Detailed events.

The term 'Grexit' was coined by the Citigroup economist Ebrahim Rahbari and was introduced by Rahbari and Citigroup's Global Chief Economist Willem H. Buiter on 6 February 2012.  On 27 January 2015, two days after an early election of the Greek parliament, Alexis Tsipras, leader of the new Syriza ("Coalition of the Radical Left") party, formed a new government. He appointed Yanis Varoufakis as Minister of Finance, a particularly important post in view of the government debt crisis. During 2015 and 2016, the chance of a Grexit or even a 'Graccident' (accidental Grexit) in the near future was widely discussed.  After the announcement of the bailout referendum on 27 June 2015 speculation rose. That day BBC News reported that "default appears inevitable", though it later removed the online statement. On 29 June 2015 it was announced that Greek banks would remain closed all week, cash withdrawals from banks would be limited to €60 per day, and international money transfers would be limited to urgent pre-approved commercial transfers.

Background.

IMF's projection.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) admitted that its forecast about Greek economy was too optimistic: in 2010 it described Greece's first bailout programme as a holding operation that gave the eurozone time to build a firewall to protect other vulnerable members, but in 2012 the unemployment rate of Greece became about 25 percent, compared to IMF's projection of about 15 percent. IMF conceded that it underestimated the damage that austerity programmes would do to the Greek economy, adding that, in terms of Greece's debt, IMF should have considered a debt restructuring earlier.  As can be seen from the Figure A, IMF's forecast in the 2010 standby agreement said that the Southern European country would start to grow in real terms after 2011. But in fact the economy continued to shrink, and Greek real GDP in 2013 was about 76 percent of that in 2008.

Dynamics.

Financial dynamics.

In mid-May 2012, the financial crisis in Greece and the impossibility of forming a new government after elections led to strong speculation that Greece would leave the eurozone shortly. This phenomenon had already become known as ""Grexit"".  Economists who favour this approach to solve the Greek debt crisis argue that a default is unavoidable for Greece in the long term, and that a delay in organising an orderly default (by lending Greece more money throughout a few more years) would just wind up hurting EU lenders and neighbouring European countries even more. Fiscal austerity or a euro exit is the alternative to accepting differentiated government bond yields within the Euro Area. If Greece remains in the euro while accepting higher bond yields, reflecting its high government deficit, then high interest rates would dampen demand, raise savings and slow the economy. An improved trade performance and less reliance on foreign capital would be the result.  The implementation of Grexit would have to occur "within days or even hours of the decision being made" due to the high volatility that would result. It would have to be timed at one of the public holidays in Greece.

International law dynamics.

One US economist has argued that the legal grounds upon which the "troika," composed by the EU Commission, the European Central Bank and the IMF, has pursued the harsh macroeconomic adjustment plans imposed on Greece are shaky, claiming they infringe upon Greece's sovereignty and interfere in the internal affairs of an independent EU nation-state: "the overt infringements on Greek sovereignty we're witnessing today, with EU policy makers now double-checking all national data and carefully'monitoring' the work of the Greek government sets a dangerous precedent." He argues that a withdrawal from the Eurozone would give the Greek government more room for maneuver to conduct public policies propitious for long-term growth and social equity.

2012 Plan Z.

"Plan Z" is the name given to a 2012 plan to enable Greece to withdraw from the eurozone in the event of Greek bank collapse. It was drawn up in absolute secrecy by small teams totalling approximately two dozen officials at the EU Commission (Brussels), the European Central Bank (Frankfurt) and the IMF (Washington). Those officials were headed by Jörg Asmussen (ECB), Thomas Wieser (Euro working group), Poul Thomsen (IMF) and Marco Buti (European Commission). To prevent premature disclosure no single document was created, no emails were exchanged, and no Greek officials were informed. The plan was based on the 2003 introduction of new dinars into Iraq by the Americans and would have required rebuilding the Greek economy and banking system "ab initio", including isolating Greek banks by disconnecting them from the TARGET2 system, closing ATMs, and imposing capital and currency controls.

Implementation.

The prospect of Greece leaving the euro and dealing with a devalued drachma prompted many people to start withdrawing their euros from the country's banks. In the nine months to March 2012 deposits in Greek banks had already fallen 13% to.  A victory for anti-bailout lawmakers in the 17 June 2012 election would likely trigger an even bigger bank run, said Dimitris Mardas, associate professor of economics at the University of Thessaloniiki. Greek authorities, Mardas predicted, would respond by imposing controls on the movement of money for as long as it takes for the panic to subside.  Against this plan, a political initiative, the so-called Menoume Europi was founded in 2012 by students in Oxford University, and it spread among Greek students in other European universities. The first demonstration took place in Athens, Syntagma Square in June 2012 in between two major elections that brought to the country political instability and financial insecurity.  A Grexit, assuming that it coincided with adoption of a new currency, would require preparation, for example with capacity for banknote stamping or printing a stock of new banknotes. However, information leaking out on such preparations might lead to negative dynamic effects, like bank runs. Conversely, leaving the Eurozone, but retaining the Euro as de facto currency, would avoid the practical issues and relieve the country of the burden of its Eurozone responsibilities.  In the event of a new currency being introduced, all banks would close for several days to allow old (Euro) banknotes to be stamped to denote that they were now drachmas, and/or a newly printed currency to be distributed to bank branches for distribution to the public when banks reopened. The British money printing company De La Rue was, according to rumours on 18 May 2012, preparing to print new drachma notes based on old moulds, which De La Rue refused to comment. The typical time between an order for a new currency being placed and the delivery of the banknotes is about six months.

Wolfson Economics Prize.

In July 2012, the Wolfson Economics Prize, a prize for the "best proposal for a country to leave the European Monetary Union", was awarded to a Capital Economics team led by Roger Bootle, for their submission titled "Leaving the Euro: A Practical Guide." The winning proposal argued that a member wishing to exit should introduce a new currency and default on a large part of its debts. The net effect, the proposal claimed, would be positive for growth and prosperity. It also called for keeping the euro for small transactions and for a short period of time after the exit from the eurozone, along with a strict regime of inflation-targeting and tough fiscal rules monitored by "independent experts".  The Roger Bootle/Capital Economics plan also suggested that "key officials" should meet "in secret" one month before the exit is publicly announced, and that eurozone partners and international organisations should be informed "three days before". The judges of the Wolfson Economics Prize found that the winning plan was the "most credible solution" to the question of a member state leaving the eurozone.

Immediate economic fallout inside Greece.

On 29 May 2012 the National Bank of Greece (not to be confused with the central bank, the Bank of Greece) warned that "[a]n exit from the euro would lead to a significant decline in the living standards of Greek citizens." According to the announcement, per capita income would fall by 55%, the new national currency would depreciate by 65% vis-à-vis the euro, and the recession would deepen to 22%. Furthermore, unemployment would rise from its current 22% to 34% of the work force, and inflation, which was then at 2%, would soar to 30%.  According to the Greek think-tank Foundation for Economic and Industrial Research (IOBE), a new drachma would lose half or more of its value relative to the euro. This would drive up inflation, and reduce the purchasing power of the average Greek. At the same time, the country's economic output would drop, putting more people out of work where one in five is already unemployed. The prices of imported goods would skyrocket, putting them out of reach for many.  Analyst Vangelis Agapitos estimated that inflation under the new drachma would quickly reach 40 to 50 per cent to catch up with the fall in the new currency's value. To stop the falling value of the drachma, interest rates would have to be increased to as high as 30 to 40 per cent, according to Agapitos. People would then be unable to pay off their loans and mortgages and the country's banks would have to be nationalised to stop them from going under, he predicted.  IOBE head of research Aggelos Tsakanikas foresaw an increase in crime as a consequence of a Grexit, as people struggled to pay bills. "We won’t see tanks in the streets and violence, we won’t see people starving in the streets, but crime could very well rise".

Political opinion.

The centre-right New Democracy party has accused the leftist SYRIZA of supporting withdrawal from the euro. However, SYRIZA's leader, Alexis Tsipras, has stated that Greece should not leave the eurozone and return to the drachma because "...we will have poor people, who have drachmas, and rich people, who will buy everything with euros." Past opinion polling had shown that generally most Greeks favored keeping the euro.  Of all the political parties which won seats in the parliamentary election in May 2012, the Communist KKE expressed support for leaving both the euro and the European Union. However, its General Secretary, Dimitris Koutsoumpas, pondered: "The exit from the EU and the euro will be hazardous, a blind alley unless it is combined with a concrete plan, a programme for the economy and society, with a new organization of society, i.e. a socialist society with the socialization of the concentrated means of production, unilateral cancelation of the debt, working class and people's power."  Golden Dawn is also staunchly Eurosceptic, opposing Greece's participation in the European Union and the eurozone.  On 21 August 2015, 25 MPs from SYRIZA split from the party and formed Popular Unity, which fully supports leaving the euro. In the September 2015 Greek legislative election, the party won 2.8% of the popular vote, winning no seats.  Both the Greek government and the EU favour Greece staying within the Euro and believe this to be possible. However, some commentators believe an exit is likely. In February 2015, the former head of the US Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan, said "it is just a matter of time" for Greece to withdraw from the eurozone, and former United Kingdom Chancellor of the Exchequer Kenneth Clarke described it as inevitable.  A leaked document revealed that, during informal discussions with one of the European leaders, then UK Prime Minister David Cameron suggested that Greece might be better off if it exited the eurozone. British officials declined to make their comments on the leaked document.

Economic criticism.

Richard Koo, chief economist for Nomura Research Institute, accused IMF and EU of basing their negotiation position on unrealistic assumptions. As Koo pointed out, IMF's argument was that if the austerity programme had been implemented as assumed, no further debt relief would have been needed under 2012's framework. The EU's argument was that Greece encountered a difficult situation in 2015 because it delayed implementation of structural reforms. Koo said that the argument was highly unrealistic because structural reforms do not work in a short run, adding that the US did not benefit from the Reaganomics structural reforms during Reagan's era. After publishing documents which admit that the southern European country needs debt relief and a moratorium on debt repayment for 30 years, the IMF was only "slowly beginning to understand" the Greek economy, said Koo.

2015 Grexit speculation.

In January 2015, speculation about a Greek exit from the eurozone was revived when Michael Fuchs, deputy leader of the center-right CDU/CSU faction in the German Bundestag, was quoted on 31 December 2014: "The time when we had to rescue Greece is over. There is no more blackmail potential. Greece is not systemically relevant for the euro." A following article in the weekly Spiegel citing sources from Wolfgang Schäuble's ministry of finance further spurred these speculations. Both German and international media widely interpreted this as the Merkel government tacitly warning Greek voters from voting for SYRIZA in the upcoming legislative election of 25 January 2015.  Germany's largest selling tabloid, the right-wing populist Bild, raised further anger when it compared Greece to an unfair footballer: "What happens to a footballer who breaks the rules and does a crude foul? – He leaves the pitch. He is sent off as a punishment. No question."  The German government's interference in the January 2015 elections in Greece was strongly criticized by leaders of European Parliament groups including Socialists & Democrats (S&D), the liberal ALDE and the Greens/EFA group, when S&D president Gianni Pittella said, "German right-wing forces trying to act like a sheriff in Greece or any other member states is not only unacceptable but above all wrong." It has also been criticized by the German opposition party The Greens', with its speaker Simone Peter calling the debate over a Grexit "highly irresponsible".  Economists of German Commerzbank said that preventing a Greek exit was still desirable for Germany, since a Greek exit would wipe out billions of euros in European taxpayer money, and "it would be much easier politically to renegotiate a compromise with Greece, albeit a lame one, and thus maintain the fiction that Greece will pay back its loans at some point in time."  FTSE "considers Grexit following the election to be highly unlikely...".  On 9 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron chaired a meeting to discuss any possible ramifications in the event of an exit. According to a Bloomberg report George Osborne said at the meeting of the G-20 finance ministers in Istanbul: "A Greek exit from the euro would be very difficult for the world economy and potentially very damaging for the European economy."  In February 2015, the Russian government stated that it would offer Greece aid but would only provide it in rubles.  Kathimerini reported that after 16 February Eurogroup talks Commerzbank AG increased the risk of Greece exiting the euro to 50%. The expression used by "Time" for these talks is "Greece and the Euro Zone dance on the precipice".  After an emergency meeting of eurozone finance ministers (20 February 2015), European leaders agreed to extend Greece's bailout for further four months.  By late June 2015 negotiations on a deal had collapsed, and Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras called a referendum for 5 July on the revised proposals from the IMF and the EU, which he said that his government would campaign against. The referendum was defeated by a margin of 61% to 39%. Eurozone finance ministers have refused to extend the bailout.  Questioned on whether the referendum would be a euro-drachma dilemma, Greece's finance minister, Yanis Varoufakis, said that European Treaties make provisions for an exit from the EU but do not make any provisions for an exit from the Eurozone. A referendum as a choice involving exit from the Eurozone would violate EU Treaties and EU Law.

Theorized effects on world economies.

Effect upon the European economy.

Claudia Panseri, head of equity strategy at Société Générale, speculated in late May 2012 that eurozone stocks could plummet up to 50 percent in value if Greece makes a disorderly exit from the eurozone. Bond yields in other European nations could widen 1 percent point to 2 percent points, negatively affecting their ability to service their own sovereign debts.

Effect upon the world economy.

Europe in 2010 accounted for 25 percent of world trade, according to Deutsche Bank. Economic depression within the European economy would ripple worldwide and slow global growth. However, Greece represents just a small fraction—less than 2 per cent—of European gross domestic product (GDP).

Legality.

A working paper published by the European Central Bank concluded:  In the absence of any ruling by the European Court of Justice, the question of whether a country can unilaterally leave the Eurozone without leaving the EU is unclear. The Williams Stamps Farish Professor in Law at the University of Texas School of Law has suggested that under certain conditions, it is possible for a Member State to do so.

A Greek withdrawal from the eurozone was a hypothetical scenario under which Greece would withdraw from the Eurozone to deal with the now expired Greek government-debt crisis. This conjecture has been referred to as "Grexit", a portmanteau combining the English words "Greek" and "exit", and which has been expressed in Greek as ελλέξοδος, (from "Ελλάς" + "έξοδος"). The term "Graccident" (accidental Grexit) was coined for the case that Greece exited the EU and the euro unintentionally. These terms first came into use in 2012 and have been revitalised at each of the bailouts made available to Greece since then.

Grexit bezeichnet eine Diskussion über ein hypothetisches Ausscheiden Griechenlands aus der Eurozone. Es handelt sich um ein Kofferwort aus den englischen Wörtern und. Der Grexit wurde erstmals 2009 und dann 2014 und 2015 diskutiert.


Association team allocation.

The AFC Competitions Committee proposed a revamp of the AFC club competitions on 25 January 2014, which was ratified by the AFC Executive Committee on 16 April 2014. The member associations are ranked based on their national team's and clubs' performance over the last four years in AFC competitions, with the allocation of slots for the 2015 and 2016 editions of the AFC club competitions determined by the 2014 rankings:  The AFC Competitions Committee finalised the slot allocation for the 2015 and 2016 editions of the AFC Champions League based on the criteria, including AFC's MA rankings and the implementation of club licensing regulations, on 28 November 2014.

Teams.

The following 49 teams from 21 associations entered the competition.  "In the following table, the number of appearances and last appearance count only those since the 2002–03 season (including qualifying rounds), when the competition was rebranded as the AFC Champions League. TH means title holders."

Schedule.

The schedule of the competition was as follows (all draws were held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

Qualifying play-off.

The bracket for the qualifying play-off, which consisted of three rounds (preliminary round 1, preliminary round 2, and play-off round), was determined by the AFC based on the association ranking of each team. Each tie was played as a single match, with the team from the higher-ranked association hosting the match. Extra time and penalty shoot-out were used to decide the winner if necessary. The winners of each tie in the play-off round advanced to the group stage to join the 24 automatic qualifiers. All losers in each round which were from associations with only play-off slots entered the 2015 AFC Cup group stage.

Group stage.

The draw for the group stage was held on 11 December 2014. The 32 teams were drawn into eight groups of four. Teams from the same association could not be drawn into the same group. Each group was played on a home-and-away round-robin basis. The winners and runners-up of each group advanced to the round of 16.  The teams are ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). If tied on points, tiebreakers are applied in the following order:

Knockout stage.

In the knockout stage, the 16 teams played a single-elimination tournament, with the teams split between the two zones until the final. Each tie was played on a home-and-away two-legged basis. The away goals rule, extra time (away goals do not apply in extra time) and penalty shoot-out were used to decide the winner if necessary.

Round of 16.

In the round of 16, the winners of one group played the runners-up of another group in the same zone, with the group winners hosting the second leg.

Quarter-finals.

The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 18 June 2015. Teams from different zones could not be drawn into the same tie, and there was no seeding or country protection, so teams from the same association could be drawn into the same tie.

Semi-finals.

In the semi-finals, the matchups were determined by the quarter-final draw.

Final.

In the final, the finalist from the West Zone hosted the first leg, while the finalist from the East Zone hosted the second leg (no draw was held to determine the order of legs, as it was reversed from the previous season's final).

Awards.

Dream team.

The AFC selected the following 11 players as 2015 AFC Champions League dream team.

The 2015 AFC Champions League was the 34th edition of Asia's premier club football tournament organized by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC), and the 13th under the current AFC Champions League title.

Die AFC Champions League 2015 war die 13. Spielzeit des wichtigsten asiatischen Wettbewerbs für Vereinsmannschaften im Fußball unter dieser Bezeichnung und die 34. insgesamt. Am Wettbewerb nahmen 49 Klubs aus 21 Landesverbänden teil. Die Saison begann mit der ersten Qualifikationsrunde am 4. Februar und wurde mit dem Rückspiel des Finales am 21. November 2015 beendet.


Background and education.

Blakenham was the third son of The Rt. Hon. Richard Hare, 4th Earl of Listowel, an Anglo-Irish aristocrat, and The Hon. Freda Vanden-Bampde-Johnstone. His elder brother, The 5th Earl of Listowel, was a prominent Labour politician. He was educated at Eton.

Political career.

Blakenham was an Alderman of London County Council between 1937 and 1952 and fought in the Second World War with the Suffolk Yeomanry in Italy and was awarded the Legion of Honour and appointed an OBE. He sat as Member of Parliament for Woodbridge between 1945 and 1950 and for Sudbury and Woodbridge between 1950 and 1963 and was vice-chairman of the Conservative Party between 1952 and 1955. He served under Sir Anthony Eden as Minister of State for the Colonies between 1955 and 1956 and under Eden and his successor, Harold Macmillan, as Secretary of State for War from 1956 to 1958.  He later held office under Macmillan as Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food from 1958 to 1960 and Minister of Labour between 1960 and 1963. He was admitted to the Privy Council in 1955 and in 1963 he was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Blakenham, of Little Blakenham in the County of Suffolk. Blakenham then served under Sir Alec Douglas-Home as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Deputy Leader of the House of Lords from 1963 to 1964 and was chairman of the Conservative Party between 1963 and 1965.

Family.

Lord Blakenham married the Hon. Nancy Pearson, daughter of Weetman Pearson, 2nd Viscount Cowdray, on 31 January 1934. They had three children:  In 1967, Joanna married American attorney and Harvard Law School professor Stephen Breyer; Breyer would be appointed a Circuit Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in 1980 and a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1994.  Lord Blakenham died in March 1982, aged 71, and was succeeded in the viscountcy by his only son, Michael. Lady Blakenham died in November 1994, aged 86.

Horticultural interests.

In 1951 he purchased a wood close to his home. Over the following years he created glades and paths through the bluebells and planted many rare plants, and became known as the Blakenham Woodland Garden.  Hare received the Victoria Medal of Honour from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1974. In 1982 he became treasurer of the Society.  The Blakenham Woodland Garden was inherited by his son and is open to the public. On his death the wood was made into a charitable trust. His son, Michael Blakenham, a lifelong environmentalist has increased the stock of unusual specimens and has bought many rare including unnamed trees and shrubs from auctions at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

John Hugh Hare, 1st Viscount Blakenham, OBE, PC, DL (22 January 1911 – 7 March 1982) was a British Conservative politician.

John Hugh Hare, 1. Viscount Blakenham PC OBE DL (* 22. Januar 1911; † 7. März 1982) war ein britischer Politiker der Conservative Party, der 18 Jahre lang Abgeordneter des House of Commons und mehrmals Minister war. Nach seinem Ausscheiden aus dem House of Commons wurde er 1963 mit dem Titel "1. Viscount Blakenham" in den erblichen Adelsstand erhoben und gehörte damit bis zu seinem Tod dem House of Lords als Mitglied an. Darüber hinaus fungierte er zwischen 1963 und 1965 als Geschäftsführender Vorsitzender "(Chairman)" der Conservative Party.


Biography.

Brown was born on a farm in Illinois, United States, and received a bachelor's degree from Columbia University in 1968. She then became a journalist in South Vietnam, where her brother was serving in the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. Interested in Asian art, she earned a master's degree from University of Singapore in 1973. She married and made her home in Bangkok, but she was run over and nearly killed in a traffic accident in the 1980s, which cost her a leg and seriously damaged her hearing. Nevertheless, in 2004, she received a Ph.D. from UCLA, working on the so-called Ming Gap, a 300-year interval when China blocked exports of ceramics. A production boom across Southeast Asia resulted. Brown's analysis of ceramics recovered from shipwrecks of the period "revolutionized the understanding of trade patterns in the region," according to colleagues cited in the "Los Angeles Times".

Arrest and death.

While employed as a curator by Bangkok University, she became involved in the investigation of the smuggling of art objects from Thailand to the United States, particularly from the Ban Chiang cultural tradition, assisting U.S. Government agents. However, she was herself implicated in the possible false authentication of stolen objects, based on material found during January 2008 raids on the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Pacific Asia Museum in Pasadena, California, the Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California, and the Mingei International Museum in San Diego. Brown was arrested on May 9, 2008 for alleged wire fraud when she arrived in the United States to deliver a lecture at an Asian art symposium at the University of Washington. She was found dead in her cell at the Federal Detention Center in SeaTac on May 14. Naturally, the charge was dropped immediately after her death at the facility.  The question of her actual involvement in the smuggling ring, the justification for her arrest, and her lack of medical attention after it, was the subject of a series of articles in the "Los Angeles Times".

Medical malpractice lawsuit.

A medical malpractice lawsuit was filed by her son, Taweesin (Jaime) Ngerntongdee, after it was determined that Brown had died of peritonitis caused by a perforated ulcer. The suit claimed she had suffered stomach problems in the detention center and that other inmates took her to a shower after a guard would not respond when she vomited something that "smelled like excrement." When Brown requested for help after the 10 p.m. lockdown on May 13, the guard told her she would have to wait until the morning for medical attention, according to the suit. Detention center officials acknowledged there was no overnight medical staff on duty and took the case to mediation. The federal government settled the case for $880,000 in July 2009. Attorney Tim Ford stated part of the settlement stipulated that Brown's death would be investigated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons.

Books.

She was author of a number of academic books on Southeast Asian ceramics. Among the ones that established her early reputation are:  Among her later works are:

Roxanna Maude Brown (May 2, 1946 – May 14, 2008) was a prominent authority on Southeast Asian ceramics and director of the Bangkok University's Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum.

Roxanna Maude Brown (* 2. Mai 1946 in Illinois, USA; † 14. Mai 2008 in SeaTac, USA) war eine US-amerikanische und thailändische Kunsthistorikerin und vormalige Journalistin. Bis zu ihrem Tod war sie unter anderem Direktorin des Southeast Asian Ceramics Museums der Universität Bangkok in Pathum Thani, Thailand, und eine weltweit anerkannte Autorität auf dem Gebiet der Erforschung südostasiatischer Keramik.


Martín Cortés, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca

Early life.

Cortés was born in Cuernavaca in what is now the state of Morelos. He had an older half-brother with the same name Martín Cortés (1523-1568), son of Hernán Cortés and Doña Marina ("La Malinche"), nicknamed "El Mestizo".  Illegitimate by birth, Doña Marina's son Martín lacked the noble title of "don", which his younger, legitimate half-brother held. He also had three sisters: Doña María Cortés y Zúñiga, Doña Catalina Cortés y Zúñiga, and Doña Juana Cortés y Zúñiga.  According to one modern assessment, "Martín Cortés was everything his father was not... In place of courage, diplomatic genius, and a talent for leadership, [Don] Martín faced with a straightforward arrogance that he claimed as his birthright."  Don Martín and his brother, Don Luis, traveled with their father to Spain in 1540, to serve King Charles I of Spain and his successor, Philip II of Spain. As a young man, Don Martín became friends with Prince Philip, and both participated in the campaign against the rebellious Low Countries. Through his friendship with Prince Philip, who became Philip II following his father's abdication, Don Martín gained security of title to his estates in New Spain, who "commanded that all the estates and Indian tributaries granted to Hernán Cortés in recognition of his conquests be passed on to his son."

Spain.

During his residence in Spain, he married his cousin, Doña Ana Ramírez de Arellano, daughter of the Count of Aguilar, Don Pedro Ramírez de Arellano. He maintained close ties with the aristocracy and intelligentsia of the moment, such as the writer Francisco López de Gómara, whom he sponsored to write the biography of his father.

Return to New Spain.

Don Martín, with brother Don Luis and half brother Martín el Mestizo, returned to New Spain in 1563, met by "raucous welcoming parties", particularly of disgruntled encomenderos, and he was met by the viceroy himself, Don Luis de Valesco. At the time, during a period of disturbances in the city of Mexico City, Don Martín was the richest person in New Spain, with many encomiendas in various parts of New Spain as well as the entailed estate as Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca. In Francisco López de Gómara's dedication of his biography of Cortés to its sponsor, Don Martín, he says to the young Marquess in admonition that "in the first instance you have wealth; in the second, fame, for honor and riches go hand in hand. At the same time your inheritance obligates you to emulate the deeds of your father, Hernán Cortés, and to spend well what he left you."

Conflicts with elite.

In "los Países Bajos" (the Netherlands), Martín had acquired the "bad habit" of toasting. This offended some elites' sense of good manners in New Spain. However, more severe than this breach of etiquette was his attempt to be considered the most important man in New Spain instead of the crown's appointed viceroy. He hijacked the visit of a royal inspector, Jerónimo de Valderrama, who, under normal protocols, would have been met by the viceroy and stayed in the viceregal palace. The welcoming party greeted Valderrama first and persuaded him to stay with him rather than with the viceroy.  Although that might seem trivial, it was a strong signal that he was challenging the viceroy's power.

Encomenderos' Conspiracy.

He led a movement along with some encomenderos to prevent the abolition of encomiendas that was mandated by the New Laws of 1542 (they were rumored to be about to come into effect soon) ands well as greater autonomy for the New Spain. From the encomenderos' point of view, they were the heirs of the conquerors who had given the Crown the rich and vast territory and so they sought to retain what they considered their just rewards for service with their encomienda grants. The Crown was increasingly opposed to the development of a noble group that challenged its power and perquisites, and the New Laws that limited the inheritance of encomiendas was a mechanism to phase out the sources of wealth and power for the conqueror group.  In New Spain, on the death of the Viceroy Don Luís de Velasco in 1564, Don Martín was named Captain General by the Mexico City Council, with hints of independence for the viceroyalty. In 1565, two sons of an important conqueror seemed to go beyond merely advocating protection of the conqueror group's interests and offered to raise rebellion and crown Don Martín king of New Spain. According to contemporary observer Juan Suárez de Peralta (a relative of Hernán Cortés's late first wife, Catalina Suárez), Don Martín was not all in with the conspirators but did not discourage them. Don Martín's vacillation caused the plot to be first postponed and then abandoned. On 16 July 1566, the plotters were betrayed and the leaders arrested, including Don Martín, his brothers, and the rich and influential Alonso de Ávila, nephew of the conquistador of the same name. The two main conspirators were sentenced to death and beheaded.  In Don Martín's trial, he was accused of treason and inciting rebellion against the king. According to the trial questionnaires, of which 388 leaves are found in the Harkness Collection of the Library of Congress (and published in transcription and English translation), he was accused of seeking to overturn the audencia (high court) and its judges be assassinated, and he would become king of New Spain. The questionnaires for the trial were drawn up in September 1566 and another in November. There were powerful witnesses testifying to his participation in the plot, including the brother and son of Luis de Velasco. Testifying for the defense were the Provincial for the Augustinian Order and two Provincials of the Franciscan Order, but there wa a range of supporters, including two musicians, a surgeon, a lawyer, a silversmith, the son and wife of an apothecary, and a free black woman named Margarida Pérez.  The monarch sent a judge, Alonso de Muñoz, and to deal with the perceived threat to the colony. Muñoz "unleashed a reign of terror. Hundreds of Spanish settlers were arrested and tortured and scores beheaded." Muñoz was recalled to Spain and thrown into prison. on arrival of the new viceroy, Don Gastón de Peralta, on 15 November 1567. The Cortés brothers were spared death. The failed encomenderos' conspiracy and aftermath was the end of effective power of the group.  Don Martín, who had been spared beheading, was given leave in April 1567 to travel to Spain to plead their case before the King, with whom he had been friends since before his ascendance to the throne. Before he left New Spain, he had been required to swear allegiance to the crown and to present himself in Spain to the king within 50 days of his arrival. Don Martín was under house arrest briefly, but promising not to return to New Spain, he was released and resumed his profligate life in Madrid, funded by his vast wealth.  He had briefly lost the entailed Estate until 1574.  He died in Madrid, Spain, 13 August 1589, the 68th anniversary of the fall of Tenochtitlan. His successors to the title never resided in Mexico but lived in Spain and later Italy.

Later years.

Given his exile in Spain, he had to rely on able administrators to run the sprawling estates of the Marquessate of the Valley of Oaxaca. The position of administrator (the "governor") was leased to the highest bidder for nine years, which guaranteed him income and in exchange, the governor had considerable power over virtually all aspects of the estate: administrative, fiscal, and judicial. As with the estates of the Jesuits in New Spain, the Marquesado was administered as a unit despite the scattered individual haciendas in central and southern Mexico. They were business enterprises run for profit. The administrators handled all matters pertaining to the estate. A codex held by the Latin American Library at Tulane University, the "Atatepec Land Claim [Petition to recover a tract of land from the marques]," describes litigation against him.

Don Martín Cortés y Zúñiga, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (1532–1589) was the son and designated heir of Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés by his second wife, Doña Juana de Zúñiga. Don Martín shared his name with an elder half-brother, whose mother was Doña Marina. He was involved with a conspiracy of encomenderos, was investigated, tried, and spared the death penalty.

Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, zweiter Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, auch mit dem Beinamen „El Legítimo“ belegt (* 1532 in Cuernavaca (Mexico); † 1589 in Madrid), war ein Sohn des spanischen Eroberers Hernán Cortés und dessen zweiter Ehefrau Doña Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga. Er war der erste legitime überlebende Sohn von Cortés und erbte dessen Titel und ein Großteil dessen Vermögens. Er ist nicht zu verwechseln mit seinem älteren gleichnamigen Halbbruder Martín Cortés, oft mit dem Beinamen „El Mestizo“ bezeichnet wird und aus Cortés' Beziehung mit Malinche geboren wurde.


Biography.

David Littman was born on 4 July 1933, in London, England. He was educated at Canford School, Dorset, England (1951), and Trinity College, Dublin, where he earned his BA with honours and MA degrees in Modern History and Political Science, followed by post-graduate studies at the Institute of Archaeology, University of London. He married his wife Gisèle (née Orebi; originally from Egypt and later known by her nom de plume Bat Ye'or), in September 1959. They moved to Lausanne, Switzerland, the following year.  The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization was founded by his brother, Louis Littman.

Operation Mural.

In 1961, Littman volunteered for a clandestine humanitarian mission to evacuate Jewish children from Morocco to Israel, via Switzerland. Moroccan Jews had been forbidden from leaving the country since 1956. Littman thought he was working for the Jewish Agency – years later it was revealed it was arranged with the assistance of the Mossad. From March–July 1961, posing with his wife and baby daughter as Christians, Littman ran the Casablanca office of the Geneva-based international NGO for children "Oeuvre de Secours aux Enfants de l'Afrique du Nord" (OSSEAN). His code name was "Mural", and the code name for the mission was "Operation Mural". After months of negotiation by Littman, the children left Morocco in five convoys under the guise of a supposed holiday in Switzerland (with Littman accompanying the last convoy), and from Switzerland went to Israel. In all, he assisted in evacuating 530 Jewish children to Israel. The children's families joined them several years later.  An article about Operation Mural by Shmuel Segev was published in the magazine "Maariv" in 1984. Littman's work was then recognized by President Chaim Herzog and later President Shimon Peres, who presented him with the Mimouna award in 1986. A documentary film on the operation, filmed by Yehuda Kaveh, screened in 2007.  On 1 June 2008, at a special private commemorative event at the presidential Jerusalem residence – with Littman, his wife, two children, three grandchildren and former key agents from the Mossad, who had worked with Littman – Israeli President Shimon Peres, said: "Well, it is a belated ceremony, but it doesn't lose its value, because what you did stands on its own legs and is not affected by time. I think that the saving of 530 children is, I imagine, the most moving experience a man can have. You say in Hebrew: 'The one who saves one life, is like the one that saved the life of the whole world.' But when you save 530 children, it’s really unforgettable. I want to express, on behalf of our people, our nation, our recognition of your courage, your wisdom, of your determination under extremely difficult conditions". A year later Littman was honoured by the Israel Intelligence Heritage and Commemoration Center in a unique ceremony on 1 July 2009, with 200 persons, when the "Hero of Silence" Order was conferred on him, he being the 9th person to receive it since 1985. ("An order of highest esteem and appreciation, awarded to David Gerald Littman: A clandestine warrior, who risked his life and who served a sacred cause of the People and of the State of Israel"). A few months earlier a Casablanca French newspaper, Le Soir Echos, interviewed him through a Swiss colleague, with their own questions; and published the Operation Mural story integrally in four successive issues (23–26 March) with their own positive titles and sub-titles throughout, and no editing. It was the first time that Moroccans learned about the affair.

Activism.

In 1970, the Littmans helped to found the "Centre d'Information et de Documentation sur le Moyen Orient" (CID) in Geneva, which published studies on Middle East subjects until the mid-1980s. He supervised its publications until 1974, and then served as an advisor.  Since 1986, he has appeared several times before the United Nations Human Rights Council (formerly the United Nations Commission on Human Rights) on behalf of various NGOs. From 1986–91 he was main representative of the World Union for Progressive Judaism (WUPJ). In February 1992, he joined René Wadlow (main representative of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation; (IFOR)), then with the World Federalist Movement (WFM). He has been an accredited representative for the Association of World Citizens (AWC) and for the Association for World Education (AWE) since 1997, and an accredited representative and main spokesman for the WUPJ again since 2001. He has made oral and written statements (some jointly) at the UN Commission on Human Rights for the WUPJ, IFOR, WFM, International Committee for European Security and Cooperation (ICESC), Christian Solidarity International (CSI), Simon Wiesenthal Center, International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), AWC, AWC, and other NGOs.

Release of Russian Jews.

In March 1987, the Soviet delegation to the UN walked out when Littman arranged for Natan Sharansky to speak to the Commission about refuseniks. Also in 1987, he accused the Soviet delegate of antisemitism when he appeared before the UN Commission on Human Rights. In 1988 he requested that several Jews in the USSR who were refused permission to emigrate should be allowed to do so. He repeated the request to Boris Yeltsin in 1991. In August 1989, he appeared before the Commission representing WUPJ.

Hamas.

From January 1989 Littman sought to make public at the Commission the fact that Hamas in its ideology calls for the annihilation of Israel, and points to Islamic texts for support of its position.

Release of Syrian Jewish women.

In October 1990, as the WUPJ's representative to the Commission, he petitioned for the release of single Jewish women from Syria; in March 1991 he requested that they appoint a special representative to investigate; and in August 1991, he urged it to work for their release.

Lebanese Jewish hostages.

In August 1991, he appeared before the Commission on behalf of the WUPJ to urge the release of Lebanese Jews held as hostages in Lebanon. In December 1991, he wrote a letter on behalf of the WUPJ appealing to UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar, asking him to discover the fate of the 11 Lebanese Jews who had been kidnapped in the mid-1980s.

Claim of UN conference being hijacked.

When Israel withdrew from the Durban World Conference Against Racism in 2001, joining the US in protesting perceived anti-Israel and anti-Semitic remarks, "The Hindu" reported that Littman and WUPJ Rabbi Francois Garai filed a statement saying that the conference had been "hijacked by dictatorial regimes" interested in pursuing "jihad" against Israel.

Christoph Blocher.

In December 2003, when Christoph Blocher, who was known in the first instance for his inflammatory anti-immigrant rhetoric, won a seat in the Swiss Federal Council, Littman defended him from charges of anti-Semitism, saying "I personally do not accept the accusation that he is anti-Semitic and await with interest the new policies he will propose for Switzerland."

Shariah, violence against women, and anti-semitism.

"The New York Daily News" referred to Littman as a "rare but tenacious [voice] who confront[s] Islamic human rights abuses at the UN at every turn," and cited his complaining to the Council that Iranian law "still allows the marriage of girls at only 9 years old, and justifies the stoning of women for alleged adultery."  When Littman sought to make a three-minute statement before the Council's eighth session in June 2008 (on behalf of the AWE) with regard to various forms of violence against women (including female genital mutilation) and "shariah", he was blocked after 22 seconds from finishing his statement. Representatives from Egypt, Pakistan, and Iran (speaking on behalf of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference) forced a halt to the proceedings, saying that any discussion of Islamic religious law was insulting to the faith. After deliberations, Council president Doru Romulus Costea of Romania said: "The Council is not prepared to discuss religious questions and we don’t have to do so. Declarations must avoid judgments or evaluation about religion." He told Littman to amend his remarks. Littman gave and amended statement and released copies of the original statement for review. A similar incident occurred at the Council's ninth session, when Littman had prepared a text protesting the antisemitic writings of the Grand Sheikh of Al-Azhar University in Egypt. He was ordered by the new Council President Martin Ihoeghian Uhomoibhi to desist. In March 2009 he was again denied the opportunity to speak, this time for being "off topic" when calling for a universal condemnation of defamations of Judaism during a discussion of freedom of expression and hate speech.

Writings.

Early in his career, Littman's writings were published in the "Wiener Library Bulletin", a periodical of the Wiener Library. Others were published by the CID, which disseminated its publications by mailing them to prominent people and institutions. He also published historical writings with "Les Editions de l'Avenir", which distributed its publications in a similar manner. Since 1971, Littman has published articles on historical and human rights issues in academic journals, including in Jean-Paul Sartre's "Les Temps Modernes", in the press, and in three books. He also published a chapter in "The Century of Moses Montefiore" (1985), published by the Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, under the auspices of the Oxford University Press.  Littman contributed multiple chapters to "The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims" (2005), edited by Robert Spencer, Prometheus Books 2005,.  He translated many articles by Bat Ye'or into English and co-translated three of her major books, the last published in 2005.

David Gerald Littman (4 July 1933 – 20 May 2012) was a British Jewish activist best known for organising the departure of Jewish children from Morocco when he was 28. He then worked as a lobbyist at the United Nations in Geneva and was also an historian. He was married to Bat Ye'or.

David Gerald Littman (* 4. Juli 1933 in London; † 20. Mai 2012) war ein britischer Menschenrechtsaktivist und Lobbyist bei den Vereinten Nationen. Er wurde bekannt durch eine Rettungsaktion im Jahre 1961 für rund 530 jüdische Kinder aus Marokko nach Israel (Operation Mural).


Französisch-Englischer Krieg von 1202 bis 1214

The expansionary policy of Henry II.

In 1150, Henry II received the Duchy of Normandy from his father Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, and when he died in 1151, he became Count of Anjou and Maine.  On May 18, 1152, he became Duke of Aquitaine in right of his wife by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine in Poitiers after her first marriage with the King of France Louis VII the Younger was annulled at the Council of Beaugency. Several children were born of this marriage.  On November 6, 1153, by the Treaty of Wallingford (or Treaty of Winchester), he was recognized as the successor of King Stephen of England (Stephen of Blois before his accession to the throne). When the latter died on October 25, 1154, he ascended the throne of England under the name of Henry II. On Sunday, December 19, he was crowned at Westminster Abbey.  Henry introduced some religious and legislative reforms. In 1155, he appointed Thomas Becket chancellor.  In 1156, he seized the viscounty of Thouars, thereby controlling communications between the northwest and south-west France.  In 1159, continuing his expansionist policy, he besieged Toulouse with the help of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona and prince of Aragon. Louis VII came to the aid of his brother-in-law Raymond V, Count of Toulouse. Henry II withdrew, annexing part of Quercy and Cahors.  Two cases significantly tarnished his reign:  Henry acquired considerable prestige in Europe. The new King of France, Philip Augustus, was determined to fight Henry II, whose immense territories threatened the Capetian monarchy. The King of France allied with the surviving sons of Henry II, Richard and John Lackland. By the Treaty of Azay-le-Rideau 4 July 1189, Henry II had to recognise his son Richard as sole heir. He died only a few days later, in his castle of Chinon. He is buried at the abbey of Fontevrault.

Richard the Lionheart's war with Philip Augustus.

When Philip Augustus came to the throne in 1180, he was the king of a territory comparable in area to the Île-de-France of today and faced against an Angevin Empire more powerful than ever. Having strengthened his position within his own kingdom, he began raising the sons of Henry II against him, supporting their revolts and befriending Richard the Lionheart. After two years of combat (1186-1188), a truce was signed to maintain status quo. The death of Henry II in 1189 and the call for the Third Crusade put an end to the conflict, and Richard the Lionheart was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey, and immediately left for the crusade alongside King Philip.  Returning early from the crusade in December 1191, Philip Augustus encouraged the rebellion of John Lackland against his brother Richard and profited from the absence of the latter to negotiate a very advantageous treaty for France. Hoping to acquire the English crown with the support of the King of France, John Lackland paid homage in 1193. Then, as Philip Augustus attacked the possessions of the Plantagenets, John gave to the French king eastern Normandy (except Rouen), Le Vaudreuil, Verneuil and Évreux, by written agreement, in January 1194. By his military and diplomatic finesse, Philip kept his rival at bay. Richard the Lionheart continued the crusade after the departure of Philip: he retook the main Palestinian ports up to Jaffa, and restored the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem although the city itself eluded him. He eventually negotiated a five-year truce with Saladin and sailed back in October 1192. Winter storms overtook him. Forced to stay at Corfu, he was captured by Duke Leopold V of Austria, who put him in the hands of the German Emperor Henry VI, his enemy. For the release of Richard, the emperor asked for a ransom of 100,000 marks, plus 50,000 marks to help him conquer Sicily.Richard was finally released on 2 February 1194. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, paid two-thirds of the ransom, one hundred thousand marks, the balance to be paid later. His reaction was immediate. In the Battle of Fréteval, Richard was able to push back Philip. As a result, Philip gave up most of his recent conquests in the first treaty in January 1196. Then the fighting resumed in 1197, again to the advantage of Richard who invaded the Vexin, resulting in an English victory at the Battle of Gisors in which the saying and future motto of the United Kingdom "Dieu et mon droit" was supposedly uttered by king Richard, and has been used as a battle cry ever since. The two kings looked for support, while the new Pope Innocent III, who wanted to set up a new crusade, pushed them to negotiate. The situation ended abruptly. During the siege of the castle of Châlus (Limousin) in 1199, Richard was hit by a crossbow bolt. He succumbed to his injuries a few days later, on April 6, forty-one years old and at the height of his glory.

The maneuvers of Philip Augustus.

John Lackland succeeded his brother Richard. The succession was not unopposed: facing John was his nephew, the young Arthur of Brittany (12 years old), son of his elder brother Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany who died in 1186. Philip Augustus supported this rivalry, and while he had taken the position of John against Richard, this time he took the position of Arthur against John. Philip received the homage of Arthur, as Duke of Brittany, in spring 1199 for the counties of Anjou, Maine and Touraine. This allowed him to negotiate from a position of strength with John Lackland; thus the Treaty of Le Goulet was created in 1200 which aimed to settle the claims the Angevin kings of England had on French lands, with the exception of Aquitaine, in order to end the constant dispute over Normandy. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of Louis of France and Blanche of Castile, John's niece.  However, the hostilities did not cease. Philip again took the cause of Arthur, and summoned John his vassal under the Treaty of Le Goulet for his actions in Aquitaine and Tours. John, naturally, did not present himself, and the court of France pronounced the confiscation of his fiefs.  In the spring of 1202 Philip attacked Normandy while Arthur attacked Poitou, but the young duke was surprised by King John in the Battle of Mirebeau, and taken prisoner with his troops. Arthur of Brittany disappeared in the following months, probably murdered in early 1203. Philip then provided support to vassals of Arthur and resumed his actions in Normandy in spring 1203. He dismantled the system of Norman castles, took Le Vaudreuil, and began the Siege of Chateau Gaillard in September 1203. Meanwhile, John made the mistake of leaving Normandy to go to England in December 1203. Chateau Gaillard fell 6 March 1204.  Normandy was now open for the taking. Philip pressed his advantage; Falaise, Caen, Bayeux, and Rouen surrendered 24 June 1204, despairing the aid of John Lackland, who did not come. Arques and Verneuil fell immediately after, completing the success of Philip, who had conquered Normandy in two years of campaign. To consolidate his new conquest, Philip Augustus built the castle of Rouen, an imposing fortress of Philippian style and the locus of Capetian power in Normandy.  Philip then turned to the Loire Valley, where he took Poitiers in August 1204, and Loches and Chinon in 1205. John and Philip finally agreed to a truce in Thouars, on 13 October 1206. For Philip Augustus, it was then necessary to stabilize these rapid conquests. Since 1204, Philip published an order imposing the use of Norman, instead of Angevin, currency.  From 1206 to 1212, Philip Augustus strove to strengthen his territorial conquests. Capetian domination was accepted in Champagne, Brittany, and Auvergne, but the counties of Boulogne and Flanders remain reluctant.  Renaud de Dammartin, Count of Boulogne, became a primary concern. Despite the favors of Philip Augustus, who married in 1210 his son Philip Hurepel to Matilda, daughter of Renaud, he continued to negotiate with the enemy camp. The suspicions of Philip took shape when the count began to fortify Mortain, in western Normandy. In 1211, Philip went on the offensive, taking Mortain, Aumale and Dammartin. Renaud de Dammartin fled to the county of Bar, and was no longer an immediate threat.

The success of Philip Augustus.

The incredible success of Philip Augustus soon brought all of his rivals to unite against him. The opposition formed in 1212. John allied with his nephew, Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who was currently facing an internal crisis within the Empire in which the French supported Otto's opposition, Philip of Swabia. Renaud de Dammartin was the real architect of the coalition. He had nothing to lose when he went to Frankfurt to seek the support of Otto and England, where he paid homage to John. Hostilities between Philip and John resumed immediately.  At the same time, the first operations of the Albigensian Crusade, led by French barons, saw the quarrel between the Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse and the Crusaders. Philip Augustus refused to intervene and focused on the English danger. He gathered his barons in Soissons on April 8, 1213, ordering his son Louis to lead the expedition against England and won the support of all his vassals, except one, Ferdinand, Count of Flanders, whom he himself had installed two years earlier. Philip then sought further support, particularly with Henry I, Duke of Brabant. After some hesitation, Pope Innocent III on the other hand chose to support John, which provided moral support, but no direct military advantage. The preparations of the conflict persisted: the initial project of Philip, who wanted to invade England, was thwarted when his fleet was attacked by the enemy coalition at Damme in May 1213. The following month saw Philip and Louis strive against the counties of Boulogne and Flanders. The northern cities were almost all devastated.  In February 1214, John finally arrived on the continent, in La Rochelle, hoping to take Philip unawares. The strategy worked at first, since John won supporters among the barons of Limousin and Poitou. In May 1214, he returned to the Loire Valley and took Angers. Philip, already engaged with the combined coalition force of English, Flemish, and German forces in Flanders, ordered his son Louis to head west and fight John who was currently besieging Roche-au-Moine. Although John had outmaneuvered the Prince and thus forced him to give battle when John had a clear numerical advantage, the support of Poitevin and Angevin barons vacillated and they forced the king to retreat for unknown reasons, however due to the military culture and the concept of chivalry at the time, this was not uncommon. It is not clear if the remaining mercenaries under John's leadership ever engaged the enemy. The king of England fled on July 2; the English defeat was total. But the coalition was not yet lost: everything depended on the eastern theatre of the war.  The final confrontation between the armies of Philip and the coalition led by Otto, was now inevitable, after several weeks of approach and avoidance. On Sunday, July 27, 1214, the army of Philip, pursued by the coalition, arrived at Bouvines to cross the bridge over the Marque. At that Sunday, the prohibition to fight is absolute for Christians, but Otto decides to go on with the offensive, hoping to surprise the enemy while crossing the bridge. Philip's army was greatly surprised from the rear, but he quickly reorganized his troops before they could be engaged on the bridge. They quickly turned against the coalition. The French right wing fought against the Flemish knights, led by Ferdinand. At the center where fiercest of the fighting occurred, Philip and Otto fought in person. In the cavalry melee, Philip was unseated, and he fell, but his knights protected him, offered him a fresh horse, and the king resumed the assault until Otto ordered a retreat. Finally, on the left, the supporters of Philip ended the career of Renaud de Dammartin who was leading the knights from Brabant, as well as William Longespée who led the English knights, both of whom were captured by the French after a long resistance. Fate had turned in favor of Philip, despite the numerical inferiority of his troops. The victory was decisive: the Emperor fled, Philip's men captured 130 prisoners, including five counts, including the reviled traitor, Renaud of Dammartin, and the Count of Flanders, Ferdinand.  The coalition was dissolved after its defeat. On September 18, 1214, in Chinon, Philip signed a truce for five years. The English king returned to England in 1214. By the Treaty of Chinon, John Lackland abandoned all his possessions to the north of the Loire: Berry, Touraine, Maine and Anjou returned to the royal domain, which then covered a third of France, greatly enlarged and free from external threat.

Prince Louis' expedition to England.

The victory was complete on the continent, but Philip's ambitions did not stop there. Indeed, Philip Augustus wanted to go further against John of England. He thus argues that John should be deprived of the throne, recalling his betrayal of Richard in 1194, and the murder of his nephew Arthur. Arguing a questionable interpretation also of the genealogy of his wife Blanche of Castile, Louis, at the request of the English barons in rebellion, led an expedition to attempt the conquest of England. The landing took place in May 1216 and Louis, at the head of numerous troops (1,200 knights, plus many anglais rebels), conquered the English kingdom, including London, where he settled and proclaimed himself as King of England. Only Windsor, Lincoln and Dover resisted. But despite the warm welcome to Louis by a majority of English bishops, the support of the pope to John remained firm, and Louis was excommunicated. Finally, John died suddenly of illness, October 19, 1216. The former allies of John then hastily crowned his son Henry III, aged nine. Pope Innocent III also just died, but his successor Pope Honorius III continued to defend the loyalists. The bishops soon withdrew their support from Louis and the rebels. The prince returned to seek support in France beginning in 1217 and returned to England. This time, his forces were routed by the English who were led by William Marshal in the decisive Battle of Lincoln. The French attempted to send reinforcements and supplies across the English Channel, but were obliterated in another decisive battle in the Battle of Sandwich. Louis agreed to negotiate peace in June; it was completed in September 1217 and his excommunication was lifted.  The attitude of Philip Augustus towards this expedition was ambiguous; he did not officially support it and even criticized his son's strategy for the conquest of England, but it is unlikely that he had not given his consent to it, at least privately.  After Bouvines, military operations took place in England or the southern France. The royal domain and the vast area north of the Loire enjoyed repose under the terms of the truce concluded in Chinon in 1215; originally for five years and then extended in 1220 with the guarantee of Louis, an association which marked the beginning of Philip's transition to his son and heir.  If the conquests by arms ceased, Philip nevertheless extended his influence by taking advantage of problematic cases of inheritance. This was the case in Champagne on the accession of Theobald IV, which allowed him to reestablish his suzerainty. This was the case especially when the king recovered certain lands such as Issoudun, Bully, Alençon, Clermont-en-Beauvaisis and Ponthieu.  The prosperity of the kingdom at the end of the reign of Philip Augustus is an established fact. It is estimated the annual surplus of the treasury was 25,210 livres in November 1221. On that date, the Treasury had in its coffers 157,036 livres, more than 80% of the total ordinary annual income of the monarchy. The testament of Philip Augustus, written in September 1222, confirms these figures, since the sum of its legacy amounted to 790,000 livres of Paris, nearly four years of revenue. This will was written while Philip was in a poor state of health and feared death. It will eventually occur ten months later.  While he was in Pacy, Philip decided to attend an ecclesiastical assembly in Paris to prepare for a new crusade against the advice of his doctors. He did not survive the fatigue of travel and died on July 14, 1223, at Mantes. His body was brought to Paris, and his funeral was quickly organized, in Saint-Denis, in the presence of the great men of the kingdom. For the first time, the body of the King of France dressed in all the regalia is exposed for the veneration of the people before his burial in a solemn rite based on that of the kings of England.

The conquests of Louis VIII in France.

Nicknamed the "Lion", it was during the reign of his father that Louis won his fame by winning over John Lackland the victory of La Roche-aux-Moines in 1214. During his expedition across the Channel, Louis VIII was defeated at Lincoln in May 1217, and renounced his claims to the throne of England by the Treaty of Lambeth on September 11, 1217 while getting in return a large sum of money.  Louis VIII later claimed that the English court had not fulfilled all the conditions of the treaty of 1217. Taking advantage of the minority of Henry III, he decided to seize the last English possessions in France.  Aquitaine was taken, the cities of the region falling one after the other: Poitou, Saintonge, Périgord, Angoumois, and part of Bordeaux. Louis VIII seized all territory as far as the Garonne, in a quick campaign. To control the trade of the region, the French laid siege to the strategic port city of La Rochelle in 1224, and after a few military confrontations between the English garrison and Louis' forces, the city surrendered within a month. The remaining possessions held by the English king were Bordeaux and Gascony.

The reign of Saint Louis.

In 1230 the King Henry III of England led an expedition to France to reclaim the Plantagenet heritage but was repelled and forced to re-embark for his kingdom the following year. In 1242, Henry was again at war with the King of France Louis IX as he took advantage of the inheritance dispute in the County of Poitou. However he was defeated in two battles that were fought within 2 days of each other, the Battle of Taillebourg at Taillebourg and a more decisive battle near Saintes, just south of the original battle. Louis pressed his advantage and laid siege to the city of Saintes. Though it is unclear that any armed conflict happened in the siege, it brought an end to the short-lived Saintonge war.  As a result of Henry's military failures in France and the constant demand to finance his wars, the barons of England sought to reassert the authority of the Magna Carta which the king had been overstepping for decades. As tensions between loyalists and rebels grew and the possibility of a Second Barons War seemed a very real possibility, naturally, both sides requested the support of the King of France. Seeking to restore his position in a seemingly desperate situation, in 1259 Henry purchased the support of Louis by the Treaty of Paris, agreeing to accept the loss of the lands in France that had been seized from him and from his father King John by Louis and his predecessors since 1202, and to do homage for those that remained in his hands. The treaty put an end to Henry's and any future king of England's ambitions to reestablish the former Angevin Empire, however an underlying rivalry would remain. Following the treaty, the two kingdoms generally enjoyed a period of peace and stable relations; the English kings would regularly pay homage to the King of France. Each kingdom used the time to invade its smaller neighbors in the First War of Scottish Independence in the case of England and the Franco-Flemish war in the case of France.

Final settlement under Philip the Fair.

The first Hundred Years' War is ended definitively with the Treaty of Montreuil-sur-Mer, ratified June 19, 1299 by Philip IV the Fair and Edward I of England. It restored Guyenne to the King of England, but provided for the double marriage of Margaret, Philip's sister, to Edward, and Isabella, Philip's daughter, to Edward's son, also named Edward. On May 20, 1303, France and England signed the Treaty of Paris (1303) which confirmed the provisions of the Treaty of Montreuil.  Ironically, Edward III, the son of Isabella and Edward II of England would use his position as grandson of Philip the Fair to claim the Kingdom of France. Therefore, the marriage settlement that sealed the end of the "first" Hundred Years' War would lead to the casus belli employed to declare the "second" Hundred Years' War. The War of Saint-Sardos, the first major conflict between the two major kingdoms in half a century, would act as foreshadowing for the bigger war to come.

The Capetian–Plantagenet rivalry was a series of conflicts and disputes that covered a period of 100 years (1159–1259), during which the House of Capet, rulers of the Kingdom of France, fought against the House of Plantagenet (also known as the House of Anjou, rulers of the Kingdom of England) in order to suppress the growing power of the Plantagenet-controlled Angevin Empire. Some historians refer to that series of events as the "First Hundred Years War".

Der Französisch-Englische Krieg von 1202 bis 1214, auch Englisch-Französischer oder Anglo-Französischer Krieg genannt, war ein langjähriger Krieg zwischen dem Königreich England, dessen König zu Beginn des Krieges noch große Lehen in Frankreich besaß, und dem Königreich Frankreich. Durch den Krieg, der mehrfach von Waffenstillständen unterbrochen wurde, konnte Frankreich weite Teile des so genannten angevinischen Reichs in Frankreich erobern und behaupten. Die Niederlage in dem Krieg führte in England zum Krieg der Barone und zum Abschluss der Magna Carta.


Planning.

In February 2012, Alfredo Hawit, then Acting President of CONCACAF, announced that the competition would be expected to take place in 2016, as a celebration of CONMEBOL's centenary. CONMEBOL President Nicolás Leoz said "Hopefully we can organize a big event, because we're 100 years old and we want to celebrate big."  The tournament was announced by CONMEBOL on 24 October 2012 and confirmed by CONCACAF on 1 May 2014.  On 26 September 2014, FIFA announced that the tournament had been added to the FIFA International Match Calendar, meaning that clubs had to release players called up to the competition.  The tournament occurred in June 2016, along with UEFA Euro 2016.

Sports executive corruption.

The tournament was placed in doubt after several high-profile sports executive arrests were made including people involved with media rights holder Datisa (using the trading name of "Wematch"), a partnership between three media rights companies; Full Play, Torneos and Traffic Sports Marketing. In December 2014, Brazilian José Hawilla, the owner and founder of Traffic Sports pled guilty to "corruption charges including racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering". In an indictment, the FBI stated that officials were to receive bribes totalling US$20million for the 2016 event. Datisa held agreements for the commercial rights with CONMEBOL and CONCACAF and had their bank account frozen placing the tournament in jeopardy. On 21 October 2015 CONCACAF announced that they had terminated their agreement with Datisa.  On 23 October 2015, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL and the hosting association US Soccer Federation all confirmed that the tournament was going ahead as originally intended.

Trophy.

A new trophy was supposed to be created for the tournament and was to be unveiled on 4 July 2015 at the 2015 Copa América final. No trophy was unveiled amidst the FIFA corruption scandal. However, CONMEBOL announced that, on 28 April 2016, a presentation for the trophy would take place in Bogotá, Colombia.  On 28 April 2016, it was explained on the Copa América website that the "new" trophy was in fact commemorative, and would only be given to the winning country to keep, while the original silver trophy would continue to be awarded to each winner of the tournament (including the 2016 winner). The Centenario trophy retains the silhouette of the original trophy's Grecian urn, but is plated in matte gold. The front of the trophy is adorned with a raised (and in the case of some parts of the logo, engraved) image of the Copa América Centenario wordmark and logo. On each side are raised and polished images of a connected North and South America, commemorating the first Copa América held outside South America. Instead of the traditional wooden base holding the names of all past winners, the base of the Centenario commemorative trophy includes 16 zones, in which the names of all 16 nations are engraved. Other details include: The logos of both CONMEBOL and CONCACAF (the two confederations with representatives in the tournament), the years "1916–2016" (commemorating the 100 years of CONMEBOL and Copa América), and the phrases "La Copa del Siglo" ("The Cup of the Century") and "Uniting the Americas".

Host selection.

Luis Chiriboga, the President of the Ecuadorian Football Federation stated the United States and Mexico were potential hosts of at least one stage of the competition. Hawit preferred the competition to be hosted in the United States for financial reasons, stating that "the market is in the United States, the stadiums are in the United States, the people are in the United States. The study that we have made [shows] that everything’s in the United States." In July 2012, CONCACAF President Jeffrey Webb stated there was much organizing to be done.  On 1 May 2014, it was announced that the tournament would be held in the United States from 3–26 June 2016.  The decision to select the US as a host was the object of criticism by Uruguay Football Association president Wilmar Valdez on 7 June 2016, who complained that the US is "a country where they don't feel football", which "brings about problems." The complaint was voiced after Uruguay's defeat against Mexico, in favor of whom, he said, the event was biased. Just prior to the game itself, the Chilean anthem was mistakenly played instead of the Uruguayan anthem.

Venues.

On 8 January 2015, CONCACAF and CONMEBOL announced the 24 U.S. metropolitan areas which had indicated interest in hosting matches.  The stadiums were chosen following a bidding process, with the minimum capacity to be 50,000. The final list of venues, anticipated to number between 8 and 13, was to be announced in May 2015. However, the list was not released and speculation regarding whether the tournament will be able to move forward arose because Interpol red notices were issued for the former presidents of the CONMEBOL and CONCACAF confederations in relation to the 2015 FIFA corruption case, including allegations that they accepted significant bribes in relation to the $112.5 million broadcasting deal for the event. However, officials from CONMEBOL expressed a desire to move forward with the event despite the scandal.  On 19 November 2015, the ten venues selected for the tournament were announced by CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, and US Soccer Federation.

Participating teams.

At the official announcement of the tournament, CONMEBOL and CONCACAF confirmed that all ten CONMEBOL members would be joined by six CONCACAF teams in the tournament. United States and Mexico automatically qualified. The other four spots were given to Costa Rica, the champions of the Central American Football Union by virtue of winning the 2014 Copa Centroamericana, Jamaica, the champions of the Caribbean Football Union by virtue of winning the 2014 Caribbean Cup, and Haiti and Panama, the two play-off winners among the four highest finishers in the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup not already qualified.

Draw.

The group seeds and match schedule were announced on 17 December 2015. The United States (Group A) were seeded as host, while Argentina (Group D) were seeded as the highest FIFA-ranked team in the CONMEBOL region during December 2015. According to Soccer United Marketing, Brazil (Group B) and Mexico (Group C) were seeded as they were "the most decorated nations in the last 100 years in international competitions from their respective confederations". However, there was criticism for not including Uruguay, which won two World Cups and was the Copa América all-time leader with 15 championships, or Chile, which were the defending Copa América champions going into the tournament.  The draw took place on 21 February 2016 at 19:30 EST, at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City. Teams were seeded using the FIFA Ranking from December 2015.  The four group pots contained four positions each, one from each group, as follows:

Squads.

Each country had a final squad of 23 players (three of whom had to be goalkeepers) which had to be submitted before the deadline of 20 May 2016.

Opening ceremony.

The opening ceremony of Copa América Centenario took place at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara 21:00 EDT () on 3 June 2016 ahead of the opening match and featured musical performances by Colombian singer J Balvin, American singer Jason Derulo and the Canadian band Magic!

Group stage.

All times are EDT (). The top two teams from each group advanced to the quarter-finals.

Tiebreakers.

The ranking of each team in each group was determined as follows:

Knockout stage.

All times are EDT (). In the quarter-finals, semi-finals, and third place match of the knockout stage, a penalty shoot-out was used to decide the winner if tied after 90 minutes. In the final, extra time and a penalty shoot-out was used to decide the winner if necessary. Should the final enter extra time, a fourth substitute would be allowed as part of FIFA's approval of rule changes based on IFAB's new regulations, however neither teams in the final ended up taking advantage of this rule.

Statistics.

Goalscorers.

Chile's Eduardo Vargas received the Golden Boot award for scoring six goals. In total, 91 goals were scored by 62 different players, with three of them credited as own goals.

Awards.

Individual awards.

The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament.

Team of the Tournament.

The Technical Study Group announced the tournament's Best XI squad.

Marketing.

Match ball.

The Nike Ordem Ciento was announced as the official Copa América Centenario match ball on 21 February 2016. The mainly white ball has red brush stroke decoration. It shows the official Copa América Centenario logo.  The Nike Ordem Campeón was used for the final match, in which golden brushes replaced the red ones.

Controversies.

National anthems, country names, and flags.

On 5 June, during the pre-match ceremony between Mexico and Uruguay, the national anthem of Chile was played for Uruguay. Many Uruguayan players seemed confused. The correct anthem was never played. Copa América organizers released the following statement via Twitter:This evening during the pre-match ceremony, due to human error, we inadvertently played the incorrect National Anthem [sic]. We sincerely apologize to the Uruguayan Federation, the Uruguay National Team, the people of Uruguay and to the fans for this mistake. We will work with all parties involved to ensure such an error this does not occur again.  Uruguayan midfielder Diego Fagúndez said the incident showed "much disrespect".  On 6 June, Colombian nationals heavily criticized Adidas for misspelling the country name in an advertisement, substituting "Columbia" for "Colombia". The company said in a statement: "We value our partnership with the Colombian Football Federation and apologize for our mistake. We removed the graphics and are quickly installing new versions."  Also on 6 June, before the game between Panama and Bolivia, the video screens of the Citrus Bowl in Orlando displayed the flags of both countries, but Bolivia's was inverted.

Match officiating.

On 4 June, during the game between Ecuador and Brazil, the assistant referee called the ball out prior to a cross that led to the ball going into the net for Ecuador. Brazilian goalkeeper Alisson dropped the ball, and it went over the line into his own goal. The replays seemed to show the ball was not completely out of bounds before being crossed, but the goal did not stand. The match ended in a 0–0 draw.  On 10 June, during the game between Chile and Bolivia, a penalty kick was awarded to Chile after Luis Alberto Gutiérrez was whistled for a handball. The assistant referee made the call, but it appeared that Gutiérrez had tucked his arm behind his back, and the ball hit off his shoulder. Arturo Vidal converted the ensuing penalty at the 90'+10' mark (eight minutes of stoppage time were added to the second half due to an injury to Ronald Eguino) to secure the three points for Chile.  On 12 June, during the game between Peru and Brazil, Raúl Ruidíaz scored by guiding the ball into the net with his arm. After a lengthy discussion between the referee and his assistant, the goal was allowed to stand, and Brazil went on to lose 1–0, resulting in their elimination from the tournament. However, Raúl Ruidíaz claimed the ball hit his thigh rather than his hand and said the goal was 'thanks to God' rather than another hand of God.

Ticket pricing.

The tournament's organizers have been criticized for setting high ticket prices that have resulted in under-capacity crowds in Seattle and Chicago for United States matches. The average price for a sold ticket during the group stage was $144; some matches saw average prices as high as $236 and as low as $37.

The Copa América Centenario (, (for Haiti), ; literally "Centennial America Cup") was an international men's association football tournament that was hosted in the United States in 2016. The competition was a celebration of the centenary of CONMEBOL and the Copa América, and was the first Copa América hosted outside South America.

Die Copa América Centenario war die 45. Ausspielung der südamerikanischen Kontinentalmeisterschaft im Fußball und gleichzeitig Sonderausgabe unter Einbeziehung von Teilnehmern des nordamerikanischen Verbandes CONCACAF. Das Turnier fand – anlässlich des 100-jährigen Bestehens des südamerikanischen Fußballverbandes CONMEBOL – erstmals außerhalb von Südamerika statt und wurde in den USA ausgetragen. Neben den zehn Teilnehmern der CONMEBOL nahmen auch sechs Teilnehmer der CONCACAF am Turnier teil.


Career.

In 1999 Raffaele Fitto was elected at European Parliament for Forza Italia.  On 17 May 2015 Raffaele Fitto left Forza Italia and the European People's Party parliamentary group to join the European Conservatives and Reformists.

Italian Courts Trials against Raffaele Fitto.

Bribery towards Italian Public Medical System.

Fitto in 2006 was investigated by the Bari prosecutor in connection with a donation to his regional party "La Puglia Prima di Tutto" of 500,000 Euros by Tosinvest, a company owned by Antonio Angelucci, ahead of the 2005 Apulian regional election. According to the prosecution this amount was suspected of being a bribe to secure for the Apulia region the management of eleven nursing homes.  A request to arrest Fitto, who in the meantime had become a Member of the Italian Parliament, was rejected by the Italian Chamber of Deputies. Fitto in December 2009 was found guilty of abuse of office, corruption and illegal financing of political parties; Fitto was acquitted of some other charges in June 2012.  Fitto in February 2013 was sentenced by the Court of first instance ("Tribunale di Primo Grado", the first grade) to four years in prison and five years' disqualification from public office; the sentence was commuted to 1 year.  Fitto in September 2015 was acquitted of all charges by the Court of second instance ("Corte d'Appello", the second grade).  Fitto in June 2017 was acquitted of all charges by the Supreme Court of Cassation ("Corte di Cassazione", the final grade).

Bankruptcy of Cedis.

Fitto in February 2009 was accused of conspiring, during his presidency of the Apulia region (2000-2005), Italy, to short-sell the trading company "Cedis", at that time (2004-2006) in administration. The charges were filed in April 2009; however in March 2017 Fitto was acquitted of all charges by the Court of second instance ("Corte d'Appello", the second grade).

Raffaele Fitto (born 28 August 1969) is an Italian politician and a member of the European Parliament. Raffaele Fitto was born in Maglie, Italy.

Raffaele Fitto (* 28. August 1969 in Maglie, Provinz Lecce) ist ein italienischer Politiker. Er war von 2000 bis 2005 Präsident der Region Apulien. Von 2008 bis 2011 war er Minister in der Regierung Silvio Berlusconis. Seit 2014 ist er Mitglied des Europäischen Parlaments und seit Juni 2019 einer der beiden Vorsitzenden der Fraktion der Europäischen Konservativen und Reformer (EKR).


History.

The NCT was created on March 5, 1980 by an amendment to the National Trails System Act. When the Trail was established in 1980, portions of it were designed to follow the already existing Finger Lakes (New York), Baker (Pennsylvania), and Buckeye (Ohio) Trails. Their sponsoring organizations became affiliates of the North Country Trail Association and agreed to maintain those portions of their trails to be used by the North Country National Scenic Trail. The Northwestern Ohio Rails-to-Trails Association joined later to help create a link between the Buckeye Trail in Ohio and newly constructed trail in Michigan; the Superior Hiking Trail Association and the Kekekabic Trail Club joined when it was proposed that the North Country National Scenic Trail route through Minnesota be changed to include an already-completed section of the Superior Hiking Trail along Lake Superior, and the Kekekabic and Border Route Trails along the Canada–US border in Minnesota's Arrowhead Region. Legislation has been introduced to both the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate which would authorize the "Arrowhead Re-route" as well as an extension to the trail's eastern terminus, connecting it with the Appalachian Trail in Vermont.. On March 12, 2019 the North Country Trail reroute and extension was signed into law as part of the omnibus ""John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act"".

Route.

The trail begins in Vermont and proceeds to the western end of the state. It cuts across northwestern Pennsylvania, then follows a southwesterly course through the hilly region of southern Ohio until it nears Cincinnati when it runs north through western Ohio to the hills of SE Michigan. It continues from southeast Michigan through the western Lower Peninsula, crosses the Straits of Mackinac, and takes a northern route the length of the Upper Peninsula. After crossing northern Wisconsin, one leg follows the Lake Superior shore to the northeast corner of Minnesota before turning west, where it meets the other leg in central northern Minnesota. The trail enters southeast North Dakota, and continues to its other terminus in the center of the state.  The NCT connects more than 160 public land units, including parks, forests, scenic attractions, wildlife refuges, game areas, and historic sites. The list includes:  Other federal facilities along the NCT include:  The NCT also threads its way through 57 state parks and state historic areas, 47 state forests, 22 state game areas, seven state water conservation districts and at least ten county forests and parks. Several hundred miles of trail eventually will also cross private land thanks to owners who have granted easements across their property.  The center point of the trail is located near the NCTA headquarters in Lowell, Michigan.  Though the eastern terminus of the North Country Trail is only a few miles from Vermont's Long Trail and the Appalachian Trail, there is not yet a connecting trail to either of those trail systems. Efforts are under way to connect to the Appalachian Trail.

Use.

Existing and new sections of the NCT are generally limited to foot travel, including hiking, snowshoeing and cross-country skiing. Other "non-motorized" uses, such as bicycling and horseback riding are generally limited to areas specifically designed to withstand such use.  About 10,000 people are involved with the NCT in one way or another, either through membership in the North Country Trail Association or membership in one of eight organizations affiliated with the NCTA: the Finger Lakes Trail Conference, the Buckeye Trail Association, the Superior Hiking Trail Association, the Kekekabic Trail Club, the Northwestern Ohio Rails-to-Trails Association, the Butler Outdoor Club, the Rachael Carson Trails Conservancy and the Friends of the Jordan River National Fish Hatchery.

The North Country National Scenic Trail, generally known as the North Country Trail or simply the N.C.T., is a footpath stretching over from Middlebury in central Vermont to Lake Sakakawea State Park in central North Dakota in the United States; connecting both the Long Trail (and Appalachian Trail) with the Lewis and Clark Trail. Passing through the eight states of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and North Dakota, it is the longest of the eleven National Scenic Trails authorized by Congress. As of early 2019, 3,129 miles (5,036 km) of the trail is in place.

Der North Country National Scenic Trail (NCT) ist ein Fernwanderweg in den Vereinigten Staaten. Der Wanderweg ist mit etwa 7400 km (in der Endausbaustufe) der längste National Scenic Trail und durchquert sieben Bundesstaaten. Von Crown Point in New York geht es durch Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota zum Lake Sakakawea State Park in North Dakota. Eröffnet wurde er in Teilabschnitten seit 1980.


Biography.

Cesare was born in Turin to a bourgeois family. He first attended the Technical School of the Collegio of Chivasso. Then during 1894-1899 studied at the Accademia Albertina. He was mentored at the Academy by Giacomo Grosso and by Pier Celestino Gilardi.  He exhibited at the 1900 and 1901 "Promotrice" of Turin. At the 1901 "Feste Estive" exhibition of Livorno he won a gold medal for the painting "Preghiera".During this period, he mainly painted landscapes, along with Felice Carena and Filippo Omegna, although he was known also as a portraitist.  That year, he also exhibited at the contest for the Pensionato di Roma, with a "Dante e Beatrice". In 1902, he sent a painting to the Italian Art Exposition in St Petersburg. He frequently exhibited at the Biennale of Venice, including 1903, 1905, 1910, 1920, 1922 and 1926. In 1904 a portrait by Cesare won a gold medal at the Paris Salon. With the 1903 Biennale submission of the painting "L’attesa" at the Biennale of Venice. He begins to distance himself from the influence of Giacomo Grosso in his figures. In 1903, he obtained a position as instructor at the Albertina.  In 1904 he won a gold medal at the Paris Salon, and was invited to travel to Thailand to help decorate the Royal Palace of Bangkok, arriving a few years before Galileo Chini. The subjects of Cesare's frescoes were derived from local mythology. In 1925, he returned to help decorated the palace of Prince Norashing in Bangkok and complete various portraits.  Returning to Turin 1910, he was nominated to be professor at the Albertina. He remained at the academy, and served as president from 1930 to 1933. He died in a car accident.

Cesare Ferro Milone (18 April 1880–15 March 1934), sometimes known only as "Cesare Ferro", was an Italian painter born in Turin.

Ferro Milone, auch Carlo Cesare Ferro Milone, (* 18. April 1880 in Turin, Königreich Italien; † 15. März 1934 ebenda) war ein italienischer Zeichner, Maler und Hochschullehrer.


Early life.

Saum was born in Dayton, Ohio to a German mother and an African-American father. She got her start at a "Model Search America" convention near her home in Kettering, Ohio. She was discovered during high school, modeling mostly during summer breaks until she moved to New York to work full-time with the NY modeling agency Images Management. Saum attended Ohio State University in Columbus, and New York University in New York.

Career.

Saum began her acting career in the NBC daytime soap opera, "Sunset Beach" as Vanessa Hart, during the entire run of the series, from 1997 to 1999. In 1999 she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series for her role in the show. Later in 1999, Saum was cast as a series regular in the Showtime comedy-drama series "Beggars and Choosers" (1999–2000), and guest-starred on "Girlfriends", and "Charmed". From August 31, 2001 to September 16, 2003, Saum had her second daytime television role in the ABC soap, "One Life to Live", as Keri Reynolds.  From 2006 to 2007, Saum played the role of Natalie in the FX drama series "Rescue Me". She appeared in the Hallmark Television film "Relative Stranger" with Cicely Tyson and Eriq La Salle. She also appeared in the independent film "Ten Stories Tall" with Ally Sheedy and Josh Hamilton. In 2009 she played the series regular role of Bess in Season 2 of the HBO drama series "In Treatment". The next few years she had guest-starring roles in CW's "Gossip Girl", CBS's "Unforgettable", ABC's "Body of Proof" and "Revenge". In 2011, Saum was cast as the lead character of the ABC drama pilot "Grace" (written by Krista Vernoff), opposite Abigail Spencer and Eric Roberts, but the show was not picked up.  In 2012, Saum was cast along with Teri Polo in the lead roles of the Jennifer Lopez-produced drama series "The Fosters" for ABC Family. The series premiered on June 3, 2013. The series ended in 2018 after five seasons. She reprised her role in its spinoff, "Good Trouble" in 2019. In 2014, she guest starred in the NBC legal drama "", and in 2015 in the ABC series, "How to Get Away with Murder".  In 2019, Saum co-starred opposite Jessica Biel in the Facebook Watch drama series "Limetown". Also that year, she was cast as Heather Hemmens' character's mother in the CW series, "Roswell, New Mexico". The following year, Saum was cast in a series regular role in the Netflix fantasy drama series, "Locke & Key" playing the role of Ellie Whedon, a teacher at Matheson Academy who has a mysterious history with the Locke family.

Personal life.

On May 26, 2007, Saum married longtime boyfriend and former "One Life to Live" castmate Kamar de los Reyes in New York City. On December 3, 2013, Saum's rep announced the couple were expecting twins. They welcomed twin boys John Rubén and Michael Luís on Tuesday, May 13, 2014. Saum also has a stepson, Caylen de los Reyes, son of Kamar de los Reyes.

Sherri M. Saum (born October 1, 1974) is an American actress. Saum is best known for her co-lead role as Lena Adams Foster in the Freeform drama series "The Fosters" (2013–18) as well as a subsequent guest star role in its spinoff "Good Trouble" (2019–present). She is also known for her television roles in "Beggars and Choosers", "Rescue Me" and "In Treatment", as well as for her roles in the daytime soap operas "Sunset Beach" and "One Life to Live".

Sherri M. Saum (* 1. Oktober 1974 in Dayton, Ohio) ist eine US-amerikanische Schauspielerin, die momentan in der ABC-Family-Serie "The Fosters" zu sehen ist.


Early life and family.

Wilson was born in Wellington on 28 May 1896, the son of Thomas and Ann Maria Wilson. He was educated at Berhampore School, and then at Wellington College between 1911 and 1912. On 20 September 1920 he married Sybil Elizabeth Hippsley at Wolverton, Buckinghamshire, England, and the couple went on to have four children.

Military service.

After the outbreak of World War I, Wilson travelled to England as a civilian and worked on munitions. Between 1917 and 1919, he served with the New Zealand Field Artillery (NZFA) and, after the Armistice, in the Pay Corps in London. During World War II he was a second lieutenant in the New Zealand Territorial Force.

Athletics.

In all, Wilson won nine New Zealand national athletics titles between 1915 and 1923: the 100 yards and 220 yards titles in 1922; the 120 yards hurdles in 1920, 1921 and 1923; and the 440 yards hurdles in 1915, 1920, 1921 and 1923.  While serving with the NZFA in France, Wilson competed at a meet at the base in Étaples, winning the 100 yards, 220 yards, 120 yards hurdles, long jump, high jump, and cricket ball throw. In 1919 he was a member of the New Zealand team that competed in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, and finished third in the 120 yards hurdles behind the Americans Robert Simpson and Fred Kelly. Later in 1919, Wilson won the 120 yards hurdles at the British Army championship meeting at Aldershot, and went on to win the British national championship over the same distance at Stamford Bridge, London.  After winning the 120 yards hurdles at the 1920 Australasian athletics championship, Wilson was one of four members of the New Zealand team at the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, and was the team's flagbearer. Competing in the 110 m hurdles, Wilson finished fourth in the final, 0.5 m behind the bronze medal winner.  Wilson broke his leg while competing at the Australasian championship meeting at Hobart in 1924.

Harry Ernest Wilson (born 28 May 1896; date of death unknown) was a New Zealand hurdler who competed at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp and at the 1919 Inter-Allied Games in Paris. In 1920 he finished fourth in the 110 metre hurdles competition. He was the Olympic flag bearer for New Zealand in 1920.

Harry Wilson ("Harry Ernest Wilson;" * 28. Mai 1896; Todesjahr unbekannt) war ein neuseeländischer Hürdenläufer, der sich auf die 110-Meter-Distanz spezialisiert hatte.