 2006 FOX television program "Skating with Celebrities".  His students have included:

John Allen Wisden Nicks (born 22 April 1929) is a British figure skating coach and former pair skater. With his sister and pairs partner, Jennifer Nicks, he is the 1953 World champion. As a coach, his skating pupils have included Peggy Fleming, pairs team Tai Babilonia and Randy Gardner, Kristi Yamaguchi, Sasha Cohen, and Ashley Wagner.

John Allen Wisden Nicks (* 22. April 1929 in Brighton) ist ein ehemaliger britischer Eiskunstläufer und Eiskunstlauftrainer. Seine Eiskunstlaufpartnerin war seine Schwester Jennifer Nicks. Zusammen wurden sie von 1948 bis 1953 sechsmal in Folge britische Meister. Ihre Trainer waren Eric W. Hudson und Gladys M. Hogg. Ihren ersten internationalen Auftritt hatten sie bereits bei der Europameisterschaft 1947, bei der sie den sechsten Platz belegten. Ein Jahr später folgte ihr Debüt bei Weltmeisterschaften und Olympischen Spielen. Sie wurden beide Male Achte. Ihre ersten Medaillen gewannen die Nicks im Jahr 1950 mit Bronze bei der Europameisterschaft in Oslo und Silber bei der Weltmeisterschaft in London. 1951 wurden sie sowohl bei der Europameisterschaft wie auch der Weltmeisterschaft Dritte. 1952 wurden die Briten Vize-Europameister hinter Ria Baran und Paul Falk. Bei der Weltmeisterschaft errangen sie wie im Vorjahr die Bronzemedaille hinter den Deutschen und Karol und Peter Kennedy aus den USA. Bei den Olympischen Spielen in Oslo verpassten sie als Vierte eine Medaille. Nach dem Rücktritt der Falks und der Kennedys wurden John und Jennifer Nicks 1953 in Dortmund Europameister und in Davos auch Weltmeister. Dabei schlugen sie die Ungarn Marianne und László Nagy, die bei den Olympischen Spielen im Vorjahr noch vor ihnen platziert waren. Nach ihrem WM-Titel beendeten sie ihre Amateurkarriere und wechselten zu den Profis.


Design and development.

In mid-1938 the Japanese Imperial Navy requested a twin-engine fighter designed to escort the principal bomber used at the time, Mitsubishi G3M "Nell". The operating range of the standard Navy fighter, the Mitsubishi A5M "Claude", was only 1,200 km (750 mi), insufficient compared with the 4,400 km (2,730 mi) of the G3M. Moreover, at the time, the potential of the "Zero", then still under development, remained to be evaluated, stressing the need for a long-range escort fighter, much as the Luftwaffe had done with the Messerschmitt Bf 110 "Zerstörer", introduced the year before.  In March 1939, Mitsubishi and Nakajima began the development of a project "13-Shi". The prototype left the factory in March 1941 equipped with two 843 kW (1,130 hp) Nakajima Sakae 21/22, 14-cylinder radial engines. There was a crew of three, and the aircraft was armed with a 20 mm Type 99 cannon and six 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 aircraft machine guns. Four of these machine guns were mounted in two rear-mounted powered turrets, the weight of which reduced the performance of the aircraft considerably. Because of the sluggish handling, being used as an escort fighter had to be abandoned. Instead, production was authorized for a lighter reconnaissance variant, the J1N1-C, also known by the Navy designation Navy Type 2 Reconnaissance Plane. One early variant, the J1N1-F, had a spherical turret with one 20 mm Type 99 Model 1 cannon mounted immediately behind the pilot.

Operation history.

In early 1943, Commander Yasuna Kozono(小園 安名 of the 251st Kōkūtai in Rabaul came up with the idea of installing 20 mm cannons, firing upwards at a 30-degree angle in the fuselage. Against orders of central command, which was skeptical of his idea, he tested his idea on a J1N1-C as a night fighter. The field-modified J1N1-C KAI shot down two B-17s of 43rd Bomb Group attacking air bases around Rabaul on 21 May 1943.  The Navy took immediate notice and placed orders with Nakajima for the newly designated J1N1-S nightfighter design. This model was christened the Model 11 "Gekkō" (月光, "Moonlight"). It had a crew of two, eliminating the navigator position. Like the KAI, it had twin 20 mm Type 99 Model 1 cannon firing upward in a 30° upward angle, but added a second pair firing downward at a forward 30° angle, allowing attacks from above or below. This arrangement was effective against B-17 Flying Fortress bombers and B-24 Liberators, which usually had Sperry ball turrets for ventral defense. The "Gekkō's" existence was not quickly understood by the Allies, who assumed the Japanese did not have the technology for night fighter designs. Early versions had nose searchlights in place of radar. Later models, the J1N1-Sa Model 11a, omitted the two downward-firing guns and added another 20 mm cannon to face upward as with the other two. Other variants without nose antennae or searchlight added a 20 mm cannon to the nose.  The J1N1-S was used against B-29 Superfortresses in Japan, though the lack of good radar and insufficient high-altitude performance handicapped it, since usually only one pass could be made against the higher-speed B-29s. However, some skillful pilots had spectacular successes, such as Lieutenant Sachio Endo, who was credited with destroying eight B-29s and damaging another eight before he was shot down by a B-29 crew, Shigetoshi Kudo (nine victories), Shiro Kuratori (six victories), and Juzo Kuramoto (eight victories); the last two claimed five B-29s during the night of 25–26 May 1945. Another "Gekkō" crew shot down five B-29's in one night, but these successes were rare. Many "Gekkō's" were also shot down or destroyed on the ground. A number of "Gekkō's" were relegated to "kamikaze" attacks, using 250 kg (550 lb) bombs attached to the wings.

Surviving aircraft.

Only one J1N1-S "Gekkō" survives today. Following the occupation of the home islands, U.S. forces gathered 145 interesting Japanese aircraft and sent them to the United States aboard three aircraft carriers. Four "Gekkō's" were in this group: three captured at Atsugi and one from Yokosuka. Serial Number 7334, the aircraft from Yokosuka, was given Foreign Equipment number FE 3031 (later changed to T2-N700). Records show that after arriving aboard the, air intelligence officials assigned "Gekkō 7334" to Langley Field, Virginia, on 8 December 1945. The airplane was moved to the Air Materiel Depot at Middletown, Pennsylvania, on 23 January 1946.  The Maintenance Division at Middletown prepared the "Gekkō" for flight tests, overhauling the plane's engines (the same make/model as the Zero had used) and replacing the oxygen system, radios, and some flight instruments with American equipment. Mechanics completed this work by 9 April. The Navy transferred "Gekkō 7334" to the Army in early June, and an army pilot flew the "Gekkō" on 15 June 1946, for about 35 minutes. At least one other test flight took place before the Army Air Forces flew the fighter to an empty former Douglas C-54 factory at Park Ridge, Illinois, for storage. The remaining three "Gekkōs" were scrapped.  In 1949, the "Gekkō" was given to the Smithsonian's National Air Museum, but remained in storage at Park Ridge, Illinois. The collection of museum aircraft at Park Ridge numbered more than 60 airplanes when the war in Korea forced the United States Air Force to move it to the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland. "Gekkō 7334" was dumped outside the restoration facility in a large shipping crate in 1953 where it remained until building space became available in 1974. In 1979, NASM staff selected "Gekkō 7334" for restoration.  Following restoration of the museum's Mitsubishi Zero in 1976, the "Gekkō" became the second Japanese aircraft to be restored by NASM. The airframe was found to be seriously corroded from being outside for twenty years. At that time, it was the largest and most complex aircraft restoration project the NASM had undertaken. Work started on 7 September 1979, and ended 14 December 1983, following 17,000 hours of work. Today, "Gekkō 7334" is fully restored and on display in the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, US.

The Nakajima J1N1 "Gekkō" (月光 "Moonlight") is a twin-engine aircraft used by the Japanese Imperial Navy during World War II and was used for reconnaissance, night fighter, and "kamikaze" missions. The first flight took place in May 1941. It was given the Allied reporting name "Irving", since the earlier reconnaissance version the J1N1-C, was mistaken for a fighter.

Die Nakajima J1N "Gekkō" (jap., dt. „Mondlicht“) war ein zweimotoriger Nachtjäger der Kaiserlich Japanischen Marine von 1941. Der alliierte Codename war "Irving".


Synopsis.

A queen wished her naughty daughter would turn into a raven and fly away, so she could have some peace, and her wish was instantly fulfilled. She flew away to a forest.  In the forest, a man heard a raven tell him she was an enchanted princess, and he could deliver her if he went to a certain cottage and accepted no food from the old woman there. The raven would drive by in a carriage every day for three days. If he remained awake, he would break the spell. Each day, the old woman persuaded him to drink but one sip, and each day, overcome by weariness, he was fast asleep by the time the raven drove past. On the final day, the raven left the sleeping man a bottle of wine, a loaf, and a piece of meat, all three of which were inexhaustible and put a gold ring with her name on his finger. She also gave him a letter telling him there was another way he might deliver her: by coming to the golden castle of Stromberg.  The man wandered, looking for the castle, and found a giant who threatened to eat him, but the man fed him with his magical provisions. Then the giant brought out his map, which displayed all the towns, villages and houses in the land – but not the castle. He asked the man to wait until his brother came home. The brother was able to find the castle on an older map, but it was thousands of miles away. The brother agreed to carry the man to within a hundred leagues of the castle, and the man walks the rest.  As the man approached the glass mountain on which the golden castle stood, he could see the bewitched princess drive her carriage around the castle and go in. But the glass mountain was too slippery for him to climb, and he lived in a hut at the foot of the mountain for a year. One day he met three robbers fighting over three magical items: a stick that opened doors, an invisibility mantle, and a horse that could ride up the glass-mountain. The man offered them a mysterious reward in exchange for the items, but he insisted on first trying them out, to see if they worked as promised. After he had mounted the horse, taken the stick, and was made invisible by the cloak, he hit the robbers with his stick and rode up the glass mountain. He used the stick and mantle to get into the castle and threw his ring into the princess's cup. She couldn't find her rescuer though she searched the entire castle, until he finally revealed himself by throwing off the mantle. They were married.

"The Raven" is a fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm, number 93 in their collections. It is Aarne–Thompson type 401, the girl transformed into an animal.

Die Rabe ist ein Märchen (ATU 400, 401, 518). Es steht in den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm an Stelle 93 (KHM 93).


Life.

Becke-Goehring finished her Abitur in Erfurt in 1933. She studied Chemistry in Halle (Saale) and Munich. She completed her doctorate in 1938. In 1944, she finished her habilitation at the institute of Karl Ziegler at the University of Halle. After the Second World War, Becke-Goehring was evacuated by the American military government to the American occupation zone. In 1946, she started as a lecturer for inorganic chemistry at the Heidelberg University. Due to the destruction after the second world war, she had to write her first lecture notes based on her memory and test experiments in the chemistry laboratory. In 1947, she became an extraordinary professor, and was promoted to full professor in 1959. Among her doctoral students were Lieselotte Feikes and Rolf Appel.  From 1966 to 1969, she was the first female rector of a university in West Germany. She helped initiate a predecessor of BAFöG, a law that regulates state support for the education of students in Germany. The German student movement of 1968 occurred during her time as a rector. As a rector, she forbade Horst Mahler who was involved in the German student movement, from speaking at the university. The movement and the resulting riots largely stopped the university reforms that she had initiated to deal with the financial problems and defects in buildings in the first years of increased student enrollment. A university committee developed a new basic constitution of the university that disagreed with Becke-Goehring's views on free, non-politicizable teaching and research. Following this change, she stepped down as a rector, resigned as a civil servant and left the university in 1969. In the same year, she became the director of the Gmelin Institute for Inorganic Chemistry of the Max Planck Society in Frankfurt where she was responsible for the "Gmelin Handbuch". She stayed as its director until her retirement in 1979. She was also chairwoman of the scientific council of the Max Planck Society, a member of the board of management of the Society of German Chemists, and a member of the supervisory board of the Bayer AG. She was married to the industrial chemist Dr. Friedrich Becke.

Research.

Initially publishing under the name Goehring and later Becke-Goehring, she researched the chemistry of the main-group elements. Her initial work focused on sulphuric oxygen acids and sulphur halides. Later, she was particularly interested in sulphur-nitrogen and phosphorus-nitrogen compounds. Her work on tetrasulfur tetranitride (SN) started decades of research on this unusual and highly reactive inorganic heterocycle. She was also able to determine the structure and chemistry of poly(sulfur nitride) which later turned out to be the first non-metallic superconductor. Furthermore, she worked on eight-membered ring systems (e.g. heptasulfur imide SNH and NSF), on six-membered rings (e.g. NSX (X=F,Cl) and N[S(O)Cl]), and on ring systems involving sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen atoms as well as sulfur, nitrogen and carbon atoms. Extensive investigations were also carried out on the reactions of PCl to phosphorus nitride chlorides (e.g. PNCl), whereby several intermediate stages could be isolated and characterized. In addition, she investigated phosphorus sulphides and other phosphorus sulphur compounds in the 1970s.

Recognition.

For her research in inorganic chemistry, she received the Alfred Stock Memorial Prize in 1961. Due to her accomplishments, she was also a member of three academies of sciences: the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, and the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities. She also received an honorary doctorate from the University of Stuttgart. For her work on the "Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie", she was awarded the in 1980. In 2017, the Heidelberg University started a lecture series in her remembrance.

Publications.

Besides her dissertation and habilitation, Becke-Goehring published several textbooks on Chemistry and books on the history of Chemistry:

Margot Becke-Goehring (born 10 June 1914 in Allenstein; died 14 November 2009 in Heidelberg) was a Professor of Inorganic Chemistry at the University of Heidelberg and she was the first female rector of a university in West Germany - the Heidelberg University. She was also the director of the Gmelin Institute of Inorganic Chemistry of the Max Planck Society that edited the "Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie". She studied Chemistry in Halle (Saale) and Munich, and she finished her doctorate and habilitation at the University of Halle. For her research on the chemistry of main-group elements, she was awarded Alfred Stock Memorial Prize. One of her most notable contributions to inorganic chemistry was her work on the synthesis and structure of poly(sulfur nitride), which was later discovered to be the first non-metallic superconductor. For her success in editing the "Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie", she received the Gmelin-Beilstein memorial coin.

Margot Becke-Goehring (* 10. Juni 1914 in Allenstein, Ostpreußen; † 14. November 2009 in Heidelberg) war eine Chemikerin und die erste Rektorin an einer westdeutschen Hochschule.


Signs and symptoms.

Classically, it is described in male patients as a triad of the following signs and symptoms:  This combination is known as Leriche syndrome. However, any number of symptoms may present, depending on the distribution and severity of the disease, such as muscle atrophy, slow wound healing in the legs, and critical limb ischemia.

Diagnosis.

The physical examination usually shows weakened femoral pulses and a reduced ankle-brachial index. The diagnosis can be verified by color duplex scanning, which reveals either a peak systolic velocity ratio ≥2.5 at the site of stenosis and/or a monophasic waveform. MRA and multidetector CTA are often used to determine the extent and type of obstruction. Another technique is digital subtraction angiography which allows verification of the diagnosis and endovascular treatment in a single session. <br> Angiography provides important information regarding the perfusion and patency of distal arteries (e.g. femoral artery). The presence of collateral arteries in the pelvic and groin area is important in maintaining crucial blood flow and lower limb viability. However, angiography should only be used if symptoms warrant surgical intervention.

Treatment.

Treatment involves revascularization typically using either angioplasty or a type of vascular bypass

History.

The condition was first described by Robert Graham in 1914, but the condition with its triad of symptoms was ascribed to René Leriche. Leriche, a French surgeon, linked the pathophysiology with the anatomy of the condition. John Hunter's dissections of atherosclerotic aortic bifurcations from the late 18th century are preserved at the Hunterian Museum, but Leriche was first to publish on the subject based on a patient he treated with the condition at the age of 30. Following treatment the 30-year-old was able to walk without pain and maintain an erection.

In medicine, aortoiliac occlusive disease, is a form of central artery disease involving the blockage of the abdominal aorta as it transitions into the common iliac arteries.

Das Leriche-Syndrom (benannt nach dem französischen Chirurgen René Leriche) ist ein kompletter Verschluss der Aorta distal des Abganges der Nierenarterien, meist vor der Bifurkation in die Beckenarterien. Die Ursachen dafür können Arterienverkalkung (Arteriosklerose), Arterienwandentzündungen (Vaskulitis) sowie Blutgerinnsel (Thrombose/Embolie) sein. In allen Fällen kommt es zu einer Verengung auf der Höhe der Aufzweigung der Bauchschlagader in die Becken-Arterien. Je nachdem, ob die Durchblutungsstörung plötzlich auftritt oder sich langsam entwickelt, kommt es zu kalten Beinen, Schmerzen, erektiler Dysfunktion (Impotenz) und Muskelschwund.


Orbit and classification.

"Sarema" is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population when applying the hierarchical clustering method to its proper orbital elements. Based on osculating Keplerian orbital elements, the asteroid has also been classified as a member of the Nysa family (), the largest asteroid family of the main belt, consisting of stony and carbonaceous subfamilies. The family, named after 44 Nysa, is located in the inner belt near the Kirkwood gap (3:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter), a depleted zone that separates the central main belt.  It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 11 months (1,426 days; semi-major axis of 2.48 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.13 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic.  The body's observation arc begins with its first observation as at Heidelberg in November 1907, more than 16 years prior to its official discovery observation.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after a character in a poem by Aleksandr Pushkin, made into the opera "Sarema" by Alexander von Zemlinsky. The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 (). The asteroid's name was suggested by Russian astronomer Nikolaj Komendantov "(also see )".

Physical characteristics.

In the Tholen classification, "Sarema" is an uncommon F-type asteroid of the carbonaceous C-complex.

Rotation period and poles.

In April 1983, a first rotational lightcurve of "Sarema" was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Richard Binzel. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 10.32 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.81 magnitude (), which is indicative for an elongated, non-spherical shape.  In 2009 and 2011, two modeled lightcurves gave a concurring sidereal period 10.30708 hours, combining sparse and dense photometric data from the Uppsala Asteroid Photometric Catalogue and other sources. The two studies also determined two spin axis of (45.0°, 67.0°) and (253.0°, 63.0°), as well as (51.0°, 64.0°) and (254.0°, 53.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β), respectively.

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Sarema" measures between 16.06 and 22.96 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.0342 and 0.07. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.045 and a diameter of 21.13 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.36.

1012 Sarema ("prov. designation": "or" ) is a dark background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 12 January 1924, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory at Heidelberg, Germany. The asteroid has a rotation period of 10.3 hours and probably an elongated shape. It was named after Sarema, a character in the poem "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray" by Aleksandr Pushkin, and the protagonist of the opera "Sarema" by Alexander von Zemlinsky based upon it.

(1012) Sarema ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 12. Januar 1924 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth entdeckt wurde, der am Observatorium auf dem Königstuhl bei Heidelberg tätig war.


Design.

The development of the Beechcraft 60 began in early 1965, and it was designed to fill the gap between the Beechcraft Baron and the Beechcraft Queen Air. On December 29, 1966, the prototype made its first flight. On February 1, 1968, the FAA issued the type certificate. Distribution to customers began in July 1968. The passenger cabin is fitted with club seating and entry is by means of a port-side airstair entry door in the rear fuselage.  The Beechcraft A60, which came onto the market in 1970, represented an advancement over the Baron, with an improved pressurized cabin utilizing advanced bonded honeycomb construction, lighter and more efficient turbochargers, and improved elevators. The last variant, the B60, was introduced in 1974. The interior arrangement was renewed and the engine efficiency again increased by improved turbochargers. The Beechcraft 60 was, despite its very good performance, only a moderate seller, principally because the complicated technology demanded a high expenditure on maintenance. Production was stopped in 1983.  Most of the Duke B-60s still flying have retained their original equipment. Electro-mechanical systems, which were highly advanced when the aircraft was introduced, were superseded in other aircraft with simpler I/C controlled mechanical parts. The aircraft design uses turbocharged Lycoming TIO541-B4 engines that develop 380 hp each. Other systems, parts, and FAA certified technicians are increasingly difficult to locate. Normally, pilots figure 45 gallons per hour, plus another 40 gallons for each takeoff and climb as typical fuel consumption for cross country planning. Owners compare the Beechcraft B60 to classic sports cars—noting that they do not fly Dukes to economize. One area of particular maintenance concern involves the original construction of the tail section from a magnesium alloy, making that section of the airframe a common and expensive target of corrosion if not detected and treated quickly.

Modifications.

Some Dukes have been modified by Rocket Engineering of Spokane, Washington, replacing the Lycoming reciprocating engines with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-21 or -35 turbine engines. Called the Royal Turbine Duke conversion, the modification increases fuel capacity by 28 gallons and the maximum useful load by 400 pounds. The take-off length required is shortened by over 1,500 feet to only 1,000 feet and the landing distance is reduced by over 2,000 feet to only 900. The maximum rate of climb is increased from 1,600 feet per minute to 4,000 feet per minute, reducing the time to climb to 25,000 feet from 25 minutes to 9 minutes. The cruise speed is increased to 290 knots at 29,000 feet. The modification does have some disadvantages as it increases fuel burn from 56 gallons per hour to 66 and lowers the certified ceiling from 30,000 feet to 28,000.  The supplemental type certificate was issued on 2006-05-12.

Operation.

The Duke was purchased by corporate and private pilot owners. Most were registered in the United States but examples were exported to many countries including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Honduras, Iceland, Serbia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa and the United Kingdom. One Duke was flown by the Jamaica Defense Force. Many remain in service in the early twenty-first century.  In reviewing the aircraft in 2008, Rick Durden of AVweb stated, "Built to the quality standards of a King Air, the six-place Duke sported 380-hp, Lycoming TIO-541 engines – rare beasts, those – which means when both come due for overhaul, the choice is the overhaul or buying a small house in the Midwest. The assertive lines of the airframe made for a startlingly attractive airplane, but led to high costs of manufacture and, surprising to the casual onlooker, horrendous drag. There are those who claim that the Duke was purposefully designed to be about 30 knots slower than it could easily have been on the available power simply because otherwise it would have been faster than the flagship of the Beech line, the King Air. The roughly 230-knot max. cruise speed is only marginally less than that of a King Air 90 and about the same as a Cessna 421, which carries more on slightly less horsepower. While the Duke shares the delightful handling of the Beech line, should pilots have the joy of single-engine operation, they will be up against the highest rudder-force of any piston twin – 150 pounds at Vmc – which happens to be the maximum the FAA allows. Owners report buying a Duke partially because of its looks, but selling it because of the cost of keeping it running. They describe King Air maintenance costs in a piston-twin airframe and recognize that the value of the airplane is entirely dependent on the engines. A gear-up landing means an engine teardown and propeller replacement, along with some sheet metal work. The cost is so high in relation to the value of the airframe that, in many cases, the insurance company will consider the airplane a total loss."

The Beechcraft 60 Duke is an American-built twin-engine fixed-wing aircraft created by Beechcraft. The aircraft has retractable tricycle landing gear and a pressurized cabin. The two piston engines are turbocharged and the turbochargers also pressurize the cabin with bleed air.

Die Beechcraft Model 60 "Duke" ist ein zweimotoriges Flugzeug des amerikanischen Herstellers Beechcraft. Die Maschine verfügt über ein Bugrad-Einziehfahrwerk und eine Druckkabine. Die beiden Boxermotoren sind mit Turboladern bestückt. Die Kabine wird mit Druckluft von 0,32 bar versorgt.


Main settlements.

The Orange Walk District, with an area of 1,829 square miles (4,636 square km), is located north-northwest of the Belize District. This is the second largest district in terms of total area in comparison to other districts in Belize, and lies between the Belize and Corozal districts to the east, Mexico to the north and Guatemala to the west. Villages in Orange Walk District include August Pine Ridge, Blue Creek, Carmelita, Chan Pine Ridge, Douglas, Indian Church, Guinea Grass, San Antonio, San Carlos, San Estevan, San Felipe, San José, San Jose Palmar, Nuevo San Juan, San Lazaro, San Luis, San Pablo, San Román, Santa Cruz, Santa Martha, Shipyard, Trial Farm, Trinidad and Yo Creek. Other settlements with smaller numbers of inhabitants may also be found, as well as ancient Mayan sites such as Cuello, Lamanai, Noh Mul and Chan Chich. The Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area, a large private nature reserve in the Yalbac Hills, is also located in this district. The land is highly cultivated with sugar cane, sorghum, rice, corn and vegetables, with a significant amount of this agriculture done by Mennonite farmers. According to the Statistical Institute of Belize, the Orange Walk District had an estimated population of 45,419 persons for the 2010 population and housing census; 13,400 of these persons lived in the urban area of Orange Walk Town while 32,019 lived in rural areas.

Economy.

The capital of the district is Orange Walk Town, with an estimated population of 13,400. The district is home to mostly Maya mestizo descendants of Mexican refugees who fled from the 1840 Caste War. The district's main economic base is drawn from agriculture, with sugar cane being the primary crop. This is slowly being replaced by a combination of alternative crops such potatoes, onions and soya beans. Orange Walk is also important for its production of dairy products, citrus fruits, beef and rum production. Another emerging industry is tourism due to healthy populations of tropical wildlife and the rich archaeological sites now coming to light. There are over 400 recorded bird species in the district, making Orange Walk a birdwatcher's paradise. Several settlements in the district are also home to German speaking Amish Mennonites. The district is also the home of two rivers, the Rio Hondo, which also forms part of the border with Mexico, and the New River, which has as its source Belize's largest body of water, the New River Lagoon.

History.

Industry in Orange Walk was previously dominated by logging for over a hundred years until the refugees of the Caste War arrived in the late 19th century. At the time of logging, all the timber was floated down the New River into the Corozal Bay, then to Belize City and shipped abroad. At the time of the arrival of the Caste War refugees, the logging industry was in decline and eventually the sugar industry was established. There has been evidence that some Yucatec Maya were still living in a remote area of Yalbac hills of the district when the British arrived in the Orange walk District.  Although the Orange Walk District has no coast because it is locked inland, it boasts the remains of two forts, Forts Mundy and Cairns, built by soldiers of the British Honduras West India Regiment. The forts were built in the 19th century after battles between earlier Mayan inhabitants of the district, most notably Marcus Canul and his Icaiche Indians, and settlers.

Political divisions.

Politically, Orange Walk is divided into 4 constituencies, three currently under the People's United Party (PUP) and one under the United Democratic Party (UDP).

Language.

In the Orange Walk District Spanish, Kriol and English are mostly spoken. In many villages Yucatec Maya is still spoken by elders.

Orange Walk District is a district in the northwest of the nation of Belize, with its district capital in Orange Walk Town.

Orange Walk ist einer von sechs Verwaltungsbezirken (Districts) in Belize (Mittelamerika) und liegt im Nordwesten des Landes. Der Distrikt Orange Walk hat rund 46.000 Einwohner (Berechnung 2006).


Early career.

Billian originally wanted to become an opera singer but due to the deterioration of his voice during his nine years in military service he had to abandon this plan. After World War II, he settled in West Germany and started to work as an actor at theatres in Hamburg and Wolfenbüttel. He later began to work also as a director's assistant.  In 1950, he started to work for various German film producers. Especially, his work for "Constantin-Film" proved to be successful until 1961 when he left this company to work as a freelance screenwriter and director. Until the late 1960s, he wrote films or directed films that fell under the category Heimatfilm, such as "Ich kauf' mir lieber einen Tirolerhut" in 1965. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, he directed softcore sex comedies, like "Pudelnackt in Oberbayern" (1969) (a Bavarian sex comedy pioneer), "Die Jungfrauen von Bumshausen" (Run, Virgin, Run) (1970), and "Das Mädchen mit der heißen Masche" (Loves of a French Pussycat) (1972) (starring Sybil Danning).

Pornographic films.

In 1973, Billian directed hardcore short-length loops for the Swedish company "Venus Film". When the ban on hardcore pornography was lifted in Germany, he started to direct numerous short-length hardcore films there. In 1975, he directed the first German full-length hardcore feature film, "Bienenstich im Liebesnest" (soft version known as "Im Gasthaus zum scharfen Hirschen", also known as "Zimmermädchen machen es gern"). In 1976, he directed "Josefine Mutzenbacher...wie sie wirklich war? 1. Teil" (Sensational Janine) about the early life of Viennese courtesan Josephine Mutzenbacher. The film that had the title role played by Patricia Rhomberg who also had an intimate relationship with Billian was his greatest success. During this period, Billian continued to shoot loops, a number of which attracted particular attention such as "Massagesalon Elvira" that featured Anne Magle, the Danish porn sensation of the '70s.  "Josefine Mutzenbacher...wie sie wirklich war? 1. Teil" was conceived by Billian as the first part of a Josefine Mutzenbacher series but when the producer Gunter Otto of "Herzog" refused to finance a second part, Billian took the money from the production company "Starlight" and directed "Die Beichte der Josefine Mutzenbacher" (Josephine) in 1979. However, Otto who held the rights for the title released "Josefine Mutzenbacher...wie sie wirklich war? 2. Teil" (Professional Janine) in 1980. Both films were unable to reach the success of the 1976 film, particularly due to absence of Rhomberg and lack of continuity with the first film. In 1981 ("Aus dem Tagebuch der Josefine Mutzenbacher "), 1987 ("Die Liebesschule der Josefine Mutzenbacher ") & 1991 Billian directed three further Josefine Mutzenbacher titles. Gunter Otto made consecutive Josefine movies ("Josefine Mutzenbacher – Wie sie wirklich war: 3,4,5,6. Teil") from 1982 to 1984.  In the 1990s, he directed porn videos, especially for the producer "Tabu" of Bochum, but these videos fell far from the quality of his work in the 1970s.

Hans Billian (born Hans Joachim Hubert Backe, April 15, 1918 in Breslau (today, Wrocław, Poland) – December 18, 2007 in Gräfelfing, Bavaria) was a German film director, screenwriter, and actor noted for the "sex comedies" he directed in the 1970s. He was also credited as "Hans Billan", "Phillip Halliday", and "Christian Kessler".

Hans Billian (* 15. April 1918 in Breslau; † 18. Dezember 2007 in Gräfelfing; eigentlich "Hans Joachim Hubert Backe" ) war ein deutscher Schauspieler, Drehbuchautor, Filmregisseur und -produzent. Bekannt wurde er vor allem durch die pornografischen Filme, die er seit Beginn der 1970er-Jahre bis in die 1990er-Jahre drehte, darunter sein bekanntester Film "Josefine Mutzenbacher – Wie sie wirklich war" von 1976. Sein gesamtes Lebenswerk umfasst rund 35 Spielfilme, 60 verfilmte Drehbücher, 80 Kurzfilme und einige Romane.


General information.

The municipality of Andøy was established as a new municipality on 1 January 1964 due to the work of the Schei Committee. Andøy Municipality was created from the merger of the old municipalities of Andenes (population: 3,812), Bjørnskinn (population: 1,835), and Dverberg (population: 1,719). Initially, the new Andøy Municipality had 7,366 residents. The municipal boundaries have not changed since that time.

Name.

The municipality was named after the island on which it is located, Andøya. The Old Norse form of the name was "Andarøy" (from "Amdarøy"). The first element is the genitive case of the old uncompounded name of the island: "Ǫmd". The last element is "øy" which means "island". The meaning of the uncompounded name is unknown.

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms was granted on 7 January 1983. The arms show a silver wave on a blue background. It was chosen as a symbol for the fact that the municipality is situated at the sea and that fishing is important economically to the municipality.

Churches.

The Church of Norway has three parishes () within the municipality of Andøy. It is part of the Vesterålen prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Sør-Hålogaland.

Geography.

The municipality of Andøy is spread across the island of Andøya (the northernmost island in the Vesterålen archipelago) and the northeastern part of the island of Hinnøya (the largest and most populous island in Norway). The municipality also consists of smaller skerries including Bleiksøya, Vomma, and Stavaøyan. Andøy is located between the Gavlfjorden and the Andfjorden, and the Risøysundet strait separates the two main islands in Andøy. The Andøy Bridge connects the two islands.  The midsection of the island consists of bogs and marshes, known for their Arctic cloudberries. There are numerous lakes on the island including Bleiksvatnet and Skogvollvatnet. The island is also the only place in continental Norway where coal and fossils from dinosaurs are found. Forfjorddalen nature reserve on Hinnøya has some of the oldest pine trees in Scandinavia, some more than 700 years old.

Birdlife.

Lying furthest north in the area known as Vesterålen, Andøy is a mixture of vast areas of marshland fens, with a backdrop of high peaked mountains such as Kvasstinden. The coast is famous for its sheltered bays with white sandy shores. The area has a rich bird life and this is reflected in some good birding localities like Forfjorddalen Nature Reserve and Skogvoll, the latter a Ramsar site of international importance.  The bird cliff at Bleiksøya, outside of Bleik, is a spectacular and photogenic landmark outside the northern part of Andøya, with many species of seabirds including puffin.

Government.

All municipalities in Norway, including Andøy, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Vesterålen District Court and the Hålogaland Court of Appeal.

Municipal council.

The municipal council () of Andøy is made up of 23 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:

Mayor.

The mayors of Andøy (incomplete list):

Transportation.

The Hurtigruten boat stops at Risøyhamn in Andøy. Andøya Airport at Andenes is served by Widerøe airlines. During the summer, Andenes is connected to Gryllefjord on the island of Senja by ferry. By car, you reach Andøy on Norwegian County Road 82, northbound from Sortland.

Military.

Andøya Air Station is located next to Andenes. It is the home of the 333rd Squadron of the Royal Norwegian Air Force and houses all P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft in the Norwegian Armed Forces. Andøya Rocket Range is a civilian facility for launching sounding rockets, located a few kilometres south of Andenes.

Andøy is the northernmost municipality in Nordland county, Norway. It is part of the Vesterålen archipelago. The main island in the municipality is Andøya. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Andenes. Other villages in the municipality include Bjørnskinn, Bleik, Dverberg, Fiskenes, Fornes, Nordmela, Risøyhamn, Skarstein, Å, Åknes, and Åse.

Die Kommune Andøy in Norwegen besteht aus den beiden Inseln Andøya und Hinnøya. Die Hälfte der Einwohner wohnt im Verwaltungszentrum Andenes. Obgleich Andøy nördlicher als Murmansk liegt, ist das Klima durch den Golfstrom vergleichsweise mild und hat weniger Frosttage als Oslo. Die Mitternachtssonne scheint vom 19. Mai bis 25. Juli.


Early life.

Bush was born in 1985 in Spring Valley in San Diego County, California, and named for his biological father, Reginald Alfred Bush, Sr. He was a running back at Helix High School in La Mesa, California. While at Helix, he played with 2004 Heisman Trophy finalist Alex Smith. During his prep career with the Helix Highlanders, he won the prestigious Silver Pigskin trophy awarded by KUSI's Prep Pigskin Report. Smith and Bush were later finalists for the 2004 Heisman, making it the first time a high school had

College career.

Bush received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Southern California, where he played for the Trojans from 2003 to 2005 under head coach Pete Carroll. When Carroll recruited Bush he envisioned using him as a five-way threat. The freshman quickly proved effective in carrying, catching, throwing, and returning the ball. Bush was a consensus first-team Freshman All-American selection in 2003, and became the first Trojan since Anthony Davis in 1974 to lead the Pacific-10 Conference in kickoff returns. His 1,331 all-purpose yards set a USC freshman record. The ESPN Pac-10 Newcomer of the Year also amassed 521 yards rushing that year, with three touchdowns on 91 carries.  University of Utah quarterback Alex Smith and Bush were both finalists for the 2004 Heisman Trophy, making it the first time a high school had two finalists at the same ceremony. In 2004, Bush finished fifth in the Heisman voting and was named the team's MVP. He earned consensus All-American honors and was a finalist for the Walter Camp Player of the Year Award. He finished second on the team with 143 carries for 908 yards (6.3 avg) and six touchdowns, adding 509 yards and seven scores on 43 receptions (11.8 avg). Bush returned 21 kickoffs for 537 yards (25.6 avg) and 24 punts for 376 yards (15.7 avg) and a pair of touchdowns. He became the first Trojan since Marcus Allen to lead the Pac-10 in all-purpose yardage, totaling 2,330 yards. He also threw for one touchdown, tossing a 52-yard scoring strike.  In 2005, Bush was a unanimous first-team All-American and winner of the Heisman Trophy. He was also named the Associated Press College Football Player of the Year, the Pigskin Club of Washington, D.C. Offensive Player of the Year, and the Touchdown Club of Columbus (Ohio) Player of the Year. In addition to the Walter Camp Award, Bush also won the Doak Walker Award, which is given to the nation's best running back. He led the nation with an average of 222.3 all-purpose yards per game and finished fourth in the NCAA Division I-A ranks with an average of 133.85 rushing yards per game. He set the Pac-10 record for all-purpose yards in a game, with 513 (294 rushing, 68 receiving, 151 return) against the Fresno State Bulldogs on November 19, 2005. Bush also became known for the "Bush Push," which occurred on a game-winning score against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish.  Bush led the Trojans with 1,740 yards on 200 carries (8.7 avg) with 16 touchdowns and ranked third on the squad with 39 receptions for 481 yards (12.9 avg), including a pair of scores as a junior. He returned 18 punts for 179 yards (9.9 avg) and a touchdown, and gained 493 yards on 28 kickoff returns (17.6 avg).  Bush started only 14 times in 39 games at USC. However, he finished tenth in NCAA Division I-A history with 6,541 all-purpose yards, racking up 3,169 yards and 25 touchdowns on 433 carries (7.3 avg) and 1,301 yards with 13 scores on 95 catches (13.7 avg). Bush returned 67 kickoffs for 1,522 yards and a touchdown, adding 559 yards and three scores on 44 punt returns (12.7 avg). He also completed one of three pass attempts for a 52-yard touchdown.

Professional career.

On January 12, 2006, Bush elected to forgo his senior season at USC and declared himself eligible for the NFL Draft. Bush's on field performances made him a contender for the top pick in the 2006 NFL Draft, and he also made an impressive appearance at USC's highly publicized post-season pro day showcase, where he ran the 40-yard dash in 4.33 seconds. Draft analysts predicted that he would be the first overall pick in the draft, a pick held by the Houston Texans. However, in a surprising move on the night before the draft, the Texans signed Mario Williams, a defensive end from North Carolina State University, meaning that Bush would not be the first draft pick. Bush's representatives spoke that night with the New Orleans Saints, who said they intended to use the second overall pick to select Bush.  Bush was indeed drafted by the Saints with the second overall pick in the 2006 NFL Draft. The Houston Texans' decision to not take Bush was derided by many sports analysts. At the time, ESPN commentator Len Pasquarelli claimed that Houston selecting Williams ahead of Bush was one of the biggest mistakes made in NFL Draft history.  On April 26, 2006, three days prior to the draft, Bush had signed a multi-year endorsement with Adidas to promote football and training clothes, and help the athletic sportswear company launch cleats in 2007.

New Orleans Saints.

2006 season.

Bush's selection by the New Orleans Saints in the NFL Draft generated excitement and celebration among Saints fans. By the end of the week after the draft, Reebok reported receiving over 15,000 orders for Bush's Saints jersey, even though his jersey number with the Saints had not yet been determined. Bush had petitioned the NFL to wear the number 5, which he has worn throughout his high school and college careers. However, in order for him to wear that number, the NFL would have to revise its numbering regulations, which require running backs to wear a number between 20 and 49. Bush was allowed to wear the number 5 during the Saints' minicamp practices pending the NFL's ruling. On May 23, 2006, the NFL competition committee officially rejected his request, and on May 25 it was officially announced that Bush would be wearing number 25, acquired from

2007 season.

In the season opener of the 2007 season, Bush and the Saints lost to the defending Super Bowl champion Indianapolis Colts 41–10. Bush was tied for a team-best 38 rushing yards on 12 carries. He also had seven yards on four receptions and a punt return for two yards in a disappointing opener for him and the Saints. Their next game was equally disappointing, as the Saints were

2008 season.

Bush and the New Orleans Saints faced the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to open the 2008 season. With Deuce McAllister out due to injury, Bush started the game. He showed great improvement early in the season, particularly during Week 3 against the Denver Broncos, in which he had 18 carries for 73 yards and two touchdowns, one touchdown that included a run up the middle, cutting back to the outside for 23 yards. He added a second touchdown on a six-yard swing pass from Drew Brees near the goal line. Bush ended the game with eleven receptions for 75 yards and one receiving touchdown. Since he came into the league, no running back has caught more passes out of the backfield than Bush, who collected 171 receptions in his first two years. On October 6, in a home game against the Minnesota Vikings, he returned two punts for touchdowns and nearly had a third, tying an NFL record for single-game punt returns for touchdowns and becoming the 12th player to do so. In a home game against the Oakland Raiders on

2009 Super Bowl season.

On August 16, 2009, Bush left practice due to continuing problems with his left knee, later to return with his knee wrapped in an icepack. Bush and the Saints said that he iced the knee as a precaution. Bush missed the last three games of the 2009 preseason due to a calf injury and to rest his surgically repaired knee. Team officials called it precautionary in nature and stated that Bush would be ready to play during the regular season.  Bush missed games in Weeks 11 and 12 of the regular season due to soreness in his surgically repaired knee. He also missed most of game 15 due to a minor hamstring injury.  Bush experienced career lows in every major category for the 2009 season. While he had eight total touchdowns,

2010 season.

Bush's 2010 season was overshadowed by the controversy over his Heisman Trophy, as well as other matters related to his years at USC. During the second regular-season game, a "Monday Night Football" contest with the San Francisco 49ers, he was injured while returning a punt. He did not return to the game. The injury was diagnosed as a broken bone in his right leg and he was expected to miss at least six weeks. He returned on Thanksgiving Day to play against the Dallas Cowboys. Overall, he finished the 2010 season with 150 rushing yards and 34 receptions for 208 yards and a receiving touchdown.

Miami Dolphins.

2011 season.

On July 28, 2011, the Saints traded Bush to the Miami Dolphins for reserve safety Jonathon Amaya and a swap of sixth-round draft picks. After an 0–7 start, during the Dolphins' first win of the 2011 season against the Kansas City Chiefs, Bush scored his first rushing touchdown since 2009. Bush had his second career 100-yard game against the New York Giants with 103 yards on 15 carries in the 20–17 loss. In Week 13, Bush rushed for 100 yards and a

2012 season.

After a solid season opener against the Houston Texans with 69 yards in the 30–10 loss, Bush broke out on the ground with 172 yards on a career-high 26 carries and two rushing touchdowns, as well as 25 reception yards, in a 35–13 win over the Oakland Raiders. Bush was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for Week 2, the second time since joining the Miami Dolphins, and third time in his career. In Week 15, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he had 104 rushing yards in the 24–3 victory. In Week 16, against the Buffalo Bills, he had 65 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, and four receptions for 42 yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 24–10 victory. Overall, on the season, he had 986 rushing yards, six rushing touchdowns, 35 receptions, 292 receiving yards, and two receiving touchdowns.

Detroit Lions.

Bush signed with the Detroit Lions on March 13, 2013. Bush's contract with the Lions was a four-year deal, worth $16 million with $4 million guaranteed. Yahoo! Sports' Jason Cole reported that Detroit planned to utilize Bush as a "three-down back" and Bush described playing for the Lions as a "running back's dream." He and Joique Bell shared the majority of the workload in the backfield. On his debut for the Lions against the Minnesota Vikings, he recorded 191 yards from scrimmage and a receiving touchdown. On September 29, against the Chicago Bears, he had 139 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown in the 40–32 victory in Week 4. In Week 10, in the second divisional game against

San Francisco 49ers.

On March 18, 2015, Bush signed with the San Francisco 49ers. His one-year contract was for $2.5 million, with $500,000 guaranteed, and a $500,000 signing bonus. He joined a very crowded backfield that contained Carlos Hyde and Shaun Draughn. On September 14, 2015 in the 49ers season opener against the Minnesota Vikings, Bush left the game with a leg injury. On November 1, 2015, during a game against the St. Louis Rams, Bush slipped on the concrete surrounding the field at the Edward Jones Dome and crashed into the wall.

Buffalo Bills.

On August 1, 2016, Bush signed with the Buffalo Bills on a one-year deal. He joined a backfield that was dominated by LeSean McCoy and Mike Gillislee. Bush rushed for his first touchdown, and only rushing touchdown of the season,

Retirement.

On December 15, 2017, Bush announced his retirement from the NFL.

Career statistics.

Rushing statistics

Personal life.

At one time Bush dated WWE Diva Eve Torres while at USC. Bush then dated Kim Kardashian. Their relationship began after Matt Leinart introduced them at the 2007 ESPY Awards. They split on July 27, 2009 and got back together on September 28, 2009. Bush was romantically linked to country singer Jessie James in 2010.  Bush began dating Armenian dancer Lilit Avagyan in 2011 and the two married on July 12, 2014. The couple have three children: daughter, Briseis (born May 6, 2013) and sons, Uriah (b. July 2015) and Agyemang (b. September 2, 2017).

Media career.

On June 26, 2007, David Beckham's first major U.S. TV ad campaign since joining the Los Angeles Galaxy made its debut via the web. Titled "Futbol Meets Football", it paired Beckham with Bush in a 12-part video series, with additional television, radio and online promotion by Adidas.  In August 2007, he signed a deal with Sirius Satellite Radio to be a weekly announcer for the 2007 season.  Bush was nominated for Male Athlete of the Year at the 2007 and 2009 BET Awards.  Bush was featured almost shirtless on the February 2010 cover of "Essence" as part of an issue about

Reginald Alfred Bush Jr. (born March 2, 1985) is a former American football running back. He played college football at USC, where he earned consensus All-American honors twice and won the Heisman Trophy as the most outstanding player in the nation. He was drafted by the New Orleans Saints second overall in the 2006 NFL Draft. While with the Saints, Bush was named an All-Pro punt returner in 2008 and won Super Bowl XLIV in 2010 over the Indianapolis Colts. He also played for the Buffalo Bills, Miami Dolphins, Detroit Lions, and San Francisco 49ers.

Reginald Alfred „Reggie“ Bush (* 2. März 1985 in San Diego, Kalifornien) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler auf der Position des Runningbacks. Er spielte für die New Orleans Saints, die Miami Dolphins, die Detroit Lions, die San Francisco 49ers und zuletzt für die Buffalo Bills in der National Football League (NFL). Bush spielte College Football für die University of Southern California (USC) und gewann 2005 die Heisman Trophy. Nach einer Untersuchung der NCAA über illegale Zuwendungen während seiner College-Zeit gab Bush 2010 seine Heisman Trophy zurück.


Background.

Camplin is an ex-gymnast, standing at 157 cm tall. She was educated in Melbourne at the Methodist Ladies' College and has a bachelor's degree in information technology from Swinburne University of Technology. As a teenager, Alisa was an accomplished sailor, winning two Australian National Titles in the Hobie Cat catamaran class. Inspired by the example of three-time Olympian Kirstie Marshall, Camplin approached the Olympic Winter Institute of Australia in 1994 to see the possibilities of becoming an aerial skier. She was new to skiing, and even in Salt Lake she trampled on her victory flowers when she fell over during the trip to the winner's news conference.  She practiced jumps in a pond in Wandin (one hour's drive from Melbourne) and was coached by Todd Ossian.  Injuries she has suffered include a broken collarbone, broken hand, separated shoulder, two broken ankles, torn Achilles tendon, torn ACL, and nine concussions.  Before the 2002 Winter Olympics, none of the dozen top 10 results she had made on the World Cup circuit included a victory, and compatriot Jacqui Cooper was viewed as the favourite for the aerials event. While most athletes use flags to mark the start of their jumps, Alisa used a wooden spoon. The rationale was that early in her career, confusion was caused by both Alisa and Jacqui using Australian flags to mark their starts, but in Australia a wooden spoon is a metaphorical prize for people or teams coming last in their sporting event.

Salt Lake City 2002.

Alisa competed at the Olympics against doctors' advice—she had injured herself after being caught by a headwind in training a few weeks before. At the time, she was told she had bone bruising, it was not until she was examined by doctors in Salt Lake that she discovered both her ankles were fractured. The doctors were amazed that she was walking, let alone planning to jump.  Jacqui Cooper injured her knee in practice a week before the games. Alisa was so nervous she did not eat dinner the night before the final. Camplin performed a pair of triple-twisting, double backflip jumps to win the event.  Her family had been told to stay home by the athlete because she did not want distractions in the crowd, but her mother and younger sister Georgina defied her, watching her from behind a large Australian flag.  Camplin said that Steven Bradbury's recent win in short track made things easier for her: "When he came through, it almost pleased me that I didn't have to go out and do this," she said. "I knew that was a big thing my nation was trying to chase. When Steven did it, I was like, 'Good, I don't have the weight of the nation on my shoulders.'"  Camplin's gold was celebrated by Australia Post issuing a 45 cent stamp of her. Her stamp was issued on 22 February, four days after her victory. She received A$20,000 for the use of her image. Camplin was delighted, saying "For us to be put in with the summer Olympians who had their stamps and the previous 39 sporting legends who’ve had their stamps is amazing."

Turin 2006.

In her preparations for the Turin Winter Olympics, Camplin incurred a serious knee injury in October 2005, requiring a knee reconstruction. To speed the healing process, she used the relatively uncommon practice of using donor tissue in the knee, and returned to limited training only 11 weeks after the surgery. She finished fourth at a World Cup event in Lake Placid to secure her place in the team.  On 22 February, in a night competition that was marked by a thick fog that disturbed competitions to an extent, Camplin registered a score of 94.99 in her first jump, the fourth best. In the second jump, she received a 96.40, which temporarily placed her second, a silver medal. She was, however, eventually dislodged by China's Li Nina, finishing third behind Switzerland's Evelyne Leu, who won the event, and Nina, who took silver. She also benefited from the unexpected fall of China's Xinxin Guo, who had received the highest score in the first jump and was expected to secure a place in the Olympic podium—at which time Camplin, who was already third then, would have gone out of the medal zone.  She was selected to be the Australian flag-bearer at the Opening Ceremony.

Post-skiing career.

Camplin announced her retirement from competition in July 2006. She intends to pursue interests in the media and in the ski travel industry.  As of 30 July 2006, she is an international executive for IBM, works as a motivational speaker, and does promotional and charity work. Camplin currently works as a senior executive at IBM managing a team of over 300 people. She has been the face of Wrigley's Extra chewing gum in Australia since shortly after the 2002 Winter Olympics. She is also a judge on the Australian television competition "Torvill and Dean's Dancing on Ice", and runs Alisa Camplin Ski Tours.  On 4 November 2009, Alisa Camplin was one of 15 international torchbearers taking part in the relay's International media program, aimed at increasing global coverage of the cross-Canada relay. She ran on day 6 of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympic torch relay through the town of Dawson City in the Yukon Territory.  On 8 December 2009, it was announced that Alisa has joined the Collingwood Football Club board as a replacement for Sally Capp

Personal life.

Camplin married Oliver Warner in December 2010. Their first child, Finnan Maximus Camplin-Warner, was born six weeks prematurely on 10 March 2011. Finnan died 10 days later due to a congenital heart condition. Camplin and Warner have set up the charity Finnan's Gift (http://finnansgift.com), organised through the Royal Children's Hospital, to raise money to buy equipment that will detect heart defects in other babies. On 3 October 2013, Camplin gave birth to their second child, Florence Camplin-Warner.

Honours.

Camplin received the Australian Sports Medal in 2000. She was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia in 2003 for her 2002 gold medal win. In 2008, she was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame. In the 2019 Queen's Birthday Honours Camplin was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia in recognition of her "significant service to the community through support for paediatric health care".

Alisa Peta Camplin (born 10 November 1974) is an Australian aerial skier who won gold at the 2002 Winter Olympics, the second ever winter Olympic gold medal for Australia. At the 2006 Winter Olympics, Camplin finished third to receive a bronze medal. She is the first Australian skier to win medals at consecutive Winter Olympics, making her one of Australia's best skiers.

Alisa Peta Camplin-Warner AM (* 10. November 1974 in Melbourne) ist eine australische ehemalige Freestyle-Skispringerin. Sie wurde je einmal Weltmeisterin und Olympiasiegerin.