Taxonomy.

Considerable taxonomic uncertainty surrounds the northern subspecies "caniceps", "sybilla" and "marica" of the spotted giant flying squirrel. Especially the distinctive "caniceps" (grey-headed giant flying squirrel) and less often "sybilla" (Chindwin giant flying squirrel) have been regarded as separate species. In 2005, "Mammal Species of the World" opted to regard all as subspecies of the spotted giant flying squirrel. In 2012, it was proposed that "caniceps" should be regarded as a separate species, but with "sybilla" as its subspecies, while leaving "marica" as a subspecies of "P. elegans". However, in addition to their distinctive appearance, "caniceps", "sybilla" and "marica" occur together in a small part of southern China. A genetic study has revealed that "caniceps" is distantly related to all of these, being closer to some other species like the red giant flying squirrel. Although "sybilla", "marica" and "P. elegans" are closer to each other than they are to any other giant flying squirrel, they are quite deeply split. It is estimated that "sybilla" split from "marica" about 1.87 million years ago, and they split from "P. elegans" even earlier. Another study that compared north Vietnam specimens (either "sybilla" or "marica" based on appearance and location) with "P. elegans" also revealed a relatively deep genetic split between them. This has resulted in the recommendation of recognizing "caniceps", "sybilla" and "marica" as separate species, but some unresolved issues remain. Both genetic studies were based on "P. elegans" of the subspecies "sumatrana" from Sumatra. The subspecies "punctata" of the Thai-Malay Peninsula has not been sampled. In appearance it quite resembles "sumatrana", but intermediates between "punctata" and "marica" may occur in the area where their ranges come into contact in Thailand.  A secondary problem is related to certain Chinese and Nepali populations, by some authorities recognize as the subspecies "clarkei" and "gorkhali", but others consider both as synonyms of "caniceps". Additionally, populations in the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan and Shaanxi appear to belong to two undescribed taxa.

Appearance.

The spotted giant flying squirrel has a head-and-body length of about, tail length of and weighs. This makes it a large species of flying squirrel, but the smallest giant flying squirrel in its range.  The underparts are light orange-brown to pale rufous, but especially the colour of the head, upperparts and tail vary considerably depending on subspecies. The first group of subspecies has a black tail with only the base rufous-brown. In "P. e. punctata" of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, the head and upperparts are rufous-brown, somewhat darker on the midback. The upperparts from the top of the head and shoulders to the rump have many relatively large white spots, although on occasion they are more restricted. "P. e. banksi" of highlands of northern Borneo is similar, except that its upper head, nape and back are black, resulting in a clear contrast with the rich rufous-brown flanks and tail base. It has white spots above as in "P. e. punctata", but these can be absent in young. The Sumatran "P. e. sumatrana" resembles "P. e. punctata", but has fewer white spots that mostly are distributed on the mid-back. The Javan "P. e. elegans" and "P. e. slamatensis" (the latter likely is a synonym of the former) resemble "P. e. banksi", but the upperparts often are more grizzled-black and white spots can be entirely absent.  The second group of subspecies has an entirely ("P. e. marica" and "P. e. sybilla") or mostly ("P. e. caniceps") orangish-brown or reddish-brown tail. "P. e. marica" from Mainland Southeast Asia (except the Thai-Malay Peninsula) and southern Yunnan and westernmost Guangxi in China is lighter brown above than "P. e. punctata" and has less white spots that mostly are distributed on the top of the head to the central back. "P. e. sybilla" of northern Myanmar, southern Sichuan and Yunnan in China and easternmost Arunachal Pradesh in India is orangish-brown or reddish-brown above with a slightly more grey-brown back that completely lacks white spots. The final subspecies, "P. e. caniceps" from Uttarakhand in India and Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh in India and southern Xizang, Guizhou and Sichuan in China, has a body-colouration similar to "P. e. sybilla" and also lacks white spots, but is unique in its black tail-tip and all grey head, except for a white throat and an orange-brown ring around each eye.

The spotted giant flying squirrel ("Petaurista elegans"), also known as the lesser giant flying squirrel, is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in hill and mountain forests at altitudes of in Southeast Asia north to central China and the east Himalayan region, although the northern populations sometimes are regarded as separate species as the grey-headed giant flying squirrel ("P. caniceps"), Chindwin giant flying squirrel ("P. sybilla") and "P. marica". Two of these, as well as a few other populations, lack the white spots on the upperparts for which it is named. Although a large flying squirrel, it is a relatively small giant flying squirrel.

Das Gefleckte Riesengleithörnchen ("Petaurista elegans") ist ein Gleithörnchen aus der Unterfamilie der Baum- und Gleithörnchen (Sciurinae). Es gehört zur Gattung der Riesengleithörnchen ("Petaurista") und lebt in Südostasien.


Early life.

Speedie was born in Odell, Illinois, but attended high school in Utah. As a child he had Perthes Disease, a condition where growth or loss of bone mass in the hip joint affects blood supply to the area. He had to wear a brace for four years to correct the condition; one of his legs came out shorter than the other. Despite his struggle with the disease, Speedie became a star athlete at South High School in Salt Lake City, playing football, basketball and track. He was the center on the school's basketball team and was named to a list of Salt Lake's best athletes as a halfback on the football team. Getting out of the braces "was like turning a frisky colt out to pasture after a year in a box stall", Speedie once said. "I had such a backlog of athletic ambition that I wanted to play football, basketball, and track all at one time."

College and military career.

After graduating from high school, Speedie attended the University of Utah, where he majored in geology and continued to excel as an athlete. He played football and basketball and was a top college hurdler in track. As an end on the Utah Redskins football team, he won all-conference honors in 1939, 1940 and 1941. In track, he finished second in a high hurdles event where the winner, Rice University's Fred Wolcott, set a NCAA record.  Like many college athletes, Speedie joined the military as America's involvement in World War II intensified following the attack on Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941. He entered the U.S. Army after graduating in 1942. Speedie was stationed at Fort Warren in Wyoming and played for the base's Broncos military team.

Professional career.

Cleveland Browns.

Speedie was drafted by the National Football League's Detroit Lions in the late rounds of the 1942 draft. Fred Mandel, the owner of the Lions, visited him at Fort Warren and offered a contract worth $2,800 a year. Speedie wanted to sign immediately, but Mandel preferred to wait until after the war. By the time the war drew to a close in 1945, however, Speedie was considering signing with the Chicago Rockets, a team in the new All-America Football Conference (AAFC). He was pursued by the Rockets after playing well against a team at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro from which many of the Rockets' players were drawn. Speedie was also spotted by Paul Brown, who had been the head coach of a military team at Great Lakes Naval Station that played against the Broncos. Brown, who was starting a new AAFC team called the Cleveland Browns, sent a friend named Jackie Ranen to sign Speedie for $7,000 in 1946.  With the Browns, Speedie quickly became an important part of an offensive attack that featured quarterback Otto Graham, fullback Marion Motley and fellow receiver Dante Lavelli. He was enthusiastic, energetic and fast, posing a challenge for defenders assigned to cover him. He had an unusual running style because of his bout with Perthes Disease, which Lavelli said "gave him an odd gait in which he could fake plays without even trying". Speedie caught the first touchdown in the AAFC's existence in the Browns' opening game against the Miami Seahawks, a 44–0 win. The Browns ended the regular season with a 12–2 record, winning the AAFC West division and earning a spot in the league championship. During the week before the championship game against the New York Yankees, Speedie and two teammates, Lou Rymkus and team captain Jim Daniell were arrested after an argument with Cleveland police. Daniell was driving a car with Rymkus and Speedie as passengers as they waited for Speedie's wife to return on a flight from Utah. A police car was blocking Daniell's way, and he honked the horn, leading to the confrontation and arrests. Brown kicked Daniell off of the team, but Speedie and Rymkus were not punished by the team; they were, however, held in custody for several hours and charged with creating a disturbance.  The Browns went on to win the championship game in 1946, helped by Speedie's six catches for 71 yards. Speedie led the league in yards per catch, with 23.5, and scored seven touchdowns. After the season, he was named along with several teammates to the AAFC's all-league team.  The 1947 season was another strong one for Speedie. In a game against the Buffalo Bills, he tied a professional football record by catching a throw from Graham and running 99 yards for a touchdown. He finished the season as the league leader in receptions and receiving yards as the Browns won another championship. His 67 catches and 1,146 receiving yards, in fact, were the second-best in pro football history after Don Hutson of the Green Bay Packers, who caught for 1,211 yards in 1940. Speedie was named by news outlets as a first-team All-Pro. Speedie's success in 1947 came as he, Graham and Lavelli gelled as a passing and receiving unit, having studied hours of tape and worked on their technique and coordination. Speedie studied how defensive backs moved their feet and tried to break into the open by exploiting mis-steps. They experimented with screen passes and made modifications to common receiving routes to exploit the weaknesses of defenses.  The Browns had a perfect season the following year, winning the championship for a third straight time. Speedie led the league in receiving and was named an All-Pro again. The 1949 season brought another championship and another All-Pro season for Speedie, who led the league in receptions for the third year in a row. He had 228 receiving yards in a game against the Yankees, which remains a Browns record. Tom Landry, a Yankees cornerback who went on to coach the Dallas Cowboys, was assigned to cover Speedie and called it "the most embarrassing athletic performance of my entire life". The AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season and the Browns, along with two other teams, were absorbed by the more established NFL. Speedie was the AAFC's all-time leader in receptions and receiving yards, with 3,554.  Cleveland's success continued in the NFL in 1950, silencing skeptics who thought the team stood out only because of the poor quality of competition in the AAFC. After beating the defending NFL champion Philadelphia Eagles in the first game of the season, the Browns advanced to the championship game, where they beat the Los Angeles Rams 30–28 on a last-second Lou Groza field goal. Speedie had 548 receiving yards during the season and was selected for the NFL's first-ever Pro Bowl.  The Browns reached the NFL championship game in 1951 and 1952, but lost both times. Speedie led the NFL in receiving in 1951 and was named a first-team All Pro, but he did not play in the championship game due to an injury. He was selected for the Pro Bowl for a second time in 1952. After that season, however, he left the Browns to join the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Western Interprovincial Football Union under acrimonious circumstances. Speedie had an independent streak that did not sit well with Brown, whose domineering coaching style grated against many of the men who played for him. "He was one of the ones that Paul Brown picked on quite a bit", recalled former teammate Ken Carpenter. "He'd get on Speedie's case for no particular reason." Speedie showed his displeasure by bringing a skunk to training camp in 1952 and calling it "Paul". Brown told Speedie he did not think it was very funny, to which Speedie responded that it was a nocturnal animal and was named after Paul Revere.  The Roughriders offered Speedie double his Browns salary as the Canadian leagues tried to make names for themselves by signing top-level NFL players. Paul Brown refused to match the offer, and Speedie, who was making $11,000 per year with the Browns, joined the Canadian team for the 1953 season. Brown then threatened to sue Speedie for violating his existing contract with the team, saying the Browns had exercised an option to extend the deal after it expired in the summer of 1953. "This was a case of jumping a contract, pure and simple, as this young man morally and ethically had a contract with us", Brown said at the time. Speedie later said that Brown "told me when I jumped leagues that he was going to get even with me".

Western Interprovincial Football Union.

Speedie, by then 33 years old, joined the Roughriders despite the threat of legal action. Speedie had a league-leading seven touchdowns in 1953, and 576 receiving yards the following season. He was sent to the WIFU's BC Lions in 1955, but played only one game for the club. Speedie hurt his left knee and was declared out for the season. He had suffered a hairline leg fracture and underwent surgery on torn ligaments in his knee and ankle. He was expected to scout for the Lions as he recovered. After the injury, Speedie was cut from the Lions' roster and did not play professional football again.  At the end of his career, Speedie was one of the most prolific receivers of his era. He averaged more than 800 receiving yards a season during his seven years in the AAFC and NFL, a mark that was not surpassed for 20 years after he left the game. His career receiving yards average of 49.9 per game stood for 25 years. He was named to the National Football League 1940s All-Decade Team and was selected by news outlets as a first-team All-Pro six times. The authors of the official NFL encyclopedia named him one of the league's 300 greatest-ever players.

Coaching career.

Speedie resurfaced in 1960, when he was named the end coach for the new American Football League's Houston Oilers under former teammate and Oilers head coach Lou Rymkus. The Oilers won the AFL championship in 1960, but Rymkus was fired after the team got off to a slow start the following year. Team owner Bud Adams urged Speedie to stay on the staff, but Speedie resigned out of loyalty to Rymkus.  The AFL's Denver Broncos hired Speedie the following year as an end coach. He served under head coach Jack Faulkner, who replaced Frank Filchock that season and was voted AFL Coach of the Year for turning the team around and posting a 7–7 record. Faulkner led the team to a 2–11–1 season in 1963, however, and Speedie replaced him the following year as the Broncos went on a 14-game losing streak.  In Speedie's first game leading the team, the Broncos ended the losing streak with a 33–27 upset victory over the Kansas City Chiefs. Two weeks later, Speedie suspended placekicker Gene Mingo and defensive back Willie West for "conduct detrimental to the club", reportedly as a result of a late-night party at a hotel. The team posted a 2–7–1 record under Speedie, and he was signed to a two-year contract after the season.  In his first full season as the Broncos' coach in 1965, Speedie's team posted a 4–10 record. After two losses to begin the 1966 season, Speedie resigned and assistant Ray Malavasi took over. He said the move was in the best interest of the club. Speedie had a 6-19-1 record as the Broncos' coach. He then accepted a scouting position with the organization and was based out of his home in Laguna Hills, California. He held the post until his retirement in 1982.

Later life and death.

Speedie had a brief and cold reunion with Brown in 1977, when the two met at the annual East–West Shrine Game, a college all-star game. Speedie introduced himself to Brown, only to be told, "Yes, I know. You're the one who went to Canada." Speedie's friends and former teammates lobbied repeatedly for his inclusion in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, but Speedie believed that his conflict with Brown was keeping him out even as numerous former teammates, including Otto Graham, Dante Lavelli and Marion Motley were inducted. He was placed on an old-timers' list of nominees for induction into the hall in the mid-1980s, but ultimately was passed over. "Quite honestly, I think Paul Brown is the reason" for Speedie's exclusion, Graham said in 1991. "Paul wasn't the type of guy you crossed. He would never forget it."  While he was passed over for professional football's hall of fame during his lifetime, Speedie was inducted into the Utah Sports Hall of Fame in 1972 and the University of Utah's Crimson Club hall of fame in 1986. He died in California in 1993.  On January 15, 2020 Speedie was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame Class of 2020.

Mac Curtis Speedie (January 12, 1920 – March 5, 1993) was an American football end who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and National Football League (NFL) for seven years before joining the Saskatchewan Roughriders in Canada. He later served for two years as head coach of the American Football League's Denver Broncos. A tall and quick runner whose awkward gait helped him deceive defenders and get open, Speedie led his league in receptions four times during his career and was selected as a first-team All-Pro six times. His career average of 800 yards per season was not surpassed until two decades after his retirement, and his per-game average of 50 yards went unequalled for 20 years after he left the game.

Mac Curtis Speedie (* 12. Januar 1920 in Odell, Illinois, USA; † 12. März 1993 in Laguna Hills, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler und -Trainer. Er spielte unter anderem als End in der All-America Football Conference (AAFC) bei den Cleveland Browns.


Biography.

Mackerras was raised Catholic and pursued an M.A. degree at the University of Cambridge. In 1964 he went with his wife, Alyce Mackerras, for the first time to China, where their first son was born. Mackerras taught in Beijing until 1966 at the Foreign Language Institute (now Beijing Foreign Studies University), returning in 1986, 2005, 2006–07, 2008–09, 2010 and 2011–12. He was awarded a Doctor Of Philosophy by the Australian National University in 1970.  He was Chair Professor and Research Scholar at the Australian National University in 1966–1969. He was Professor at the School of Modern Asian Studies at Griffith University in 1974–2004. At Grifffith he served as Chair, School of Modern Asian Studies (1979–1985) and as Head School of Modern Asian Studies (1988–1989, 1996–2000). Since 2004 he has been Professor Emeritus at the Department of International Business and Asian Studies (Griffith University).  He is a member of the Asian Studies Association of Australia (President, 1992–95) and Chinese Studies Association (President, 1991–93).  He is twin brother of Malcolm Mackerras, a psephologist, and brother of the late conductor Charles Mackerras (1925–2010).

Career.

One recent scholar, Liu Siyuan, said that Mackerras' scholarship on theatre in China made him a founder of the field and successor to A.C. Scott, and praised as "an historian whose extensive scholarship on Chinese theatre forms part of his wide-ranging publications on Chinese and Asian history." Liu went on to say that MacKerras is "rightly hailed as rivaling some of the most outstanding Chinese and Japanese scholars in the past century."

Colin Patrick Mackerras (; born 26 August 1939 Sydney, Australia) is an Australian sinologist, Emeritus Professor at Griffith University, and specialist in Chinese culture. He has published on Chinese drama, national minorities of China, Australian-Chinese relations and images of China in the West.

Colin Mackerras (* 1939 in Sydney) ist ein australischer Sinologe und Spezialist für chinesische Kultur – vor allem Drama –, die nationalen Minderheiten Chinas, australisch-chinesische Beziehungen und Chinabilder im Westen.


Name.

The etymology of the name "Extern-" is unclear, in older texts it is written as ”Estern” or Eastern ("-steine" meaning "stones" or "rocks"). The Latinized spelling with "x" is first recorded in the 16th century, but became common only in the late 19th century.  The oldest recorded forms of the name read "Agistersten" and "Eggesterenstein", both dated 1093. Other forms of the name include "Egesterenstein" (12th century), "Egestersteyn" (1366), "Egersteyne" (1369), "Egestersten" (1385), "Egesternsteyn" (15th century), "Eygesternsteyn" (151), "Externsteine" (1533), "Egesterennstein" (1583), "Agisterstein" (1592).  Hamelmann (1564) gives the Latinized name "rupes picarum" ("rock of the magpies"), associating the name with Westphalian word "Eckster" "magpie" (Standard German "Elster"). "Eckster" "magpie" is argued to be the actual etymology of the name by Schröder (1964), who also connects other Westphalian toponyms "Externbrock, Externmühle, Exter, Extern, Exten an der Exter". Other scholars identify the association with magpies as folk etymology; Plassmann (1961) connects the name with a giant "Ecke" or "Ekka" of the "Eckenlied", a medieval poem of the Theoderic cycle.  Bahlow (1962, 1965) connects the name to the hydronym "Exter".  More recent linguistic research assigns a much higher probability to a different explanation. The Germanic "ag" means "sharp, edged or pointy". In Middle Low German "Egge" was used for long rocky ridges. It is found today in "Eggegebirge", for example, which lies south of the Teutoburg Forest. That latter area was also known as "Osning" ("Osnegge"). Thus, rather than reflecting mythological associations, the physical geology of the stones likely gave rise to their name.

Geology.

The Externsteine are located on the northeastern slope of the "Teutoburger Wald". They are a natural outcropping of sandstone in a region that is otherwise largely devoid of rocks. The formation stretches for several hundred metres. It starts inside the forest with some rocks that are mostly covered by soil. It terminates in a series of 13 highly visible and mostly free-standing pillars. For scientific purposes, these have been numbered I-XIII from northwest to southeast with the most imposing being stones I-V. The largest is rock I (subdivided into Ia and Ib), also known as the "Grottenfels" due to its cave. The next one, II, is also known as "Turmfels" (tower) and rises above the surrounding area. Rock III is called "Treppenfels" (stairs). A large gap separates rocks III and IV. The latter is also known as "Wackelsteinfelsen" due to a loose boulder (now fixed in place) at its top.  The geological formation consists of a hard, erosion-resistant sandstone (so-called "Osningsandstein"), laid down during the early Cretaceous era about 100 million years ago, near the edge of a large shallow sea that covered large parts of Northern Europe at the time. About 70 million years ago, these originally horizontal layers were folded to an almost vertical position. The resulting cracks in the stone offered ample scope for various forms of weathering. Thousands of years of erosion washed the rocks from the surrounding soil and then formed the surface of the stone.  The pillars have been modified and decorated by humans over the centuries. Most of these alterations are on the southwestern side.  The pond that currently lies at the foot of the formation is artificial and was created in the 19th century.

Description of the man-made structures.

The "Grottenfels" (I) contains a man-made "grotto" of three chambers connected by passages. Above the entrance to the main chamber is a carving that unlike the others here is not a bas-relief, but simply a cut in the stone in the form of what appears to be a winged creature. It appears to have been intended to receive a relief made from some other material and then set into the stone. The main chamber is 11 m by 3.5 m with a ceiling height of 2.5 m. The side chamber has the same height but is 2 m by 5 m. In the main chamber is an inscription dated to 1115, indicating that an altar was consecrated here. The third room is the so-called "Kuppelgrotte" is reached from the main chamber and via a small passage from the outside. This room is quite narrow compared to the other two and, with its domed ceiling, has a more cavelike appearance. Next to the external entrance, in an alcove, is another relief, much eroded. It shows a standing figure, holding a sash in the left and a key in the right hand. This has been interpreted as a depiction of St Peter.  The outside of rock I also features the "Kreuzabnahmerelief" (showing Christ's Descent from the Cross).  Below the side chamber, next to the pond, is the so-called "Sargstein" (tomb stone). An arched alcove with an open stone sarcophagus at the bottom has been cut into the sandstone. This is a type of structure known as an Arcosolium. On top of this rock is a platform reached by an uneven stairway.  The top of rock Ia has been turned into a platform and is reached by a stone stairway that begins between rocks I and II. A rectangular chamber has been cut into the peak of rock II, known as the "Höhenkammer" (high chamber). It can be reached by a stair in rock III and a wooden construction linking rocks II and II. The platform seems to have been reduced from its original size by rockfalls. The chamber shows signs of wooden pegs that likely once supported wooden walls and/or a wooden ceiling. At the east of the "Höhenkammer" is an apse with a circular window and an altar. Towards the west is an alcove with columns carved into the rock. To the north there are pilasters and arched windows. The northwestern end is marked by the carving of a bearded man (likely dating from the Renaissance or Baroque). Remains indicate the past presence of further stairways on the rock.  Finally, rock IV has been decorated with the coat of arms of the Counts of Lippe.

History.

Prehistory.

Archaeological excavations have yielded some Upper Paleolithic stone tools dating to about 10,700 BC from 9,600 BC. Beneath a rock overhang on rock VIII, microliths from the Ahrensburg culture such as arrow heads or blades were found. Evidence of fire sites was also found. The area was thus frequented by nomadic groups who used the stones as a temporary shelter.  The site is associated with archaeoastronomical speculation; a circular hole above the "altar stone" in the "Höhenkammer" has been identified in this context as facing in the direction of sunrise at the time of summer solstice.  However, no archaeological evidence has been found that would substantiate use of the site between the end of the Upper Paleolithic and the Carolingian period (9th century). In the 1990s, artefacts found in the excavation conducted by in 1934/35 were analyzed. Attribution of objects found was either to the Mesolithic Ahrensburg culture (see above) or to the medieval period, with evidence of occupation in the Bronze or Iron Age conspicuously absent: All the ceramic and metal items found were younger than the Carolingian period, some stone artefacts were attributed to the Ahrensburg culture.

Middle Ages.

Archaeological excavations at the site in the 1930s produced evidence for use from the late 10th to the 15th centuries. In addition, a drystone wall east of rock II (not extant today) could be linked to buildings here mentioned in medieval documents. Some additional records still exist today in photographs, but they can not be put into context due to the loss of written materials in World War II. Thermoluminescence dating in the caves support the findings. In the main and side chamber, the last large fires were used in the 14th or 15th century (one as early as the 11/12th century). In the "Kuppelgrotte" these tests have shown the last large fire to have burned in the 10th century. One (highly uncertain) result possibly even pointed to the 8th century (actual result: 735 with a margin of error of +/- 180 years).  However, the first mention of the stones is in a document dated to around 1129, which refers to a farm "Holzhausen or Egesterenstein". The abbot of Werden Abbey, which owned the farm, had been passing through and was housed there. It is possible that mass was celebrated at the Externsteine at that point. A potential earlier mention occurs in a document dated 1093, but this is only extant in two copies from 1374 and 1380. It records the purchase of a farm at Holzhausen including an "Agisterstein" by the abbot of the (abbey) at Paderborn from a female Saxon noble called Ida. This is deemed plausible by historians since in the 16th century the abbey still had a farmstead at Holzhausen. However, the inscription in the main chamber of the grotto mentions a consecration in 1115 by "Henrico", which is deemed to be a reference to, bishop of Paderborn from 1084 to 1127. This implies a contradiction, since either the abbot or the bishop would be in charge of any local place of worship. Historians have suggested, though, that this may be an indication that the abbey did not in fact claim the Externsteine for itself thus leaving them to fall into the bishop's purview.  Some authors have argued that the ecclesial carvings and alterations to the stones may suggest use of the site as a Christian sanctuary from the early 9th century. In particular, the Externsteine relief has been the subject of debate among art historians, formerly widely accepted as of Carolingian origin (9th century), scholarly consensus has placed it in the 12th century since the 1950s. From a stylistic point of view, historians today place the relief in the period 1160 to 1170. Even assuming a high medieval date, the relief represents the oldest monumental relief worked into a natural rock face found north of the Alps.  In the early 13th century, temporal control of the area passed from the abbey to the House of Lippe. From 1366, the ecclesial control of Abdinghof over a chapel at the Externsteine is well documented. This lasted into the 17th century. It involved a hermitage at this location, with individuals named as hermits in 1385 and 1469. The document from 1385 also mentions an "Upper Altar", likely referring to the altar in the "Höhenkammer".  There remains a contradiction between the use of the Externsteine as a simple roadhouse for travellers and as an hermitage on the one hand and the presence of the monumental relief and the Arcosolium on the other. These may indeed have been a reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre. The remains visible today indicate the possibility that the Externsteine were intended as a destination for pilgrims unable to travel to Jerusalem. To that end many medieval churches created. However, it is unclear who could have built it here and why there is no written evidence of such a relatively elaborate undertaking.

Early modern period.

The site was within the County of Lippe, formerly a county within the Duchy of Saxony, which gained imperial immediacy by 1413, throughout the Early modern period. The hermitage apparently became a hideout for bandits and in the early 16th century was dissolved by the rulers. This was roughly at the time that the Reformation was introduced in Lippe (1538) and church activity at the site ceased.  The original claims associating the Externsteine with Saxon pagan worship were made by Hermann Hamelmann, who in his "Delineatio Oppidorum Westfaliae" (1564) claimed to take the information from older authorities (which cannot now be recovered or identified),  Around 1592, the Count's local forest warden lived in the caves. Circa 1660, Herman Adolph, Count of Lippe designed the area for use as a hunting lodge and "Lustschloss". This was a fortress of two squat round towers flanking a central gatehouse, built against the eastern side of the Externsteine. The excavated foundations show relatively thin walls, indicating that these walls were never intended as fortifications but were just ornamental. A stairwell next to rock I gave access to a viewing platform on top. Likely associated with this era is the bearded figure on the platform and the coat of arms inserted into rock IV.

18th and 19th centuries.

The structure was rarely used, and fell into dilapidation in the 18th century. In 1810, it was torn down at the request of Countess Pauline.  The old long-distance trade road running between rocks III and IV was expanded and paved in 1813. The unstable "Wackelstein" was secured with iron hooks. At the same time, new stairs were constructed and a bridge between rocks II and III gave access to the "Höhenkammer".  These improvements and better access via the road made the Externsteine an increasingly popular tourist destination, continuing a trend of the 18th century. Half-timbered 17th century buildings were replaced by new buildings, including several hotels.  The Wiembecke stream flowing past the stones was dammed to form an artificial pond in 1836. The pond was later drained for the excavations of 1934/5, and restored after 1945.  The period of Romantic nationalism of the 1860s to 1870s inspired a large number of publications speculating about the ancient history of the site. Many of these were contributed by local amateur historians and published in the "Zeitschrift für vaterländische Geschichte und Althertumskunde Westfalens". The contributions by Wilhelm Engelbert Giefers (1817–1880) were reprinted as a short monograph in 1867. Local amateur historian Gotthilf August Benjamin Schierenberg (1808–1894) seems to have been the first to identify the "pagan idol" mentioned by Hamelmann with the Saxon Irminsul.  The first archaeological excavations were performed in 1881 and 1888, with limited results. Gustav Schierenberg was looking in vain for evidence of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 1881. In 1888, the "Westfälischer Altertumsverein" under Konrad Mertens was looking at the possible reconstruction of the Holy Sepulchre.

20th century.

From 1912 to 1953, a tramway ran along the Externsteine road, operated by "Paderborner Elektrizitätswerke und Straßenbahn AG" (PESAG). A stop was located right next to the stones.  With the introduction of a road numbering system in 1932, the road passing between the stones became part of "Fernverkehrsstraße Nr. 1" (Aachen–Königsberg). The course of the road was relocated to the south-east in order to protect the stones in 1936. This is now "Bundesstraße 1".  In 1926, the Externsteine were declared "one of the oldest and most important nature reserves in Lippe" and were placed under protection. Today the preserve measures approximately, and forms part of the "‘Teutoburg Forest’" nature reserve, Externsteine.  Wilhelm Teudt was particularly interested in the Externsteine, which he suggested was the location of a central Saxon shrine, the location of Irminsul and an ancient sun observatory. Since the mid-1920s he had popularized them by calling them the "Germanic Stonehenge". Teudt popularized the identification of the site as that of the Saxon Irminsul destroyed by Charlemagne. Teudt could refer to a total number of more than 40 publications on the Externsteine, including eleven substantial monographs, most of which he considered outdated. In 1932, the area was excavated (for the third time) by but no "cultural remains" were discovered.  During the period of Nazi rule, the Externsteine became a focus of nationalistic propaganda. In 1933, the "Externsteine Foundation" was established and Heinrich Himmler became its president. Interest in the location was furthered by the "Ahnenerbe" division within the SS, who studied the stones for their value to Germanic folklore and history.  After the Nazis came to power, Teudt was put in charge of additional excavations at the site and appointed to head the work done there by the "Reichsarbeitsdienst" in 1934/35. Teudt thought that the Externsteine had served as an observatory until its destruction by Charlemagne. He initiated the demolishing of tourist infrastructure (tramway, hotels) and the creation of a "sacred grove" or "Heiligtum" nearby. The SS used Serbian prisoners of war for the project.  Since the 1950s, the Externsteine were developed into a popular tourist attraction. The section of the tramway line connecting to the Externsteine was closed in 1953. In 1958, visitor numbers were around 224,000 people annually.

Today.

Today, between a half to one million people annually visit the stones, making the Externsteine one of the most frequently visited nature reserves in Westphalia. The site also remains of interest to various Neo-Pagans and nationalist movements.  Because of its reputation as "pagan sacred site" in popular culture, there have often been private gatherings or celebrations on the day of summer solstice and Walpurgis Night. The trend had been visible since the 1980s, but the growing number of visitors came to be seen as a problem in the late 2000s, with more than 3,500 on the site. The municipalities of the Lippe ("Landesverband Lippe") reacted by prohibiting camping, alcohol consumption and open fires on the site in 2010 and closed the parking at the site. A spokesman emphasized that the decision was not directed against "esotericists, druids, gypsies and dowsers", but against large-scale parties of binge-drinkers.  Since 2006 the Externsteine site has been a "" (national geotope).

The Externsteine is a distinctive sandstone rock formation located in the Teutoburg Forest, near the town of Horn-Bad Meinberg in the Lippe district of the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The formation is a tor consisting of several tall, narrow columns of rock which rise abruptly from the surrounding wooded hills.

Die Externsteine sind eine markante Sandstein-Felsformation im Teutoburger Wald und als solche eine herausragende Natursehenswürdigkeit Deutschlands, die unter Natur- und Kulturdenkmalschutz steht. Die Felsen sind vom Wiembecketeich und von einer parkartigen Anlage umgeben. Die Externsteine liegen im Gebiet der Stadt Horn-Bad Meinberg im Kreis Lippe in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Ihnen werden besondere kulturgeschichtliche Bedeutungen zugeschrieben.


Background and composition.

In the book "Chicken Soup for the Soul: The Story Behind the Song", Aguilera revealed the occasion, theme and meaning of "Fighter". She talked about her "very chaotic and abusive" home, where she did not feel "safe". In school, Aguilera was picked on and alienated because of her musical passion. However, it made her become "smarter and stronger". To release herself, Aguilera started to write songs at the age of 15, both music and lyrics; and it was the way how she found her voice. The writing process of "Fighter" began during her promotion for her debut album in 1999, when she was "a part of the big craze pop phenomenon". According to Aguilera, her debut album helped her a lot to develop the process. She wanted to make an "emotionally rich and positive empowering" song, especially for women, in order for them to speak for themselves be strong. About the idea of the track, she revealed, "I was coming up with titles and ideas and deciding what I wanted to write about. I had to sit down and make sense of my feelings and experiences. I learned a lot from the first record that helped me to develop. I took the good and the bad and considered some of the choices I made and became better because of it. Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine characterized "Fighter" as a hybrid of R&B and rock. Meanwhile, a reviewer of "Billboard" described the song as arena rock-influenced, and AOL Music's Nana-Adwoa Ofori noted the elements of rock and roll. However, Nick Levin from Digital Spy detailed "Fighter" as an arena rock piece. The song was inspired by band Guns N' Roses' song "November Rain" (1992). Written in the key of E minor, "Fighter" has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. Brian Hiatt from "Entertainment Weekly" and Chuck Taylor for "Billboard" likened the track's musical style to that of Janet Jackson's "Black Cat". Aguilera's vocals on the track span from the low-note of G to the high-note of G; Taylor labelled Aguilera's vocals "tornado of a vocal."  At the beginning of "Fighter", the guitar sound was arranged in the chord progression of Em – G/D – D – C – Em/B – B – Am – C/G – G – B. Aguilera speaks the lyrics, "After all you put me through, you'd think I'd despise you / But in the end, I wanna thank you, 'cause you made me that much stronger" on the guitar theme by Dave Navarro. Lyrically, Aguilera wants to thank the man who did her wrong rather than insult him, because he helped make her stronger and work harder, thus making her a fighter. At the chorus, she sings, "'Cause it makes me that much stronger/ Makes me work a little bit harder/ Makes me that much wiser/ So thanks for making me a fighter". The chords in the guitar part are E – F – G – A – B − C – B – A – G – F – E. She continues, "Made me learn a little bit faster/ Made my skin a little bit thicker/ Makes me that much smarter/ So thanks for making me a fighter". The lyrics of "Fighter" have been recognized as "empowering".  On the first episode of "RuPaul's Drag Race Untucked" season 10, Aguilera said the song was about someone she loved but "deserved it".

Reception.

Critical reception.

"Fighter" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. David Brownie from "Entertainment Weekly" called it "spunkier than one would expect from a dance-floor strumpet who loves to flaunt her lung power." Chuck Taylor writing for "Billboard" complimented "Fighter" for demonstrating that Aguilera "[has] got the goods to rise above what so many lesser acts depend on for celebrity." On behalf of the same publication, Andrew Unterberger wrote that "Fighter" and "Can't Hold Us Down" are two tracks that helped "expand audience expectations of her image and sound." Digital Spy's Nick Levine named it a "strutting arena rock" song, while Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic simply called it "great." "The New York Times" editor Kelefa Sanneh positively viewed the track's theme as "fearless" and "full of mildly rebellious rhetoric." On a less positive side, BBC Music's Jacqueline Hodges called the song "hilarious", while Jancee Dunn from "Rolling Stone" wrote that the song "is a sterile foray into rock."

Chart performance.

In the United States, "Fighter" debuted at number 61 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart on April 12, 2003, becoming the week's best-debuting single. In the following week, it jumped to number 56. On the issue dated April 26, 2003, the single charted at number 46. In its fourth week charting, "Fighter" raised to number 38. The single grew ten positions, charting at number 28 on May 10. On May 17, 2003, it charted at number 22. "Fighter" finally peaked at number 20 in its seventh week charting, becoming Aguilera's ninth top-twenty hit on the chart. On the Pop Songs chart, it peaked at number five. The single also peaked at number 28 on the Adult Pop Songs. On November 1, 2003, "Fighter" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping more than 500,000 copies in the country. As of August 2014, the single has sold 1,184,000 million digital units in the United States. On the Canadian Singles Chart, it peaked at number three.  Throughout Europe, "Fighter" also attained moderate success on charts, peaking within the top 15 in most of the countries where it charted. It reached number 11 in Belgium (Flanders) and Switzerland, number 12 in Norway and Sweden, number 13 in Germany, and number 15 in Denmark, Italy and Spain. In Hungary, it peaked at number 8 on the Mega Top 100 Singles. The single also reached the top five in the Netherlands. On the UK Singles Chart, "Fighter" was a commercial success, peaking at number three and remained there for 13 weeks, becoming the longest-running single from "Stripped" on the chart. As of February 2013, "Fighter" has sold 159,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The single also garnered success in Australia and New Zealand, peaking at number five and 14 respectively in the two regions. Due to its chart success in Australia, the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) certified "Fighter" gold for its shipments of 35,000 copies there.

Music video.

The music video for "Fighter" was directed by Floria Sigismondi, who revealed that it would display Aguilera "like I don't think she's been portrayed before". On March 10, 2003 and March 12, 2003 the video was filmed in Los Angeles, California and was inspired by the director's signature dark theatrics and the life circle of moths. Sigismondi explained the theme and plot of the clip to MTV News: "The song is sort of about transformation, so I took that in a nature kind of way, the way nature deals with transformation. It's basically about coming from a very poisoned place to an empowerment, a place of strength. I've always had this fear of moths, and I subconsciously wrote this thing with these moths in it, so I guess I have to deal with it. They're furry and they carry dust. I found out in old mythology they are supposed to represent the soul. I think that's very appropriate".  The video begins with Aguilera wearing a black velvet kimono, with a pale complexion and long black hair, refers to a larva. Initially, she is trapped in a glass box, and her kimono is billowing like a balloon. Three Gothic ballerinas eat fruit and then collapse. Aguilera then breaks free from the box by pounding on it until it shatters. She furiously removes three moth pins from her back, and then tosses aside her kimono. A tattered, white, moth-covered dress is revealed, symbolizing her metaphoric evolution from the larva to a pupa. In addition, her hair becomes white, and moths fly around her. Intercut scenes of moths and Aguilera's blue eyes are then shown. Near the end, Aguilera wears an Elvira-type spider dress, again proclaiming that she is a "fighter" before kicking at the camera.  The music video for "Fighter" garnered numerous awards. At the 2003 Belgian TMF Awards, the clip won Best Video International. It garnered Aguilera and Sigismondi a Juno Award for Video of the Year at the 2004 ceremony, which was held at Rexall Place in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It also earned four MVPA Awards for Best Pop Video, Best Cinematography, Best Make-Up and Best Styling in a Video in 2004, held at Orpheum Theater in Los Angeles, California.

Live performances.

Aguilera performed "Fighter" on a number of shows. The singer performed the song for the first time on "Saturday Night Live" on March 15, 2003. Aguilera also performed "Fighter" at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards, held at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on August 28, 2003, in a medley with "Dirrty".<ref name="mtvvma"

"Fighter" is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album, "Stripped" (2002). The song was written by Aguilera and Scott Storch, and produced by the latter. It was released by RCA Records as the third single from "Stripped" on March 13, 2003. Inspired by Guns N' Roses' song "November Rain", "Fighter" was characterized as a hybrid of rock and R&B that incorporates elements of arena rock and rock and roll. The track sees Aguilera thanking a man who had done wrong to her for making her a "fighter."

Fighter ist die dritte Single aus Christina Aguileras zweitem Studioalbum "Stripped". Das Lied wurde 2003 als Single veröffentlicht und erreichte Platz zwanzig in den US-amerikanischen Billboard Hot 100, wo es Aguileras neunte Top-20-Single wurde. "Fighter" erreichte Platz drei in Großbritannien und Kanada und Platz fünf in Australien.


History.

The town is capital of the Luhya kingdom of Wanga. King Nabongo Mumia, who came to power in 1880, was the last sovereign king of Wanga. He was succeeded by his son Shitawa who ruled after his death in 1949 till the late seventies. He then was succeeded by Mumia II who is currently in power. His role remains largely non executive, but the royal family draws taxes from the trade that goes on in the county council of Mumias, which is to date still regarded as the seat of power. This includes taxes from the Mumias Sugar Company. The family still owns the land in the county although bits and pieces have been sold off to private developers. The entire Royal Family is still very closely linked to the choices of political leaders in the region as well as to their royal ties of the Abashitsetse clan. Each family has its own meetings (families keep the family tree with major families arising from the last sovereign Wanga government, with the brothers of King Mumia forming the Patriarchal Heads of the family). One other very noticeable family is the Kadima family. Mumias has a noticeable Muslim community, unique in western Kenya. It derives from trade links between Wanga state and coastal Kenya.  The town was known as "Lureko" until it was renamed Mumias.  The Nabongo Cultural Centre in Matungu showcasing the Wanga Kingdom was opened in the outskirts of Mumias in 2008, near the traditional homestead of Wanga kings (Nabongos).

Mosque.

The area of Lukoye has a mosque called "Sheikh Khalifa Mosque", which was built in 1991 with Kuwaiti assistance.

Mumias is a town in Kakamega County of Kenya. The town has an urban population of 116,358 (2009 census). Mumias was the center of the Mumias District. The town is linked by road to Kakamega (in east), Busia (west), Bungoma (north), Butere (south). The village of Buchinga is located between Mumias and Kakamega.

Mumias ist eine Kleinstadt im Kakamega County im Westen von Kenia, zwischen Mount Elgon und dem Victoriasee gelegen. Mumias hat inklusive der semi-urbanen Außenbezirke Ekero, Lureko, Matawa und die Siedlungen um die Zuckerfabrik ca. 64.000 Einwohner. Direkt in der Stadt leben rund 23.000 Einwohner. Bis zu deren Auflösung war Mumias die Hauptstadt der Mumias Division im Butere/Mumias District.


Early life.

Born in Prince Edward Island, Canada, Simpson moved with his family to Oneida County, New York when he was six. Although he did poorly in school, he was very intelligent and a voracious reader. During the Civil War, he served in the Illinois Volunteer Infantry, but was discharged for medical reasons.  After the war, Simpson moved to Indiana, where he signed on as a deckhand on a steamship that traversed the Great Lakes. By the time he had risen to the position of captain, he had married and started a family. Deciding to live a more stationary life, he moved to Jackson County, Kansas and bought himself a farm.

Later life.

He married in 1870. In the late 1870s, a combination of hard times for farming in general and the death of his child in a sawmill accident drove Simpson to move south, to Barber County, Kansas, where he bought a ranch and a herd of cattle.  In late 1883 and early 1884, a long, hard winter killed his entire herd, and Simpson was reduced to working as the town marshal in Medicine Lodge, Kansas. It was during this time that Simpson, angry at his plight, first involved himself in politics, becoming an organizer for the Union Labor Party, a local offshoot of the defunct Greenback Party (of which he had been a member). He ran as their candidate for the state legislature in 1886 and 1888, but was defeated by the T. A. McNeal of the state's dominant Republican Party.  In 1889, the price of corn, the state's principal crop, dropped precipitously, and it was burned as fuel all across Kansas. Seizing the moment, remnants of the Farmers' Alliance organized into the People's Party, and Simpson joined on. At the convention of the Kansas People's Party, Simpson was easily nominated as the Party's candidate for Congress.  Simpson's Republican opponent was Colonel J. R. Hallowell, an attorney for a railroad who campaigned from the back of a private rail car. Simpson, campaigning on a populist platform of public ownership of railroads, a graduated income tax, the abolition of national banks, and universal suffrage, denounced Hallowell as a pampered scion of wealth whose feet were "encased in fine silk hosiery." Hallowell fired back that having silk socks was better than having none at all. With the help of populist campaigner Mary Elizabeth Lease, Simpson won a new nickname, "Sockless Jerry," and an 8,000-vote margin of victory in the race.  In Congress, Simpson was a forceful advocate for populist causes and became nationally known as the party's congressional leader. In 1892, he was re-elected by a slim 2,000-vote majority, running slightly behind James Weaver, the party's presidential nominee, who had also managed to seize the Democratic ballot line in Kansas. By 1894, however, the party's fortunes had already started to wane, and he was turned out of office in favor of Republican Chester I. Long in a close race.  Undaunted, Simpson returned in 1896, running hard against Long and upsetting him to win back his House seat. It didn't last, however, and Long defeated him once again in the election of 1898.  Deciding that he had lost his taste for farming, Simpson moved to New Mexico and took up real estate. A few years later, he suffered a debilitating brain aneurysm. Realizing that he probably didn't have much time left, he boarded a train back to Kansas. He died in a Wichita hospital on October 23, 1905. He is interred in Maple Grove Cemetery, Wichita.

Jeremiah Simpson (March 31, 1842 – October 23, 1905), nicknamed "Sockless Jerry" Simpson, was an American politician from the U.S. state of Kansas. An old-style populist, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives three times. He was a Georgist and former greenbacker.

Jeremiah „Jerry“ Simpson (* 31. März 1842 auf Prince Edward Island, Kanada; † 23. Oktober 1905 in Wichita, Kansas) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1891 und 1895 und nochmals von 1897 bis 1899 vertrat er den siebten Wahlbezirk des Bundesstaates Kansas im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Geography.

The municipality is divided into 5 popular councils (wards or quarters), named after the most important towns, which are: Melena del Sur, Mañalich, Guara, Lechuga and Monte-Zapote. Its population exceeds 20,000 inhabitants of whom about half live in the town.  In the beach area just live few permanent residents and then some fishermen, it is usually a recreation area. With the holiday season, during the months of July and August this move to a large number of people seeking the enjoyment of the water in the company of family and friends. The start of the holiday season is marked by activities organized by the inauguration of the Government in the locality.

History.

The foundation date is from the first years of the second part of the 18th century. In 1768 is the origin in terrain of the llanura of Güines, in the Corral «Melena del Sur» o «San Juan». The 14 of January 1878 is marked the "Ayuntamiento of Melena del Sur", and reorganized in the year 1899.  Foundation: There are several versions regarding the meaning of the name Melena, which is home to some Greek (Melaine: black) and was the predominant color of some of its most fertile land. Most likely due to the name of a place of early settlers who founded the San Juan de Melena corral, where he later built the first house, which led to the current town. Still debate about whether it was on its shores or in neighboring Batabanó where he first founded the city of Havana in 1515 before being transferred to the northern coast. As a result, the municipal coat of arms is the Latin phrase "HAVANA PRIMO HIC EST CONDIT", i.e.: Here was first founded Havana.  On the local People's Power Municipal is the direction of local government and is composed of several units which yield information on the progress of work as the economy, services, sports, culture, recreation, etc. Relations of solidarity with the City of La Oliva of Spain, who go to the island to support different tasks alongside people.  For Mañalich and Guara, crossing the railroad oldest Cuba and Latin America, which originally reported the cities of San Cristobal de Havana and St. Julian of the Güines, it now extends to the city of Cienfuegos, and is connected to the circuit northern railways.

Economy.

The municipality's economy is almost entirely composed of the Agricultural Crops Enterprise, followed by UBPC, CPA and CCS that comprise the Company and Agricultural Gregorio Arlee Mañalich emerged following the demise of its objects in such company as Agro-Industry (2006–2007) and his commitment to agricultural development just like the UBPC, CPA and CCS it. There are farms engaged in animal fattening and poultry are birds, pigs, turkeys, etc. and intensified breeding cattle by other institutions.

Education.

In order to Education, the municipality has an integrated system to ensure development of primary, secondary, middle and upper level, plus the emergence of the University of municipalization where three sites are responsible for the preparation of students in different degrees.  The Municipality has two polytechnic institutes where students are studying technical courses such as Accounting, Construction and other related specialties Agriculture among others. Among the pre-university is the Institute of Vocational Sciences Studienkolleg Félix Varela. In each classroom of the different centers are located enseñansa a television crew to be able to provide through this medium the teleclases a different student. In addition, each school has at least one computer lab to enhance the teaching of learners.

Health.

The development of Public Health is taking booming at the moment as part of the tasks undertaken by the Cuban Government to improve this system. With the existence of a home where the Mother is given to pregnant women who have problems during pregnancy, a physiotherapy room, a polyclinic with equipment to perform ultrasound, Rayos X, a clinical laboratory, a small recovery room for patients for their needs should be a short time lodging, plus an intensive care room equipped with modern technology for these purposes.  The Municipal Policlinico medical services on call 24 hours a day as well as laboratory services and Rays "X" and intensive care. The unification of the Central Municipal Ambulance Provincial with the Network helps ensure a better service in the care of emergencies.

Culture.

For the enjoyment and recreation of its inhabitants the Directorate of Culture has various libraries scattered localities in the municipality, as well as a House of Culture, the Melena del Sur Municipal Museum and an Art Gallery.

Melena del Sur is a town and a municipality located south of the Mayabeque Province, in Cuba. Bordered on the north and northwest by San José de las Lajas, on the east by the municipality of Güines, and west by Batabanó and by the south by the Gulf of Batabanó. In the south shore is located the only beach in the town, Mayabeque Beach. In this beach is the old outlet of the Mayabeque River (called Antiguo Mayabeque).

Melena del Sur ist ein Municipio und eine Stadt in der kubanischen Provinz Mayabeque. Bis 2010 gehörte das Municipio zur aufgelösten Provinz La Habana. Es zählt 20.646 Einwohner auf einer Fläche von 228,46 km2, was einer Bevölkerungsdichte von 91,0 Einwohnern je Quadratkilometer entspricht.


Life and career.

Ledgerwood was born in 1959 in the small farming community of Brazil, Indiana and identified as an artist from an early age. Her Midwest upbringing informed the sense of space and light in her early landscape-related work and her later use of craft and decorative forms relates to being from, in her words, a "family of quilters." Ledgerwood attended the Art Academy of Cincinnati (BFA, 1982), where she met her future husband, artist Tony Tasset. After graduating, she enrolled at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC), attracted by that city's balance of affordability, available large studio spaces, and connection to the larger art world. At SAIC, she studied under artists Christina Ramberg and Phil Hanson, among others, earning an MFA in 1984.  Ledgerwood was part of a conceptually oriented group of Chicago artists that embraced theory and a global, rather than regional, view of the art world, distinguishing them from the earlier Chicago Imagists. She began exhibiting professionally in group shows at galleries such as Randolph Street and Feature in 1987–8; solo efforts at Scott Hanson Gallery (New York, 1989) and Robbin Lockett Gallery (Chicago, 1989–92) soon followed. In 1993, she began her teaching career at SAIC; she joined the Department of Art, Theory and Practice at Northwestern University in 1995, and was tenured in 2002. She has served as the department's Director of Graduate Studies and is the Alice Welsh Skilling Professor of Art. Ledgerwood has continued to exhibit widely, at galleries including Häusler Contemporary (Munich/Zurich, 2005–19), Tracy Williams Ltd. (New York, 2005–16), 1301PE (Los Angeles, 2002–19), Rhona Hoffman (Chicago, 2000–18), Feigen, Inc. (Chicago/New York, 1993–2000), and Barbara Davis (Houston, 2013–9).

Work and reception.

Ledgerwood emerged in the 1980s during a postmodern crisis of faith in painting's relevance, viability, patriarchal conceits, and commodification by the art market—issues her work addresses through a range of formal and feminist-critical strategies. Her early work investigated gender issues encoded in 19th-century landscape painting and mid-20th-century Abstract Expressionism through formal choices informed by being female. Her later work has shifted toward less referential, more direct abstraction focused on structure, light, color, decorative motifs, and physical presence and experience; it directly or indirectly references antecedents including Op Art, Matisse, Warhol, and the Pattern and Decoration movement. Critics identify as central to her work: transgressive use of color as a vehicle for content and critique; imposing scale; attention to spatial relationships between picture plane and edge and surrounding physical space; freely painted, shifting motifs of patterned basic shapes; an emphasis on performative and material aspects of painting; a phenomenological embrace of tenuousness and optical effects regarding the viewing experience.

Landscape-related abstraction (1988–1993).

Critic Kathryn Hixson described Ledgerwood's early paintings as cunningly painted "commodity object[s] of seemingly inspired, moody, atmospheric space" appropriated from the sublime traditions of Romanticism (Turner, Ryder) and color-field painting (Rothko, Newman), rather than inspired by nature. Largely monochromatic and monumental, they featured nearly uniform oil and encaustic surfaces that hovered between enveloping abstraction and irregular fields barely suggesting landscape (e.g., "Composition in Pink, Brown and Violet" or "Summer Fog", 1992), with occasional insertions of small, flat rectangles that blurred distinctions further. While traditional reviewers were sometimes less attuned to Ledgerwood's conceptual intent, others identified in her articulation of differences a subversion of conventional equations of sublime with masculine, and beauty with feminine. Maureen Sherlock suggested that Ledgerwood's canvasses restaged domestic, "demure and private gestures" in powerful, public form through their highly charged synthetic colors (pinks, roses, reds), which evoked female domains (cosmetics, the body, interior design), and intimate markmaking (dabs, finger-painting), which deflated the mythic power and profundity of Abstract-Expressionist gesture. David Pagel described the work as orchestrating a "double-sided viewing" that "surreptitiously traced the power of American abstraction back to nature" and played havoc with simplistic oppositions such as abstract/representational, pure paint/illusionism, culture/nature.

Circular-motif abstraction (1993–2002).

In the early 1990s, Ledgerwood transitioned toward patterned abstraction with directly drawn, sharper-edged circular forms that suggested shimmering light (e.g., "Blackness Light", 1992; "Rainlight", 1993) and increasingly delved into the experience of perception. This work employed monochromatic or limited palettes and dissolving grid arrangements of dots, circles or loops, creating complex, flat plays of oscillating color, tone, surface finish and figure-ground based on light conditions, viewer position and retinal effects; critics suggest that this indeterminacy introduces elements of extended time, discovery, and "unknowability" into the viewing experience. Ledgerwood explored this motif in various color palettes, combining blacks with pinks, purples, magentas and ultramarine (e.g., "Tranquilizer", 1997; "Basement Love", 1999) in a series exploring sexuality, and yellows on silver and white in another, Op-Art-like series. One of the latter works (the 17' x 35' "Groovin' on Lemon", 1995) comprised half of a temporary, site-specific installation commissioned for the new MCA Chicago building, which Ledgerwood described as "a meditation on light and rhythm." The adjacent, same-sized companion, "Groovin' on Violet", fully emerged only after a viewer's eyes adjusted, replicating the afterimage formed from viewing the other work.  In 1999, Ledgerwood presented "Cold Days", a body of work specifically created to interact with the changing winter light that would flood its January exhibition at Chicago's Renaissance Society. The show's centerpiece was a wall of five, 8' x 9' works painted in subtly modulating lilacs, pastel blues, greens, browns and metallic silvers that functioned as an environment. Bearing titles drawn from Miles Davis's "Kind of Blue" album, the paintings opened to a wide range of allusions, from pop culture, fashion and design to the glamour and effervescence of champagne bubbles to climate (brittle temperatures, the sheen of ice, winter light, whiteouts) and states of contemplation. Critics compared the work's myriad shifts between obscurity and clarity to those of the Rothko Chapel and Light and Space installations of Robert Irwin. Craig Adcock wrote that the paintings resided "between being and nonbeing, just between the abyss inside and the boundless horizon outside. The operative category is the sublime, shorn of its macho, Kantian implications." In 2002, Ledgerwood created a comparable body of work for exhibition in Los Angeles, titled "Sunny Days" (1301PE, 2002).

Patterned abstraction and wall paintings (2002– ).

Ledgerwood's later work shifted toward repeated vernacular motifs (chevron and diamond, quatrefoil, and floral patterns) and a more confrontational approach embracing discordant color, an integration of painting and drawing, and greater co-optation of architectural space, including that between painting and viewer. Michelle Grabner suggested this new work laid "bare Ledgerwood's distrust of elegance and finesse" with its contemporary, doodle-like drawing, loose Pop and quilt-like patterns, Matissean flatness, and funky interior-design palettes. "New York Times" critic Ken Johnson described later works in this vein as "paradoxical fusions of actuality and virtuality" painted with "the carefree abandon of an improvising jazz musician." He and others noted Ledgerwood's use of irregular white-bordered edges suggesting drooping, bowed tapestries or quilts pinned to walls (e.g., "Grandma's Flower Garden", 2006, above)—a reference to traditionally feminine arts—which combined with her overt decorative forms and de-stabilized grids to upend high-modernist conceits of seriousness.  Other critics, such as John Yau and Roberta Smith, have focused on an anarchic element in the work, which foregrounds imperfection and irregularity, process and messiness, humor and female sexuality, and challenges notions of the sublime and beautiful. Ledgerwood has written that a 2003 health scare prompted a reconsideration and shift in direction in her work, initially signaled—in title and form—in her show, "Ugly Beauty" (2004). Writers suggest that show's off-kilter diamond-patterned grids, unbalanced color interactions, and perspectival shifts posited a modernism reoriented toward fragility and an ungainly, lifelike mortality. Ledgerwood has frequently extended this work into architectural space, as she did in the public commission "Jour et Nuite" (Paris Metro RATP Station, 2007) and two solo shows—"Hard Jam" (Tracy Williams Ltd., New York, 2007) and "Chromatic Patterns" (Hausler Contemporary, Zürich, 2008)—that featured monumental paintings and site-specific wall painting installations. In the exhibitions, she created progressions of accumulating motifs and bands of color, with single works building to painted environments that assimilated interior architectural elements and replicated being inside a painting. Ledgerwood created variations on "Chromatic Patterns" in immense, site-specific installations at the Smart Museum of Art (2013–5), Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts (2014) and Art Institute of Chicago (2018).  In 2010s, Ledgerwood has also increasingly introduced three-dimensional elements into her practice. These include a body of smaller, simplified paintings featuring more thickly painted, iconic cruciform arrangements of circles and schematized floral shapes (e.g., "Post Punk Female Abstraction", 2010), passages of thick, viscous paint squeezed straight out of the tube, relief-like polyurethane "blob paintings," and large, painted ceramic vases.

Collections and recognition.

Ledgerwood's work belongs to the public art collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, Kunstmuseum St. Gallen (Switzerland), Hammer Museum, Chicago Public Library, Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art, Milwaukee Art Museum, and Smart Museum of Art, among others. Ledgerwood is a recipient of awards from the Richard H. Driehaus Foundation, Artadia, and Louis Comfort Tiffany foundations, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the Illinois Arts Council.

Judy Ledgerwood (born 1959) is an American abstract painter and educator, who has been based in Chicago. Her work confronts fundamental, historical and contemporary issues in abstract painting within a largely high-modernist vocabulary that she often complicates and subverts. Ledgerwood stages traditionally feminine-coded elements—cosmetic and décor-related colors, references to ornamental and craft traditions—on a scale associated with so-called "heroic" abstraction; critics suggest her work enacts an upending or "domestication" of modernist male authority that opens the tradition to allusions to female sexuality, design, glamour and pop culture. Critic John Yau writes, "In Ledgerwood’s paintings the viewer encounters elements of humor, instances of surprise, celebrations of female sexuality, forms of vulgar tactility, and intense and unpredictable combinations of color. There is nothing formulaic about her approach." Ledgerwood has exhibited widely at galleries throughout the United States and in Europe and at institutions including the Art Institute of Chicago, Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, Smart Museum of Art, and Renaissance Society. Her work belongs to the public art collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, Art Institute of Chicago, and Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, among others; a monograph, "Judy Ledgerwood", was published in 2009 by Hatje Cantz. Ledgerwood lives and works in the Chicago area with her husband, artist Tony Tasset, and teaches at Northwestern University.

Judy Ledgerwood (* 1959 in Brazil, Indiana) ist eine amerikanische Malerin, die seit den 1980er Jahren in ihren monumentalen Gemälden und Wandmalereien Licht, Farbe und Raum erforscht.


History.

The use of the practices of Vajrasattva, Mandala offering and Guru Yoga as preliminaries to the practice of anuttarayogatantra sadhanas was well established in India. In Tibet, the tradition came to include prostration practice and the accumulation of large numbers of each practice.

Outer and inner preliminaries.

In general the preliminary practices are divided into two sections or kinds: the first are the common or ordinary kind of preliminary practices, and the second are the special or extraordinary kind of preliminaries.

Outer preliminaries.

The common or ordinary preliminaries consists of a series of deep reflections or contemplations on the following four topics:  The above four contemplations are sometimes referred to as "the four reminders" or "the four mind-changers" or "the four thoughts which turn the mind towards Dharma."  Additional reflections may be included in the specific instructions on the outer preliminaries within different lineages, but the above four topics are the main reflections.  N.B.: the Four Ordinary Foundations should not be conflated with the Satipatthana.

Inner preliminaries.

The special or extraordinary kind of preliminaries consist of :  These practices purify negative deeds and accumulate merit. Traditionally ngöndro practice is done for the enlightenment of the spiritual aspirant and for the benefit of all sentient beings. That is, the merit of doing the practices is dedicated to all sentient beings. These practices can take 1,500 hours of work to accomplish once. Some practitioners do them multiple times. In retreat, that might take six months. Done mixed into daily life it might take years.

Various ngöndros.

Ngöndro is an essential practice of all schools of Tibetan Buddhism as well as the indigenous Yungdrung Bön tradition. Each of the four main schools of Tibetan Buddhism—Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma and Sakya have variations as to the order of the preliminaries, the refuge trees visualized, the lineage gurus and deities invoked, prayers etc.  Despite these differences all Ngöndro practices have as their goal the enlightenment of the practitioner so that he/she may be of the greatest benefit to all sentient beings, i.e. the cultivation of "bodhichitta". While some novices may feel that the Ngöndro are somehow "lesser" than various tantric practices, they are a complete path to enlightenment in and of themselves. The renowned Lama Patrul Rinpoche (1808–1887) is said to have practiced the Longchen Nyingthig Ngöndro repeatedly throughout his life.  Before receiving advanced tantric practices from a qualified spiritual teacher a Ngöndro usually must be completed and fully internalized. Without this foundation, practicing Tantra would be like, "planting a scorched seed, nothing will come of it." This was not the case in India or early Tibet, however, as the formalized Ngöndro known today was developed in Tibet.

Bön.

Prostrations are part of this and each practice is accumulated 100,000 times.

Kagyu.

The various subsects of the Kagyu lineage tend to practice slightly different ngöndro practices. One of the most common in the Karma Kagyu lineage, called the "Chariot for Travelling the Path to Freedom", was written by 9th Karmapa Wangchuk Dorje. The 9th Karmapa's ngöndro is used by practitioners of Diamond Way Buddhism. In the Shambhala Buddhist community, a Primordial Rigden Ngöndro written by Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche is practiced as a preliminary to various terma-derived practices received by Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche. Practitioners later go on to practice the Karma Kagyu ngöndro and in some cases one of the Nyingma ngöndro practices.  There is also a recent English transliteration of Drukpa Kargyud Ngondro written by HH Shakya Rinchen, the 9th Jey Khenpo of Bhutan, titled "The Chariot of Liberation to the Vajra Abode" with detailed footnote and important commentaries by HH Jey Tenzin Dondup, the 69th Supreme Lord Abbot of Bhutan.

Nyingma.

The Longchen Nyingthik ("Heart Essence of the Vast Expanse") is a Terma cycle revealed by the master Jigme Lingpa. Since its inception in the late 18th century, it has become one of the most widespread sets of teachings in the Nyingmapa tradition. It is particularly known and loved for its extensive commentarial literature, which includes practice manuals such as the famed Kunzang Lama'i Shelung ("Words of my Perfect Teacher").  These teachings were originally transmitted by the master Padmasambhava to King Trisong Deutsen, the Dakini Yeshe Tsogyal and the Lotsawa ("translator") Vairotsana at Samye Monastery in central Tibet. As the time for these teachings to spread was not yet right, they were then written in symbolic script by Yeshe Tsogyal, entrusted to the Dakinis, and hidden to be revealed at a later time. The king later reincarnated as the tertön ("treasure revealer") Jigme Lingpa. Then, recognizing the time was ripe for them to be practiced, put them down in writing and began to teach.  Jigme Lingpa was a reincarnation of two important masters, Vimalamitra and King Trisong Deutsen. As the embodiment of these two figures, Tibet's two primary Dzogchen lineages were combined in him—the Vima Nyingthik and Khandro Nyingthik, both of which are contained in the Nyingthik Yabshi. Hence, the Longchen Nyingthig terma cycle is considered a condensation of these profound teachings.  The texts that were revealed by Jigme Lingpa, in their present-day form, comprise three volumes, known as the Nyingthig Tsapod (). The numerous treatises, sadhanas and prayers it contains deal primarily with tantric practice, in particular the'stages of Development' () and Dzogchen.  The Nam Cho is the "sky / space treasure" terma as revealed by Terton Migyur Dorje in the Palyul tradition. This Ngöndro practice is known as "Buddha in the Palm of your Hand" and is preliminary for Dzogchen practice, where one can realize the mind's nature. Terton Migyur Dorje received them from Arya Avalokiteshvara and Guru Rinpoche and then transmitted them to Karma Chagme Rāga Asya.  The uncommon preliminaries are: Refuge, Bodhictta, Mandala Offering, Long Mandala Offering, The Kusali Chod, Vajrasattva, Guru Yoga, Phowa, Chenrezig Generation in the Six Realms. It includes "The Vajra Verses of the Nam Cho Dzogchen."

The practice of ngöndros.

Like other Vajrayana practices, ngöndro was once held in greater secrecy than today. In the first half of the 20th century, the only westerners that would have known about Ngöndro would have been Himalayan seekers such as John Blofeld, Heinrich Harrer, and Alexandra David-Neel. Today, with the spread of Tibetan Buddhism to the West, there are many practitioners working on different stages of ngöndro at the various Tibetan Buddhist centers in the West, in addition to practitioners at centers and monasteries in Tibet, Nepal, Ladakh, India and Bhutan.  Even though the practice of Ngöndro is now fully described in books available to the general public, lineage holders and lamas argue that it is pointless and counter-productive to initiate practice without receiving personal instruction from a teacher who has the required lineage training. Students may begin prostrations, the first section of the Ngöndro, in anticipation of receiving the Lung (blessing) from a qualified lama. This is especially helpful for students practicing in remote areas, and when travel is difficult.

The Tibetan term Ngöndro (, ) refers to the preliminary, preparatory or foundational practices or disciplines (Sanskrit: sādhanā) common to all four schools of Tibetan Buddhism and also to Bon. They precede the Generation stage and Completion stage.

Ngöndro (tibetisch སྔོན་འགྲོ་, Wylie "sngon ‘gro") - sind vorbereitende und grundlegende Praktiken im Vajrayana. Die Ngöndro-Praktiken sind tiefgründige und kraftvolle Mittel ("geschickte Mittel", Upaya), um unabhängig von der eigenen spirituellen Verwirklichungsstufe eine tiefgründige Heilung und Reinigung des eigenen Geistes zu bewirken. Diese Praktiken bereiten Praktizierende nicht nur auf den Pfad des Vajrayana und die Lehren des Dzogchen vor, sondern führen Praktizierende auch schrittweise zur Erfahrung von Erleuchtung.


History.

Elihu Thomson discovered that a carbon arc shunted with a series tuned circuit would "sing". This "singing arc" was probably limited to audio frequencies. Bureau of Standards credits William Duddell with the shunt resonant circuit around 1900.  The English engineer William Duddell discovered how to make a resonant circuit using a carbon arc lamp. Duddell's "musical arc" operated at audio frequencies, and Duddell himself concluded that it was impossible to make the arc oscillate at radio frequencies.  Valdemar Poulsen succeeded in raising the efficiency and frequency to the desired level. Poulsen's arc could generate frequencies of up to 200 kilohertz and was patented in 1903.  After a few years of development the arc technology was transferred to Germany and Great Britain in 1906 by Poulsen, his collaborator Peder Oluf Pedersen and their financial backers. In 1909 the American patents as well as a few arc converters were bought by Cyril Frank Elwell. The subsequent development in Europe and the United States was rather different, since in Europe there were severe difficulties for many years implementing the Poulsen technology, whereas in the United States an extended commercial radiotelegraph system was soon established with the Federal Telegraph Company. Later the US Navy also adopted the Poulsen system. Only the arc converter with passive frequency conversion was suitable for portable and maritime use. This made it the most important mobile radio system for about a decade until it was superseded by vacuum tube systems.  In 1922, the Bureau of Standards stated, "the arc is the most widely used transmitting apparatus for high-power, long-distance work. It is estimated that the arc is now responsible for 80 per cent of all the energy actually radiated into space for radio purposes during a given time, leaving amateur stations out of consideration."

Description.

This new, more-refined method for generating continuous-wave radio signals was initially developed by Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen. The spark-gap transmitters in use at that time produced damped wave which wasted a large portion of their radiated power transmitting strong harmonics on multiple frequencies that filled the RF spectrum with interference. Poulsen’s arc converter produced undamped or continuous waves (CW) on a single frequency.  There are three types for an arc oscillator:  Continuous or ‘undamped’ waves (CW) were an important feature, since the use of damped waves from spark-gap transmitters resulted in lower transmitter efficiency and communications effectiveness, while polluting the RF spectrum with interference. The Poulsen arc converter had a tuned circuit connected across the arc. The arc converter consisted of a chamber in which the arc burned in hydrogen gas between a carbon cathode and a water-cooled copper anode. Above and below this chamber there were two series field coils surrounding and energizing the two poles of the magnetic circuit. These poles projected into the chamber, one on each side of the arc to provide a magnetic field.  It was most successful when operated in the frequency range of a few kilohertz to a few tens of kilohertz. The antenna tuning had to be selective enough to suppress the arc converter's harmonics.

Keying.

Since the arc took some time to strike and operate in a stable fashion, normal on-off keying could not be used. Instead, a form of frequency shift keying was employed. In this "compensation-wave method", the arc operated continuously, and the key altered the frequency of the arc by one to five percent. The signal at the unwanted frequency was called the "compensation-wave". In arc transmitters up to 70 kW, the key typically shorted out a few turns in the antenna coil. For larger arcs, the arc output would be transformer coupled to the antenna inductor, and the key would short out a few bottom turns of the grounded secondary. Therefore, the "mark" (key closed) was sent at one frequency, and the "space" (key open) at another frequency. If these frequencies were far enough apart, and the receiving station's receiver had adequate selectivity, the receiving station would hear standard CW when tuned to the "mark" frequency.  The compensation wave method used a lot of spectrum bandwidth. It not only transmitted on the two intended frequencies, but also the harmonics of those frequencies. Arc converters are rich in harmonics. Sometime around 1921, the Preliminary International Communications Conference prohibited the compensation wave method because it caused too much interference.  The need for the emission of signals at two different frequencies was eliminated by the development of "uniwave methods". In one uniwave method, called the "ignition method", keying would start and stop the arc. The arc chamber would have a "striker" rod that shorted out the two electrodes through a resistor and extinguished the arc. The key would energize an electromagnet that would move the striker and reignite the arc. For this method to work, the arc chamber had to be hot. The method was feasible for arc converters up to about 5 kW.  The second uniwave method is the "absorption method", and it involves two tuned circuits and a single-pole, double-throw, make-before-break key. When the key is down, the arc is connected to the tuned antenna coil and antenna. When the key is up, the arc is connected to a tuned dummy antenna called the "back shunt". The back shunt was a second tuned circuit consisting of an inductor, a capacitor, and load resistor in series. This second circuit is tuned to roughly the same frequency as the transmitted frequency; it keeps the arc running, and it absorbs the transmitter power. The absorption method is apparently due to W. A. Eaton.  The design of switching circuit for the absorption method is significant. It is switching a high voltage arc, so the switch's contacts must have some form of arc suppression. Eaton had the telegraph key drive electromagnets that operated a relay. That relay used four sets of switch contacts in series for each of the two paths (one to the antenna and one to the back shunt). Each relay contact was bridged by a resistor. Consequently, the switch was never completely open, but there was a lot of attenuation.

The arc converter, sometimes called the arc transmitter, or Poulsen arc after Danish engineer Valdemar Poulsen who invented it in 1903, was a variety of spark transmitter used in early wireless telegraphy. The arc converter used an electric arc to convert direct current electricity into radio frequency alternating current. It was used as a radio transmitter from 1903 until the 1920s when it was replaced by vacuum tube transmitters. One of the first transmitters that could generate continuous sinusoidal waves, it was one of the first technologies used to transmit sound (amplitude modulation) by radio. It is on the list of IEEE Milestones as a historic achievement in electrical engineering.

Der Lichtbogensender, in seiner ausgereiften Form nach seinem Erfinder Valdemar Poulsen auch Poulsen-Sender genannt, diente zur Nachrichtenübertragung im Langwellenbereich und nutzt den negativen differentiellen Widerstand eines Lichtbogens zur Schwingungserzeugung.


History.

1363-1945.

A small Armenian church was built in the years 1363–1370, founded by an Armenian merchant from Caffa, and established as the mother church of an eparchy. It is said to have been modeled after the Cathedral of Ani in the ancient Armenian capital of Ani. In 1437 the cathedral was surrounded with an arcade gallery: today only the southern one is preserved and the northern has been rebuilt into a sacristy. After the church was damaged in a city fire in 1527, a new stone belfry was erected in 1571. In 1630 the main nave was extended, and was further rebuilt in 1723. From the 17th century until 1945, the cathedral belonged to the Armenian Catholic archdiocese of Lviv (in Polish, Lwów), as union with the Roman Catholic Church was introduced by bishop Mikołaj (Nicolas) Torosowicz and his successor, archbishop Vartan Hunanyan. The Cathedral owes most of its present-day look to a remodeling carried out in the years 1908-1927 by archbishop Józef (Joseph) Teodorowicz.

1945–present.

Lviv (named Lwów in Polish) was in the eastern part of the territory reconstituted as Poland in 1919–20; and after World War II, that portion of the territory was taken from Poland and annexed by the Soviet Union, becoming part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1945 the new Soviet authorities decided to annihilate the Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv, and arrested its last administrator, the Rev. Dionizy Kajetanowicz (murdered in the Soviet gulag in 1954) and three other priests. Almost all the Polish Armenians were expelled to the west, to modern-day Poland. The cathedral was closed, and its building was used for storing plundered sacral art. Officially, the Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv still exists, but it has remained vacant since 1938.  After the collapse of the Soviet Union, a handful of Armenian Catholic families attempted to reestablish the parish. Also the Armenians who came to Lviv during the Soviet times, belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church, sought to acquire the cathedral.  Shortly before the visit of Pope John Paul II, the local Ukrainian authorities passed the cathedral to the Armenian Apostolic Church under the condition both the Armenian Catholic and Armenian Apostolic communities could use it. An Armenian Apostolic eparchy was established in Lviv in 1997.  On 18 May 2003 the cathedral was re-consecrated by the Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II and three other Armenian Apostolic bishops. Among the guests were: speaker of the Armenian parliament Armen Khachatryan, former president of Ukraine Leonid Kravchuk, president of the Union of Armenians in Ukraine, French singer of Armenian origin Charles Aznavour with his son, Armenian actor Armen Dzhigarkhanyan and Armenian Ambassador to Ukraine Hrachya Silvanyan. Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate was represented by bishop Augustin. Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church was represented by rev. Mikhail Dymyd. In the name of the Ukrainian government the head of the Religions State Agency Victor Bondarenko was present. However, neither Polish Armenians - the former owners of the cathedral, nor Armenian Catholic Church clergymen were invited.  Since 2009 the cathedral has been in course of a renovation process, fully financed by the Polish Ministry of Culture in cooperation with the Foundation of Culture and Heritage of Polish Armenians seated in Warsaw. The works are being conducted jointly by Polish and Ukrainian specialists.

Interior and surroundings.

Just north of the Cathedral lies a small convent of Armenian Benedictines, and to the south, adjoining the bell tower, the palace of the Armenian Archbishops, both built in the late 17th century.  The present-day interior is largely the work of Jan Henryk Rosen and Józef Mehoffer. The cathedral holds two wonder-working icons of St. Gregory the Illuminator and the Mother of God, brought in the 17th century from Yazlovets.

The Armenian Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary (,, ) in Lviv, Ukraine is located in the city's Old Town, north of the market square. Until 1945 it was the cathedral of the Armenian Catholic Archdiocese of Lviv, since 2000 it serves as a cathedral of the Eparchy of Ukraine of the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Die Armenische Kathedrale in Lemberg (, /"Wirmenskyj kafedralnyj sobor") ist ein Gotteshaus der polnischen Armenier in Lemberg. Sie wurde im 14. Jahrhundert im armenischen Viertel von Lemberg vom schlesischen Baumeister Doring nach dem Vorbild der Kathedrale von Ani in der ehemaligen Hauptstadt Armeniens errichtet. Der Bau wurde von den Armeniern Jakob, Sohn des Schachinschach aus Kaffa, und Panos, Sohn des Abraham, gestiftet.