Geography.

The core of the culture seems to be in Left-bank Ukraine, especially along the Sula, Seim, Psel, Donets and Oril rivers, but its territory extends to Right-bank Ukraine, and Penkovka pottery is also found in eastern and southern Romania, where it co-exists with wheel-made pottery of late Roman derivation; and is referred to as the Ipotesti–Candesti culture by Romanian archaeologists. Penkovka-type pottery has even been found in Byzantine forts in the north-eastern Balkans. "Nomadic" style wheel-made pottery (called Pastyrske or Saltovo ware) also occurs in the Ukrainian Penkovka sites as well as in the lower Danube and Bulgaria, but is most commonly found within the Saltovo-Mayaki culture, associated with Bulgars, Khazars and Alans.  Hand-made Penkovka pottery is distinguished from Prague-Korchak types on the basis of its biconical profile and tendency for out-turned rims. However, Florin Curta has argued that there can be no simple relationship between the type of ceramic vessel and the ethnicity of groups which consumed them. E. Teodor performed a detailed analysis of ceramic vessels in 6th century southeastern Europe, and discovered a complex picture which cannot be reduced to 2 or 3 broad 'archaeological cultures', as each microregion and even individual site shows idiosyncrasies in their ceramic profile and degree of connectivity to other regions of 'Slavic Europe'.

Penkovka settlements.

Penkovka settlements tended to be located on the terraces of rivers- usually arranged in a linear fashion. Buildings were usually square-shaped, post-hole constructs dug into the ground, and were equipped with an oven in the corners. There are also rounded buildings, otherwise not found in other Slavic territories, which have been associated with a nomadic influence. However, they are different from traditional tent-like nomadic "yurts". Settlements tended to be abandoned after a period of habitation and were often re-occupied years later, reflective of the itinerant form of agriculture practiced by the populace. Two fortified sites are known from the Penkovka region - Seliste and Pastyrske. The latter has been excavated in detail, and appears to have been an Iron Age fortification which was also occupied in early Medieval times. Measuring 25 "ha", it included numerous settlement buildings as well as evidence of specialised industrial activity. Szmoniewski argues that "Pastyrs’ke may have also been a political power center, the seat of a ruler with territorial authority".  Two forms of burials are found north of the Black Sea in the 6th and 7th centuries. Poorly furnished cremation burials, either inside urns or into shallow pits, are concentrated in the forest-steppe zone; whilst more elaborately equipped inhumations are found in the open steppe. Traditionally, the latter are attributed to "Turkic" nomads whilst the cremation burials were a typically Slavic rite. However, a straightforward ethnic attribution has been questioned - as the pottery and metalwork (see below) found in the 'nomadic' inhumations shows clear analogies to that found in 'Slavic' settlements in the forest-zone. Thus Curta has argued that the inhumation burials represented a marker of "social" distinction of chiefs and 'big men' from the forest-zone settlements.

Antian antiquities.

Another set of cultural elements often attributed to the Antes are numerous hoards of silver and gold ornaments dated to the 7th century, and are variously called "Antian antiquites" or the "Martynovka culture". Scholars have debated to whom the Martynovka elements belonged to since the late 19th century; as A. Spitsyn attributed them to the Slavic Antes, whilst J. Harmatta rather attributed them to Turkic groups, specifically the Kutrigurs. The situation was clarified when Curta's analysis revealed that early in the 7th century, such metalwork appears in hoards deposited in the forest-steppe, whilst later assemblages appear as interment gifts in 'nomadic burials'. Thus, again, rather than simplistic ethnic explanations, Curta's analysis suggests that the pattern of ornament consumption varied with time and was related to social status and gender: i.e. earlier in the 6th century, elites displayed status by burying hoards of silver in the forest-steppe, whilst later there was more aggressive posturing and status display in the form of richly furnished male warrior graves, no doubt related to the competition for supremacy on the north Black Sea region between Pannonian Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Western Gokturks. The metalwork betrays a variety of influences - especially the world of the steppe nomad which in turn showed Caucasian, Byzantine, and Sassanian inspiration. Yet other elements showed affinities with the 'Balto-Slavic' world of the forests of Eastern Europe.  Overall, the equation of the Penkovka culture and Martynovka hoards with the Antes is problematic, as such cultural features exist into the 8th century, long after the Antes were defeated by the Avars in 602 AD and ceased to exist as an independent tribal polity. Such diffuse styles cannot be directly linked to any single people, but rather reflect a myriad of peoples who existed in the Black Sea region from 450–750 AD, including Antes, Kutrigurs and Bulgars.  Early Volyntsevo culture, as well as the Saltovo-Mayaki culture developed on the basis of Kolochin and Penkovka cultures.

The Penkovka culture is an archaeological culture in Ukraine spanning Moldova and reaching into Romania. Its western boundary is usually taken to at the middle Prut and Dniester rivers, where contact with the Korchak culture occurs. Its bearers are commonly identified as the Antes people of 6th-century Byzantine historiography.

Penkowka-Kultur (englisch "Penkovka culture") ist die Bezeichnung für archäologische Funde vom 5. bis 7. Jahrhundert auf dem Gebiet der heutigen Ukraine und Moldawiens. Sie umfasst verschiedene archäologische Gruppen und ist deshalb strittig.


History.

Planning for Falcon's Fury began around the time the park completed its Cheetah Hunt ride in 2011. Ground tests in the Timbuktu area (now known as Pantopia) revealed "interesting soil conditions", with steel beams and concrete required to reinforce the site.  Rumors that Busch Gardens Tampa might replace its Sandstorm ride with a drop tower surfaced in the fall of 2011 when Mäch Tower opened at its sister park, Busch Gardens Williamsburg, that August. Construction surveying was observed in January 2012. Two months later plans were filed with the city to build a drop tower, possibly for the 2013 season. Speculation about the new attraction's name began when SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment, owners of Busch Gardens Tampa, filed trademark applications for "Desert Dive" and "Falcon's Fury" on May 2 and July 11, 2012, respectively, and bought the DesertDive.com domain name. When permits for the new ride differed from those for Mäch Tower in November 2012, rumors began that the seats would tilt forward. Due to the height of the attraction, approval from the Federal Aviation Administration was required. According to the FAA and the city of Tampa, the tower was supposed to be built in December 2012 and open to the public in 2013. For unknown reasons the project was delayed, with its construction pushed back to the second half of 2013.  On May 31, 2013, it was announced that Sandstorm would close on June 2 to make room for a new attraction. About two weeks later, on June 11, Busch Gardens Tampa announced plans for Falcon's Fury and construction began that month. During the fourth quarter of 2013, the park drove steel piles for the ride's foundation nightly for about a month.  On September 20, the tower for Falcon's Fury was shipped from Spain in nine sections, arriving at the park near the end of October; the ride's smaller parts had been delivered earlier from several European countries. Installation of one of the nine tower pieces was planned for every other night, with the last piece in place by New Year's Eve. Construction was done by the Adena Corporation, and on November 18 the first piece was installed. The ride's second piece was installed on December 2, and two more were installed by December 6. The fifth section was placed by December 21, and the sixth was erected by New Year's Day. The seventh tower piece was installed by January 3, 2014, and the eighth by January 5, reaching a height of about, and Falcon's Fury's gondola was seen at the park on January 12. The ride's counterweight was installed on January 22, and the tower was capped during the weekend of February 1. Work on the ride's electrical components then began. Assembly of the gondola was completed by the end of March. Testing was originally scheduled to begin in February, but due to construction delays the first drop tests were not made until April 15. Tower painting began in June, with its sunset motif estimated to take 60 hours over a three-week period.  At the end of February, Busch Gardens Tampa announced that Falcon's Fury would open on May 1, and on April 3 the park began a sweepstakes contest for its "Falcon's Fury First-to-Ride Party". A second, similar contest began on April 11, with fifty winners from each contest being among the first riders. A week later, the park announced that the ride's opening would be delayed, and several media events scheduled for April and May (including the First-to-Ride party) were cancelled. It was later disclosed that the delay was due to manufacturing and technical issues with the cables which pull the gondola up the tower. During the week of August 10, Falcon's Fury opened for park employees. On August 16 the ride soft-opened to the public, and two-and-a-half weeks later Falcon's Fury officially opened.

Ride experience.

Falcon's Fury has two shaded queue lines: a standby line which can hold guests for about 45 minutes, and a Quick Queue for guests with passes that allow them to bypass the standby line. Although the Quick Queue system will not initially be used for the ride, it may be added later. Riders must be between and.  When the riders are seated a catch car connects to the gondola and raises it to the top of the tower, which takes about one minute. Although the tower is high, the gondola stops lower. When it reaches the maximum height the seats tilt forward, with a computer-randomized wait time from one to five seconds. When the wait time ends, the gondola is released from the catch car into a five-second free fall reaching a maximum speed of. As the gondola passes through the pre-braking section, the seats rotate back into a vertical position. After the pre-brake the gondola enters the main magnetic-brake run, where riders experience approximately 3.5 "g" (34 m/s) of deceleration as the gondola slows. When it comes to a full stop at the base of the tower, the riders disembark. One cycle of the ride lasts about one and a half minutes. Busch Gardens Tampa placed an Easter egg in the form of a painted Falcon's Fury logo on top of one of its buildings, which can be seen only from a certain side of the gondola.

Characteristics.

The tower and gondola were manufactured by Intaride, a subsidiary of Intamin. The ride covers an area of about.

Tower.

The Falcon's Fury tower is tall, the third tallest free-standing drop tower in North America, and can bend in any direction from the top to withstand hurricane-force winds. The tower is composed of nine sections, including the machine house. Each piece of the tower weighs up to, and the entire structure weighs about. The machine house at the top contains four DC motors used to lift the gondola. Inside the tower is a counterweight, composed of hundreds of lead weights, to help raise the gondola. The tower's foundation is made up of 105 steel piles, varying in depth from to. A eddy current brake system on the tower slows the gondola after its free fall. The structure is painted yellow, aqua and two shades of red.

Gondola.

The ride's single gondola has 32 seats, grouped octagonally around the tower. Each of the eight sides seats four riders, and each seat has an over-the-shoulder restraint and seat belt. Falcon's Fury can theoretically accommodate 800 riders per hour. Carbon-fiber wings buttress each end of a group of seats, protecting outside riders' arms and legs during the drop. The gondola reaches a height of, below the top of the tower. When it reaches its maximum height the seats tilt 90 degrees forward, with the riders facing the ground (the first use of this feature on a drop tower).

Records.

When Falcon's Fury opened it became North America's tallest free-standing drop tower. Although taller drop towers exist on the continent—such as at Six Flags Magic Mountain and at Six Flags Great Adventure, which reach drop heights of and respectively—those attractions were added to existing structures. Despite its height, the ride's maximum speed of does not set a speed record. Other drop towers—such as at Kings Dominion, which reaches —are faster. However, Falcon's Fury is the world's first drop tower whose seats tilt 90 degrees. Although tilting seats were first used by Intamin in 2001 on Acrophobia at Six Flags Over Georgia, their tilt angle is smaller.

Reception.

The initial reception after the ride's announcement was positive. According to Lance Hart, a theme park enthusiast from Screamscape, "Instead of selling your picture... they should sell baby wipes and clean underwear at the exit" and the ride could be the most frightening drop tower in the world. Robb Alvey of "Theme Park Review" called the ride the world's best drop tower, later ranking it one of the top 14 new attractions for 2014; Dave Parfitt and Arthur Levine of "USA Today" ranked Falcon's Fury in their top ten. Brady MacDonald of the "Los Angeles Times" originally ranked Falcon's Fury his seventh-most-anticipated ride for 2014; on an updated list, he ranked it 17th.  For safety reasons, construction on Falcon's Fury was done primarily at night. Residents near the park complained about noise from the pile driver during the laying of the foundation, and complaints about the ride's operating noise continued into August 2014.  According to the park and Twitter posts selected by news media, public response during the soft opening was positive; "Total Orlando" gave the ride five stars for teenagers and four stars for adults. On Coaster101.com "Ashley" said that although the restraints were tight, they were comfortable and not as tight as those on other rides, adding: "The drop on Falcon's Fury is different from any ride I have ever ridden. The best way I can describe it is that instead of leaving your stomach at the top of the tower, you take it with you to the bottom." According to Florida Trip Guides, the ride was a good addition to the park's attraction lineup: "Falcon's Fury is not for the faint of heart. I have ridden dozens of drop towers but this one is different. Something about facing straight down and falling really makes you nervous." Robert Niles of "Theme Park Insider" said that Falcon's Fury and other recent attractions were nearing the extreme of human tolerance; as a result, "You're getting to the point where instead of making an attraction more popular by having it achieve some type of record, you're actually limiting the audience for that." Randi Nissenbaum of Bay News 9 called the view from the top of the tower incredible, and although she was nervous at first she wanted to ride again. Sue Carlton of the "Tampa Bay Times" said, "it was terrifying and thrilling and I held on as hard as I could and yelled and closed my eyes and afterward stepped off rubber-kneed and exhilarated."  For the 2014 season, Busch Gardens Tampa expected attendance to increase by three to eight percent. However, IBISWorld Research predicted in June 2014 that combined attendance for the second quarter of the year had increased by about 0.3 percent for SeaWorld Orlando, SeaWorld San Diego, SeaWorld San Antonio, Busch Gardens Williamsburg and Busch Gardens Tampa. Compared to the same period in 2013, combined attendance for the first half of the year dropped by just over four percent. Busch Gardens Tampa blamed the lack of anticipated attendance increase partially on the delays in Falcon's Fury's construction.

Falcon's Fury is a free-standing Sky Jump drop tower attraction at Busch Gardens Tampa amusement park in Tampa, Florida, United States. Manufactured by Intamin subsidiary Intaride, the ride reaches a maximum height of, making it North America's tallest free-standing drop tower. Riders experience about five seconds of free fall, reaching a speed of. The ride's name was chosen to invoke a falcon's ability to dive steeply at high speed to capture prey.

Falcon’s Fury ( etwa „Ungestüm des Falken“) ist ein Freifallturm vom Modell "Sky Jump" des Herstellers Intamin im US-amerikanischen Freizeitpark Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida, der am 2. September 2014 offiziell eröffnet wurde. Die 102 Meter hohe Anlage war zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Eröffnung der höchste freistehende Freifallturm Nordamerikas sowie der erste weltweit, bei dem die Sitze um 90 Grad nach vorne gedreht werden, sodass die Fahrgäste senkrecht nach unten schauen. Während des rund fünf Sekunden andauernden Falls über 94 Meter beschleunigt die Gondel auf 97 km/h. "Falcon’s Fury" ist die Hauptattraktion im 2014 neu gestalteten Afrika-Themenbereich "Pantopia". Der Name spielt auf das Jagdverhalten eines Falken an, der sich seine Beute häufig im Sturzflug fängt.


Overview.

Seismic activity surrounding the Bárðarbunga volcano gradually increased from 2007 to 2014, with a brief pause during the nearby eruption at Grímsvötn in 2011. By the summer of 2014 activity reached a level similar to that just before the Grímsvötn eruption. In May 2014 there was a small earthquake sequence of about 200 events. GPS data recorded a displacement of 14 cm in the region since the beginning of the phase of unrest, compared to a figure of 2 cm over the rest of Iceland. This displacement is attributed to the separation of two continental plates: the Eurasian Plate in the east and the North American Plate in the west. Further earthquake swarms were detected: one at Bárðarbunga caldera, attributed to subsidence due to the magma chamber emptying; and another at the head of a dyke which extends approximately 40 km outwards from the vent, at a depth of 5–8 km below the surface. Evidence of minor sub-glacial eruptions occurred as early as 23 August when tremors were detected, but it was not until 29 August when lava erupted onto the surface at the fissure, forming a crater and substantial lava field to the north of the glacier in Holuhraun.

Possible scenarios.

Scientists at the Icelandic Met Office and the University of Iceland outlined three possible scenarios:

Activity in 2014.

August.

Seismic activity prior to eruption.

A swarm of 1600 earthquakes with an average magnitude of 1.5 up to 3 began at 03:00 on August 16, 2014. There were "very strong indications of ongoing magma movement, in connection with dyke intrusion" according to the Icelandic Meteorological Office. The activity was in fact two swarms; one located east of Bárðarbunga caldera; and one at the edge of Dyngjujökull glacier just east of Kistufell. The Aviation Color Code was raised to Yellow. By 18 August about 2600 earthquakes were detected, with some larger than magnitude 3, the largest of which being of magnitude 4.5. The Aviation Color Code was raised to Orange. The majority of events were recorded at a depth of 5–10 km.  On 23 August an intense low-frequency signal was detected which led scientists to believe that a small eruption was in progress under the Dyngjujökull glacier. As a result of this the Aviation Color Code was elevated to a maximum Red, signifying that an eruption was either imminent or in progress and that a no-fly zone was in effect for planes to the south-east of Iceland.  Three magnitude 5 earthquakes, the strongest in Iceland since 1996, were recorded on 24 August, with the first at 00:09, but there were no visible signs of activity. "Probably, earthquakes near the Bárðarbunga caldera are a consequence of adjustment to changes in pressure, because of the flow of magma from under the caldera into the dyke which stretches to Dyngjujökull, more than 25 km away." Following a scientists' meeting at 11:50, the Aviation Color Code was reduced to Orange. It was stated that 700 earthquakes of larger magnitudes than previously recorded had been observed since midnight; the dyke stretching to the north was estimated at 30 km in length; activity showed no signs of abating and an imminent eruption was considered possible; the intense low frequency signal detected on 23 August was not caused by a sub-glacial eruption.  By 19:00 on 25 August there had been about 1200 earthquakes at depths of 5–12 km, mostly around the northern tip of the intrusion northeast of Bárðarbunga which had migrated further to 6–7 km north of Dyngjujökull. More than twenty tremors were of intensity M3–M4, and one was a M5.1 which occurred within the caldera at 16:19. There was no sign of volcanic harmonic tremor.  On 26 August, intense seismic activity continued, with no signs of reduction and approximately 900 events recorded by 18:00. The largest earthquake since the 2014 activity began occurred at 01:26, a M5.7 on the north-west rim of the caldera at a depth of 6 km. The dyke continued to extend to the north, reaching 40 km from the caldera and 5 km past the edge of the glacier. Activity was concentrated at the tip, which now extended across an area of 10 km. GPS modelling showed that fifty million cubic metres of magma had been injected into the dyke in the previous 24 hours, reaching a total volume of 350 million cubic metres.  By 18:42 on 27 August there had been two earthquakes in the caldera above M5 and about 1300 events in the range of M2-3 around the tip of the dyke which had propagated a further 1 km to the north and now extended some 13 km past the edge of the glacier. Approximately another 20 million cubic metres of magma had entered the dyke over the previous 24 hours. The intrusion of the dyke was now causing stress changes over a large area to the north of the dyke's extent. A M4.5 event was recorded just east of the Askja caldera, which had been showing signs of increased geothermal activity since April 2012. At 20:50, scientists on a surveillance flight reported a 4–6 km line of 10–15 m deep cauldrons to the south of the Bárðarbunga caldera, which were possibly a result of melting or a sub glacial eruption, although they didn't know when they had formed. No heightened tremor level was observed.

Eruption.

On 29 August at 00:02, seismic tremor observations indicated lava had erupted approximately 5 km north of the margin of the Dyngjujökull glacier and confirmed by visual observations. The fissure eruption breached the surface between Bárðarbunga and Askja, close to the northernmost point of the earthquake swarm, in the Holuhraun lava field 42 km to the northeast of the caldera.  The active fissure was about 600 metres long and produced a lava flow which peaked between 00:40 and 01:00 and is thought to have ceased by 04:00. Seismicity decreased during the eruption but then returned to previous levels. At 10:00 the Aviation Color Code was downgraded to Orange, signifying no hazard from an ash cloud.  At 04:00 on 31 August another fissure eruption began along the same fissure previously, estimated to be about 1.5 km long. By 07:00 the lava flow was 1 km wide and 3 km long, extending to the north-east and several metres thick; the lava output was approximately 1000 cubic metres per second. Gas emissions had increased but no ash cloud was detected. At about 13:00 a M5.1 earthquake occurred in the caldera. GPS measurements showed continuing changes to the north of the eruption, seismic activity had decreased but was otherwise similar to previous days.

September.

On 1 September, the fissure in Holuhraun erupted continuously along its 600–800 m central section. The lava stretched over 4 square kilometres with an estimated volume of 20-30 million cubic metres, with a 5-10 million cubic metres increase over the previous 19 hours, the average output was about 100 cubic metres per second. A white plume rose from the eruption reaching 15,000 feet and extending 60 km NNE; no ash but high levels of sulphur dioxide were recorded. In the next days, eruptions continued with the lava covering 12 square kilometres on 5 September. Reduced seismic activity continued along similar lines with activity near the tip of the dyke and larger earthquakes in the caldera.  At 07:00 on 5 September two new smaller eruptions appeared in a graben to the south of the ongoing eruption about 2 km from Dyngjujökull glacier. The cauldron at Dyngjujökull appeared to have grown. Low frequency tremors continued to be detected and substantial emission of sulphur dioxide from the eruptions continued.  On 6 September, radar measurements of the glacier surface within the caldera showed 15 metres of subsidence, a volume change of 0.25 square kilometres. This was the largest observed subsidence in Iceland since records began in the middle of the last century. A wide shallow depression was also observed at the Dyngjujökull glacier 10 km from the ice margin, another depression 6 km from the margin deepened to 35 metres. These were likely caused by small and short sub-glacial eruptions.  The fissure eruptions continued, producing 100–200 m/s of lava which covered about 16 km by 7 September. Lava had now reached the western part of the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river.  Follow-up measurements on 8 September indicated that since 6 September the glacier had subsided another 2.5 to 3 metres.  On 9 and 10 September, earthquakes continued to be recorded at Bárðarbunga caldera with a M5.5 at 05:28 on the 10th in the northern part of the dyke intrusion, and also at Herðubreiðatögl. Lava was flowing into the Jökulsá á Fjöllum river, but there was no explosive reaction, only steaming. Continued sulphur dioxide emissions at the eruption sites prompted concerns about air quality in urban areas in eastern Iceland. According to GPS measurements, most of the magma flowing into the dyke was being erupted without further crustal deformation. Forecast scenarios now included references to possible further subsidence in the caldera prompting eruptions beneath the Dyngjujökull glacier.  In the following days, the eruption in Holuhraun continued at a similar rate, accompanied by ongoing earthquakes. The caldera continued to subside with regular M5 earthquakes each day. Regions experiencing reduced air quality changed depending on wind direction. In the previous two days GPS monitoring had detected unusual crustal movements which may have been indicative of a change in the movement of magma under the volcano. In the month since earthquakes began at Bárðarbunga, 25,000 earthquakes had been recorded, compared to 10,000-15,000 earthquakes recorded throughout Iceland in an average year.  By 21 September, subsidence in the caldera, as measured at the newly mounted GPS station, was approximately 40 cm per day and appeared to coincide with earthquake activity. Lava flow and gas emissions at the eruption site in Holuhraun continued at the same strength. The lava field now extended to 37 square kilometres, with an estimated 0.4-0.5 cubic km of erupted lava.

October.

Seismic activity continued to be strong in October. The eruption continued apace, subsidence of the caldera continued at about 40 cm per day and the earthquakes continued with regular M5 tremors around the caldera rim and smaller tremors at the eruption site. Larger volumes of sulphur dioxide were emitted. A crater named Baugur and a new lava flow to the east formed at the eruption site in Holuhraun. Geothermal heat was on the increase and the depression in the caldera was 40 metres, subsidence continued at a similar rate to previous weeks. A cauldron in the south-east corner of Bárðarbunga deepened 25 metres in one month and was considered by scientists at the site to be linked to the depression in the caldera. Seismic activity continued in the dyke although at a reduced rate. GPS measurements around the area of activity showed minor changes. Air quality continued to be affected by the eruption.

November.

Volcanic activity remained intense although there were some signs of decrease. Earthquakes continued at the dyke although there were less in number, M5+ earthquakes continued at the caldera, the subsidence of the caldera continued had reduced down from 80 cm a day at the start of the unrest to 25 cm per day, which now reached 50 metres in total. The lava field reached 76 km in area and an estimated 1 cubic kilometre volume of lava, this makes it the biggest eruption in Iceland since Laki in 1783 and the third largest lava field on Earth over this period. The lava output reduced from 200 metres per second in September to 100 m/s in November. Significant sulphur dioxide gas pollution continued to occur. The forecast was for significant activity to continue over the next few months.

December.

An overview of the eruption and seismic activity so far was published on IMO's website on 3 December. Insubstantial changes in the eruption occurred in December 2014. The lava field had increased to 82.8 km. The lava ran in a closed channel to the east 15 km from the Baugur crater. M5+ quakes continued in the caldera; on December 19, vertical displacement at the caldera was measured at 56 metres. The eruption continued to emit intense sulphurous gasses which affected air quality throughout Iceland, depending on the weather conditions. On 25 December, a new earthquake sequence was recorded at the Geysir geothermal field 140 kilometres west of Bárðarbunga; the activity lasted for two days before fading out.

Activity in 2015.

January.

During January 2015 the eruption continued to decline slowly although it still remained active with significant seismic activity. At the caldera there were still significant regular quakes of M4.5+ and subsidence continued. Sulphuric gases originating from the eruption continued to create a health hazard throughout Iceland. A scientific report published on 30 January featuring graphs and diagrams showing detailed information about the caldera seismicity and eruption can be found on the IMO website. Extrapolations from the data predict the eruption may continue into the Summer.

February.

In February the eruption continued to decline but seismic activity was still significant, with earthquakes no greater than magnitude M3, some earthquakes were recorded at Tungnafellsjökul glacier, Askja and Herðubreið. The rate of subsidence of the caldera was slower at about 5 cm per day and levels of toxic gasses in inhabited areas stayed within safety limits for consistent periods. On 27 February the eruption ended after 6 months of continuous activity. Nevertheless, air pollution continued, and the area north of Bárðarbunga, including volcanoes Askja and Herðubreið, still remained closed to visitors.

March.

On March 16, 2015 the area north of Bárðarbunga was opened to visitors, excluding the lava field and the area within 20 meters around it.

The 2014–2015 eruption of Bárðarbunga was a Hawaiian eruption in the Bárðarbunga volcanic system in Iceland, that began on August 29, 2014 and ended on February 27, 2015. The eruption emitted large volumes of sulphur dioxide and impacted air quality in Iceland. There was no effect on flights outside of the immediate vicinity due to a lack of a significant emission of volcanic ash. The eruption took place in the lava field of Holuhraun northeast of the Bárðarbunga caldera proper.

Der Ausbruch im Bárðarbunga-Vulkansystem 2014 begann in der Nacht vom 28. auf den 29. August 2014 und kam Ende Februar 2015 zum Erliegen. Er war aufgrund massiver Schwarmbeben seit dem 16. August 2014 befürchtet worden. Am 28. Februar 2015 gab das Isländische Meteorologische Institut bekannt, dass die vulkanische Eruption beendet sei, jedoch setzten sich die Ausgasungen fort.


Club career.

Racing Santander.

Born in Cabezón de la Sal, Cantabria, Jairo was a product of local Racing de Santander's youth ranks. He was promoted to the first team immediately after finishing his formation in 2011, by manager Héctor Cúper. He made his first-team – and La Liga – debut on 27 August, playing the last twelve minutes in a 3–4 away defeat against Valencia CF after coming on as a substitute for Manuel Arana.  On 21 September 2011, 18-year-old Jairo started his first official game for Racing, in a 0–0 home draw against Real Madrid. On 25 October, he scored his first league goal in a 2–2 away draw to Sevilla FC, and went on to start in 14 of his league appearances in his first season (1,248 minutes of action), which ended in relegation.

Sevilla.

On 21 June 2013, after again dropping down a level with Racing, Jairo returned to the top flight by signing a five-year deal with Sevilla, for a rumoured €2.5 million. He made his competitive debut for the club on 1 August, replacing José Antonio Reyes in the 19th minute of a 3–0 win over FK Mladost Podgorica in the campaign's UEFA Europa League.

Mainz 05.

On 29 August 2014, Jairo signed a four-year deal with Bundesliga side 1. FSV Mainz 05. The transfer fee remained undisclosed, but was believed to be in the region of €2 million. He finished his first season with 22 games and two goals, helping to a final 11th position.  On 5 December 2015, Jairo scored a brace to help to a 3–1 away win against Hamburger SV. On 2 March of the following year, he put the visiting team ahead at FC Bayern Munich after a 26th-minute cross from Giulio Donati, in an eventual 2–1 success that handed the hosts their first home defeat of the campaign.

Las Palmas.

Free agent Jairo returned to Spain on 1 January 2018, signing a five-month deal at top flight strugglers UD Las Palmas. His league debut took place 12 days later, when he started in a 0–6 away loss to Girona FC.

Hamburger SV.

Jairo moved back to Germany in the summer of 2018, signing for 2. Bundesliga club Hamburger SV.

Honours.

Sevilla

Jairo Samperio Bustara (born 11 July 1993) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a right winger for German club Hamburger SV.

Jairo, mit vollem Namen Jairo Samperio Bustara, (* 11. Juli 1993 in Cabezón de la Sal, Kantabrien) ist ein spanischer Fußballspieler. Der Flügelstürmer steht beim Hamburger SV unter Vertrag.


Life and work.

A graduate of the Central School of Art and Design in London, Levine first moved to Canada in 1960. He eventually settled in New York City in 1964 and became a resident artist at the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1973. Early in his career, Levine introduced the idea of a disposable art and was given the nickname Plastic Man.  In 1965, Levine, with Nam June Paik, were among the first artists to buy and use portapaks. Thus he was one of the first artists to try television as a medium for the dissemination of art. He has also used the telephone for this purpose, as well.  In 1969 he exhibited "White Sight" at the Fischbach Gallery, a work consisting of a room as the inside of a featureless whitecube illuminated by two bright sodium vapour lights. This meant that the spectator was confronted with their own act of looking presented as an artifact. The installation was also included as a feature for a charity ball at the New York Museum of Modern Art, to attend which museum patrons had to pay $75 per couple. Whilst Levine regarded the installation as a great success, this view was not shared by all the patrons. The yellow light drained the women's dresses of color. One visitor said: "All the men looked as if they have been dead for two centuries. All the women looked like their grandmothers. The beautiful ladies fled within one minute." One of these accused Levine of making the museum "look ugly and silly" and promptly transformed the artwork by pulling the main light switch. In 1984, Levine produced the short film "Made in New York" in collaboration with fashion designer Willi Smith. He also designed a T-shirt for Smith’s label WilliWear Productions that was featured in the film.  Levine has written on art for Arts, The Village Voice, Art in America and the Saturday Review.  He was awarded the National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship in 1974 and again in 1980.

Reference material.

"Expanded Cinema" by Gene Youngblood (pp. 337–344). "Beyond Modern Sculpture" by Jack Burnham, "The Britannica Encyclopedia of American Art" Simon Schuster, "Art and the Future" by Douglass Davis, "Science and Technology in the Arts" by Stewart Kranz, "Innovative Printmaking" by Theima P. Newman and "On Photography" by Susan Sontag.

Les Levine (born 1935) is a naturalized American Irish artist known as a pioneer of video art and as a conceptual artist working with mass communication. In 1967 Levine won first prize for sculpture in the Canadian Sculpture Biennial.

Les Levine (* 6. Oktober 1935 in Dublin, Irland) ist ein Pionier der Video- und Medienkunst, der in New York ansässig ist.


History.

The first broadcast was on Friday May 23, 1969. The show was presented by Joost den Draayer. "Desmond Dekker & The Aces" were the chart toppers at that time with "The Israelites". From December 4, 1970, the chart was compiled by the NOS. Den Draayer kept presenting the show until April 2, 1971 when Felix Meurders replaced him. From 1978 until 2005 the year end charts were based on sales.  The radio-broadcast remained on Radio 3 and since 5th. December 1985 the chart has been broadcast by the TROS. Only during the period of 1993-1995, the show was broadcast by other broadcasting organizations. From 2007 until November 2014 the chart was hosted by Bart Arens. His place was taken by Paul Rabbering. Barend van Deelen was the presenter from 2015 until 2017. The current presenter is Olivier Bakker.  On television, the chart was used by TopPop from 1974 until 1978 and from 1982 until 1988. In the period 2000-2006 Top of the Pops NL used the public chart.  Since May 2004, Music Factory, MTV and NPO 3FM airplay data have also been used in the composition of the chart. Exactly one year later, digital downloads were also included. The chart that made use of single sales figures only kept on existing though, under the name of B2B Single Top 100. Since 2012 streaming data has been included in the composition of the chart.  The chart is compiled by SoundAware. Current composition is based on:

Mega Top 30 is a Dutch music chart compiled by SoundAware and broadcast every Saturday from 14:00 - 16:00 on NPO 3FM. It originally started on May 23, 1969 as the Hilversum 3 Top 30. Throughout the years, the chart has had several names and lengths:

Die Mega Top 50 sind eine niederländische Singlehitparade. Sie entstanden 1969 aus dem Radioprogramm des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks heraus und werden vom Sender 3fm ausgestrahlt. Die Hitliste wird zusammengestellt mit Daten aus Single- und Downloadverkauf sowie Airplay und Streams.


Biography.

Born in Dorchester, Boston, he was the son of William and Amelia (Lyon) Mellus and was a brother of Francis Mellus. Henry sailed "around the [Cape] horn" with Richard Henry Dana, Jr. on the ship named the Pilgrim, and arrived in California in 1835, leaving the ship to become an agent's clerk onshore. In 1837 Mellus returned to Boston, and then returned in 1839 to California, becoming a successful merchant in San Francisco. In 1845 he and William Davis Merry Howard formed the firm of Mellus & Howard in San Francisco. This firm had an active commercial business in San Francisco, and in 1846 bought the property of the Hudson’s Bay Company.  In 1846 Henry married Anita F. Johnson (the daughter of James (Santiago) Johnson and a sister of Francis Mellus’s wife Adelaida). After the marriage, the Mellus’ family lived in Los Angeles. Bell Row, a two-story, "L" shaped adobe built by Captain Alexander Bell, became Mellus Row, owned by Henry Mellus.  After relinquishing the Bryant & Sturgis agency in 1848, Mellus went to Boston with his family on a visit. He returned to this coast in the winter of 1849–1850, at which time he had an attack of apoplexy. He partially recovered.  After Henry retired from Mellus, Howard & Co., his brother Francis joined as a partner, and the firm became Howard, Mellus & Co. Francis shortly after withdrew, and the firm name was changed to Howard & Green.  Henry Mellus was elected as Mayor of Los Angeles on May 9, 1860 and died while holding that office.

Henry Mellus (August 24, 1816 – December 26, 1860) served as the eighth Mayor of Los Angeles from May 9, 1860, to December 26, 1860. He was a successful California businessman.

Henry Mellus (* 24. August 1816 bei Boston, Massachusetts; † 26. Dezember 1860 im Los Angeles County, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen Mai und Dezember 1860 war er Bürgermeister der Stadt Los Angeles.


Personal.

McAleer was born on February 3, 1858, in Canada, the son of Owen McAleer of Ireland and Mary Miller of England. In 1863 the family moved to Youngstown, Ohio, where the elder McAleer died in 1865, leaving a wife and eight children, the youngest just 6 months old.  In 1888 he moved to Los Angeles, and on January 8, 1891, he and Rebecca B. Wanchope of Ireland were married. She died on August 4, 1893, at the age of 29. He married again, on April 5, 1898, to Gertrude E. Mullaly of Covington, Kentucky, when he was 40 and she was 28.  He became a citizen of the United States on May 15, 1896, and in 1897 he was on the board of directors of the 150-member East Side Cycling Club, with its clubhouse at 163 South Avenue 21 in today's Lincoln Heights. He owned and trained driving horses (in 1905 he had five of them) and rode them "on a sort of private speedway of his own, near Eastlake Park." He pushed the sport for others, too, and as mayor he set aside a stretch of West Washington Street for a mile west of Western Avenue for use by "drivers who delight in vying with each other off the racetrack," and, according to the "Los Angeles Times," "policemen have been given to understand that some latitude be allowed horsemen there."  An automobile driven by Mayor McAleer struck and injured Charles Hughes, a delivery boy on a bicycle, on Central Avenue at Ninth Street the afternoon of July 17, 1906. Three witnesses said that in their opinion the vehicle was exceeding the speed limit and that "in approaching the corner no warning was given by tooting the horn, and that the occupants made no effort to assist the little fellow in any way." Called to the location by the boy's employer, "a stormy scene ensued," but McAleer "finally agreed to consider a bill for the repair of the bicycle."  In 1935 the McAleers were living at 3817 South Main Street in today's Historic South Central.  McAleer died on March 7, 1944, leaving his wife, Gertrude McAleer of 401 West 41st Street, and a nephew, J.C. McAleer. A funeral service was held under the auspices of B.P.O.E, Lodge 99, with cremation following.

Vocation.

Private business.

After McAleer's father died, "There was no money for schooling and Owen began his business career as a small boy in the boiler works of W. B. Pollock."  McAleer built the first steam boiler in Los Angeles. He became superintendent of the boiler works of the pioneer Baker Iron Works, resigning in September 1905 after he had become mayor. He then organized the Republic Iron & Steel Co., with Nat Wilshire. McAleer was vice president and general manager.  After leaving the mayor's office, he returned to private business, retiring in 1914 when Republic Iron & Steel was dissolved.

Government service.

He was on a committee to investigate the feasibility of bringing water from the Owens River to Los Angeles and was a member of the committee that obtained the first land options in the Owens River Valley that led the project's fulfillment. He was a City Council member from the 1st Ward in 1902-04, mayor in 1904-06 and on the Board of Public Works in 1916-20. As mayor he was credited with establishing the first municipal playground — on Violet Street. McAleer was elected mayor on the Republican ticket on December 5, 1904, ousting Meredith P. Snyder, a Democrat.  Among his accomplishments was the purchase of Sycamore Grove Park by the city.

Owen McAleer (February 3, 1858 – March 7, 1944) was a Los Angeles, California, businessman who was mayor of the city between 1904 and 1906.

Owen McAleer (* 3. Februar 1858 in Liscard, Provinz Kanada; † 7. März 1944 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1904 und 1906 war er Bürgermeister der Stadt Los Angeles.


Career.

Losa has built up nearly 20 years' coaching experience, proving particularly adept at raising the level of professionalism at the clubs he has worked at. He began his coaching career at Pozuelo Alarcón, with their U-13, U-14 and U-15 boys' teams, and also had a stint coaching U-9, U-10 & U-12 boys' sides at Atlético Madrid.  Losa then started to coach women's football teams, first with the head coach's position at Pozuelo Alarcón before moving on to take the top job at Rayo Vallecano Femenino. His tenure with Rayo was very successful, leading the club to their first major trophy in their history with the Copa de la Reina in 2008. Rayo then went on to win the league title for three consecutive seasons (2008–09, 2009–10 and 2010–11) and reached the quarter-finals of the UEFA Women's Champions League in 2011.  In 2012, he moved to the United States to the Western New York Flash as assistant coach to Aaran Lines while he was also handed the role of Advanced Training Instructor at the Flash Youth Academy. In his first season with the Flash, they were joint winners of the National Women's Soccer League (alongside Portland Thorns and Kansas City), but in the subsequent play-offs they lost the championship final to Portland. While still a part of the Flash set up, Losa spent the 2013 season as assistant coach to Niagara Purple Eagles women's soccer coach Peter Veltri.  In 2014, Losa was named as the new manager of Arsenal Women, succeeding Shelley Kerr. With Arsenal, he led the team to the 2015 FA WSL Cup and the 2016 FA Women's Cup. He also helped lay the foundations for the team's current success by signing the likes of Dominique Janssen, Sari van Veenendaal, Katie McCabe, Daniëlle van de Donk, Kim Little, Beth Mead and Vivianne Miedema. Losa's time in charge also included bringing through youngsters of the quality of Leah Williamson, Charlie Devlin and Lauren James. Losa left Arsenal in October 2017, following a mixed start to the season. In July 2018, Losa was appointed Director of Football for Millwall Lionesses, but left in June 2019, when the club broke away from the men's side and became the London City Lionesses.  On 7 June 2019, Losa was named as the new manager of Division 1 Féminine club Bordeaux, succeeding Jérôme Dauba.

Honours.

Manager.

Rayo Vallecano Femenino  Arsenal Women

Pedro Martínez Losa (born 9 May 1976) is a Spanish football coach and sporting director, currently the manager of Division 1 Féminine club Bordeaux. Known primarily for his prominence within women's football, Losa has won major trophies in his native Spain with Rayo Vallecano Femenino, and in England with Arsenal Women.

Pedro Martínez Losa (* 9. Mai 1976) ist ein spanischer Fußballtrainer, der zuletzt von September 2014 bis Oktober 2017 Cheftrainer des englischen Fußball-Erstligisten Arsenal LFC war.


Life and career.

Loretta was born and raised in Rome, Italy. In the mid 1970s, she became an active feminist and marxist.  She was a Fulbright scholar at Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Washington, D.C. and a Rotary Scholar at the London School of Economics (LSE). She has a M.Phil. in Terrorism Studies from the University of East London, and a Master's in International Relations from SAIS.  In the early 1980s she worked at the National Bank of Hungary on the convertibility of the Hungarian forint that became the blueprint for the convertibility of the ruble a decade later.

Personal life.

Napoleoni lives in London, England, and Whitefish, Montana, with her husband and children.

Appointments.

She is a member of the scientific committee of the Fundación Ideas para el Progreso, the think tank of Spain's Socialist Party, and she is a partner with Oxfam Italia.

Publications.

Napoleoni's writing has appeared in Italian newspapers such as "il Caffè," "La Repubblica," and "Il Fatto Quotidiano." She has worked as a foreign correspondent and columnist for the Spanish newspaper "El Pais.".  Her best-selling book "Terror Incorporated" was translated into 12 languages. Her novel "Dossier Baghdad" is a financial thriller set during the Persian Gulf War. She has also published a nonfiction book about Iraq, "Insurgent Iraq: Al-Zarqawi and the New Generation", and several other books, including 2008's "Rogue Economics". "Rogue Economics," published by Seven Stories Press, was named a Publishers Weekly Best Book of 2008 and a Straight.com Favorite Book of 2008.  The Italian edition of her book "Maonomics: Why Chinese Communists Make Better Capitalists Than We Do" won the 2010 Book of the Year Prize from the Italian Association for Economics as well as the 2011 Singapore Critics Choice Best Nonfiction on Economics Prize."Maonomics" was published in 10 countries and in Italy by RCS MediaGroup.  Napoleoni also writes articles for newspapers and journals including "Le Monde", "The Guardian", "Il Venerdi di Repubblica", "l'Espresso", "l'Unità", and "Wired Italia". In one such article, co-written with Claudia Segre and originally published in "L'Osservatore Romano" under the title "Alternative Credit Mechanisms with a Basic Code of Ethics: From Islamic Proposals and Ideas to the West in Crisis", she recommends that the Vatican consider Sharia-compliant loans, and writes that "in Islamic finance... there is no speculation." Source: ZDFinfo (German TV channel; YouTube)

Loretta Napoleoni (born 1955 in Rome) is an Italian journalist and political analyst. She reports on the financing of terrorism and connected topics, both finance- and security-related.

Loretta Napoleoni (* 1955 in Rom) ist eine italienische Journalistin und politische Analystin. Sie ist Expertin für Terrorismus und dessen Finanzierung und wurde dafür bekannt, den Umfang der weltweiten terroristischen Ökonomie errechnet zu haben.


Origins and classification.

A peculiar group of supernova that were unusually rich in calcium were identified by Alexei Filippenko and collaborators. Although they appeared somewhat similar to Type Ib and Ic supernovae, their spectra were dominated by calcium, without other signatures often seen in Type Ib and Ic supernovae, and the term "calcium-rich" was coined to describe them. Subsequent discoveries led to the classification of empirically similar supernovae. They share characteristics such as quickly rising and fading light curves that peak in luminosity between novae and supernovae, and spectra that are dominated by calcium 2–3 months after initial explosion.

Explosion mechanism.

The exact nature of the stellar systems and their subsequent explosions that give rise to calcium-rich supernovae are unknown. Despite appearing similar to Type Ib supernovae, it was noted that a different explosion mechanism was likely to be responsible for calcium-rich supernovae. Since a large proportion of the galaxies from which they are thought to originate are early-type galaxies, and thus composed of old stellar populations, they are unlikely to contain many young, massive stars that give rise to Type Ib supernovae. Supernova explosions in old stellar populations generally involved a white dwarf since these are old systems that can undergo thermonuclear explosion under the right circumstances, as is the case for Type Ia supernovae. However, because calcium-rich supernovae are much less luminous and fade more quickly than normal Type Ia supernovae, it is unlikely that the same mechanism is at play for both.  Another peculiarity of calcium-rich supernovae is that they appear to explode far away from galaxies, even reaching intergalactic space. Searches for faint dwarf galaxies at their locations have ruled that they are exploding in very low density environments, unlike other supernova types. Multiple suggestions have been made to try and explain this behaviour. Binary systems of high-velocity stars, such as two white dwarfs or a white dwarf and a neutron star, that have been ejected from their galaxy either due to a neutron star kick or interaction with the supermassive black hole in their galaxy could produce explosions when they eventually merge (due to gravitational wave radiation) that would preferentially occur far from galaxies. Alternatively they have been suggested to be due to stars that reside in the intracluster medium within large galaxy groups or clusters, having been expelled from their galaxy during mergers or interactions. The explosion would then be caused by the detonation of a low mass white dwarf during a merging event as part of a binary system, or the detonation of a helium shell on a white dwarf.  A calcium-rich supernova event expels several tenths of a solar mass in material at thousands of kilometres per second and reaches a peak luminosity equal to around 100–200 million times that of the Sun. Despite calcium-rich supernovae being comparatively rare and diminutive compared to other supernova types, they are thought to make a significant contribution to the production of calcium in the Universe.

Calcium-rich supernovae (or Calcium-rich transients, Ca-rich SNe) are a subclass of supernovae that, in contrast to more well-known traditional supernova classes, are fainter and produce unusually large amounts of calcium. Since their luminosity is located in a gap between that of novae and other supernovae, they are also referred to as "gap" transients. Only around 15 events have been classified as a calcium-rich supernova (as of August 2017) – a combination of their intrinsic rarity and low luminosity make new discoveries and their subsequent study difficult. This makes calcium-rich supernovae one of the most mysterious supernova subclasses currently known.

Calcium-Rich Gap Transients sind eine Unterform der Supernovae, die sich schneller photometrisch und spektroskopisch entwickelt als alle anderen Unterarten von Supernovae. Ihre maximale Helligkeit liegt zwischen den klassischen Novae und den Supernovae. Die Hauptcharakteristik der Calcium-Rich Gap Transients oder manchmal auch Calcium-Rich Transients ist eine starke Häufigkeit von Calcium in den ersten Wochen ihres Ausbruchs.


Early life.

Ekman was the sixteenth and final child born in a 28-year period to Otto Christian Ekman at his home at 36 Södra Långgatan in Kalmar, Sweden. Carl Daniel was the third child born to Otto Christian's second wife, Maria Louise Indebetou, formerly of Forshaga. Otto Christian was a medical doctor who served at Kalmar Castle. Otto's father had been a pewterer in Malmö.  In 1861 Carl Daniel finished school and began working in the Ugglan pharmacy in Stockholm. It is believed that he passed his pharmacist examination before starting his education as an engineer in 1865 at the Technological Institute in Stockholm. He graduated in June, 1868 with first class honors, then worked for two years for the wine processor Liljeholmens Vinfabriks Aktiebolag, on Svartmangatan, Stockholm.

Career in paper manufacturing.

In August 1871 he was hired as a chemist for the Bergvik mill, where his half-brother Hugo was manager. The mill used the method of George Fry for processing wood pulp for paper. In 1872 Ekman developed a modified method: rather than simply bleaching a mechanically produced pulp, he cooked the pulp under pressure in a solution of bisulfite of magnesia. A new plant was built in 1874 in Bergvik that used this process.  A similar sulfite process had been invented by Benjamin Chew Tilghman in 1867 in Philadelphia, but he was unable to put it into commercial production. In Germany, Mitscherlich independently discovered a similar process about 1880.  Working with Fry, the new pulp was introduced quickly into paper production, perhaps first in Fry's Ilford plant, and then into a newly built mill at Northfleet in 1879. A second mill at Northfleet was completed in 1886 and owned by the Ekman Pulp and Paper Company, which was partially owned by Fry. This mill continued to operate until the 1970s. The Ekman process was also used in Godalming in the early 1880s. The process was kept as a commercial secret rather than patented, until a British patent was issued in 1881, and an American patent was issued in 1882. The American patent rights were represented by W.F. and F.C. Sayles. Ekman lived with the Sayles family in Pawtucket, Rhode Island while working on Charles W. Wheelwright's Richmond Paper Co. mill at Rumford starting in 1884.  Ekman traveled extensively helping to construct mills in France, Italy, Russia, and Germany, as well as searching for new raw material that might be used in paper making. He visited French Guiana where he contracted malaria, and in 1885 visited British Guiana. He experimented with sugar cane, straw, aspen, birch, sycamore, esparto grass, linen, and hemp to provide paper pulp.  In 1896 the Ekman Pulp and Paper Company, Limited issued "41⁄2 First Mortgage Debentures of £100 Each" and stated in the prospectus that By 1900 the sulfite process had become the dominant method to manufacture paper, with this dominance lasting until about 1940 when the kraft process (sulfate process) became dominant.

Later life.

In 1889 Ekman married 17-year-old Rosina Noble, who was 26 years his junior. Rosina was born Lincoln, Lincolnshire, England 1871. They had three sons, Carl Mario, Oscar Umberto, and Francis Otto (Frank Bayne Sr.). The family lived in France, Italy and other part of Europe before settling in Northfleet and Gravesend where CD Ekman had his Northfleet Paper Mill.UK Census 1901  Ekman continued to suffer from malaria and also contracted typhoid fever about 1900. He was also sued for polluting a limestone quarry near the Northfleet mill. He died soon after losing the suit, and was buried in an unmarked grave in Northfleet. His children were educated from a special fund, collected by the British Wood Pulp Association. They all moved to Canada upon reaching majority, and Mario and Oscar served in Canadian forces during World War I.  In 1934 a black granite monument was erected on Ekman's grave by the Swedish Cellulose Association. The Carl Ekman House, a 14-story residential building on Tooley Street, Northfleet, was erected in 1969 and named in his honor.

Carl Daniel Ekman (March 17, 1845 – November 3, 1904) was a Swedish chemical engineer who invented the form of the sulfite process of wood pulp manufacturing which was first established on a firm commercial basis, helping to replace rags as the main raw material of paper with wood pulp. The process was developed at Bergvik, Sweden from 1871–1874, In 1879, he emigrated to England, and opened the Ekman Pulp and Paper Company mill in Northfleet, Kent near the mouth of the Thames River in 1886. He was also a consulting engineer and helped establish mills in Lachendorf, Celle, Germany, Dieppe, France, Rumford, Rhode Island, St. Petersburg, Russia, Korfu and Italy. After contracting malaria in French Guiana and losing a lawsuit on pollution of a Northfleet limestone quarry, he died bankrupt in Gravesend, Kent.

Carl Daniel Ekman (* 17. März 1845 in Kalmar; † 3. November 1904 in Gravesend, Kent) war ein schwedischer Chemieingenieur, der das Sulfitverfahren zur Cellulose-Gewinnung aus Holz als Erster erfolgreich industriell umsetzte.


History.

Knapp, Stout & Company.

Knapp, Stout and Company was a logging company in Northern Wisconsin. Founded in 1846 William Willson brought the company together. The company was originally owned by; William Wilson, Andrew Tainter, John Knapp, and Henry Stout. Knapp, Stout and Co. became the largest lumber company in the world. In 1873 they owned 115,000 acres of pine forests. They put out 55,000,000 ft. of lumber, 20,000,000 shingles, and 20,000,000 lath annually. The company owned six big farms with six, or seven thousand acres of improved land to supply the lumber camps with pork and wheat.

First Settlers.

Knapp, Stout, and Co. had a major impact on Northern Wisconsin. The large lumber company brought the SS and Omaha railroads to northern Wisconsin. They also created many logging camps that turned into small towns. Birchwood is located where it is due to the Birch Lake lumber camp, and the crossing of the Soo and the Omaha railroads.  Birchwood WI was platted in 1901. Birchwood was originally named Loomis after Wilbur Loomis, one of the first residents, and the first storekeeper. In 1912 the name was officially changed to Birchwood due to a political argument, and the abundance of birch trees in the area.

The Birch Lake Dam.

The Birchwood dam was first owned by Knapp, Stout and Co. The first dam was built in 1881 from logs. The dam was enlarged by Knapp, Stout, and Co. in 1893 when they found that the first dam was too small. In 1911 the dam was sold to Chippewa Light & Power Co., who built the first concrete dam. The dam was sold again in 1915 to the Wisconsin-Minnesota Light and Power Co. In 1916 the Wisconsin-Minnesota Light and Power Co. Brought electricity service to Birchwood.

Birchwood's Best.

In 1903 the Ahnapee Veneer and Seating Co. built a mill where Birchwood's Best now stands. After the mill burned down in 1906, it was rebuilt. In 1921 the name was changed to the Algoma Panel Co. and in 1931 to the Algoma Plywood and Veneer Co. In 1931 the mill was sold to the U.S. Plywood Corporation. In 1943 U.S. Plywood ceased operations. Eleven months later a new corporation was formed and named the Birchwood Lumber and Veneer Co. The companies that owned the mill did their own logging until 1932, when they started hiring subcontractors to do the logging. Throughout the 20th century the mill has been Birchwood's principal industry. In 2011 Birchwood's Best was acquired by the Masonite International, which continues its operations today.

Schools.

In 1902 the residents of Birchwood, set aside land for a school. Birchwood's first school was a one-room building. A new graded school was built in 1903. In 1909 the school became overpopulated and classes were split up between the Methodist and Lutheran Churches until an addition was built. In 1921 a high school was built. This is the same building that is now used, with a few additions.

Geography.

Birchwood is located at (45.657262, -91.554367).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, of which, of it is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 442 people, 200 households, and 118 families residing in the village. The population density was. There were 290 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 98.2% White, 0.2% African American, 1.1% Native American, and 0.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.1% of the population.  There were 200 households, of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.5% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.0% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.79.  The median age in the village was 43.7 years. 20.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 26.9% were from 45 to 64; and 21.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 518 people, 227 households, and 142 families residing in the village. The population density was 459.7 people per square mile (177.0/km). There were 269 housing units at an average density of 238.7 per square mile (91.9/km). The racial makeup of the village was 96.33% White, 1.54% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 0.19% from other races, and 1.74% from two or more races. 2.32% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 227 households, out of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% were non-families. 33.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.90.  In the village, the population was spread out, with 25.1% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 21.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $23,636, and the median income for a family was $35,795. Males had a median income of $22,000 versus $19,091 for females. The per capita income for the village was $14,237. About 4.5% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Birchwood has a public school (Birchwood Public School), consisting of grades preK-12 with approximately 350 students. Birchwood also offers two charter schools, Birchwood Blue Hills Charter School and Birchwood Public Montessori.

Birchwood is a village in Washburn County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 442 at the 2010 census. The village is located within the Town of Birchwood.

Birchwood ist eine Gemeinde (mit dem Status „Village“) im Washburn County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Wisconsin. Im Jahr 2010 hatte Birchwood 442 Einwohner.


Family.

Theklas parents were the acting couple Caroline, "née" Krüger, and Carl Demmer. Numerous important Viennese actors and singers came from this marriage, among them  Kneisel's uncle was Karl Friedrich Krüger, actor at the Wiener Burgtheater.

Career.

Kneisel-Demmer was active from 1817 to 1824 as a singer at the Theater am Kärntnertor and from 1824 to 1826 as an actress at the Hofburgtheater. She was then engaged by director Carl Carl as "Localsoubrette" to the Theater an der Wien. Among other things she played in Raimund's'the role of the stone-breaker-wife Mirzel and in 1831 the chamber maid Linda in ', as well as with Nestroy in February 1832 the widow Adelheid in'and in March of this year the kitchengretl Roselheid in '.  That she had a very good reputation as a singer and actress was shown by a report in the "Allgemeinen Musikalischen Anzeiger" of 15 March 1832 (No 11, ):  However, she only had a very short period of life, because already on 20 August 1832 she fell ill "suddenly violently" and died on 23 August of this year. The "Wiener Theaterzeitung" of Adolf Bäuerle reported her death on 25 August (No 170,.): "The day before yesterday on 23 Aug., in the morning at two o'clock Mad. Kneisel, "née" Demmer, one of the most popular members of the Theater an der Wien, after surviving gastroenteritis died of a nervous fever. [...] Yesterday at 3 o'clock the solemn funeral took place in the Karlskirche in which mourning art lovers and many members of the local stages were not missing."  In the "Sammler" dated 1 September (No 105,.) her death was also greatly regretted: The friends of this theatre will painfully miss the serenity which this humorous artist, in happy emulation of the genius Krones who also passed away too quickly, understood to spread".

Thekla Kneisel, "née" Thekla Demmer (1802 in Frankfurt – 23 August 1832 in Vienna) was an Austrian actress and operatic mezzosoprano as well as a soubrette. She came from the actors family Krüger-Demmer and died at the age of 30 after a successful stage career in Vienna lasting only 15 years.

Thekla Kneisel, geborene Thekla Demmer (* 1802 in Frankfurt am Main; † 23. August 1832 in Wien) war eine österreichische Schauspielerin und Opernsängerin (Mezzosopran) sowie Soubrette. Sie entstammte der Schauspielerfamilie Krüger-Demmer und starb nach einer nur 15 Jahre dauernden erfolgreichen Bühnenlaufbahn in Wien schon mit 30 Jahren.


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.8 square miles (90.2 km2), of which, 33.7 square miles (87.2 km2) of it is land and 1.2 square miles (3.0 km2) of it (3.36%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 544 people, 221 households, and 158 families residing in the town. The population density was 16.2 people per square mile (6.2/km2). There were 362 housing units at an average density of 10.8 per square mile (4.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.53% White, 0.92% Native American, 0.18% Asian, and 0.37% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.74% of the population.  There were 221 households out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.4% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.1% were non-families. 24.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.94.  In the town, the population was spread out with 23.5% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.9 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $33,021, and the median income for a family was $37,000. Males had a median income of $27,500 versus $22,083 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,219. About 9.3% of families and 13.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.7% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.

Events.

The town celebrates an annual cranberry festival which draws thousands to Stone Lake each fall on the first Saturday of October.

Stone Lake is a town in Washburn County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 544 at the 2000 census. The census-designated place of Stone Lake is located partially in the town.

Stone Lake ist eine Siedlung auf gemeindefreiem Gebiet im Sawyer und im Washburn County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Wisconsin. Zu statistischen Zwecken ist der Ort zu einem Census-designated place (CDP) zusammengefasst worden. Im Jahr 2010 hatte Stone Lake 178 Einwohner.


Description.

Sharp-leaved pondweed grows annually from turions and seed, producing rather lax plants branching near the surface with strongly compressed stems and long, rather grass-like leaves that are 35–100 mm long and 1.5–5 mm wide and dark green, often with a marked reddish or brownish tinge. Each leaf has one vein either side of the midrib. There are no rhizomes or floating leaves.  The inflorescences are up to 6 mm long with 4-6 flowers with a short peduncle (5–20 mm long, occasionally more).  Within its range, sharp-leaved pondweed is relatively easily identified from all other pondweeds except the closely related grass-wrack pondweed ("P. compressus") by its combination of strongly flattened stems, sclerenchymatous strands in the leaf (giving the submerged leaves an opaque appearance compared with the transparent appearance of other pondweeds) and leaves with sharply pointed (acute) tips. Grass-wrack pondweed differs in having blunter tips to the leaves, leaves with 2 veins either side of the midrib, and infloresecences with 10-20 flowers on long peduncles, 28–95 mm long.  Hybrids with "P. berchtoldii" ("P." × "sudermanicus" ) and "P. friesii" ("P." × "pseudofriesii" ) have been recorded. Both are rare. In northeast Europe, DNA evidence indicates that hybrids with "P. compressus" are fairly frequent, but often overlooked because of the difficulty of reliably identifying them.

Taxonomy.

"Potamogeton acutifolius" was described in 1815 by the German botanist Johann Link. The specific epithet,, meaning "acute leaved", is derived from Latin (pointed, acute), and (-leaved), referring to the pointed leaf tips.  Within the genus "Potamogeton", Sharp-leaved pondweed is within the Section "Graminifolii" (fine-leaved pondweeds). It is closely related to "P. compressus", "P. zosterifolius" and "P. mandschuriensis", all of which also have sclerenchymatous strands.

Distribution.

"Potamogeton acutifolius" is native to Europe, including the UK, Czech Republic, Balkans and Denmark. In Britain it has always been rather rare and now has a very restricted distribution to suitable habitat in south-east England.

Ecology and conservation.

In Britain, "P. acutifolius" is almost exclusively restricted to shallow, circumneutral, species-rich ditches on lowland grazing marshes, often with fairly high conductivity. Although there are some fairly strong populations remaining in Britain, these are vulnerable to changes in farming practice, pollution and sea level rise. As ditch systems are an artificial habitat type, sharp-leaved pondweed presumably relied on a now destroyed habitat in Britain, a possible candidate being natural lowland river-floodplain wetland areas, which could create disturbed areas for this plant to exploit. Alternatively, it may have been associated with a now extinct species such as beaver.  Sharp-leaved pondweed has declined markedly in both Britain and Denmark. On the British and Swiss Red Lists for Vascular Plants it is listed as Critically Endangered and it is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan priority species. It is classed as Vulnerable in the Czech Republic and Germany. In Flanders it is classed as Rare and in the Netherlands it is Near Threatened.

Cultivation.

"P. acutifolius" is not in general cultivation, and its rarity suggests that it may be difficult to cultivate. It would need to be grown in rather silty, nutrient-rich ponds that are regularly cleaned out in order to suppress competing vegetation.

Potamogeton acutifolius is a European species of aquatic plant in the family Potamogetonaceae, known by the common name sharp-leaved pondweed. It is threatened and declining in at least part of its range.

Das Spitzblättrige Laichkraut ("Potamogeton acutifolius") ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung Laichkräuter ("Potamogeton") innerhalb der Familie der Laichkrautgewächse (Potamogetonaceae). Diese Wasserpflanze ist in Europa weitverbreitet.


History.

In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, President George W. Bush proclaimed Friday, September 14, 2001, as a National Day of Prayer and Remembrance for the Victims of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001.  A bill to make September 11 a national day of mourning was introduced in the U.S. House on October 25, 2001, by Rep. Vito Fossella (R-NY) with 22 co-sponsors, among them 11 Democrats and 11 Republicans. The bill requested that the President designate September 11 of each year as Patriot Day. Joint Resolution 71 passed the House by a vote of 407–0, with 25 members not voting. The bill passed the Senate unanimously on November 30. President Bush signed the resolution into law on December 18 as. On September 4, 2002, President Bush used the authority of the resolution to proclaim September 11, 2002, as the first Patriot Day.  Original co-sponsors in the House were:  From 2009 to 2016, President Barack Obama proclaimed September 11 as Patriot Day and National Day of Service and Remembrance, in observance of, the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act.  In 2017, 2018 and 2019, President Donald Trump proclaimed September 8–10 as National Days of Prayer and Remembrance, and proclaimed September 11 as Patriot Day.

Observance.

The flag of the United States is flown at half-mast at the White House and on all U.S. government buildings and establishments throughout the world; Americans are also encouraged to display flags in and outside their homes. Additionally, a moment of silence is observed to correspond with the attacks, beginning at 8:46 a.m. (Eastern Daylight Time), the time the first plane, American Airlines Flight 11, struck the North Tower of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001.  Patriot Day is not a federal holiday; schools and businesses remain open in observance of the occasion, although memorial ceremonies for the 2,977 victims (this number excludes the 19 hijackers who also perished) are often held. Volunteer and service opportunities are coordinated by the Corporation for National and Community Service.

In the United States, Patriot Day occurs on September 11 of each year in memory of the people killed in the September 11 attacks of the year 2001.

In den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (USA) wird seit 2010 jährlich am 11. September der Patriot Day in Erinnerung an die 2001 bei den Anschlägen des 11. Septembers ermordeten 2.977 Personen als stiller Feiertag begangen. Davor hatte der seit 2002 jeweils landesweit viel beachtete Tag verschiedene administrative bzw. rechtliche Grundlagen, in welcher Form er begangen und durch die Staats- und die Bundesbehörden beachtet wird.


Early life and education.

Born 1974 in Athens to a police officer and a stay-at-home mother, whom Dourou later described as conservative yet open-minded, she was raised in Western Athens working-class suburb Egaleo. Active in the anti-globalization movement, she helped founding Synaspismos Youth in 1995.  Dourou took up her studies to become a teacher at Athens University. Following her graduation she was rewarded a scholarship to University of Essex in the United Kingdom where she enrolled in political science and earned a master's degree. Though Dourou was encouraged to pursue a Ph.D., she decided to return to Greece, where in 2004 she joined the newly founded Syriza party.  Apart from Greek, Dourou is fluent in English, French, Italian and Turkish.

Political career.

In the two consecutive legislative elections of May and June 2012, she was elected a member of the Hellenic Parliament for the suburban Athens B constituency.  In a television appearance on 7 June 2012, far-right Golden Dawn party's MP Ilias Kasidiaris threw a glass of water at Dourou, proceeding to physically assault Liana Kanelli after she objected to his behavior. The incident caused an uproar, both nationally and internationally, and was widely seen as a moment of revelation regarding Golden Dawn's violent agenda.  Following the elections, Dourou was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet of Alexis Tsipras, where she was made responsible for foreign policy. In the beginning, Dourou had to cope with prejudices against female politicians, with a "Kathimerini" commentator railing that the "nice blonde" be rather "a qualified kindergarten teacher" than qualified on foreign policy issues. However, she fought her way through male dominance and sexism, defining Syriza's defence and foreign policy, as to be increasingly described her party's "rising star".

Governor of Attica.

On 26 March 2014, well ahead of the local elections in May, she ceded her parliamentary seat to her party's first runner-up Eleni Avlonitou in order to fully concentrate on campaigning for regional governor of Attica. For her all-in decision, she gained further respect, being referred to as the first member of parliament to do so.  Running a door-to-door campaign on an electoral platform called "Power of Life" (), she challenged incumbent Giannis Sgouros who ran for the social-liberal "Social Values" party, and won the first round. Though in the decisive runoff ballot, Sgouros had the backing of both Nea Dimokratia and PASOK parties, Dourou defeated him with 50.83% of the popular vote. Ahead of Syriza's victory at the January 2015 legislative election, her election as regional governor was widely described as Syriza's biggest victory so far.  In charge of a €575m annual budget, she immediately increased social welfare spending from €1.9m to €13.5m in order to establish food banks, health care for the uninsured. She also ordered tens of thousands disconnected from electricity to be reconnected. She was criticized by Minister of Administrative Reform Kyriakos Mitsotakis for supporting 19 mayors who refused to hand over municipal workers' files for evaluation.

Controversies.

Dourou was heavily criticized for her decision to scrap four tenders for waste management plants. It was estimated that her decision lost 200 million of funding with ecological implications and a lack of capacity in the Attica waste management system. Deputy Development Minister Notis Mitarakis called on Dourou to "realize the difference between governing and protesting." He also argued that the Attica governor could not cancel the tenders on her own. Dourou is in favor of the separation of the church and state and took a non-religious oath when she was sworn in as governor, eliciting criticism from conservative and right-wing milieus.

Irene "Rena" Dourou (; born 7 October 1974) is a Greek political scientist and politician of the Coalition of the Radical Left (Syriza). Since September 2014, she has been serving as Regional Governor of Attica.

Irini „Rena“ Dourou (, * 7. Oktober 1974 in Egaleo) ist eine griechische Politikerin der Partei SYRIZA und seit Mai 2014 Gouverneurin der Region Attika.<ref name="Spiegel.37/2014">


Early life.

Commoner was born in Brooklyn, New York, on May 28, 1917, the son of Jewish immigrants from Russia. He received his bachelor's degree in zoology from Columbia University in 1937 and his master's and doctoral degrees from Harvard University in 1938 and 1941, respectively.

Career in academia.

After serving as a lieutenant in the US Navy during World War II, Commoner moved to St. Louis, Missouri, and he became an associate editor for "Science Illustrated" from 1946 to 1947. He became a professor of plant physiology at Washington University in 1947 and taught there for 34 years. During this period, in 1966, he founded the Center for the Biology of Natural Systems to study "the science of the total environment".. Commoner was on the founding editorial board of the "Journal of Theoretical Biology" in 1961.  In the late-1950s, Commoner became known for his opposition to nuclear weapons testing, becoming part of the team which conducted the Baby Tooth Survey, demonstrating the presence of Strontium 90 in children's teeth as a direct result of nuclear fallout. In 1958, he helped found the Greater St. Louis Committee on Nuclear Information. Shortly thereafter, he established "Nuclear Information", a mimeographed newsletter published in his office, which later went on to become "Environment" magazine. Commoner went on to write several books about the negative ecological effects of atmospheric (i.e., above-ground) nuclear testing. In 1970 he received the International Humanist Award from the International Humanist and Ethical Union.

Environmental books.

"The Closing Circle".

In his 1971 bestselling book "The Closing Circle", Commoner suggested that the US economy should be restructured to conform to the unbending laws of ecology. For example, he argued that polluting products (like detergents or synthetic textiles) should be replaced with natural products (like soap or cotton and wool). This book was one of the first to bring the idea of sustainability to a mass audience. Commoner suggested a left-wing, eco-socialist response to the limits to growth thesis, postulating that capitalist technologies were chiefly responsible for environmental degradation, as opposed to population pressures. He had a long-running debate with Paul R. Ehrlich, author of "The Population Bomb" and his followers, arguing that they were too focused on overpopulation as the source of environmental problems, and that their proposed solutions were politically unacceptable because of the coercion that they implied, and because the cost would fall disproportionately on the poor. He believed that technological, and above all, social, development would lead to a natural decrease in both population growth and environmental damage.  One of Commoner's lasting legacies is his four laws of ecology, as written in "The Closing Circle" in 1971. The four laws are:

"The Poverty of Power".

Commoner published another bestseller in 1976, "The Poverty of Power". In that book, he addressed the "three e's" that were plaguing the United States in the 1970s, the three e's being the environment, energy, and the economy. "First there was the threat to environmental survival; then there was the apparent shortage of energy; and now there is the unexpected decline of the economy." He argued that the three issues were interconnected: the industries that used the most energy had the highest negative impact on the environment. The focus on non-renewable resources as sources of energy meant that those resources were growing scarce, thus pushing up the price of energy and hurting the economy. Towards the book's end, Commoner suggested that the problem of the three e's is caused by the capitalistic system and can only be solved by replacing it with some sort of socialism.

"Making Peace with the Planet".

In 1990, Commoner published "Making Peace With the Planet", an analysis of the ongoing environmental crisis in which he argues that the way we produce goods needs to be reconstrued.

Poverty and population.

Commoner examined the relationship between poverty and population growth, disagreeing with the way that relationship is often formulated. He argued that rapid population growth of the developing world is the result of its not having adequate living standards, observing that it is poverty that "initiates the rise in population" before leveling off, not the other way around. Developing countries were introduced to the living standards of developed nations, but were never able to fully adopt them, thus preventing these countries from advancing and thereby decreasing the rate of their population growth.  Commoner maintained that developing countries are still "forgotten" to colonialism. These developing countries were, and economically remain, "colonies of more developed countries". Because Western nations introduced infrastructure developments such as roads, communications, engineering, and agricultural and medical services as a significant part of their exploitation of the developing nations' labor force and natural resources, the first step towards a "demographic transition" was met, but other stages were not achieved because the wealth created in developing countries was "shipped out", so to speak, to the colonizer nations, enabling the latter to achieve the more advanced "levels of demographic transition", while the colonies continued on without achieving the second stage, which is population balancing.  "Thus colonialism involves a kind of demographic parasitism: the second population-balancing phase of the demographic transition in the advanced country is fed by suppression of that same phase in the colony". "As the wealth of the exploited nations was diverted to the more powerful ones, their power, and with it their capacity to exploit increased. The gap between the wealth of nations grew, as the rich were fed by the poor". This exploitation of resources extracted from developing nations, aside from its legality, led to an unforeseen problem: rapid population growth. The demographer, Nathan Keyfitz, concluded that, "the growth of industrial capitalism in the Western nations during the period 1800–1950 resulted in the development of a one-billion excess in the world population, largely in the tropics".  This is evident in the study of India and contraceptives, in which family planning failed to reduce the birth rate because people felt that "in order to advance their economic situation", children were an economic necessity. The studies show that "population control in a country like India depends on the economically motivated desire to limit fertility".  Commoner's solution is that wealthier nations need to help exploited or colonized countries develop and "achieve the level of welfare" that developed nations have. This is the only path to a balanced population in these developing countries. Commoner states that the only remedy for the world population crisis, which is the outcome of the abuse of poor nations by rich ones, is "returning to the poor countries enough of the wealth taken from them to give their peoples both the reason and the resources voluntarily to limit their own fertility".  His conclusion is that poverty is the main cause of the population crisis. If the reason behind overpopulation in poor nations is the exploitation by rich nations made rich by that very exploitation, then the only way to end it is to "redistribute [the wealth], among nations and within them".

2000 Dioxin Arctic study.

In September 2000, a study published by the North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation, lead by Commoner, found that Inuit women in the Arctic in Nunavut, Canada were found to have high levels of dioxin in their breast milk. The study tracked the origin of the dioxins using computer models from the sources that produced it and found that the dioxin pollution in the Arctic originated from the United States. Out of 44,000 sources of dioxin polluters in the United States, they found that only 19 were contributing to greater than a third of the dioxin pollution in Nunavut. Out of these 19, Harrisburg's incinerator was found to be the top source of dioxin pollution.

Influence.

"Time" magazine introduced a section on the environment in their February 1970 issue, featuring articles on the "environmental crisis", and a quote from Richard Nixon's State of the Union address, calling it, "The great question of the '70s". Nixon said, "Shall we surrender to our surroundings or shall we make our peace with nature and begin to make reparations for the damage we have done to our air, to our land and to our water?"  The magazine called Commoner, the "Paul Revere of ecology" for his work on the threats to life from the environmental consequences of fallout from nuclear tests and other pollutants of the water, soil, and air. "Time's" cover represented a "call to arms", to mobilize public opinion by appeals to conscience. The following month, the first Earth Day took place, which saw 20 million Americans demonstrating peacefully in favor of environmental reform, accompanied by several events held at university campuses across the US. The publications of Commoner are also considered influential in the decision of the Nixon administration in the following June to announce the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Clean Air Act of 1970.

Political activism.

In 1980, Commoner founded the Citizens Party to serve as a vehicle for his ecological message, and he ran for president of the United States in the 1980 US election. His vice presidential running mate was La Donna Harris, the Native-American wife of Fred Harris, a former Democratic senator from Oklahoma, although she was replaced on the ballot in Ohio by Wretha Hanson. His candidacy for president on the Citizens Party ticket won 233,052 votes (0.27 percent of the total).  After his presidential bid, Commoner returned to New York City and moved the Center for the Biology of Natural Systems to Queens College. He stepped down from that post in 2000. At the time of his death, Commoner was a senior scientist at Queens College.

Personal life.

After serving in World War II, Commoner married the former Gloria Gordon, a St. Louis psychologist. They had two children, Frederic and Lucy Commoner, and one granddaughter. Following a divorce, in 1980 he married Lisa Feiner, whom he had met in the course of her work as a public-TV producer.

Death and legacy.

Commoner died on September 30, 2012, in Manhattan, New York.  He was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.  In 2015 the Center for Biology of Natural Systems at Queens College was renamed The Barry Commoner Center for Health and the Environment.

Barry Commoner (May 28, 1917 – September 30, 2012) was an American cellular biologist, college professor, and politician. He was a leading ecologist and among the founders of the modern environmental movement. He was the director of the Critical Genetics Project and the Center for Biology of Natural Systems. He ran as the Citizens Party candidate in the 1980 U.S. presidential election. His work studying the radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing led to the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963.

Barry Commoner (* 28. Mai 1917 in Brooklyn, New York, Vereinigte Staaten; † 30. September 2012 in Manhattan, New York, Vereinigte Staaten) war ein US-amerikanischer Biologe und Ökologe. Commoner war Autor mehrerer einflussreicher Sachbücher über Umweltschutz und gilt als einer der führenden frühen Vertreter der modernen amerikanischen Umweltbewegung.


Life.

Fitzhugh and his wife, Ann Bolling Randolph Fitzhugh (1747–1805), built Chatham Manor on property across the Rappahannock River from Fredericksburg, Virginia, completing it in 1771 after 3 years of construction. It still stands today as the National Park Service Headquarters for the Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park. The Fitzhughs lived a lavish life there that included experimental farming and horse racing. After the Revolutionary War, as the economy floundered, Fitzhugh sold Chatham Manor and 1,288 acres (5.2 km) to Churchill Jones for $20,000.  About 1799, William Fitzhugh bought the house at 607 Oronoco St., Alexandria, Virginia, that has become known as "The Boyhood Home of Robert E. Lee." The house was built in 1795 by John Potts, Jr. After William Fitzhugh's death, it then passed to William Henry Fitzhugh, his only son, and was rented to the Lee family.  Fitzhugh had built another mansion, Ravensworth, in 1796, where North Springfield, Virginia, is now located. This was his country home, with the Alexandria one being his townhouse. Ravensworth stood until about 1925, when it burned under mysterious circumstances.  William Fitzhugh and George Washington visited one another frequently until Washington's death in 1799, with Washington mentioning Fitzhugh in his diary and the two serving together on the Pohick Church vestry. Fitzhugh was the last person that Washington visited outside of Mount Vernon before his death in 1799.

Political career.

Fitzhugh served in the Virginia House of Burgesses between 1772 and 1775. When that assembly was dissolved by Virginia colonial governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, Fitzhugh continued to serve King George County, Virginia in ad hoc conventions held in Williamsburg and Richmond. He was also a member of the Revolutionary Committee of Safety in 1774-75. During the American Revolutionary War he was a commissioner of two arms and munitions factories. He served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1776–1777. He was a Virginia state senator in 1780–1787).  Fitzhugh was chosen as an elector for the 1789 election from Westmoreland District. That District consisted of King George County, Lancaster County, Northumberland County, Richmond County, Stafford County and Westmoreland County, which cover the area between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers. All of the 10 electors who voted cast one of their two votes for George Washington. 5 of them cast their other vote for John Adams. 3 cast theirs for George Clinton. 1 cast his for John Hancock. 1 cast his for John Jay. In a letter written by James Madison to Thomas Jefferson on March 29, 1789, 'Mr W Fitzhugh of Chatham' is described as a Federalist

Family.

He was the great-grandson of English immigrant Colonel William Fitzhugh who came to Virginia in about 1671 and owned 54,000 acres (220 km2) when he died in 1701. William of Chatham inherited most of the land. As a child he suffered the loss of an eye when accidentally hit with a horse riding crop by one of his stepbrothers. His mother was Lucy Carter, daughter of Robert "King" Carter.  In 1804 Fitzhugh's daughter Mary Lee Fitzhugh was married in the parlor of the Alexandria townhouse to George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of Martha Dandridge Custis Washington and adopted grandson of George Washington. In 1831 their daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis, married Robert E. Lee.  His wife was Ann Bolling Randolph (William Randolph II and Elizabeth Beverley's granddaughter). This Randolph connection made Ann Fitzhugh cousin to Thomas Jefferson, a visitor to their home in Fredericksburg.  Fitzhugh died in 1809 at the age of 69, leaving behind the three of his children who survived to adulthood. He was initially buried at Ravensworth, but when the mansion was destroyed, his remains and gravestone were moved to Lorton's Pohick Church cemetery.

William Fitzhugh (August 24, 1741June 6, 1809) was an American planter and statesman who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress for Virginia in 1779.

William Fitzhugh (* 24. August 1741 im King George County, Virginia; † 6. Juni 1809 in Fairfax, Virginia) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Im Jahr 1779 war er Delegierter für Virginia im Kontinentalkongress.