Development.

Manufactured by Fabrique Nationale d'Herstal, the FN MAG was chosen by the U.S. military for different roles after large worldwide searches and competitions. The MAG is a belt-fed, gas-operated, air-cooled, crew-served, fixed headspace general-purpose machine gun. Its versatility is demonstrated by its ability to be fired effectively from its integral bipod, mounted on a tripod, on ground vehicles, watercraft and aircraft.  It was first adopted by the U.S. Army in 1977, as a coaxial tank gun, and slowly adopted for more applications in the 1980s and 1990s. The M240 and M240E1 were adopted for use on vehicles. This led to further adoption in more uses, especially for the army and marine corps infantry. While possessing many of the same basic characteristics as its predecessor, the durability of the MAG system results in superior reliability when compared to the M60. The MAG actually has a more complex gas system than the M60, but gives better reliability combined with lower maintenance requirements, though this comes at greater manufacturing cost and weight.  Compared to other machine guns, its rating of 26,000 mean rounds between failure (MRBF) is quite high for its weight—in the 1970s when it was first adopted it achieved about 7,000 MRBF. It is not as reliable as some very heavy older designs, but it is quite reliable for its mass.

Early history: testing and adoption.

The US adoption of the MAG has its origins in the late 1960s and early 1970s as a project to procure a new coaxially mounted 7.62 mm machine gun for tanks to replace the M73 and M219 machine guns then being used. The 1950s-era M73 had been rather troubled, and the derivative M73E1/M219 was not much of an improvement. A number of designs of the period from various countries were considered; the final two candidates were the M60E2 and the FN MAG. They underwent comprehensive testing alongside the older M219 for comparison.  Two main criteria analyzed were "mean rounds between stoppages" (MRBS, malfunctions that can be cleared within minutes) and "mean rounds between failures" (MRBF, such as a part breaking). The results for the evaluated machine guns were the following:  The MAG itself underwent some improvements and the M60E2 was a specialized coaxial variant that differed from some of the other types. The qualities of the M60 variants vary considerably, such as between the M60E4 and the M60C. The clear winner was the MAG, which was designated as the M240 in 1977 after the army competition.  The M240 was adopted as the U.S. Army's standard vehicle machine gun in 1977. The Marine Corps also adopted the M240 and M240E1 for use on vehicles like the LAV-25. It then went on to replace many older types of vehicle machine guns in the 1980s. U.S. Navy SEALs continued to use the "CAR-60" (M60E3) version of the M60 machine gun due to its lighter weight and slower rate of fire, which allows a more effective duration of fire with allowable levels of ammunition carried.  The M240 proved popular enough that it was adapted by the infantry later on, as the M240G and M240B. The USMC adopted the M240G for this role in 1991, where it not only replaced the original M60s used by the Marine Corps infantry, but also the upgraded M60E3 that the Marines had started using in the 1980s. In the late 1990s, the Army adopted the M240B for the infantry role – they had considered the M60E4, which (though lighter and cheaper) did not offer commonality with the vehicle-borne M240, other FN MAG users within NATO, or the USMC.  The various versions of the M240 have not entirely replaced all the M60 versions, though they have for most main applications and roles. The M60 is still, in some cases, used by the Navy.

Operation.

Loading the M240 can be done either with the bolt forward or to the rear. If the bolt is to remain forward, the operator will then load the rounds into the feeding block (feed tray cover closed); or will open the feed tray cover, load the rounds onto the feeding tray, then close the feed tray cover. The charging handle will then be pulled to the rear, which locks the bolt to the rear. The weapon is then placed on safe and the charging handle is then placed back to the forward position (this is spring-loaded on the tank-mounted variation). The weapon is now ready for operation.  The weapon fires from the open bolt position, meaning that the bolt is held to the rear and only moves forward as it is firing a round. The firing pin is static and the bolt moves around the firing pin, circumventing any need for a hammer. A sear is used to time the internal mechanisms of the weapon to provide a consistent rate of fire, ensuring proper function and accuracy. However, firing from an open bolt also provides the possibility of an accidental discharge due to a bolt override. This happens when there is enough force for the bolt to jump over the sear and fire without the trigger being pulled. The safety on the weapon cannot stop this from happening. The safest way to protect against this is to leave the bolt forward on the weapon until the operator is ready to fire the weapon; then charge the weapon and fire.  Clearing the weapon is performed by ensuring that the bolt is locked to the rear and the weapon is on safe. The top cover is then lifted, the remaining belt (if any) is swept out of the feed tray, the feed tray is lifted to visually inspect the chamber and the face of the bolt. Any links or brass casings are removed. The weapon is now clear. In the extremely unlikely event that a live round is on the bolt face, it is knocked loose with a cleaning rod or another rigid object. If there is a live round lodged in the barrel, the operator must immediately decide if the barrel is hot enough that there is a chance of it cooking off. If there is, they will immediately move their face away from the opening of the weapon; and aiming the gun in a direction that is perceived to take the least amount of damage or casualties should the event of a cook-off occur. They will then wait for the barrel to cool off before attempting to remove it. They can also attempt to extract the round by closing the cover, taking the weapon off of safe, and pulling the trigger. This will likely cause the weapon to fire, so care is taken to ensure that the weapon is first pointed in a safe direction.  The rate of fire may be controlled by three different gas regulator settings. The first setting allows the weapon to cycle at 650–750 rounds per minute, the second setting being 750–850 rounds per minute, and the third setting being 850–950 rounds per minute. These settings are changed by dismounting the barrel, removing the gas regulator collar and turning the gas regulator to allow more or less gas to move through the weapon system. It is generally performed only when necessary to return the gun to operation after fouling has caused sluggish operation and there is no time to properly clean the weapon.  The barrels can be exchanged rapidly, thanks to a barrel release button located on the left side of the weapon. The weapon is cleared first and then the button is held down, while the barrel's carrying handle is moved from the right side of the weapon to the center, unlocking it from the receiver. At this point, the button is released and the barrel is then pulled free of the receiver and placed to the side. The new barrel is inserted into the receiver and then the carrying handle is shifted to the right, locking it into place. Headspace is set by counting the clicks as the barrel is locked down and should be between two and seven clicks.  During prolonged firing, care must be taken to not allow exposed skin to come in contact with the weapon. The barrels can become hot enough to inflict second-degree burns instantly without becoming visibly different. These hot barrels glow brightly to anyone using any sort of optics sensitive to infrared radiation, such as night vision devices.

Variants.

The manufacturer's name for the weapon is the "MAG 58". The M240 adheres to FN MAG-58 specifications, allowing parts to be interchanged with other standard MAG-58s. This has significant advantages in training, logistics support, tactical versatility, and joint operations. For example, a US unit with attached British troops could supply replacement parts for the L7s, and vice versa.

M240, M240E1, and M240C.

The M240 is adapted as a coaxial machine gun for tanks and 7.62 mm fire power on light armored vehicles. The M240 is part of the secondary armament on the U.S. Army M1 series Abrams tank, M2/M3 series Bradley Fighting Vehicle, and the U.S. Marine Corps LAV-25. The M240E1 is the US Marine Corps version of the original M240 coaxial/pintle-mounted machine gun that is used on vehicles like the LAV-25. It can also be fitted with spade grips for flexible use, like the ones from the M240D.  The "M240C" is the right-hand variant on the original coaxial (installed alongside the main weapon) M240, it is identical to the M240 except for the ammunition cover and feed tray. It has a right-handed feed for use on the M2/M3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle and LAV as the coaxial machine gun. It is fed from the left on the M1 Abrams and other M1 variant (M1A1, M1A2, M1A2 SEP) tanks. The M240C uses a charging cable instead of a charging handle, has a cut-off pistol grip and has a special paddle assembly that allows the trigger to be actuated by means of a solenoid. Since the machine gun is not meant to be handled during use, the barrel is fully exposed and must be handled with asbestos mittens during barrel changes.  The rate of fire of the M240, M240E1, and M240C can be controlled by three different gas regulator settings;

M240B.

The M240B (formerly called the M240E4) is the standard infantry medium machine gun of the U.S. Marine Corps. The US Navy and Coast Guard likewise utilize the weapon system. It is also still used by some Army units. It comes configured for ground combat with a buttstock and bipod, though it can also be mounted on tripod, ground vehicles, aircraft, aboard ships and small boats. It is almost always referred to as an "M240 Bravo" or just "240" verbally.  The M60E4 (Mk 43 as designated by the U.S. Navy) was pitted against the M240E4 (former designation of the M240B) in Army trials during the 1990s for a new infantry medium machine gun, in a competition to replace the decades-old M60s. The M240E4 won, and was then classified as the "M240B". This led to 1,000 existing M240s being sent to FN for an overhaul and a special kit that modified them for use on ground (such as a stock, a rail, etc.). This led to procurement contracts in the late 1990s for the all-new M240B. However, a new feature was added, a hydraulic buffer system to reduce the felt recoil as incorporated in the M60. While the M240B had been more reliable in the tests, it was a few pounds heavier than the M60E4, which led to the development of the lighter M240L machine gun. The Army M240 converted to the M240B configuration should not be confused with the large numbers of M240/E1 converted to the M240G configuration for the Marine Corps.  In the Marine Corps, the M240G is the predecessor of the M240B. The main differences between the two machine-gun variations is the Picatinny rail system, hydraulic buffer inside of the butt stock to reduce the amount of recoil felt by the gunner, and the number of gas settings on the gas regulator plug. The M240G has three gas settings, allowing the machine gun to have a fire rate between 650–950 rounds per minute depending on the setting selected, whereas the M240B only has one setting, restricting the fire rate to between 550 and 650 rounds per minute. The smaller gas port used on the M240B slows down the rate of fire, which increases the longevity of the machine gun by reducing stresses on the action. A side effect is a weapon that will not fire when extremely dirty as the energy on the piston is reduced. The Marine Corps relies on fire discipline among its machine gunners to not set it to the largest port unless required.  The M240B is being tested with a new adjustable buttstock that may replace the current stock of the M240B. The lighter M240L has started to replace the M240B in U.S. Army service. The Marine Corps is observing the progress of the M240L, but feels it is too expensive for adoption. The corps is instead looking to upgrade the M240 barrel through several ways, including carbon fiber coatings, new alloys, or ceramic liners, to lighten and strengthen the barrel. The goal would be a barrel that would not need to be changed, would weigh the same, but decrease heat retention, lessen warping, and eliminate cook-offs. They are also interested in incorporating a suppressor into the barrel, rather than having to attach one, to reduce the sound of shots and make it difficult to determine where the gunner is located.

M240D.

The M240D is an upgrade of the M240E1, primarily in the addition of an optical rail on the receiver cover. It has two possible configurations: aircraft and egress (ground). In the aircraft configuration, the M240D has a front and rear sight and a trigger group which accommodates the spade grip device, while the ground configuration involves the installation of an egress package or "infantry modification kit", which is designed to provide downed aircrew personnel with increased firepower. The egress package contains a buttstock assembly, a buffer assembly, a bipod assembly, and a conventional trigger assembly.  The M240D is issued for aircraft configuration. The barrel assembly contains a three position gas plug. The first gas plug position allows the weapon to cycle at 650–750 rounds per minute (RPM), the second gas plug positions allows the weapon to fire at 750–850 rounds per minute (RPM), and the third gas plug position allows the weapon to fire at 850–950 rounds per minute (RPM). The aircraft configured M240D weighs 25.6 lb (11.6 kg) and is 42.3 in (1074.42 mm) long, while the egress configuration weighs 26.2 lb (11.9 kg) and is 49 in (1244.6 mm) long.

M240H.

The M240H (formerly designated as the M240E5) is an improvement of the M240D, the M240H features a rail-equipped feed cover, an improved flash suppressor, and has been configured so that it can be more quickly converted to infantry standard using an Egress Kit. The M240H has an overall length of 41.6 in (1056.6 mm) with a 21.7 in (551.2 mm) barrel and weighs empty, and has a rate of fire of 550–650 rounds per minute (RPM). The M240H entered service in 2004 on U.S. Army helicopters. It is equipped with dual spade grips and thumb-activated trigger systems, and can be quickly converted for dismounted infantry use via an egress components kit that includes a bipod and conventional pistol grip trigger module.

M240N.

The M240N is designed with a front and rear sights, and configured specifically for mounting on water craft. It is similar to the M240G, but lacks the integral bipod. It also uses the hydraulic buffer of the M240B, and features the lower cyclic rate of fire of the M240B which is around 550–650 rounds per minute (RPM).

M240G.

The M240G allows for commonality throughout the Marine Corps whether the weapon is used in an infantry, vehicular, or airborne role. The M240G is the ground version of the original M240 or M240E1, 7.62 mm medium class weapon designed as a coaxial/pintle-mounted machine gun for tanks and LAVs. The M240G can be modified for ground use by the installation of an "infantry modification kit" (a flash suppressor, front sight, carrying handle for the barrel, a buttstock, infantry length pistol grip, bipod, and rear sight assembly). The M240G lacks a front heat guard, and as such is a few pounds lighter than the M240B, weighing in at. The rate of fire of the M240G can be controlled by three gas settings. On gas setting one the weapon will fire at 650–750 rounds per minute, on gas setting two the weapon will fire at 750–850 rounds per minute, and on gas setting three the weapon will fire at 850–950 rounds per minute. The size of the gas port increases resulting in greater energy being delivered to the action. Use at high settings induces added stresses on the action and results in a shorter service life of the weapon. It gives the operator an ability to adjust the gas bleed to the action. This also allows the weapon to continue firing when very dirty from sustained use in combat conditions when it may be otherwise rendered inoperable due to an extremely dirty and dry action.

M240L.

The M240L (M240 Lima), formerly the M240E6 is the product of the M240B weight reduction program which reduces the weight of the existing M240B by. To achieve 18% weight savings, the M240L incorporates titanium construction and alternative manufacturing methods for fabricating major components. The resulting improvements reduced the soldier's combat load while allowing easier handling and movement of the weapon. The M240L may replace the M240B in U.S. Army service. It was type classified in the fourth quarter of fiscal year 2010.  Titanium was used to make the receiver body, front sight post, and carrying handle while maintaining steel operating system components. Manufacture had to be adjusted because titanium takes longer to machine than steel and requires more frequent replacement of tooling bits; more pliable stainless steel rivets were used, and the receiver was coated with boron and chrome carbo-nitride coatings with a ceramic-based top coat to preserve it under extreme operating temperatures. The M240L weighs with a standard-length barrel and standard stock, and weighs with a shorter barrel and collapsible stock. The short barrel is shorter than a standard M240 barrel, and with the collapsible stock the M240L can be made shorter. The smaller and lighter variant of the M240L is the M240P, which is still in a testing phase in Afghanistan. The M240P is not used as often as its predecessors. The Army initially bought 4,500 M240Ls, and plans to buy 12,000 total. Although the M240L has good reliability, it is still heavy for LMG Role.  M240L 7.62 mm medium machine gun (light) specifications:

Derivatives.

Barrett 240LW.

The Barrett 240LW (Light Weight) program has its design roots in the original U.S. Army solicitation for a lighter M240 medium machine gun in 2010. The program called for a much lighter version of the M240, while keeping the same familiar open bolt design that the machine gun is world-renowned for. This was formally known as the M240B Weight Reduction Program, or the M240E6. The results of that solicitation ended with the adoption of the M240L by the U.S. Army. By producing the receiver out of titanium, instead of steel, FN delivered a light-weight solution by trimming the weight of the M240B by 5.5 pounds, or an 18 percent weight reduction of the original machine gun, giving it an overall weight of 22.3 pounds. The Lima is in limited service with the U.S. Army.  Although Barrett did not participate in the solicitation program, the company felt that it could produce an equivalent weight reduction by more efficient manufacturing methods instead of simply switching to the much more expensive titanium receiver. In addition, the company makes the point that the majority of worldwide titanium reserves are coming from Russia and China. Should relations between the United States and these countries sour, it would become much harder to find sources of titanium. Thus Barrett designed the 240LW series, keeping the standard M240 technical data package, while more efficiently manufacturing the receiver.  The Barrett 240LW is a general-purpose machine gun capable of mounting on a bipod, tripod, aircraft, or vehicle. It is belt fed, air-cooled, gas operated, fully automatic and fires from an open bolt. It features an adjustable buttstock with a hydraulic buffer, feed pawls, a fluted quick detach barrel, a new handguard with Keymod attachments, a new quick detach titanium bipod, adjustable carrying handle, a rivetless receiver, and a three position gas regulator.  Barrett 240LW 7.62 mm medium machine gun specifications:

Barrett 240LWS.

The Barrett 240LWS (Light Weight Short) gas operated, belt fed, open bolt, medium machine gun is a shortened variant of the 240LW program. The design concept of this variant is to produce a viable medium machine gun that would serve in a special operations capacity, where a small team of operators could maximize a medium machine gun by having it in a shorter and lighter package than its big brother, the 240LW, or the equivalent M240B. This follows in the footsteps of the Mk 48 and the M60E6 medium machine guns, also designed for the small unit role. The Mk 48 is a variant of the M249 LMG, scaled up to chamber 7.62×51mm NATO; it has come across some issues in its service life; it was never designed to be a general-purpose machine gun, while the M60E6 arguably came too late to make a difference in USMC and US Army general machine gun adoption, being that the M240 design was well standardized within the DoD ranks. Both offerings are more focused on Special Operations in US Service.  The Barrett 240LWS features a removable and telescoping buttstock, that has six adjustable positions. It differs from the buttstock of the 240LW by being half of its size in length, and doesn't have a polymer cheek piece. There are two telescoping rods that allows the buttstock to be extended to the desired position, when depressed from the top portion. The rods have indentations on them, which lock into positional latches within the rear of the buttstock. The hydraulic buffer is permanently encased within the stock and is necessary for recoil reduction from the reciprocating movement of the bolt group. Early prototypes had steel QD sling sockets on both sides of the stock, however current production versions will have solid steel sling loops on either side of it. This is to alleviate any damage that may occur to a sling mounted on the QD socket, and the amount of stress that it could take while carrying the machine gun. It also features a Picatinny rail that is longer compared to the Picatinny rail of the M240 machine guns, and where the Barrett M107A1 rear sight can be mounted and other various optics. The design of the feed tray cover hinge has been altered to be in the shape of a hexagon, thus allowing for the feed tray cover to be able to stay open while at a 45 degree angle to the receiver, while the machine gunner is loading a belt of ammunition. The feed tray has also been altered, with two protruding spring-loaded teeth which can bend in the direction of the ammunition belt. These teeth allows the operator to securely place a belt of ammunition on the feed tray, while at an upright angle, and not have the belt slip out while closing the cover. In addition they allow the operator to be able to squeeze the front of the belt into a closed cover because the teeth only bends in the direction of the belt, and the belt will pass over them, then the teeth will click upwards, thus locking the belt in place. Another click forward, and the belt of ammunition will be in place to fire. This allows the operator to feed a belt of ammunition into his 240LWS without ever having to possibly expose his position or line of sight, by opening the feed tray cover.  The position of the pistol grip and firing control group has been redesigned to make the 240LWS even shorter than the 240LW. With this, Barrett moved the entire grip forward by about four inches, to where the front of the trigger guard is at a right angle to the ejection port. By moving the fire control group forward, the overall length can be shortened because the machine gunner no longer needs a traditionally longer stock to compensate for the original position of the pistol group, towards the very rear portion of the receiver. Instead of the operator using a cheek weld on the stock, the operator can now rest his face against the actual receiver of the machine gun, it also allows the operator to have a closer fit of the weapon. But by doing this, the bolt had to be modified accordingly, because the original location of the sear is no longer there. Barrett had to move the position of the sear catch on the bolt to further down the length of it. The bolt group is still the same as the original M240 design, with the exception of the position of the sear catch. Though moving the grip forward took away the ability to connect the LWS to the standard pintle adapter from the M192, Barrett made available as part of the system a new adjustable pintle adapter that works with both made by Military Systems Group. As of July 2017, it is not yet clear if that adapter is compatible with the M192 or M122 Traverse and Elevation (T&E) mechanism. However, the primary intended use of the LWS is not to be mounted, but instead being a part of a small man team that needs the additional firepower while on a foot patrol.  It still features a non-reciprocating bolt handle, a fluted quick detachable barrel and features a quick flip-up sight, a three position gas regulator similar to the M240G's gas regulator, a standard M240 muzzle compensator, quick detach titanium bipod that has three positions, and a new redesigned handguard which no longer contacts the gas tube, minimizing heat transfer to the handguard. Unlike the current M240's solution of minimizing the heat transfer, Barrett uses a free floating handguard system, where they bolted the handguard directly to the receiver of the machine gun, instead of to the gas tube assembly. The handguard also has Keymod rail sections at the 3, 6, and 9 o'clock positions, with the side sections being separated from the bottom by a gripping surface for the operator.  Barrett 240LWS 7.62 mm medium machine gun specifications:

The M240, officially the Machine Gun, 7.62 mm, M240, is the US military designation for the FN MAG ("Mitrailleuse A Gaz", "gas-operated machine gun"; alternatively, "Mitrailleuse d'Appui General" "machine gun, support, general"), a family of belt-fed, gas-operated medium machine guns that chamber the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge.

Das M240 ist die Bezeichnung des US-Militärs für die FN MAG Familie von zuschießenden Allzweckmaschinengewehren mit Gasdrucklader. Die Waffe hat eine Gurtzuführung und verschießt Patronen des Kalibers 7,62 × 51 mm NATO. Das M240 wird von den Streitkräften der Vereinigten Staaten seit den späten 1970ern benutzt.


Life and work.

Frederick Lane Sandback was born in Bronxville, New York where, as a young man, he made banjos and dulcimers. He majored in philosophy at Yale University (BA, 1966) before studying sculpture at Yale School of Art (MFA, 1969) where he studied with, among others, visiting instructors Donald Judd and Robert Morris.  Sandback is primarily known for his Minimalist works made from lengths of colored yarn. The artist's early interest in stringed musical instruments led him to make dulcimers and banjos as a teenager. In 1967, he produced the sculpture that would establish the terms of his mature work. Using string and wire, he outlined the shape of a 20-foot-long 2-by-4 board lying on the floor. Though he employed metal wire and elastic cord early in his career, the artist soon dispensed with mass and weight by using acrylic yarn. His yarn, elastic cord, and wire sculptures define edges of virtual shapes that ask the viewer's brain to perceive the rest of the form. In that way his work can be considered visionary or imaginative, as well as minimal and literal. Indeed, Sandback was fond of installing "corner" pieces whose shadows assist with this form completion process. In describing his work he stated, "It's a consequence of wanting the volume of sculpture without the opaque mass that I have the lines." and "I did have a strong gut feeling from the beginning though, and that was wanting to be able to make sculpture that didn't have an inside." Sandback himself referred to his sculptures operating in pedestrian space, acknowledging both the viewer’s movement through a space and as something to be engaged actively.

Exhibitions.

Sandback's first one-person exhibitions were at the Galerie Konrad Fischer, Düsseldorf, and the Galerie Heiner Friedrich, Munich, both in 1968, while the artist was still a graduate student. Following this debut, Sandback exhibited widely his minimalist sculptures and prints in the United States, Europe and elsewhere. His artwork was included in the 1968 Annual Exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Biennale of Sydney in 1976, and the Seventy-third American Exhibition at the Art Institute of Chicago in 1979. In 2003, several large Sandback sculptures were permanently installed at in Beacon, New York. That same year, Sandback created "Mikado (Sculptural Study for the Pinakothek der Moderne)" as site-specific at the then newly opened Pinakothek der Moderne.  Sandback's work was the subject of an extensive survey exhibition organized in 2005 by the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, Vaduz (which traveled to the Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh and the Neue Galerie am Joanneum, Graz, in 2006). His work is represented in many public collections including the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, Museum für Moderne Kunst, Frankfurt am Main, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.

Recognition.

Sandback was one of a small group of avant garde artists sponsored by the Dia Art Foundation. In 1981 the Dia Art Foundation initiated and maintained a museum of his work, The Fred Sandback Museum in Winchendon, Massachusetts, which was closed in 1996. Dia presented exhibitions of his works in 1988 and in 1996–97. In 2007 the Fred Sandback Archive, a non-profit organization was established primarily to create and maintain an archival resource on Sandback's work. At Christie's New York, his four-part installation "Untitled" (1968) was sold for $266,500 in November 2010.

Bibliography (selected).

A complete exhibition history and bibliography is available online at fredsandbackarchive.org.

Fred Sandback (August 29, 1943 – June 23, 2003) was a minimalist conceptual-based sculptor known for his yarn sculptures, drawings, and prints. His estate is represented by David Zwirner, New York.

Fred Sandback (* 29. August 1943 in Bronxville, New York; † 23. Juni 2003 in New York City) war ein US-amerikanischer Künstler, der dem Minimalismus zugeordnet werden kann.


History.

The railway was built by the government of the Cape Colony between 1890 and 1906, to connect the Langkloof fruit growing industry with the new port at Port Elizabeth. The section of line between Humewood Road and Humansdorp was opened for public traffic on 1 November 1905.  In 1903 a request was laid before the then government in order to add a branch line to Patensie. This branch was commissioned on 3 April 1914.  In 1906 a branch line was opened to the Port Elizabeth's suburb Walmer and in 1928 a twelve mile long private branch was constructed to the Eastern Province Cement Company (EPCC).

Passenger traffic.

Scheduled trains.

Scheduled passenger trains were discontinued in the 1940s, although limited space was available on scheduled freight trains until the mid-1970s.

Walmer Branch.

From 1906 to 1928 a passenger only branch line, from Valley junction near Port Elizabeth, to the suburb of Walmer, serviced up to 22 trains a day between Port Elizabeth and the terminus at 14th Avenue in Walmer. It was closed as a result from competition from a bus service.

Apple Express.

The line was best known for its tourist train, the Apple Express, which commenced operations in 1965 to Loerie, later to Thornhill or Van Stadens River, the highest two foot narrow-gauge railway bridge in the world. The motive power for the Apple Express was retained as steam, normally a SAR NGG16 Class Garratt. The Apple Express ceased operations in 2011.  Today, there is a new effort to restore a partial, limited, service in 2016 / 2017 from Port Elizabeth to Van Stadens Station – if not Thornhill - with two NG/G15 and one NG/G16 Garratt along with a fleet of passenger cars under restoration inside the former Humewood Road narrow Gauge diesel depot in Port Elizabeth.  From 2011 onward a volunteer team undertook the restoration of the NG15 NG119 steam locomotive, returning the locomotive to running order during 2017. Restoration of the NG15 NG124 steam locomotive was started in 2016.  After running a test Apple Express train on the 24th of December 2017, using the restored NG15 NG119 locomotive, the Apple Express started running a summer holiday special service between King's Beach halt and a point near the Airport.

Freight traffic.

Fruit and agriculture.

The presence of the railway contributed significantly to the development of agriculture in the Lankloof and Gamtoos Valley, enabling farmers to transport their produce conveniently to the warehouses and harbour at Port Elizabeth. Unfortunately, agricultural transport was lost due to competition from road haulage.

Limestone.

In the 1920s a limestone quarry was opened near Loerie to serve the Eastern Province Cement Company (EPCC) in New Brighton near Port Elizabeth via the EPCC owned private line branching off at Chelsea. The limestone traffic ceased in 2001 when the quarries were closed.

Operations.

The railway was operated by the South African national railway company Spoornet.  As the South African Government has deregulated the road transport industry, a large amount of traffic has moved from the railway to the roads. Spoornet has hence designated the line as "low density," and always had the threat of closure hanging over it.  After all major freight traffic ceased, only the tourist train Apple Express continued operations but finally ceased in 2011.  In 2014 AER Management was working to recommence running trains and targeting for Phase 1 (Port Elizabeth to Van Stadens Station – if not Thornhill) to be operating in 2016 / 2017. The goal was to provide a scheduled passenger service to the new multi-billion rand Bay West Mall about 22 km from Port Elizabeth. Scheduled heritage tourism trains will also be run on a day trip basis, with the vision being to have the whole line (285 km) running within two years of Phase 1 becoming operative.  After running a test Apple Express train on the 24th of December 2017, using the restored NG15 NG119 locomotive, the Apple Express started running a summer holiday special service between King's Beach halt and a point near the Airport

Motive power.

Tender locomotives.

The first locomotives entering service on the Langkloof line were the NG8 class from 1903 to 1931.  From 1915 to 1935 the NG6, from 1915 to 1939 the NG9 and from 1916 to 1948 the NG10.  The final and largest class to be employed on the Avontuur Railway were 21 NG15's from 1960 to the mid-1980s.

Tank locomotive.

Class NG3 performed yard duties around Humewood Road Station in Port Elizabeth from 1939 to 1946

Garratt locomotives.

The first Garratt locomotive to be introduced was the NGG11 class, soon to be followed with the NGG13 class in 1927, the latter setting the standard for motive power on the Avontuur railway for the next decades, to be followed with the NGG16 class, very similar to the NGG13.  The smaller Garratt classes NGG12 and NGG14 performed yard duties at Humewood Road railway station in Port Elizabeth until the 1950s.

Diesel locomotives.

From 1973 the South African Class 91-000 General Electric diesels were introduced, the most powerful 2 foot gauge diesel in the world.

The Avontuur Railway is a closed railway line between Port Elizabeth and the town of Avontuur in the Western and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. It is the longest narrow gauge route in the world at a length of. "Avontuur" is the Afrikaans and Dutch word for "adventure".

Mit Avontuur Railway wird eine 285 km lange Eisenbahnstrecke zwischen Port Elizabeth und Avontuur in Südafrika bezeichnet, deren regulärer Betrieb von der südafrikanischen Eisenbahngesellschaft Spoornet 2001 eingestellt wurde. Der Museumsbahnbetrieb mit dem Apple Express blieb bis 2011 erhalten. Bestrebungen sind im Gange, 2016 auf einem Teil der längsten 610-mm-Schmalspurstrecke der Welt die Museumszüge wieder fahren zu lassen.


Itinerary.

She was born in Le Havre.  Murail has been writing since she was thirty six years old.  After modern literature studies at the Sorbonne University – concluded with a thesis devoted to adapting classical novels for children – she earned her "stripes" at the Editions mondiales, where she published a hundred short stories in women's magazines (Intimité, Nous Deux) between 1980 and 1987. In the mid 1980s, her two first novels (for adults) were published by Swiss publisher Pierre-Marcel Favre:  Since her first story, "C'est mieux d'être bleu", published in 1985 in the Astrapi magazine, she has written over 80 books for children, most notably three series, "Emilien", "Nils Hazard" and "L'Espionne".  Most of her books were published by L'Ecole des Loisirs, Bayard and lately by Pocket.  Murail directs Emilien Pardini, a boy aged fourteen at the beginning of the series, who lives alone with his mother Sylvie. The various books follow him throughout his teen years. Murail exploits all the dramatic and comical resources of a contemporary single-parent family. The series was republished in the Neuf collection (2006).  Alongside the "Emiliens", Murail initiates an adventure series in which Nils Hazard, an etruscologist and teacher at the Sorbonne University, assisted by ex-student Catherine Roque, now his secretary and girlfriend, has to solve detective plots. Murail widens the range of her production, exploring a slightly fantastic daily life first in "Ma vie a changé" (1997), staging a librarian struggling with a domestic elf, then definitely delirious when this daily life mixes with vampires ("Amour, vampire et loup-garou", 1998) or aliens ("Tom Lorient", 1998). In 2002, teenagers' craving for video games inspired "Golem", where virtual reality bursts in the real world. Golem was also a three-person writing experience. Brother and sisters expressed, each in their own way, how they felt about it (see the writer's website). Marie-Aude led another writing project with her brother Lorris during the following year ("L'expérienceur", 2003). "Golem" begins when Majid Badach, a young boy who lives in Hummingbird Tower on the Moreland estate, wins a computer from Priceshrinkers, apparently a trustworthy company. One of his teachers, Hugh Mullins, helps him setting it up. Only one day, while they are chatting on the Internet, a video game sets in and runs on its own: Golem. Majid's life, along with his teacher's, turn on a dime...  After "Jésus, comme un roman..." (1997), Murail wrote a six-episode series published by Je Bouquine during the two last months of the second millennium. Murail plunged her readers into six different periods of History ("D'amour et de sang", 1999). She then paid homage to her favorite novelist and « heavenly father » ("Charles Dickens", 2005), and took her readers back to 19th-century England with the autobiography of a Victorian illustrator, inspired by the life of Beatrix Potter ("Miss Charity", 2008) Even though her readers, who have quite grown up in twenty years, often ask her about Emilien, Martine-Marie or Nils, Murail now changes time and space with each novel. Although the teen age and its route still make the very heart of her books, family, social and political considerations are now finding their way into her work. She now uses the strength of experience and current events, whether the topic is undocumented children and the necessarily enshrined school system ("Vive la République!", 2005), or a company and a kindergarten being submitted to the same imperatives of « globalisation » and « working more » ("Papa et maman sont dans un bateau", spring 2009), yet never being short of humor. Despite the seriousness of the issues in question, her « dramatic pedagogy of life » is neither bleak nor heavy : Murail thinks a fictional work intended for children has no need of sad endings. She sincerely thinks that it would be malpractice. This might be the writer's only ethical principle, driven by her characters' lives and the dynamics they imprint on her writing. Thus « life, Life » are Miss Charity's very last words. Her first novel for young readers is a tale parody, published by Gallimard :  Afterwards, she wrote eleven «Mouche » and two « Neuf », published by L'Ecole des Loisirs : In addition to five short stories published by Astrapi, Murail wrote over twenty illustrated stories in monthly magazine J'aime Lire (“from 7 years-old on”), most of which were republished as books by Bayard.  Je Bouquine, a magazine edited by the same publisher, often publishes her stories, longer and intended for older readers (10–15 years old). Murail also took an interest in teaching how to read. Teamed up during five years with primary teacher Christine Thiéblemont from Orléans, then joined by educational counselor Patricia Bucheton, she wrote a reading course book for first graders, the "Bulle" textbook, published by Bordas. Murail revealed her motives and her contribution to this common experience as a children's writer in an interview that can be found on the website of La Charte des auteurs et illustrateurs jeunesse, an association she is involved in. The Bulle course book is characterized by the role given to children's literature and reading aloud in the development of infantile imagination. Murail discusses this in a video.  Murail has not stopped thinking, since she wrote her literature thesis, about the purpose of her work. Thereupon she wrote articles, conferences and even books. She wrote a first one in 1993, in which she drew the results of her encounters with her readership, and another one ten years later, rather dedicated to the convictions that made her, as she had already written in the conclusion of her thesis, “remain in childhood”. From the viewpoint that has been hers since she was 25, she has nonetheless kept her readership growing, her readers staying faithful as they grow up.

A recognized work.

"Oh, Boy!" is her most sold and translated book. It was adapted for television by director Thierry Binisti, produced by K'ien Productions. Most of her books received various prizes, in France and abroad, since they were exported, in Europe and beyond, and translated to about fifteen languages. Simple, Tobias Scheffel's German translation of Simple, received the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, bestowed by a jury of German teenagers during the Frankfurt Book Fair. The French version had already received the Prix des lycéens alllemands during the Leipzig book fair in 2006.  Nowadays, Murail sells about 200,000 books each year in France.  In 2004, Murail was granted the distinction of Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, in recognition of her whole career.

Marie-Aude Murail (born 6 May 1954) is a French children's writer. Her father Gerard Murail is a poet and her mother, Marie-Thérèse Barrois, a journalist. One of her brothers and her younger sister also write: and Elvire Murail, aka Moka. The music composer Tristan Murail is her older brother.

Marie-Aude Murail (* 6. Mai 1954 in Le Havre) ist eine französische Schriftstellerin. Sie gilt in ihrem Heimatland als eine der erfolgreichsten Jugend- und Kinderbuchautorinnen. Ihr Buch „Simpel“ wurde 2008 mit dem Deutschen Jugendliteraturpreis der Jugendjury ausgezeichnet.


History.

In the late 13th century, when the Isles of Scilly were under the jurisdiction of John de Allet and his wife Isabella, anyone convicted of felony "ought to be taken to a certain rock in the sea, with two barley loaves and a pitcher of water and left until the sea swallowed him up". The rock was originally recorded as "Maen Escop" in 1284 and "Maenenescop" in 1302. In Cornish, "Men Eskop" means "Bishop's Stone", whilst "Men an Eskop" means "the Stone of the Bishop". The outer rocks to the west of St Agnes also used to be known as the Bishop and Clerk, but exactly how they acquired these similar names is not known for certain. A possible explanation is that the shape of the rock is similar to a bishop's mitre.  East of Bishop Rock are the Western Rocks and the Gilstone Reef, where Admiral Shovell's flagship HMS "Association" was wrecked in the great naval disaster of 1707. Shovell's remains were repatriated to England by order of Queen Anne shortly after their initial burial in the Isles of Scilly.  The earliest recorded wreck on the rock itself was in 1839, when the brig "Theodorick" struck in rough misty weather on 4September. She was out of Mogodore for London carrying a general cargo. In the early hours of, the 600-tonne paddle steamer "Brigand", a packet boat, which was en route from Liverpool to St Petersburg, struck the rock with such force that it stove in two large bow plates. The rocks then acted as a pivot, and she swung round and heeled into the rock port side, crushing the paddle-wheel and box to such an extent that it penetrated the engine room. She drifted over seven miles in two hours, before sinking in 90m. All the crew were saved. In 1901 a barque named "Falkland" struck the rock, her main yard hitting the lighthouse itself.

Lighthouse.

An 1818 report by the Surveyor–General of the Duchy of Cornwall on the dangers to shipping in Cornwall proposed that a lighthouse be built, similar to the Eddystone Lighthouse, upon Bishop Rock, given its location as the westernmost rock of the Isles of Scilly. The plan was considered by the government and building was expected soon, as the engineer John Rennie the Elder made an offer to build it. The government did not take up the offer, but Trinity House surveyed Bishop Rock in 1843, with a view to building a lighthouse, and work began in 1847. The engineer in chief, James Walker, decided on a design consisting of accommodation and a light on top of iron legs. The light was never lit, since on a storm washed the tower away.  In the second attempt, James Walker began building a stone structure in 1851. The site presented a number of difficulties: the paucity of available land area and the slope of the rock meant that the lowest stone had to be laid below the low water level of the lowest spring tides. The resident engineer was Nicholas Douglass assisted by first James and then William his sons. Despite multiple problems, the tower was completed without loss of life. It was fitted with a large (first order) fixed catadioptric optic by Henry Lépaute, and shone its light for the first time on. The total cost of the lighthouse was £34,559.  Faced with the full force of the Atlantic, however, the building proved vulnerable: in heavy weather the tower regularly shook, the vibrations being powerful enough to cause objects to fall from shelves, and even causing the optical apparatus to fracture. The lighthouse had initially been provided with a 3cwt fog bell; however this was washed away during a storm in January1860. (It was replaced with a larger bell, but not until 1864; the bell was sounded once every ten seconds).

Renovation.

In 1881, various other expediencies having been tried in the meantime, Sir James Nicholas Douglass inspected the tower and designed a renovation to reinforce the structure by laying massive granite blocks into the rock and dove-tailing them onto the lighthouse. The renovations increased its height by. The work began in 1882 and completed in 1887, under the supervision of Douglass's eldest surviving son, William Tregarthen Douglass.  The new improved light had a range of. The optic was designed and built by Chance Brothers and was 'biform' (having two identical lamps and lens arrays, one mounted above the other). Each tier consisted of an eight-wick paraffin burner set within a revolving array of extra large hyperradiant Fresnel lenses (consisting, on each level, of five pairs of lens panels, displaying two white flashes every minute). In clear weather the lower tier alone was used, with its lamp on half power; in limited visibility (as judged by the clarity of the light visible from St Agnes's Lighthouse, away) both tiers were used with the lamps at full power.  The heavy optic was turned by a small air engine placed in the pedestal; compressed air was provided from a set of tanks, located in the room below along with a pair of Davey 'Safety' Engines, which drove the compressors. The compressed air could also be used, by day, to drive a small gallery-mounted winch for landing stores.  As part of the renovation, the lighthouse was equipped with an explosive fog signal: in foggy weather the keepers regularly had to attach a guncotton charge together with a detonator to a jib-type apparatus on the lantern gallery; from inside the lantern they would then raise the jib and fire the charge electrically. The explosive signal remained in use until 1976.

Current era.

The paraffin lamps remained in service until 1973, when the light was converted to electricity. Difficulty reaching the lighthouse by boat led Trinity House to build a helipad on top of the lighthouse in 1976. That same year a supertyfon fog horn was installed with sounders arranged around the gallery.  On 15 December 1992 the tower became fully automated; the lower half of the biform optic remains in use but following automation the top half was removed and put on display (it is currently in the National Maritime Museum Cornwall). An electric fog signal replaced the supertyfon at this time, sounding a long followed by a short tone every 90seconds; its use was discontinued in 2007.  On the 144th anniversary of the destruction of James Walker's original iron tower (), a storm caused severe damage to the gunmetal entry doors, which had to be replaced; they too became an exhibit at the National Maritime Museum in Falmouth.

Structure.

Bishop Lighthouse is often referred to as "King of the lighthouses" and it is indeed a very impressive structure. With a height of the lighthouse is the equal tallest in England, together with Eddystone Lighthouse.  Expenditure on the lighthouses at Bishop Rock, include: The first iron lighthouse: £12,500 The second granite lighthouse: £34,559 (equivalent to £ in ) The third improved lighthouse: £64,889 (equivalent to £ in ) Total cost: £111,948  The interior of the light house consists of the following: Below and inside the lighthouse are 10floors with spiral staircase to the 2nd floor with a door (made from gun metal (likely bronze) and installed in 1887) that leads down an external metal (likely bronze) ladder to climb down to the large exterior base. From the base another metal ladder provides access to a stone staircase to the waterline.  The floors of the lighthouse are occupied as follows:

Culture.

The rock is the subject of a short orchestral descriptive work by the late Doreen Carwithen (Mary Alwyn) which has been recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra under the baton of Richard Hickox.  The lighthouse was used as a filming location for one of the current BBC One Idents and was also featured in the last segment of the documentary series "Three Men in More Than One Boat". The lighthouse was also featured in the 2010 BBC documentary "Islands of Britain", hosted by Martin Clunes.  The lighthouse featured in BBC TV children's programme "Blue Peter" in 1975, when presenter Lesley Judd visited. "Disaster nearly struck as she travelled by rope to the lighthouse from a boat. Her harness snapped, leaving Lesley with no support should she lose her grip on the rope."  The lighthouse also features in the novel "Stone In The Blood" by Colin Jordan and David England and the short story "Keeper of the Bishop" by A E W Mason.

The Bishop Rock () is a very small islet in the Atlantic Ocean known for its lighthouse. It is in the westernmost part of the Isles of Scilly, an archipelago off the southwestern tip of the Cornish peninsula of Great Britain. The "Guinness Book of Records" lists it as the world's smallest island with a building on it.

Bishop Rock (Kornisch: "Men an Eskob") ist eine Klippe der vor dem Eingang zum Ärmelkanal liegenden Scilly-Inseln. Auf dem zum Vereinigten Königreich gehörenden Felsen steht der gleichnamige 49 Meter hohe Leuchtturm, der von der englischen Leuchtfeuerverwaltung Trinity House betrieben wird. Das in 44 Metern Höhe über dem mittleren Meeresspiegel der Keltischen See liegende Leuchtfeuer mit einer Stärke von 60.000 Candela hat eine Reichweite von ca. 20 Seemeilen (37 km).


Biography.

Banville was born in Moulins in Allier, Auvergne, the son of a captain in the French navy. His boyhood, by his own account, was cheerlessly passed at a "lycée" in Paris; he was not harshly treated, but took no part in the amusements of his companions. On leaving school with but slender means of support, he devoted himself to letters, and in 1842 published his first volume of verse ("Les Cariatides"), which was followed by "Les Stalactites" in 1846. The poems encountered some adverse criticism, but secured for their author the approbation and friendship of Alfred de Vigny and Jules Janin.  From then on, Banville's life was steadily devoted to literary production and criticism. He printed other volumes of verse, among which the "Odes funambulesques" (1857) received unstinted praise from Victor Hugo, to whom they were dedicated. Later, several comedies in verse were produced at the Théâtre Français and on other stages; and from 1853 onwards a stream of prose flowed from his industrious pen, including studies of Parisian manners, sketches of well-known persons, and a series of tales, most of which were republished in his collected works (1875–1878). He also wrote freely for reviews, and acted as dramatic critic for more than one newspaper. Throughout a life spent mainly in Paris, Banville's genial character and cultivated mind won him the friendship of the chief men of letters of his time.

Legacy.

In 1858 he was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, and was promoted to an Officier de la Légion d'honneur in 1886. He died in Paris in 1891 at the age of 68, and was buried in Montparnasse Cemetery.  There is a street named after him in the 17th "Arrondissement" in Paris. There is also a street named Theodore de Banville in Nice, France.

Théodore Faullain de Banville (14 March 1823 – 13 March 1891) was a French poet and writer. His work was influential on the Symbolist movement in French literature in the late 19th century.

Théodore Faullain de Banville (* 14. März 1823 in Moulins; † 13. März 1891 in Paris) war ein französischer Dichter.


Plot.

The parents of 12-year-old D.J. go away for the weekend, leaving him in the care of his negligent babysitter Zee. D.J. has been spying on his elderly neighbor Mr. Nebbercracker, who scares away children and confiscates their belongings that land in his front yard. After D.J.'s best friend Chowder loses his basketball on Nebbercracker's lawn, D.J. is caught attempting to retrieve it, but the enraged Nebbercracker suffers a heart attack and is taken away by an ambulance. That night, D.J. gets phone calls from the house with no one there and eavesdrops on Zee's boyfriend Bones, who tells her about losing his kite on Nebbercracker's lawn when he was ten and that Nebbercracker supposedly ate his wife.  Later, Bones sees his lost kite in the house's front door, but is suddenly devoured by the house while attempting to retrieve it. D.J. meets up with Chowder and the two investigate, but retreat when the house comes to life and attacks them. The next morning, schoolgirl Jenny Bennett sells Halloween candy and goes to the house; D.J. and Chowder rush out to save her before she gets eaten. Jenny promptly calls police officers Landers and Lister, who unfortunately do not believe the trio.  The trio then consult local video gamer Reginald "Skull" Skulinski, supposedly an expert on the supernatural. They learn from him that the house is a rare monster created when a human soul merges with a man-made structure and that it can only be killed by destroying its heart. Concluding the heart must be the furnace, the trio create and bring a dummy containing cold medicine taken from Chowder's father's pharmacy to the house. Before the dummy reaches the house however, Landers and Lister return, thwart their plan and arrest them after Landers discovers the stolen medicine inside the dummy. The house eats the two officers and their police car where D.J., Chowder and Jenny have been shut.  After the house falls asleep, the three begin exploring. In the basement, they find toys accumulated from Nebbercracker's lawn as well as a door opening to a shrine containing the encased-in-cement body of Nebbercracker's late wife, Constance the Giantess. The house becomes aware of their presence and attacks them, though they force it to vomit them outside by grabbing its uvula. Nebbercracker returns alive, revealing that Constance's spirit is within the house and that, instead of eating her, he had given her the happiest times in her life. As a young man, he met Constance, then an unwilling member of a circus freak show, and fell in love with her despite her obesity. One Halloween, as children tormented her due to her size, Constance tried chasing them away but lost her footing and fell to her death in the unfinished basement. Nebbercracker had finished building the house, knowing it was what she would have wanted. Aware that Constance's spirit made the house come alive, however, he pretended to hate children in order to protect them.  D.J. convinces Nebbercracker to let Constance go, much to the house's anger. It breaks free from its foundation and chases the group to a construction site. Nebbercracker realizes the recent trouble Constance caused and attempts to blow the house up with dynamite, but it attacks him. As Chowder fights off the house with an excavator, D.J. and Jenny climb to the top of a crane and D.J. throws the dynamite given to him by Nebbercracker into the house's chimney, causing it to explode and release Constance's ghost. D.J. apologizes to Nebbercracker for his losses, but Nebbercracker thanks the trio for freeing him and his wife from being trapped for 45 years. Later that night, children in their Halloween costumes line up at the site of the house where Nebbercracker, D.J., Chowder and Jenny return their toys to them. After Jenny's mother picks her up and D.J.'s parents return, Chowder and D.J. go trick-or-treating, which they earlier felt they were too old for. Those who were eaten by the house emerge from the basement.

Production.

The film was initially set up at DreamWorks Animation, based on a pitch by newcomer Gil Kenan. By 2004, the studio put the film in turnaround, to which Sony Pictures picked up the project and began production on August 24 of that year.  The film was shot using performance capture, in which the actors performed the characters' movement and lines while linked to sensors, a process pioneered by Robert Zemeckis for his film "The Polar Express" (2004). A stereoscopic 3D version of the film was created and had a limited release in digital 3D stereo alongside the 2D version. It was also released in approximately 200 theaters equipped with the new RealD Cinema digital 3D stereoscopic projection. The process was not based on film, but was purely digital. Since the original source material was "built" in virtual 3D, it created a very rich stereoscopic environment. For the film's release, the studio nicknamed it "Imageworks 3D".

Reception.

Critical response.

Review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 75% approval rating, based on 162 reviews with an average rating of 6.83/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Monster House" offers adults and children alike into a household full of smart, monstrous fun." On Metacritic the film has a score of 68 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.  Ian Freer of "Empire" gave the film 4 out of 5 stars, stating "A kind of "Goonies" for the Noughties, "Monster House" is a visually dazzling thrill ride that scales greater heights through its winning characters and poignantly etched emotions. A scary, sharp, funny movie, this is the best kids’ flick of the year so far." Jane Boursaw of Common Sense Media also gave it 4 stars out of 5, saying "This is one of those movies where all the planets align: a top-notch crew (director Gil Kenan; executive producers Steven Spielberg and Robert Zemeckis), memorable voices that fit the characters perfectly; and a great story, ingenious backstory, and twisty-turny ending." Roger Moore of the "Orlando Sentinel" also gave the film four stars out of five, saying "This "Monster House" is a real fun house. It's a 3-D animated kids' film built on classic gothic horror lines, a jokey, spooky "Goonies" for the new millennium." Scott Bowles of "USA Today" gave the film a positive review, saying that "The movie treats children with respect. "Monster"'s pre-teens are sarcastic, think they're smarter than their parents and are going crazy over the opposite sex. Amy Biancolli of the "Houston Chronicle" wrote, "It's engineered to scare your pants off, split your sides and squeeze your tear ducts into submission." Michael Medved called it "ingenious" and "slick, clever [and] funny" while also cautioning parents about letting small children see it due to its scary and intense nature, adding that a "PG-13 rating would have been more appropriate than its PG rating." A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" commented, "One of the spooky archetypes of childhood imagination—the dark, mysterious house across the street—is literally brought to life in "Monster House," a marvelously creepy animated feature directed by Gil Kenan."  However, the film was not without its detractors. Frank Lovece of "Film Journal International" praised director Gil Kenan as "a talent to watch" but berated the "internal logic [that] keeps changing... D.J.'s parents are away, and the house doesn't turn monstrous in front of his teenage babysitter, Zee. But it does turn monstrous in front of her boyfriend, Bones. It doesn't turn monstrous in front of the town's two cops until, in another scene, it does." In a dismissive review, Todd McCarthy of "Variety" wrote: "Alert 'Harry Potter' fans will notice the script shamelessly lifts the prime personality traits of J. K. Rowling's three most important young characters for its lead trio: Tall, dark-haired, serious-minded DJ is Harry, semi-dufus Chowder is Ron and their new cohort, smarty-pants prep school redhead Jenny (Spencer Locke), is Hermione... it is a theme-park ride, with shocks and jolts provided with reliable regularity. Across 90 minutes, however, the experience is desensitizing and dispiriting and far too insistent."

Box office.

"Monster House" opened theatrically on July 21, 2006, alongside "Clerks II", "Lady in the Water" and "My Super Ex-Girlfriend", and grossed $22,217,226 in its opening weekend, ranking number two at the North American box office. The film ended its theatrical run on October 22, 2006, having grossed $73,661,010 domestically and $66,513,996 overseas for a worldwide total of $140,175,006 against a production budget of $75 million.

Awards and nominations.

In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Animation Films list.

Video game.

A video game based on the film was released by THQ on July 18, 2006 for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS.

Monster House is a 2006 American computer-animated supernatural film directed by Gil Kenan in his directorial debut from a screenplay by Dan Harmon, Rob Schrab and Pamela Pettler, about a neighborhood being terrorized by a sentient haunted house during Halloween. The film features the voices of Mitchel Musso, Sam Lerner, Spencer Locke, Steve Buscemi, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Kevin James, Nick Cannon, Jason Lee, Fred Willard, Jon Heder, Catherine O'Hara and Kathleen Turner, as well as human characters being animated using live action motion capture animation, which was previously used in "The Polar Express" (2004).

Monster House ist ein computeranimierter Familienfilm aus dem Jahre 2006, der am 21. Juli in die amerikanischen Kinos kam. Die Filmfiguren werden primär durch den Einsatz neuester Trickfilmtechnologie (der sogenannten Performance Capture) animiert. Der Film war erst der zweite, bei dem diese Technologie derart umfangreich zum Einsatz kam, nach Robert Zemeckis’ "Der Polarexpress". Der deutsche Filmstart erfolgte am 24. August 2006.


Classification and orbit.

"Daléra" orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 2.1–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 7 months (1,323 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first identified as at Heidelberg Observatory in 1928, extending the body's observation arc by 11 years prior to its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

Rotation period.

In March 2015, three rotational lightcurves of "Daléra" were independently obtained by Italian astronomers Maurizio Scardella (), Fabio Salvaggio (), and Giovanni Casalnuovo () after being reported as a light-curve photometry opportunity at "minorplanet.info" (CALL). They gave a rotation period of 3.880 and 3.881 hours with a brightness variation of 0.18 and 0.14 magnitude, respectively (). Previously, photometric observations at the Palomar Transient Factory in September 2013, gave a longer period of 4.2227 hours and an amplitude of 0.14 magnitude ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Daléra" measures between 11.36 and 18.23 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.03 and 0.10.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" assumes a standard albedo for S-type asteroids of 0.20 and calculates a diameter of 7.15 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 13.09. However, based on the low albedos (0.03, 0.08, 0.10) determined by WISE/NEOWISE, "Daléra" is not a stony but rather a carbonaceous asteroid, which are uncommon in the inner main-belt.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after Paul Daléra, a friend of the discovering astronomer Louis Boyer. The official naming citation was first mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ()

1511 Daléra, provisional designation, is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 12 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 22 March 1939, by French astronomer Louis Boyer at the Algerian Algiers Observatory, North Africa, and named after Paul Daléra, a friend of the discoverer.

(1511) Daléra ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 22. März 1939 vom französischen Astronomen Louis Boyer in Algier entdeckt wurde.


Life.

She was one of the daughters of King Frederick V of Denmark (1723–1766), and his first spouse Louise (1724–1751), daughter of King George II of Great Britain.  At Christiansborg Palace on 1 September 1764 she married her cousin Prince William of Hesse, Count of Hanau, one of the wealthiest rulers of the period.  Wilhelmina Caroline and William had grown up together, as William and his siblings had been evacuated to the Danish royal court during the Seven Years' War (1755–1763), as his and Wilhelmina Caroline's mother were sisters. He was introduced to her as a playmate during her childhood, and it was decided already during their childhood that they should marry each other when they became adults.  One month after their wedding, Wilhelmina Caroline and William left Denmark and settled in Hesse, where her father-in-law gave William the city of Hanau as their residence, and where they lived with their own court.

Life in Hesse.

During the first years of their marriage, the relationship between Wilhelmina Caroline and William was described as happy. In 1770, six years after their marriage, Hesse was visited by her brother-in-law Crown Prince Gustav of Sweden and his brother Prince Frederick, and at that occasion, the marriage between Wilhelmina Caroline and William was favorably compared to the marriage of her sister Sophia Magdalena of Denmark and Gustav of Sweden, and a suggestion was made for her and William to visit Sweden, with the unofficial thought that their example might have a good effect on her sister and royal brother-in-law. The courtier Gustaf Johan Ehrensvärd, a member of the Swedish entourage, described Wilhelmina Caroline and William on this occasion in 1770: However, this good relationship was not to last: five years later, William had his first mistress, Charlotte Christine Buissine, and after this, the marriage deteriorated with William being constantly unfaithful and introducing a succession of official mistresses at court, with Buissine followed by Rosa Dorothea Ritter and Karoline von Schlotheim and William producing a great number of illegitimate children.  Wilhelmina Caroline herself was described as beautiful, distant, kind and sympathetic: in 1804, she still spoke Danish without accent and had a strong attachment to her birth country.  William succeeded as Landgrave William IX of Hesse-Kassel in 1785, and in 1803 was raised to the rank of Elector of Hesse as William I.

Later life.

In 1806, Hesse was occupied by France. Her spouse and son fled to her brother-in-law Charles of Hesse in Schleswig, but she remained until a French governor was installed, after which she moved to her daughter Amalie in Gotha.  She spent the duration of the Kingdom of Westphalia (1806–13) in exile, among other places in Schleswig and in Prague. In 1813, the spouses returned to Kassel.

Princess Wilhelmina Caroline of Denmark and Norway (", ") (10 July 1747 in Christiansborg Palace, Copenhagen – 14 January 1820 in Kassel), was the Landgravine consort of Hesse-Kassel and later the Electress of Hesse-Kassel by marriage to William I, Elector of Hesse.

Wilhelmine Karoline von Dänemark (* 10. Juli 1747 in Kopenhagen; † 14. Januar 1820 in Kassel) war eine Prinzessin von Dänemark und durch Heirat Kurfürstin von Hessen.


Plot.

In San Francisco, 1959, four despondent strangers embark on the same night trolleybus: Penny, a single mother, regrets working the night shift and leaving her three children at home; Harrison, a would-be singer, has backed out of an important audition due to stage fright; Julia leaves her waitressing job to seek out her boyfriend John, whose marriage proposal she rejected; and small-time thief Milo has just failed to retrieve a book of valuable stamps that he had conned out of a young boy. Their driver is Hal, who becomes distracted by an attractive passenger in another car and accidentally swerves the trolleybus off of an overpass, killing everyone aboard.  At the same time, Frank Reilly is driving his pregnant wife Eva to the hospital. Frank avoids the trolleybus just before it crashes. The Reillys are safe, but Eva delivers their baby in the car. Hal ascends into the next life, but the souls of the four passengers are "attached" to the newborn baby, Thomas, for reasons they do not understand. Only Thomas can see and hear them, and they are forced to follow him wherever he goes. As the years pass, the four grow to love Thomas, and he loves them. As Thomas grows older, however, his parents worry about his obsession with his "invisible people" and consider having him committed. Realizing their presence is hurting Thomas, the quartet decides to become invisible to him as well. The perceived abandonment causes young Thomas to avoid close relationships for the rest of his life, fearful that they, too, will leave him.  Thirty-four years later, in 1993, Hal returns with his trolleybus. Because his irresponsibility ended four innocent lives, Hal has been condemned to convey spirits to the next life, and he has now come for his former passengers. The quartet learns that they've been with Thomas all these years because each of them died with unfinished business: Penny never found out what became of her children, Harrison never conquered his fears and fulfilled his dream of public singing, Julia never told John her true feelings, and Milo never returned the stamp album, which would have freed him of the guilt from his life of crime. Thomas was meant to serve as their corporeal form, helping them to resolve their final business; if he refused to help, they were to inhabit his body and use it to solve their problems. After convincing Hal to buy some more time for them to rectify their unfinished lives, they reappear to Thomas, now a ruthless foreclosure banker who refuses to open up to his devoted girlfriend Anne.  Thomas, who has since undergone psychotherapy to convince himself that his "imaginary friends" were only a childhood delusion, initially believes their reappearance means he has had a psychotic break. Ignoring their pleas, he attempts to check himself into a psychiatric hospital, where a schizophrenic patient is able to describe the spirits that accompany him. This convinces Thomas that the spirits are real, but he is still angry with them for their abandonment and refuses to help them. The quartet convince him by leaping in and out of his body during an important meeting and threatening further public humiliation until Thomas reluctantly agrees to help in order to finally be rid of them.  Thomas is able to locate Penny's two daughters, but not her youngest child Billy, who was adopted after Penny's death. Milo uses Thomas's body to break into a house, steal back the stamp album, and return it to its now-adult owner. However, after the burglary, a nervous Thomas encounters a police sergeant (who is ticketing his illegally parked car) and accidentally gets himself arrested, forcing Anne to bail him out. Harrison uses Thomas's body to sing the national anthem at a B.B. King concert, after which Thomas is arrested again by the same police sergeant, who Penny suddenly recognizes as her son. Thomas tells Billy the location of his long-lost sisters, and Billy is so overcome that he lets Thomas go with a warning. Meanwhile, Anne, concerned with Thomas's recent bizarre behavior, demands to know what's going on. When he is unable to tell her, she breaks up with him.  Finally, Thomas and Julia write a letter to Julia's boyfriend John in which she confesses her love for him, only to learn from a man now living in what was John's house, that John died several years before. At the same moment, the trolleybus returns to take Julia. Thomas protests that Julia's business is still unresolved, but Julia realizes that her true business is Thomas, who is making the same mistake with Anne that she made with John. Thomas promises her that he will tell Anne his true feelings before it is too late, allowing Julia to depart.  Thomas invites Anne back to the arboretum, where he admits his fear of abandonment and his love for her. As a symbol of his trust, he gives her a heart-shaped keyring containing all his personal keys. Anne forgives him. The two dance under the night sky where four new stars twinkle to show that Penny, Julia, Harrison, and Milo are finally at peace.

Production.

The film was shot on-location in San Francisco, California. from December 1, 1992 to March 18, 1993. Parts of the film were also shot at Greenfield Ranch in Thousand Oaks, California.

Release.

"Heart and Souls" was released on August 13, 1993 in 1,275 theatres. It debuted at #6 at the box office, grossing $4.322,250 million in its opening weekend. In its second weekend it landed at #8, grossing $9.395,270. After two more weeks in theatres, the film went on to gross $16.5 million worldwide in its theatrical run.

Reception.

"Heart and Souls" received mixed reviews from critics, as it currently holds a 55% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 22 reviews. The site's consensus states: "A charismatic array of character actors bring a lot of "Heart" to this supernatural comedy, but many will find that it heaps on the sentimentality where its "Soul" should be."

Heart and Souls is a 1993 American fantasy comedy-drama film directed by Ron Underwood. The film stars Robert Downey Jr. as Thomas Reilly, a businessman recruited by the souls of four deceased people, his guardian angels from childhood, to help them rectify their unfinished lives, as he is the only one who can communicate with them.

4 himmlische Freunde (Originaltitel: "Heart and Souls") ist eine US-amerikanische Filmkomödie des Regisseurs Ron Underwood aus dem Jahr 1993. In der Komödie sind Robert Downey Jr., Kyra Sedgwick, Charles Grodin, Alfre Woodard und Tom Sizemore zu sehen.


Geography.

Libby is located along U.S. Route 2.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. Located in the Kootenai National Forest, between the Cabinet Mountains to the south and the Purcell Mountains to the north, the town lies in the heart of the Kootenai Valley along the Kootenai River, and downstream from the Libby Dam. Libby is at an elevation of above sea level.  Libby experiences a continental climate (Köppen "Dfb").

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 2,628 people, 1,252 households, and 647 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 1,416 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 95.9% White, 0.1% African American, 1.1% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.5% of the population.  There were 1,252 households of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.7% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 48.3% were non-families. 41.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.02 and the average family size was 2.71.  The median age in the city was 45.8 years. 19.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.6% were from 45 to 64; and 22.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.

Economy.

Libby's economy had been largely supported in the past by the use of natural resources such as logging and mining. Mining and timber mills have since closed down. Tourism is playing an increasing role in the local economy. upstream from Libby is the site of the Libby Dam, one of the Columbia River Treaty Dams, finished in 1975. Libby is also known as the "City of Eagles". Several eagle sculptures can be found all around town, including a eagle at both ends of town.  In the mid 1980s, a major ski resort was proposed for Great Northern Mountain, south of Libby.

Vermiculite mine.

In 1919, Vermiculite was discovered in the mountains near town. In 1963 W. R. Grace and Company bought the local mine, by which time it was producing 80% of the vermiculite in the world. Because the local vermiculite contains asbestos, and the mine's byproducts were used in local buildings and landscaping, the town suffered from an extremely high rate of asbestosis. Nearly 10% of the population died from asbestos contamination, and the federal government later charged company officials for complicity. On Friday, May 8, 2009, W.R. Grace & Co. was acquitted of charges that it knowingly harmed the people of Libby. It was also acquitted of subsequently participating in any cover-up. Fred Festa, chairman, president and CEO said in a statement, "the company worked hard to keep the operations in compliance with the laws and standards of the day."  On June 17, 2009, the EPA declared its first public health emergency, which covered Libby and nearby Troy. It had provided an additional $130 million in cleanup and medical assistance. The 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act includes a provision which provided Medicare coverage to individuals of such public health emergencies. As of 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was concluding the removal of asbestos-contaminated soils and other suspect materials in and near Libby, and has spent $425 million in Superfund money on cleanup.  "Libby, Montana" is a documentary film about this matter, released in 2004.

Education.

Public education in Libby is administered by the Libby School District. The district operates Libby Elementary School and Libby Middle-High School.  Libby Adventist Christian School and Kootenai Valley Christian School are private institutions.  Libby has a public library, a branch of the Lincoln County Public Libraries.  Flathead Valley Community College offers courses through its Lincoln County Campus located in Libby.

Transportation.

Amtrak serves Libby through a local station.  U.S. Route 2 and Highway 37 meet at a traffic light in the center of town.

Libby is a city in northwestern Montana and the county seat of Lincoln County. The population was 2,628 at the 2010 census.

Libby ist eine Stadt im Lincoln County in Montana und Sitz der Countyverwaltung (County Seat). Laut Zensus von 2000 leben 2626 Einwohner in der Stadt, die eine Fläche von 3,3 km2 aufweist.


Biography.

Barlow was born in Redding, Fairfield County, Connecticut. He briefly attended Dartmouth College before he graduated from Yale College in 1778, where he continued for two years as a postgraduate student. In 1778, he published an anti-slavery poem entitled "The Prospect of Peace".  Barlow was an ardent patriot in the American Revolution. He was engaged in the Battle of Long Island and served as a chaplain for the 4th Massachusetts Brigade from September 1780 until the close of the Revolutionary War. He was a Mason and he became a good friend to Thomas Paine.  In 1783, Barlow moved to Hartford, Connecticut. In July 1784, he established a weekly paper called "American Mercury", with which he was connected for a year. After "reading the law" in an established office, in 1786 he was admitted to the bar. In Hartford, Barlow became a member of a group of young writers including Lemuel Hopkins, David Humphreys, and John Trumbull, known in American literary history as the "Hartford Wits". He contributed to the "Anarchiad", a series of satirico-political papers. In 1787, he published a long and ambitious poem, "The Vision of Columbus", which gave him a considerable literary reputation and was once much read.

Land speculator.

In 1788, he went to France as the agent of Colonel William Duer and the Scioto Land Company, which had been registered in Paris the year before. He was to sell lands in part of the newly organized Northwest Territory (this section is now in Ohio), and recruit immigrants for new settlements. He seems to have been ignorant of the fraudulent character of the company, which did not hold title to the lands it sold and failed disastrously in 1790. He had previously recruited a group of French to emigrate to America. Known as the French 500, most of them were among the founders of Gallipolis, Ohio, the second oldest European-American city founded in the new Northwest Territory.

French politics and citizenship.

In Paris, Barlow became a liberal in religion and an advanced republican in politics. He believed that "American civilization was world civilization", and was enthusiastic about the cause of world republicanism. He became involved with the French Revolution, going so far as to be elected to the French Assembly, and being granted French citizenship in 1792. Although he dedicated his "Vision of Columbus" to Louis XVI, he joined royal opponents in calling for the execution of the king. Barlow helped Thomas Paine publish the first part of "The Age of Reason" while Paine was imprisoned during The Reign of Terror in France.  Barlow remained abroad for several years, spending much of his time in London. There he was a member of the London Society for Constitutional Information. He also published various radical essays, including a volume entitled "Advice to the Privileged Orders" (1792). This was proscribed by the British government.

Diplomacy.

Barlow was appointed as American consul at Algiers in 1795-1797, during the period when Barbary pirates were preying on United States and European shipping. He used State Department funds for bribes and ransoms to free more than 100 American merchant sailors held by pirates. He helped negotiate treaties with the Barbary states of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis to avert future seizures of American ships. He returned to the United States in 1805, where he lived in the national capital at his mansion, known as Kalorama, now the name of a neighborhood in Northwest Washington, D.C..  In 1811, Barlow was appointed as U.S. Minister to France; he sailed across the Atlantic on the "USS Constitution". His task was to negotiate an end to the Berlin Decree and the Milan Decree, as well as obtain the release of American ships and crews held by the French during the Napoleonic wars. In October 1812, Barlow set off for Vilnius to negotiate a treaty with the French foreign minister, who was based in Lithuania to prepare for the French invasion of Russia. By the time he arrived, the French army was already in full retreat from Moscow.  Barlow chose to take the southerly route to return to Paris, by way of Krakow and Vienna. He became ill and died of pneumonia on December 26, 1812 in the Polish village of Żarnowiec. A monument was later erected to him there.

Poetry.

In 1807, he published the epic "Columbiad", an extended edition of his "Vision of Columbus". It added to his reputation in some quarters, but on the whole it was not well received. It has subsequently been much ridiculed.  The poem for which he is now best known is his mock heroic "The Hasty-Pudding" (1793), first published in "New York Magazine" and now a standard item in literary anthologies. In addition, Barlow published "Conspiracy of Kings, a Poem addressed to the Inhabitants of Europe from another Quarter of the Globe" (1792). He continued writing political essays, publishing "Political Writings of Joel Barlow" (2nd ed., 1796) and "View of the Public Debt, Receipts and Expenditure of the United States" (1800). But much of his political speculation never passed beyond his voluminous notebooks, many of which are conserved in Harvard's Houghton Library.  He also composed a satirical version of the British national anthem "God Save the King", called "God Save the Guillotine".

Thought.

Historian William H. Goetzmann describes Barlow as a cosmopolitan, along with Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, engineer Robert Fulton, and Thomas Paine, the last of whom Barlow befriended in France. Barlow believed that the new country of America was a model civilization that prefigured the "uniting of all mankind in one religion, one language and one Newtonian harmonious whole" and thought of "the American Revolution as the opening skirmish of a world revolution on behalf of the rights of all humanity." An optimist, he believed that scientific and republican progress, along with religion and people's growing sense of humanity, would lead to the coming of the Millennium. For him, American civilization was world civilization. He projected that these concepts would coalesce around the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem.

Joel Barlow (March 24, 1754 – December 26, 1812) was an American poet and diplomat, and French politician. In politics, he supported the French Revolution and was an ardent Jeffersonian republican.

Joel Barlow (* 24. März 1754 in Redding, Connecticut; † 22. Oktober 1812 in Żarnowiec bei Krakau, Polen) war ein amerikanischer Dichter, Staatsmann und politischer Schriftsteller.


United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559

Contents of resolution.

It called upon Lebanon to establish its sovereignty over all of its land and called upon "foreign forces", Syria, to withdraw from Lebanon and to cease intervening in the internal politics of Lebanon. The resolution also called on all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias to disband and declared support for a "free and fair electoral process".

Aftermath.

The resolution was coauthored by France and the United States. Echoing the Taif Agreement, the resolution "calls upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias." Lebanon has requested that Israel withdraw from the disputed Shebaa Farms and the hills of Kfar-Shouba and return the Lebanese detainees in Israel as a condition for fully implementing Resolution 1559 which includes disbanding of the military wing of Hezbollah. Critics of the resolution argue however that an attempt from the weak and politically divided Lebanese army to disarm Hezbollah would be very difficult and could restart the Lebanese civil war. Syria was also in violation of the resolution until recently because of their military presence in Lebanon.  On 7 October 2004 the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan reported to the Security Council regarding the lack of compliance with Resolution 1559. Mr. Annan concluded his report by saying: "It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history."  The 20 January 2005 UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated that "The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the Shab'a farms area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions. The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel’s withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978). The UN Security Council has repeatedly requested that all parties respect the Blue Line in its entirety."  On 28 January 2005 Resolution 1583 called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its sole and effective authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it.  Syria made few moves to comply with the resolution until the assassination of Rafik Hariri, the former Prime Minister of Lebanon, on 14 February 2005. International pressure to withdraw intensified and public perception in Lebanon turned strongly against Syria, evidenced by mass demonstrations that were labeled the Cedar Revolution. President Bashar al-Assad of Syria announced on 5 March 2005 that he planned to "bring his forces home." The withdrawal, involving about 14,000 troops, took about seven weeks to complete.  On 26 April 2005, after 29 years of military action in Lebanon, the last Syrian troops left Lebanon. Syrian military and intelligence facilities, after the destruction of sensitive documents or the transportation of logistical material, were turned over to Lebanese counterparts. This action left the Lebanese government as the main violator of the resolution due to its refusal to dismantle the pro-Syrian Palestinian and Hezbollah militias.  On 27 December 2005 Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the Israeli city of Kiryat Shmona wounding three people. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese government ""to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks"".  On 23 January 2006 the UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts. In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the Council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon.

Lebanese response.

The Lebanese government officially responded to the resolution on the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) website in as follows:  Hezbollah and the Loyalty to the Resistance bloc denounced a report on the resolution in 2010 as meddling in Lebanese affairs.

Lebanese political debate.

The question of compliance with Resolution 1559 is a prominent matter in Lebanese politics. Prime Minister Fouad Siniora has stated that the government considers Hezbollah arms to be a domestic affair and that stated policy should reassure Hezbollah that the government will protect its military wing.  Druze leader MP Walid Jumblatt has repeatedly insisted that he objects to the disarmament of Hezbollah, according to the international resolution, describing the party as a "resistance group" and not a militia. He engaged in an electoral alliance with Hezbollah during the 2005 parliamentary election, with one of the titles of the alliance being "The Protection of the Resistance," but is now calling on Hezbollah to be integrated into the Lebanese Army and hand in its weapons over to the government.  Siniora has more stated on 20 July 2006 that "the continued presence of Israeli occupation of Lebanese lands in the Shebaa Farms region is what contributes to the presence of Hezbollah weapons. The international community must help us in (getting) an Israeli withdrawal from Shebaa Farms so we can solve the problem of Hezbollah's arms."

United Nations Security Council resolution 1559, adopted on 2 September 2004, after recalling resolutions 425 (1978), 426 (1978), 520 (1982) and 1553 (2004) on the situation in Lebanon, the Council supported free and fair presidential elections in Lebanon and called upon remaining foreign forces to withdraw from the country.

Die Resolution 1559 des Sicherheitsrats der Vereinten Nationen wurde auf dessen 5082. Sitzung am 2. September 2004 verabschiedet. In ihr wurden der Rückzug aller ausländischen Truppen aus dem Libanon und die Entwaffnung und Auflösung aller im Libanon aktiven Milizen gefordert sowie der libanesischen Regierung Unterstützung bei der Erweiterung ihrer Kontrolle auf das gesamte Staatsgebiet zugesagt.