Baker percentages.

A yeast-dough formula could call for the following list of ingredients, presented as a series of baker's percentages:

Conversions.

There are several common conversions that are used with baker's percentages. Converting baker's percentages to ingredient weights is one. Converting known ingredient weights to baker percentages is another. Conversion to true percentages, or based on total weight, is helpful to calculate unknown ingredient weights from a desired total or formula weight.

Using baker percentages.

To derive the ingredient weights when any weight of flour "W" is chosen:  In the example below, 2 lb and 10 kg of flour weights have been calculated. Depending on the desired weight unit, only one of the following four weight columns is used:

Creating baker's percentages.

The baker has determined how much a recipe's ingredients weigh, and uses uniform decimal weight units. All ingredient weights are divided by the flour weight to obtain a ratio, then the ratio is multiplied by 100% to yield the baker's percentage for that ingredient:  Due to the canceling of uniform weight units, the baker may employ any desired system of measurement (metric or avoirdupois, etc.) when using a baker's percentage to determine an ingredient's weight. Generally, the baker finds it easiest to use the system of measurement that is present on the available tools.

Formula percentage and total mass.

The total or sum of the baker's percentages is called the formula percentage. The sum of the ingredient masses is called the formula mass (or formula "weight"). Here are some interesting calculations:

Weights and densities.

The use of customary U.S. units can sometimes be awkward and the metric system makes these conversions simpler. In the metric system, there are only a small number of basic measures of relevance to cooking: the gram (g) for weight, the liter (L) for volume, the meter (m) for length, and degrees Celsius (°C) for temperature; multiples and sub-multiples are indicated by prefixes, two commonly used metric cooking prefixes are milli- (m-) and kilo- (k-). Intra-metric conversions involve moving the decimal point.  Common avoirdupois and metric weight equivalences:  In four different English-language countries of recipe and measuring-utensil markets, approximate cup volumes range from 236.59 to 284.1 milliliters (mL). Adaptation of volumetric recipes can be made with density approximations:  Due to volume and density ambiguities, a different approach involves volumetrically measuring the ingredients, then using "scales" or "balances" of appropriate accuracy and error ranges to weigh them, and recording the results. With this method, occasionally an error or outlier of some kind occurs.

Drawbacks.

Baker's percentages do not accurately reflect the impact of the amount of gluten-forming proteins in the flour on the final product and therefore may need to be adjusted from country to country, or even miller to miller, depending on definitions of terms like "bread flour" and actual protein content. Manipulation of known flour-protein levels can be calculated with a Pearson square.  In home baking, the amounts of ingredients such as salt or yeast expressed by mass may be too small to measure accurately on the scales used by most home cooks. For these ingredients, it may be easier to express quantities by volume, based on standard densities. For this reason, many breadmaking books that are targeted to home bakers provide both percentages and volumes for common batch sizes.  Besides the need for appropriate readability scales, a kitchen calculator is helpful when working directly from baker's percentages.

Advantages.

Baker's percentages enable the user to:

Common Formulations.

Common formulations for bread include 100% flour, 60% water/liquid, 1% yeast, 2% salt and 1% oil, lard or butter.

Dough hydration.

In a recipe, the baker's percentage for water is referred to as the "hydration"; it is indicative of the stickiness of the dough and the "crumb" of the bread. Lower hydration rates (e.g., 50–57%) are typical for bagels and pretzels, and medium hydration levels (58–65%) are typical for breads and rolls. Higher hydration levels are used to produce more and larger holes, as is common in artisan breads such as baguettes or ciabatta. Doughs are also often classified by the terms stiff, firm, soft, and slack. Batters are more liquid doughs. Muffins are a type of drop batter while pancakes are a type of pour batter.

Baker's percentage is a notation method indicating the proportion of an ingredient relative to the flour used in a recipe when making breads, cakes, muffins, and other baked goods. It is also referred to as baker's math, and may be indicated by a phrase such as based on flour weight. It is sometimes called "formula percentage", a phrase that refers to the sum of a set of bakers' percentages. Baker's percentage expresses a ratio in percentages of each ingredient's weight to the total flour weight:

Die Teigausbeute (kurz "TA") ist ein relatives Maß für die aus 100 Teilen Mehl nach Mischung mit Zugussflüssigkeit (Wasser und/oder Milch) erhaltene Menge Teig. Die Mehlmenge entspricht dabei immer 100 %. Besteht ein Teig aus 10 kg Mehl und 5 Liter (= 5 kg) Wasser, so entspricht dies einer TA von 150. Wenn man allgemein von Teigausbeute spricht, so ist damit die Netto-Teigausbeute gemeint, also Getreidemahlerzeugnisse in Bezug auf Flüssigkeit im Teig.


Signs and symptoms.

Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is one of a group of genetic disorders characterized by slowly progressive incoordination of gait and is often associated with poor coordination of hands, speech, and eye movements. A review of different clinical features among SCA subtypes was recently published describing the frequency of non-cerebellar features, like parkinsonism, chorea, pyramidalism, cognitive impairment, peripheral neuropathy, seizures, among others. As with other forms of ataxia, SCA frequently results in atrophy of the cerebellum, loss of fine coordination of muscle movements leading to unsteady and clumsy motion, and other symptoms.  The symptoms of an ataxia vary with the specific type and with the individual patient. In many cases a person with ataxia retains full mental capacity but progressively loses physical control.

Cause.

The hereditary ataxias are categorized by mode of inheritance and causative gene or chromosomal locus. The hereditary ataxias can be inherited in an autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked manner.

Diagnosis.

Classification.

A few SCAs remain unspecified and can not be precisely diagnosed, but in the last decade genetic testing has allowed precise identification of dozens of different SCAs and more tests are being added each year. In 2008, a genetic ataxia blood test developed to test for 12 types of SCA, Friedreich's ataxia, and several others. However, since not every SCA has been genetically identified some SCAs are still diagnosed by neurological examination, which may include a physical exam, family history, MRI scanning of the brain and spine, and spinal tap.  Many SCAs below fall under the category of polyglutamine diseases, which are caused when a disease-associated protein (i.e., ataxin-1, ataxin-3, etc.) contains a large number of repeats of glutamine residues, termed a polyQ sequence or a "CAG trinucleotide repeat" disease for either the one-letter designation or codon for glutamine respectively. The threshold for symptoms in most forms of SCA is around 35, though for SCA3 it extends beyond 50. Most polyglutamine diseases are dominant due to the interactions of resulting polyQ tail.  The first ataxia gene was identified in 1993 and called "Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1" (SCA1); later genes were called SCA2, SCA3, etc. Usually, the "type" number of "SCA" refers to the order in which the gene was found. At this time, there are at least 29 different gene mutations that have been found.  The following is a list of some of the many types of "Spinocerebellar ataxia".  Others include SCA18, SCA20, SCA21, SCA23, SCA26, SCA28, and SCA29.  Four X-linked types have been described (,,, ), but only the first of these has so far been tied to a gene (SCAX1).

Treatment.

Medication.

There is no cure for spinocerebellar ataxia, which is currently considered to be a progressive and irreversible disease, although not all types cause equally severe disability.  In general, treatments are directed towards alleviating symptoms, not the disease itself. Many patients with hereditary or idiopathic forms of ataxia have other symptoms in addition to ataxia. Medications or other therapies might be appropriate for some of these symptoms, which could include tremor, stiffness, depression, spasticity, and sleep disorders, among others. Both onset of initial symptoms and duration of disease are variable. If the disease is caused by a polyglutamine trinucleotide repeat CAG expansion, a longer expansion may lead to an earlier onset and a more radical progression of clinical symptoms. Typically, a person afflicted with this disease will eventually be unable to perform daily tasks (ADLs). However, rehabilitation therapists can help patients to maximize their ability of self-care and delay deterioration to certain extent. Researchers are exploring multiple avenues for a cure including RNAi and the use of Stem Cells and several other avenues.  On January 18, 2017 BioBlast Pharma announced completion of Phase 2a clinical trials of their medication, Trehalose, in the treatment of SCA3. BioBlast has received FDA Fast Track status and Orphan Drug status for their treatment. The information provided by BioBlast in their research indicates that they hope this treatment may prove efficacious in other SCA treatments that have similar pathology related to PolyA and PolyQ diseases.  In addition, Dr. Beverly Davidson has been working on a methodology using RNAi technology to find a potential cure for over 2 decades. Her research began in the mid-1990s and progressed to work with mouse models about a decade later and most recently has moved to a study with non-human primates. The results from her most recent research "are supportive of clinical application of this gene therapy". Dr. Davidson along with Dr. Pedro Gonzalez-Alegre are currently working to move this technique into a Phase 1 clinical trial.  Finally, another gene transfer technology discovered in 2011 has also been shown by Dr. Davidson to hold great promise and offers yet another avenue to a potential future cure.

N-Acetyl-Leucine.

N-Acetyl-Leucine is an orally administered, modified amino acid that is being developed as a novel treatment for multiple rare and common neurological disorders by IntraBio Inc (Oxford, United Kingdom).  N-Acetyl-Leucine has been granted multiple orphan drug designations from the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for the treatment of various genetic diseases, including Spinocerebellar Ataxias. N-Acetyl-Leucine has also been granted Orphan Drug Designations in the US and EU for the related inherited cerebellar ataxia Ataxia-Telangiectasia U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA).  Published case series studies have demonstrated the effects of acute treatment with N-Acetyl-Leucine for the treatment of inherited cerebellar ataxias, including Spinocerebellar Ataxias. These studies further demonstrated that the treatment is well tolerated, with a good safety profile.  A multinational clinical trial investigating N-Acetyl-L-Leucine for the treatment of a related inherited cerebellar ataxia, Ataxia-Telangiectasia, began in 2019.  IntraBio is also conducting parallel clinical trials with N-Acetyl-L-Leucine for the treatment of Niemann-Pick disease type C and GM2 Gangliosidosis (Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff Disease). Future opportunities to develop N-Acetyl-Leucine include Lewy Body Dementia,Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Restless Leg Syndrome, Multiple Sclerosis, and Migraine

Rehabilitation.

Physical therapists can assist patients in maintaining their level of independence through therapeutic exercise programmes. One recent research report demonstrated a gain of 2 SARA points (Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia) from physical therapy. In general, physical therapy emphasises postural balance and gait training for ataxia patients. General conditioning such as range-of-motion exercises and muscle strengthening would also be included in therapeutic exercise programmes. Research showed that spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2) patients with a mild stage of the disease gained significant improvement in static balance and neurological indices after six months of a physical therapy exercise training program. Occupational therapists may assist patients with incoordination or ataxia issues through the use of adaptive devices. Such devices may include a cane, crutches, walker, or wheelchair for those with impaired gait. Other devices are available to assist with writing, feeding, and self care if hand and arm coordination are impaired. A randomised clinical trial revealed that an intensive rehabilitation program with physical and occupational therapies for patients with degenerative cerebellar diseases can significantly improve functional gains in ataxia, gait, and activities of daily living. Some level of improvement was shown to be maintained 24 weeks post-treatment. Speech language pathologists may use both behavioral intervention strategies as well as augmentative and alternative communication devices to help patients with impaired speech.

Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is a progressive, degenerative, genetic disease with multiple types, each of which could be considered a neurological condition in its own right. An estimated 150,000 people in the United States have a diagnosis of spinocerebellar ataxia at any given time. SCA is hereditary, progressive, degenerative, and often fatal. There is no known effective treatment or cure. SCA can affect anyone of any age. The disease is caused by either a recessive or dominant gene. In many cases people are not aware that they carry a relevant gene until they have children who begin to show signs of having the disorder.

Spinozerebelläre Ataxien (im Englischen "spinocerebellar ataxias", kurz SCA genannt) sind eine große Gruppe klinisch gleichartiger, zu den autosomal-dominanten zerebellären Ataxie (ADCA) gehörender neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen des Menschen.


History.

In the 5th and 6th century many Slavonic tribes lived here, and the tribe of Pšovans created its main settlement in Mělník. Saint Ludmila (the grandmother of the Saint Wenceslas), who married the Bohemian prince Bořivoj, belonged to this tribe. Coins of the princess Emma are the first demonstration of the existence of Mělník. In November 1274 Mělník gained the statute of town from king Ottokar II of Bohemia and later became a dowry town belonging to queens of Bohemia.

Landmarks.

The Mělník castle belongs to the most important sights of this town. The castle is built in the Renaissance style. Below the castle there are large wine cellars. Confiscated by the communists, it has been restored to its traditional owners, the princes of Lobkowicz.  The St. Peter and St. Paul's Church faces the Mělník castle. The church was rebuilt three times. The church is used primarily for religious functions, but everyone is able to look inside at the interior. The construction began at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. Starting in 2007 the public will be allowed access to the reconstructed church tower. There is a large and elaborate ossuary inside the church, which is a minor tourist attraction. Anthropologist Professor Jindřich Matiegka conducted research here between 1915-1919, during which he arranged the remains of 10-15,000 people. Behind the church there is the building of the old school. There is a restaurant here today with a beautiful view of the river and Hořín park. Near the castle there is the Villa Carola where the town library is located, which is part of the Mekuc - Culture center of Melnik.

Wine-growing.

96% of Czech wines are produced in the Moravian region. Around 875 wine production first expanded to Bohemia with villagers of Mělník husbanding its first vineyard. According to legend, the Great Moravian Prince Svatopluk sent the Bohemian Prince Bořivoj a barrel of wine to celebrate the birth of his son Spytihněv. Bořivoj's wife Ludmila sacrificed some of the wine to Krosyně (goddess of the harvest) while making a plea for abundant rain. Her wish came true, the crop was saved and Bořivoj and Ludmila planted the first Bohemian vineyards around Mělník. Their grandson Saint Wenceslas later learned how to cultivate vines in these vineyards and make wine. He is honored by Czech winemakers as "Supremus Magister Vinearum" (Supreme Burgomaster of the Vineyards) and every year at the end of September a wine festival is held in Mělník on the Feast of St. Wenceslas.  Mělník gives its name to the Mělnická wine region, one of the most northerly in Europe.

Industry.

Mělník is one of the biggest river ports in the Czech Republic and a place of container transshipment.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Mělník is twinned with:

Mělník (; ) is a town in the Central Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It lies at the confluence of the Labe and Vltava rivers, approximately north of Prague. The town is part of the Prague larger urban zone. The region belongs to the most important agricultural areas of the Czech Republic. The main agricultural produce are fruits, vegetables, potatoes, corn, sugar beet and wine.

Mělník [] (Aussprache: "Mjelnieck", ) ist eine Stadt in der Region Mittelböhmen in Tschechien. Die ehemalige Königsstadt an der Elbe (Labe), in welche hier die Moldau (Vltava) mündet, ist seit der Jungsteinzeit besiedelt. Die Kleinstadt war im 9. und 10. Jahrhundert die Hauptsiedlung des slawischen Stammes der Pschowanen – so befand sich an Stelle des Schlosses die Burgstätte Pšov, der Geburtsort der Königsgroßmutter Ludmilla von Böhmen. In der Nähe der Stadt befindet sich der, ebenso wie die Königsgroßmutter, sagenumwobene Berg Říp.


History.

The island group was first sighted by Europeans on 23 November 1791 independently by the two ships HMS "Discovery" under Captain George Vancouver, and HMS "Chatham", commanded by Lieutenant William R. Broughton, both of the Vancouver Expedition. Vancouver named the islands "The Snares" because he considered them a shipping hazard; an islet east of the Western Chain bears the name Vancouver Rock, and the second largest island is named after Broughton.  The islands were already known to the Māori, who called one of the larger islands "Te Taniwha" ("The sea-monster"). Unlike other subantarctic islands that were greatly affected by the whaling and sealing industry in the 19th century, the Snares remain one of the last pristine areas in New Zealand.  The Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998 officially altered the name to "Snares Islands/Tini Heke" – one of many such changes under the Ngāi Tahu Treaty settlement.

Geography.

The main island of the Snares group, North East Island, as its name suggests, lies at the northeastern corner of the group. It has roughly the shape of a triangle, but with two concave edges, this causing both the southern and northwestern coast to be in the form of large irregular bays. Cliffs and reefs are found along the northeastern coast and part of the southern coast, with the islands highest point – rising to 130 metres – being located on the long westward-pointing finger which lies between them.  In contrast, the east coast is relatively flat and sloping, and provides the only easy access-point for landing, close to Station Point. Several small bays dot the east coast, among them Punui Bay, Ho Ho Bay, and Mollymawk Bay. The island's northernmost and southernmost points are the prosaically named North Promontory and South Promontory. Several small islets, the Daption Rocks, lie off the tip of North Promontory, and are the island group's northernmost point.  The group's second largest island, Broughton Island, lies to the southeast of South Promontory. Steeply sloping, it is surrounded by cliffs, reefs and small islets on three sides, with only the northern side being relatively accessible.  The long finger on the western coast of the main island has several small islands located close to its tip. The largest of these, Alert Stack, is located to the south of the peninsula and separated from it by a narrow channel. The peninsula points almost directly towards the Western Chain, a line of stacks located some 4 kilometres to the southwest of the main island. These islets are simply named Tahi, Rua, Toru, Wha, and Rima, the Māori words for the numerals one to five. Between this chain and North East island lies the small stack of Vancouver Rock.

Environment.

The islands provide a home to endemic bird species, such as the Snares penguin ("Eudyptes robustus"), the Snares snipe ("Coenocorypha huegli") and Snares tomtit ("Petroica macrocephala dannefaerdi"), as well as to several endemic invertebrates such as "Grypotheca horningae".  North East Island is forested and is the world's premier breeding area for the sooty shearwaters ("Ardenna grisea"), with up to three million individuals being present during the breeding season (November–April). A dangerous reef (Seal Reef) lies ten kilometres to the south of the group. Megaherb communities grow on the islands.  The islands enjoy a status of high protection and are rated by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as "minimum impact islands". Landing on the islands is generally prohibited or by special research permit only.  The area is among one of five subantarctic island groups forming the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Snares Islands/Tini Heke, also known as The Snares, is a small group of uninhabited islands lying about 200 km south of New Zealand's South Island and to the south-southwest of Stewart Island/Rakiura. The Snares consist of the main North East Island and the smaller Broughton Island as well as the Western Chain Islands some to the west-southwest. Collectively, the Snares have a total land area of.

Die Snaresinseln (, Māori: "Tini Heke") sind eine unbewohnte Inselgruppe im südlichen Pazifik. Sie gehören zu Neuseeland und liegen etwa 200 km südlich der Südinsel. Die Inseln wurden auf Englisch "The Snares" genannt, weil sie eine Gefahr für die Schifffahrt darstellten (engl.: snare = Falle).


History.

The settlements of Mirandela date back to the pre-historical period, but primarily relate to a period of Roman occupation. During this era, the main settlement of Mirandela was a Roman civitas, known then as "Caladunum". There are abundant vestiges of the Roman occupation in Castelo Velho, São Martinho, Mourel and Prado Pequeno, that include copper coins from the reign of Emperor Tiberius. At this time the civitas was located in the region of São Martinho, but there are conflicting references as to the location of the main settlement, and when it was moved. Ernesto de Sales, referenced three documents that localized the Christian village near São Martinho (even as another document in 1258 disputed the existence of the village of Mirandela in or near this region): It is clear, from the documents of King Denis, at the time when he was elaborating the defenses of the city of Guarda (2 September 1282), the transfer of the town of Mirandela to hilltop of mount São Miguel (where a small hermitage chapel existed at the time) had likely already occurred. This location was easily defendable and dominated the view of the fertile lands and river access.  King Afonso III granted a foral (charter) on 25 May 1250. The magistrate of Mirandela at the time governed a region that included Torre de D. Chama, Frechas, Sesulfe, Nozelos, Vilas Boas, Vale de Asnes and Cortiços.  This document was expanded and elaborated by King Denis of Portugal, when he issued an updated foral on 7 March 1291, that also stipulated that every villager, who was able to do so, contribute a horse and arms and annual stipend on São Miguel day, in September. King Denis also ordered the construction of protective walls around the main settlement and keep to support military needs. By the beginning of the 16th century, there were no remnants of a castle or walls. The castle was then describe as having three gates (Santo António, Santiago and Portela) and small doorway (São José), in addition to a traitors-gate near Quebra-Costas. It also included battlements and interior keep, near the prison block, that served as the royal residence, on his return.  The Távora family was donated Mirandela around 1301, when King Denis signed over its title to Branca Lourenço, remaining in this hereditary clan until Francisco de Assis de Távora (1721-1759).  The new foral later outlined the geographic divisions of the municipality. Between 1530 and 1835, the municipality of Mirandela included the following 44 places and 9 estates: Abambres, Ala, Alvites, Avantes, Brinço, Cabanelas, Caravelas, Carvalhais, Cedães, Cedainhos, Chelas, Contins, Freixeda, Mascarenhas, Miradeses, Mirandela, Pousadas, Quintas, São Salvados, Val de Lobo, Val de Salgueiro, Valtelhas, Vila Nova, Vila Verde and Vilar de Ledra. Similarly, between 1512 and 1871, the region underwent a series of territorial divisions that included the creation (and eventual suppression) of the municipalities of Torre de Chama, Frechas, Vale de Asnes, Abreiro, Lamas de Orelhão. Torre de Chama would be the most discontinuous: it was created 1287 by King Denis, but suppressed on 12 September, later to be resuscitated on 4 May 1512 by King Manuel, and then extinguished in 1855. A royal decree on 18 July 1835, preceded another territorial division that caused the elimination of various parishes and municipalities: Mirandela was left with 40 parishes (that included Cedainhos and Vale da Sancha). By 1884, the municipality of Mirandela had the established geographic boundaries. The town of Mirandela was elevated to the status of city on 28 June 1984.

Railway.

Until 2009, Mirandela was served by the Tua line - a narrow gauge railway which ran from Bragança to Tua. The section north of Mirandela to Bragança closed in the early 1990s; the line to Tua closed in 2009. However, until 2018 a short section of the line north of Mirandela was still open to local passenger services as the Metro de Mirandela.

Geography.

The municipality is bordered by the municipalities of Murça, Valpaços, Vinhais, Bragança, Macedo de Cavaleiros, Vila Flor and Carrazeda de Ansiães, and is located in the district of Bragança. Administratively, the municipality is divided into 30 civil parishes ("freguesias"):

Mirandela () is a city and a municipality in northeastern Portugal. The city itself has a population of about 15,000. The population of the municipality in 2011 was 23,850, in an area of 658.96 km2. Mirandela is famous for its cuisine, particularly the alheiras. A round of the European Jetski Championship is held on the Tua River every Summer. The city has two campuses of higher education institutions - one belonging to the public Bragança Polytechnic Institute and one belonging to the private Instituto Piaget.

Mirandela ist eine Gemeinde und Stadt im Distrikt Bragança in Portugal. Die Gemeinde umfasst km2 mit Einwohnern (Stand ). Die Stadt Mirandela zählt etwa 5700 Einwohner.


Description.

The Twike is a three-wheeled two seater. The two rear wheels are direct-driven via a differential gear by one motor - and optionally additionally by 2 pairs of pedals in the case of the model "active". Twike is steered by joystick - for the right hand of the left-side seated pilot - via cables and has pedal brakes. The vehicle can reach speeds of up to 85 kilometers per hour (53 mph), using 7.4 kWh per 100 km. At 50 km/h it can drive up to 80 km.

History.

The Twike I was developed for the 1986 World EXPO in Vancouver, Canada, by a group of Swiss students. It won the "Functionality Award" for the best ergonomic design in the Innovative Vehicle Design Competition (IVDC) and a first prize in the International Human Powered Vehicle Speed Championship. The Twike I was completely driven by human power.  Inspired by the success of the Twike I, a group of enthusiasts including Ralph Schnyder and Peter Zeller began to develop the Twike II as a step towards a vehicle for everyday road use. It was developed in cooperation with Alusuisse-Lonza Holding, was shown on the HEUREKA exhibition in Zürich, and took part in the 1991 Tour de Sol Alpin. The Twike II had a belt pedal drive with infinitely variable mechanical transmission and a DC motor powered by NiCd batteries to help propel the vehicle. The suitability for everyday use turned out to be significantly improved.  In 1992, the newly founded Twike Ltd. decided to develop the Twike II into a production vehicle and began looking for capital and customers. Production of the Twike III began in 1995 and during 1996 the reformed Twike AG produced and sold 190 vehicles, mostly in Switzerland and Germany. The Twike III was already equipped with an asynchronous AC motor and 336V NiCd batteries, the system still in use today. The pedal drive was simplified to a 5-speed hub gear and was included in all but very few special order vehicles.  In 1998, FINE Mobile GmbH launched its German Twike production line and finally became the exclusive producer of the Twike after taking over the rights of the SwissLEM AG in 2002. Today the Twike is produced in Rosenthal, a small village in Hessen near Marburg. Pricing for a Twike starts at about €25.000 (basic version, two battery packs included). By 2011, 900 were claimed to have been sold.  2010, team TW4XP took part at the Automotive X Prize in the US with their Twike-based TW4XP human-electric hybrid vehicle (Twike 4).

The Twike (a portmanteau of the words "twin" and "bike") is a human-electric hybrid vehicle (HEHV) designed to carry two passengers and cargo. Essentially a velomobile with an electrical hybrid engine, it can be driven in electric-only mode or electric + pedal power mode. Pedaling warms the user, making electric heating in winter unnecessary, extends the range of the vehicle but does not substantially add to the vehicle's top speed.

Das Twike (Eigenschreibweise „TWIKE“) ist ein dreirädriges Leichtelektromobil für zwei Personen. Es war nach dem CityEL eines der meistverkauften Elektrofahrzeuge in Europa und wurde ab 2013 von Renault ZOE überholt.


Early life.

Degaga was born on 12 June 1932 in Ada'a to an Oromo family. His younger brother, Demissie Wolde (b. 8 March 1937), also became an international distance running star.  In 1951, Degaga moved to Addis Ababa.

Athletics career.

At his first Olympic appearance in 1956, Degaga competed in the 800 m, 1,500 m and the 4x400 relay.  He did not compete in the 1960 Summer Olympics, when Abebe Bikila became the first Ethiopian to win a gold medal. Degaga claimed his absence was due to the government's desire to send him on a peacekeeping mission to the Congo during the Congo Crisis. According to him, in the government's ensuing conflict with the Ethiopian Olympic Committee, who wanted him to compete, he didn't get sent to either event. However, athlete Said Moussa Osman, who represented Ethiopia in the 800 m at the 1960 Olympics, stated that Degaga lost at the trials and didn't make it on the team.  Beginning in the 1960s, Degaga's focus changed from middle distance races to long distances. He made Ethiopia's first mark at international cross-country races when he took the International Juan Muguerza in Elgoibar, Spain, winning in 1963 and 1964, and at the Cross de San Donostin in San Sebastian, Spain, in the same years. He placed fourth in the 10,000 m at the 1964 Summer Olympics, which was won by Billy Mills of the United States in one of the biggest upsets in the history of Olympic competition. Demissie also became a marathon runner.  Both brothers competed in Tokyo, in the 1964 Olympic marathon. On 3 August 1964, in the Ethiopian Olympic trials, a race held at 8,000 feet, Degaga qualified by running 2:16:19.2, just 4/10ths of a second behind Abebe Bikela, with Demissie finishing 2:19:30, for 3rd place. Although Degaga dropped out early, Demessie, after being among the leaders for much of the 1964 Olympic race, finished tenth in 2:21:25.2. On 21 April 1965, as part of the opening ceremonies for the second season of the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair, Abebe and Degaga participated in an exclusive ceremonial half marathon. They ran from the Arsenal in Central Park at 64th Street & Fifth Avenue in Manhattan to the Singer Bowl at the fair. They carried with them a parchment scroll with greetings from Haile Selassie. In 1967, he repeated his wins in San Sebastian and Elgiobar, and won again at the latter event in 1968.  In the 1968 Summer Olympics, Degaga became the second Ethiopian to win gold in the marathon. Earlier in the same Olympics, he had won the silver medal in the 10,000 m. At the age of 40, Degaga won his third Olympic medal placing third at the 1972 Olympic marathon, while Demissie placed 18th in 2:20:44.0. Degaga also won the marathon race in the 1973 All-Africa Games. He blamed his Olympic third place showing in 1972 on ill-fitting shoes forced on him by Ethiopian officials. He became only the second person in Olympic history (Bikila was the first) to medal in successive Olympic marathons. Both medalists who finished ahead of Degaga, Frank Shorter from the U.S.A., and Belgium's Karel Lismont would repeat Degaga's feat in 1976 as they finished second and third behind East Germany's Waldemar Cierpinski. Cierpinski repeated his win in 1980. Erick Wainaina was the most recent and only other marathoner to accomplish the feat, finished third in Atlanta in 1996 and second in Sydney in 2000. Degaga also won the marathon race in the 1973 All-Africa Games.

Military career.

In 1951, Degaga joined the Imperial Guard. He later served as a peacekeeper in Korea from 1953 to 1955.

Arrest.

In 1993, Degaga was arrested on the accusation that he participated in a Red Terror execution during the regime of the dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam. He argued that although he was present at the killing, he was not a direct participant. The IOC campaigned the Ethiopian government for his release. In early 2002 he was convicted and sentenced to six years of imprisonment. Therefore, he was released because he had spent nine years in detention already waiting for his trial.

Death.

On 26 May 2002, Degaga died of liver cancer at age 69, just a few months after his release. He had been married twice and had three children; a son with his first wife, Samuel, and two children, Addis Alem and Tabor, with his second wife. Degaga is interred in Saint Joseph's Church Cemetery in Addis Ababa.

Degaga "Mamo" Wolde ({lang-amh| ማሞ ወልዴ}}; 12 June 1932 – 26 May 2002) was an Ethiopian long distance runner who competed in track, cross-country, and road running events. He was the winner of the marathon at the 1968 Summer Olympics.

Mamo Wolde (* 12. Juni 1932 in Diri Jille; † 26. Mai 2002 in Addis Abeba) war ein äthiopischer Langstreckenläufer und Olympiasieger im Marathon.


History.

All of the lines on the island were originally narrow gauge lines, but, except for the lines run by Ferrocarril de Sóller S.A., have since been converted to.

The lines.

Services on both the metro and main line are operated by Transport de les Illes Balears. (Transport on the Balearic Islands).

Metro.

Metro trains start from Platforms 1-4 at Palma Intermodal Station, where they interchange with services on the main line. A connection between the two networks allows access for engineering purposes.  The Metro was constructed between 2005 and 2007 at cost of €312 million. Line M1 terminates at UIB University of the Balearic Islands station, with services from Palma calling at seven intermediate stops in the city's northern suburbs. Line M2 runs east alongside the main line and serves seven intermediate stations before terminating at the suburban station of Marratxí.  On both routes trains operate daily from approximately 0630 to 2200, with a 15-minute service during the day; reducing to 30 minutes in the early morning, late evening and on Sundays.

Main line.

Services to Manacor and Sa Pobla via Marratxí and Inca start from Platforms 5-10 at Palma Intermodal Station. This modern facility lies beneath the Parc de ses Estacions, which occupies land formerly used by the former surface level lines. The landscaped gardens contain several former railway buildings, and the original station buildings also survive alongside Plaça d'Espanya.  Today the main line runs below ground until just after Son Costa/Son Fortesa station. It is grade separated along its entire length, aside from some very minor level crossings in remote rural areas. The section from El Caülls (Festival Park) to Inca offers excellent views of the Serra de Tramuntana mountain range to the north.  The line is double-track from the capital to the remote halt at Enllaç, where the branches to Manacor and Sa Pobla diverge. The line to Manacor has passing places at Sineu and Petra, but the shorter Sa Pobla branch is single track throughout.  Between 0545 and 2320 there are two trains each hour in each direction alternatively providing connections to the two eastern termini, whilst a third service operates only as far as Inca. From Monday to Saturday in 2013, Manacor trains operated non-stop as far as Marratxí. On Sundays and public holidays, only two trains per hour operate in each direction, providing stops at all stations to Manacor or Sa Pobla. In the 2017 timetable, four-car electric trains ran every half-hour between Palma and Enllac, with two-car diesel unit connections alternatively on the non-electrified branches to/from Sa Pobla and Manacor. A few rush-hour express services were also advertised.  In 2013 civil engineering work had started on the extension of the Manacor line to Artà via Sant Llorenç des Cardassar and Son Servera, but work on the proposed extension of the Sa Pobla branch to Alcudia had not commenced. By May 2014, there was no indication of any such work within Manacor itself which now has a relocated terminal station, adjacent to the main covered shopping centre. The trackbed of the former line past Cala Millor to Artà was either removed or in the process of being converted to sections of footpaths / cycleways. Most stations had been demolished although the one at Artà is now a privately owned shed.  Electrification was completed to Sa Pobla in July 2017 and to Manacor in November 2018.

Signalling.

Three–aspect colour–light signalling is in use along the lines, with red in the middle, yellow at the bottom and green at the top. Smaller aspect lenses on many of the signals provide shunt indications.  A careful look at ground level will show point indications – these are small illuminated LED arrows pointing vertically upwards for straight on or to the left or right for point diverges

Ferrocarril de Sóller.

Ferrocarril de Sóller S.A. is a privately owned company, which since 1912 has operated a daily train service along the 27.3 km line between Palma de Mallorca and Sóller. From 1913 it has also run the Tranvía de Sóller tram service along the 4.9 km route from Sóller to the Port of Sóller. The track for both services is.

Future expansion.

The Balearic Islands government's 2019-2026 transport plan details plans to extend the rail network to Alcúdia, Artà, Cala Ratjada, Llucmajor and Felanitx.

Trams in Palma de Mallorca.

A tram/light rail line is planned to link Palma de Mallorca to its airport.

The Majorca rail network consists of three separate electrified lines, which radiate north and east from Palma de Mallorca, the major city on the Spanish island of Majorca.

Der Schienenverkehr auf Mallorca umfasst heute ein Streckennetz mit rund 118 Kilometern Länge. Dieses wird von zwei Bahngesellschaften, der staatlichen Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca (SFM) und der privaten Ferrocarril de Sóller (FS), betrieben.


Geography.

The majority of the land area in the states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Burgenland is situated in the Danube valley and thus consists almost completely of accessible and easily arable terrain. The other five states, in contrast, are located in the Alps and thus are comparatively unsuitable for agriculture. Their terrain is also relatively unfavourable to heavy industry and long-distance trade. Accordingly, the population of what now is the Republic of Austria has been concentrated in the former four states since prehistoric times. Austria's most densely populated state is the city-state of Vienna, the heart of what is Austria's only metropolitan area. Lower Austria ranks only fourth with regard to population density even though it contains Vienna's suburbs; this is due to large areas of land being predominantly agricultural. The alpine state of Tyrol, the less alpine but geographically more remote state of Carinthia, and the non-alpine but near-exclusively agricultural state of Burgenland are Austria's least densely populated states. The wealthy alpine state of Vorarlberg is something of an anomaly due to its small size, isolated location and distinct Alemannic culture.  The following ranked list of Austrian states cites official Statistik Austria population on 1 January 2015. Areas are given in square kilometres, population density is expressed in inhabitants per square kilometre. For the purpose of the above list, a city is a community defined to be a city by Austrian law; a town is a community not defined to be a city. Many of Austria's cities have population figures on the order of ten thousand inhabitants; some are even smaller.

Politics.

The nine states (Bundesländer) of Austria, here listed alphabetically by name, are:

Federalism and state powers.

Each Austrian state has an elected legislature, the "Landtag", a state government, the "Landesregierung", and a governor, the "Landeshauptmann or Landeshauptfrau". Elections are held every five years (six years in Upper Austria). The state constitution, among other things, determines how the seats in the state government are assigned to political parties, with most states having a system of proportional representation based on the number of delegates in the "Landtag" in place. The "Landeshauptmann" is always elected by the "Landtag", meaning that it may be necessary to form a coalition in order to secure the election of a particular candidate. Vienna, the capital of Austria, plays a double role as city and "Bundesland", meaning that the mayor serves as governor and the city council as Landtag at the same time.  Austrian federalism is largely theoretical as the states are granted few legislative powers. The federal constitution initially granted all legislative powers to the states, but many powers have been subsequently taken away, and only a few remain, such as planning and zoning codes, nature protection, hunting, fishing, farming, youth protection, certain issues of public health and welfare and the right to levy certain taxes.  All other matters, including but not limited to criminal law, civil law, corporate law, most aspects of economic law, defense, most educational matters and academia, telecommunications, and much of the healthcare system are regulated by federal laws. There is also no judiciary of the Länder, since the federal constitution defines the judiciary as an exclusively federal matter. This centralisation follows a historic model where central power during the time of the empire was largely concentrated in Vienna.  However, the state governor ("Landeshauptmann") is in charge of the administration of much of federal administrative law within the respective state, which makes this post an important political position. Furthermore, state competences include zoning laws, planning issues and public procurement on the regional level, which adds considerable weight to state politics. As a practical matter, there have been cases where states have been able to block projects endorsed by the federal government, as in the case of a railway tunnel that was to be built below the Semmering.  Austrian "Länder" are endowed formally and practically with a much smaller degree of autonomy than American or German states. Even so, Austrians tend to identify passionately with their respective "Land" and often defend what little independent governance their states have. It is not unheard of for Austrians to consider themselves, for instance, Tyrolean first, Austrian second.

Historical development.

In terms of boundaries, the present-day states arose from the crown lands of Austria-Hungary, an extensive multiethnic realm whose German-speaking nucleus emerged as the Republic of Austria after the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy at the end of World War I.  The states of Upper Austria and Lower Austria are essentially equivalent to what were since 1783/84 the two autonomous halves of the Archduchy of Austria, a principality which formed the empire's historic heartland. Salzburg is coterminous with the former Austro-Hungarian Duchy of Salzburg (the former Archbishopric). Similarly, the state of Carinthia descends from the Duchy of Carinthia, the state of Styria descends from the Duchy of Styria, and the state of Tyrol descends from the Princely County of Tyrol; these states had to cede territories to Italy and Yugoslavia when Austria emerged in its present form. Also, the state of Vorarlberg had been a semi-autonomous part of the County of Tyrol since 1861.  The city-state of Vienna was a part of Lower Austria up until 1921. The state of Burgenland is made up of the predominantly German-speaking area that the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921 had to cede to the First Austrian Republic after World War I as a result of the Treaties of Trianon and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

Austria is a federal republic made up of nine states, known in German as Länder. Since "Land" is also the German word for "country", the term Bundesländer ("federal states") is often used instead to avoid ambiguity. The Constitution of Austria uses both terms. Even though English "land" is a cognate, the term "(Bundes)land" is commonly rendered as "state" or "province" by tradition in English writing.

Ein Land oder Bundesland ist ein Gliedstaat der bundesstaatlich organisierten Republik Österreich. Die Länder stellen Gebietskörperschaften dar, also rechtlich eigenständige Gebilde. Innerhalb der föderalen Verfassung spricht man von der Landesebene als Gegensatz zur Bundesebene.


Etymology.

The word sledgehammer is derived from the Anglo Saxon ""slægan"", which, in its first sense, means "to strike violently". The English words "slag", "slay", and "slog" are cognates.

Uses.

The handle can range from to a full long, depending on the mass of the head. The head mass is usually. Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with heads. Sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entire torso, in contrast to smaller hammers used for driving in nails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, increases the force of the resulting impact.  Sledgehammers are often used in destruction work, for breaking through drywall or masonry walls. Sledgehammers are seldom used in modern mining operations, particularly hand steel. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object (often in farm or oil field work), or for fracturing concrete. Another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by police forces in raids on property to gain entry by force, commonly through doors. They were and still are commonly used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The British SAS counter terrorist team used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege. However, today they use a tool called a "dynamic hammer".  Another iconic use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction. When the two ends of the Union Pacific railroad were joined at Promontory, Utah, Leland Stanford hammered a golden spike into a sleeper with a silver hammer. Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved heads that came down to a "beak" that was only about one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the spike hit was often not much larger than a small coin, as anything larger would hit the plate or the sleeper. The curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often called spike mauls.

Drilling hammer.

A drilling hammer, club hammer,, crack hammer, mini-sledge or thor hammer is a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow single-handed use. It is useful for light demolition work, driving masonry nails, and for use with a steel chisel when cutting stone or metal. In this last application, its weight drives the chisel more deeply into the material being cut than lighter hammers. Club hammers are common on the British inland waterways for driving mooring pins into the towpath or canal bank.  Scouts BSA has adopted the shorter Sledge Hammer, commonly referred to as an Engineer's Hammer, as an unofficial tool referred to as the Scout Hammer, as a complement to the Pocket Knife and Hand Axe. The handle is 12-18 inches long with a head weighing 2 to 6 lbs. The hammer is used for a variety of purposes such as driving tent stakes, establishing temporary fencing using wood or metal re-bar, splitting wood in conjunction with a wedge, or straightening all that is bent.

Post maul.

Post mauls are similar to sledgehammers in shape, but are meant to drive wooden fence posts or tree stakes into the earth. Newer mauls have broad, flat circular faces that are significantly larger in diameter than the body of the head (where the handle attaches). Older post mauls are significantly larger than sledgehammers like their newer counterparts except the outside diameter (body) of older post maul designs remained the same large diameter as that of the faces of the hammer from one side to the other side. Sledgehammers usually have octagonal faces that are the same diameter or slightly smaller than the body of the head, and they are not nearly as large in overall diameter as a post maul.

A sledgehammer is a tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a long handle. The long handle combined with a heavy head allows the sledgehammer to gather momentum during a swing and apply a large force compared to hammers designed to drive nails. Along with the mallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types of hammers, which concentrate force in a relatively small area.

Ein Vorschlaghammer, auch "Mottek", "Bello", "Jakob, Jackl, Lehmann" oder "Maker" genannt, ist ein aus einem "Hammerkopf", auch kurz "Kopf" genannt, und einem "Stiel" bestehendes Handwerkzeug. Wegen des Gewichtes seines Kopfes von 5 kg und mehr wird er beidhändig geführt und dient vor allem für grobe Arbeiten.


Names.

The full official name "pound sterling" (plural: "pounds sterling"), is used mainly in formal contexts and also when it is necessary to distinguish the United Kingdom currency from other currencies with the same name. Otherwise the term "pound" is normally used. The currency name is sometimes abbreviated to just "sterling", particularly in the wholesale financial markets, but not when referring to specific amounts; for example, "Payment is accepted in sterling" but never "These cost five sterling". The abbreviations "ster." and "stg." are sometimes used. The term "British pound" is sometimes used in less formal contexts, but it is not an official name of the currency.

Etymology.

There is a variety of theories regarding the origin of the term "pound sterling". The Oxford English Dictionary (and sources derived therefrom) state that the "most plausible" etymology is derivation from the Old English "steorra" for "star" with the added diminutive suffix "-ling", to mean "little star" and to refer to a silver penny of the English Normans.  Another argument that the Hanseatic League was the origin for both the origin of its definition and manufacture,

Symbol.

The currency sign for the pound is, which is usually written with a single cross-bar (as on modern banknotes exclusively since 1975). A variation with a double cross-bar () has been used intermittently with since the earliest banknotes of 1725 when both were used. Historically,

Currency code.

The ISO 4217 currency code is GBP, formed from "GB", the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for the United Kingdom, and the first letter of "pound". Occasionally, the abbreviation "UKP" is used but this is non-standard because the ISO

Cable.

The exchange rate of the pound sterling against the US dollar is referred to as "cable" in the wholesale foreign exchange markets. The origins of this term are

Quid (slang).

A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is "quid", which is singular and plural, except in the common phrase "quids in!". The term may have

Subdivisions and other units.

Decimal coinage.

Since decimalisation on Decimal Day in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence (denoted on coinage, until 1981, as "new pence"). The symbol for the penny is "p"; hence an amount such as 50p

Pre-decimal.

Before decimalisation in 1971, the pound was divided into 20 shillings and each shilling into 12 pence, making 240 pence to the pound. The symbol for the shilling was ""s"."—not from the first letter of "shilling", but from the Latin "solidus". The symbol for the penny was ""d".", from the French "denier", from the Latin "denarius" (the solidus and denarius were Roman coins). A mixed sum of shillings and pence, such as 3 shillings and 6 pence, was written as "3/6" or "3"s". 6"d"." and spoken as "three and six" or "three and sixpence" except for "1/1," "2/1" etc., which

History.

At various times, the pound sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold, but it is currently fiat money, with its value determined only by its continued acceptance in the national and international economy. The pound sterling is the world's oldest currency still in use and which has been in continuous use since its inception.

Anglo-Saxon.

The "pound" was a unit of account in Anglo-Saxon England, equal to 240 silver pence (the plural of penny) and equivalent to one pound weight of silver. It evolved into the modern British currency, the pound sterling.  The accounting system of four farthings = one penny, twelve pence = one shilling, twenty shillings = one pound, was adopted from that introduced by Charlemagne to the Frankish Empire (see French livre). The penny was abbreviated to 'd', from "denarius", Latin for penny;'s' from

Medieval.

The early pennies were struck from fine silver (as pure as was available). However, in 1158, a new coinage was introduced by King Henry II (known as the "Tealby penny") which was struck from 0.925 (92.5%) silver. This became the standard until the 20th century and is today known as sterling silver, named after its association with the currency. Sterling silver is harder than the 0.999 (99.9%) fine silver that was traditionally used and so sterling silver coins did not wear down as rapidly as fine silver coins. English coins were almost exclusively made of silver until 1344, when the gold noble was successfully introduced into circulation. However, silver remained the legal basis for the pound sterling until

Tudor.

During the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, the silver coinage was drastically debased, although the pound was redefined to the troy pound of in 1526. In 1544, a silver coinage was issued containing just one-third silver and two-thirds copper—equating to 0.333 silver, or 33.3 per cent pure. The result was a coin

Unofficial gold standard.

In 1663, a new gold coinage was introduced, based on the 22 carat fine guinea. Fixed in weight at to the troy pound in 1670, this coin's value varied considerably against the silver coinage until 1717, when it was fixed at 21 shillings (21/-, 1.05 pounds). However, despite the efforts of Sir Isaac Newton, Master of the Mint, to reduce the guinea's value, this valuation remained fixed, overvaluing gold relative to silver, when compared to the valuations in other European countries. In line with Gresham's Law, English merchants sent silver abroad in payments, while goods for export were paid for with gold. Scotland, meanwhile, had its own Pound Scots. As a consequence of these flows of silver out and gold in, England was effectively on a gold standard. Trade with China aggravated this outflow,

Establishment of modern currency.

The Bank of England was founded in 1694, followed

Currency of Great Britain (1707) and the United Kingdom (1801).

The pound Scots once had much the same value as the pound sterling, but it suffered far higher devaluation until in the 17th century it was pegged to sterling at a value of 12 pounds Scots = 1 pound sterling.  In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland merged to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In accordance

Use in the Empire.

Sterling circulated in much of the British Empire. In some parts, it was used alongside local currencies. For example, the gold sovereign was legal tender in Canada despite the use of the Canadian dollar. Several colonies and dominions adopted the pound as their own currency. These included Australia, Barbados, British West Africa, Cyprus, Fiji, British India, the Irish Free State, Jamaica, New Zealand, South Africa

Gold standard.

During the American war of independence and the Napoleonic wars, Bank of England notes were legal tender, and their value floated relative to gold. The Bank also issued silver tokens to alleviate the shortage of silver coins. In 1816, the gold standard was adopted officially, with silver coins minted at a rate of 66 shillings to a troy pound of sterling silver, thus rendering them as "token" issues (i.e. not containing their value in precious metal). In 1817, the sovereign was introduced, valued at 20 shillings. Struck in 22‐carat gold, it contained of gold and replaced the guinea as the standard British gold coin without changing the gold standard. In 1825, the Irish pound, which had been pegged to sterling since 1801 at a rate of 13 Irish pounds = 12 pounds sterling, was replaced, at the same rate, with sterling.  By the 19th century, the pound sterling was widely accepted outside Britain. The American Nellie Bly carried Bank of England notes on her

Bretton Woods.

In 1940, an agreement with the US pegged the pound to the U.S. dollar at a rate of £1 = $4.03. (Only the year before, it had been $4.86.) This rate was maintained through the Second World War and became part of the Bretton Woods system which governed post-war exchange rates. Under continuing economic pressure, and despite months of denials that it would do so, on 19 September 1949 the government devalued the pound by 30.5 per cent to $2.80. The move prompted several other currencies to be devalued against the dollar.

Decimalisation.

Until decimalisation, amounts were stated in pounds, shillings, and pence, with various widely understood notations. The same amount could be stated as 32s 6d, 32/6, £1 12s 6d, or £1/12/6. It was customary to specify some prices (for example professional fees and auction prices for works of art) in guineas (one guinea was 21 shillings) although guinea coins were no longer in use.  Formal parliamentary proposals to decimalise sterling were first made in 1824 when Sir John Wrottesley, MP for Staffordshire, asked in the

Free-floating pound.

With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system, the pound floated from August 1971 onwards. At first, it appreciated a little, rising to almost $2.65 in March

1976 sterling crisis.

James Callaghan became Prime Minister in 1976. He was immediately told the economy was facing huge problems, according to documents released in 2006 by the National Archives. The effects of the 1973 oil crisis were still being felt, with inflation rising to nearly 27 per cent in 1975. Financial markets were beginning to believe the pound was overvalued, and in April that year "The Wall Street Journal" advised the sale of sterling investments in the face of high taxes, in

1979–1989.

The Conservative Party was elected to office in 1979, on a programme of fiscal austerity. Initially, the pound rocketed, moving above US$2.40, as interest rates rose in response to

Following the Deutsche Mark.

In 1988, Margaret Thatcher's Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nigel Lawson, decided that the pound should "shadow" the West German Deutsche Mark (DM), with the unintended result of a rapid rise in inflation as the economy boomed due to low-interest rates. (For ideological reasons, the Conservative Government declined to use alternative mechanisms to control the

Following the European Currency Unit.

On 8 October 1990 the Conservative government (Third Thatcher ministry) decided to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound set at DM2.95. However, the country was forced to withdraw from the system on "Black Wednesday" (16 September 1992) as Britain's

Following inflation targets.

In 1997, the newly-elected Labour government handed over day-to-day control of interest rates to the Bank of England (a policy that had originally been advocated by the Liberal Democrats). The Bank is now responsible for setting its base rate of interest so as to keep inflation (as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI)) very close to 2% per annum. Should CPI inflation be more than

Euro.

As a member of the European Union, the United Kingdom could have adopted the euro as its currency. However, the subject was always politically controversial, and the UK negotiated an opt-out on this issue. Following the UK's ending of its membership of the EU on 31 January 2020, the question has ceased to be any more than a thought experiment.  In 2007, Gordon Brown, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, ruled out membership for the foreseeable future, saying that the decision not to join had been right for Britain and for Europe.  On 1 January 2008, with the Republic of Cyprus switching its currency from the Cypriot pound to the euro, the British sovereign bases on Cyprus (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) followed suit, making the Sovereign Base Areas the only territory under British sovereignty to officially use the euro.  The government of former Prime Minister Tony Blair had pledged to hold a public referendum to decide on the adoption of the Euro should "five

Recent exchange rates.

The pound and the euro fluctuate in value against one another, although there may be correlation between movements in their respective exchange rates with other currencies such as the US dollar. Inflation concerns in the UK led the Bank of England to raise interest rates in late 2006 and 2007. This caused the pound to appreciate against other major currencies and, with the US dollar depreciating at the same time, the pound hit a 15-year high against the US dollar on 18 April 2007, reaching US$2 the day before,

Annual inflation rate.

The Bank of England had stated in 2009 that the decision had been taken to prevent the rate of inflation falling below the 2% target rate. Mervyn King, the Governor of the Bank of England, had also suggested there

Coins.

Pre-decimal coins.

The silver penny (plural: "pence"; abbreviation: "d") was the principal and often the only coin in circulation from the 8th century until the 13th century. Although some fractions of the penny were struck (see farthing and halfpenny), it was more common to find pennies cut into halves and quarters to provide smaller change. Very few gold coins were struck, with the gold penny (worth 20 silver pence) a rare example. However, in 1279, the "groat", worth 4d, was introduced, with the half groat following in 1344. 1344 also saw the establishment of a gold coinage with the introduction (after the failed gold florin) of the "noble" worth six shillings and eight pence (6/8) (i.e. 3 nobles to the pound), together with the half and quarter noble. Reforms in 1464 saw a reduction

Decimal coins.

British coinage timeline:  At present, the oldest circulating coins in the UK are the 1p and 2p copper coins introduced in 1971. No other coins from before 1982 are in circulation. Prior to the withdrawal from circulation of the larger 10p in 1993, the oldest

Banknotes.

The first sterling notes were issued by the Bank of England shortly after its foundation in 1694. Denominations were initially handwritten on the notes at the time of issue. From 1745, the notes were printed in denominations between £20 and £1000, with any odd shillings added by hand. £10 notes were added in 1759, followed by £5 in 1793 and £1 and £2 in 1797. The lowest two denominations were withdrawn after the end of the Napoleonic wars. In 1855, the notes were converted to being entirely printed, with denominations of £5, £10, £20, £50, £100, £200, £300, £500 and £1000 issued.  The Bank of Scotland began issuing notes in 1695. Although the pound Scots was still the currency of Scotland, these notes were denominated in sterling in values up to £100. From 1727, the Royal Bank of Scotland also issued notes. Both banks issued some notes denominated in guineas as well as pounds. In the 19th century, regulations limited the smallest note issued by Scottish banks to be the £1 denomination, a note not permitted in England.  With the extension of sterling to Ireland in 1825, the Bank of Ireland began issuing sterling notes, later followed by other Irish banks. These notes included the unusual denominations of 30/- and £3. The highest denomination issued by the Irish banks was £100.  In 1826, banks at least from London were given permission to issue their own paper money. From 1844, new banks were excluded from issuing notes in England and Wales but not in Scotland and Ireland. Consequently, the number of private banknotes dwindled in England and Wales but proliferated in Scotland and Ireland. The last English private banknotes were issued in 1921.  In 1914, the Treasury introduced notes for 10/- and £1 to replace gold coins. These circulated until 1928 when they were replaced by Bank of England notes. Irish independence reduced the number of Irish banks issuing sterling notes to five operating in Northern Ireland. The Second World War had a drastic effect on the note production of the Bank of England. Fearful of mass forgery by the Nazis (see Operation Bernhard), all notes for £10 and above ceased production, leaving the bank to issue only 10/-, £1 and £5 notes. Scottish and Northern Irish issues were unaffected, with issues in denominations of £1, £5, £10, £20, £50 and £100.  The Bank of England reintroduced £10 notes in 1964. In 1969, the 10/- note was replaced by the 50p coin to prepare for decimalisation. £20 Bank of England notes were reintroduced in 1970, followed by £50 in 1981. A £1 coin was introduced in 1983, and Bank of England £1 notes were withdrawn in 1988. Scottish and Northern Irish banks followed, with only the Royal Bank of Scotland continuing to issue this denomination.  UK notes include raised print (e.g. on the words "Bank of England"); watermarks; embedded metallic thread; holograms; and fluorescent ink visible only under UV lamps. Three printing techniques are involved: offset litho, intaglio and letterpress; and the notes incorporate a total of 85 specialized inks.  The Bank of England produces notes named "giant" and "titan". A giant is a one million pound note, and a titan is a one hundred million pound bank note, of which there are about 40. Giants and titans are used only within the banking system.

Monetary policy.

As the central bank of the United Kingdom which has been delegated authority by the government, the Bank of England sets the monetary policy for the British pound by controlling the amount of money in circulation. It has a monopoly on the issuance of banknotes in England and Wales and regulates the amount of banknotes issued by seven authorized banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. HM Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee "if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances" but such orders must be endorsed by Parliament within 28 days.  Unlike banknotes which have separate issuers in Scotland

Legal tender and national issues.

Legal tender in the United Kingdom is defined such that "a debtor cannot successfully be sued for non-payment if he pays into court in legal tender." Parties can alternatively settle a debt by other means with mutual consent. Strictly speaking, it is necessary for the debtor to offer the exact amount due as there is no obligation for the other party to provide change.  Throughout the UK, £1 and £2 coins are legal tender for any amount, with the other coins being legal tender only for limited amounts. Bank of England notes are legal tender for any amount in England and Wales, but not in Scotland or Northern Ireland. (Bank of England 10/- and £1 notes were legal tender, as were Scottish banknotes, during World War II under the Currency (Defence) Act 1939, which

Value.

In 2006, the House of Commons Library published a research paper which included an index of prices in pounds for each year between 1750 and 2005, where 1974 was indexed at 100.  Regarding the period 1750–1914 the document states: "Although there was considerable year on year fluctuation in price levels prior to 1914 (reflecting the quality of the harvest, wars, etc.) there was not the long-term steady increase in prices associated with the period since 1945". It goes on to say that "Since 1945 prices have risen in every year with an aggregate rise of over 27 times".  The value of the index in 1751 was 5.1, increasing to

Exchange rate.

The pound is freely bought and sold on the foreign

Reserve.

Sterling is used as a reserve currency around the world and is currently ranked fourth in value held as reserves.

Pound sterling (symbol: £; ISO code: GBP), known in some contexts simply as the pound or sterling, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the British Antarctic Territory, and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 "pence" (singular: "penny", abbreviated: "p"). The Pound sterling is the oldest currency in continuous use. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have currencies called the "pound".

Das Pfund () Sterling (auch als britisches Pfund bezeichnet) ist die Währung des Vereinigten Königreichs sowie der Kanalinseln und der Isle of Man.


Early life.

Mehmed Talaat was born in 1874 in Kırcaali town of Adrianople (Edirne) Vilayet into a family of Pomak and Gypsy descent. His father was a junior civil servant working for the government of the Ottoman Empire and was from a village in the mountainous southeastern corner of present-day Bulgaria. Mehmed Talaat had a powerful build and a dark complexion. His manners were gruff, which caused him to leave the civil preparatory school without a certificate after a conflict with his teacher. Without earning a degree, he joined the staff of the telegraph company as a postal clerk in Adrianople. His salary was not high, so he worked after hours as a Turkish language teacher in the Alliance Israelite School which served the Jewish community of Adrianople.  At the age of 21 he had a love affair with the daughter of the Jewish headmaster for whom he worked. He was caught sending a telegram saying "Things are going well. I'll soon reach my goal." With two of his friends from the post office, he was charged with tampering with the official telegraph and arrested in 1893. He claimed that the message in question was to his girlfriend. The Jewish girl came forward to defend him. Sentenced to two years in jail, he was pardoned but exiled to Salonica (Thessaloniki) as a postal clerk.  He married Hayriye Hanım (later known as Hayriye Talaat Bafralı), a young girl from Ioannina on 19 March 1910.  Between 1898 and 1908 he served as a postman on the staff of the Salonica Post Office. Eventually, having served 10 years at this postal unit, he became head of the Salonica Post Office.

Young Turk Revolution.

In 1908, he was dismissed from membership in the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the nucleus of the Young Turks movement. However, after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, he became deputy for Adrianople in the Ottoman Parliament, and in July 1909, he was appointed minister of interior affairs. He became minister of posts, and then secretary-general of the CUP in 1912.  After the assassination of the prime minister (grand vizier), Mahmud Şevket Pasha, in July 1913, Talaat Pasha again became minister of interior affairs. Talaat, with Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha, formed a group later known as the Three Pashas. These men formed the triumvirate that ran the Ottoman government until the end of World War I in October 1918.

Armenian Genocide.

According to various sources, Talaat Pasha had developed plans to eliminate the Armenians as early as 1910. Danish philologist Johannes Østrup wrote in his memoirs that in the autumn of 1910, Talaat talked openly about his plans to "exterminate" the Armenians with him. According to Østrup, Talaat stated: "If I ever come to power in this country, I will use all my might to exterminate the Armenians." In November of that year, a decision to carry out such a plan was made in Salonica (Thessaloniki) where a secret conference was held by prominent members of the CUP. The conference concluded that the Ottoman Empire, which promoted equality among Muslims and non-Muslims alike, was not ideologically compatible anymore, and that the Ottoman Empire should adopt a policy of Turkification. Talaat, who attended the conference, was a leading advocate of this policy shift and stated in a speech that "there can be no question of equality, until we have succeeded in our task of ottomanizing the Empire." Such a decision ultimately required the assimilation of non-Turkish elements within the empire and if necessary, it could be done through force. British ambassador Gerard Lowther concluded after the conference, "[that the] committee have given up any idea of Ottomanizing all the non-Turkish elements by sympathetic and Constitutional ways has long been manifest. To them 'Ottoman' evidently means 'Turk' and their present policy of 'Ottomanization' is one of pounding the non-Turkish elements in a Turkish mortar."  Talaat, along with Enver and Cemal, eventually represented the radical faction of the committee. In 1913, the faction ultimately seized power through a violent coup establishing the rule of the Three Pashas, which was also known as the "dictatorial triumvirate". The Three Pashas then became largely responsible for the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I. With the start of World War I, the Three Pashas found a suitable opportunity to begin their campaign of exterminating the Armenians of the Ottoman Empire.  On 24 April 1915, Talaat issued an to close all Armenian political organizations operating within the Ottoman Empire and arrest Armenians connected to them, justifying the action by stating that the organizations were controlled from outside the empire, were inciting upheavals behind the Ottoman lines, and were cooperating with Russian forces. This order resulted in the arrest on the night of 24–25 April 1915 of 235 to 270 Armenian community leaders in Constantinople (Istanbul), including politicians, clergymen, physicians, authors, journalists, lawyers, and teachers, the majority of whom were eventually murdered. Although the mass killings of Armenian civilians had begun in the vilayet of Van several weeks earlier, these mass arrests in Constantinople are considered by many commentators to be the start of the Armenian Genocide.  Talaat then issued the order for the Tehcir Law of 1 June 1915 to 8 February 1916 that allowed for the mass deportation of Armenians, a principal means of carrying out the Armenian Genocide. The deportees did not receive any humanitarian assistance and there is no evidence that the Ottoman government provided the extensive facilities and supplies that would have been necessary to sustain the life of hundreds of thousands of Armenian deportees during their forced march to the Syrian desert or after. Meanwhile, the deportees were subject to periodic rape and massacre, often the result of direct orders by the CUP. Talaat, who was a telegraph operator from a young age, had installed a telegraph machine in his own home and sent "sensitive" telegrams during the course of the deportations. This was confirmed by Talaat's wife Hayriye, who stated that she often saw him using it to give direct orders to what she believed were provincial governors. In a session of the Ottoman parliament, Ottoman statesman Reshid Akif Pasha testified that he had uncovered documents which demonstrated the process by which official statements made use of vague terminology when ordering deportation only to be clarified by special orders of "massacres" sent directly from CUP headquarters or often from the residence of Talaat himself. He testified:  Hasan Tahsin Uzer, Governor of Erzurum, similarly testified during the Mamuretulaziz (now Elazig) trial that the special forces unit Special Organization (Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa), under the command of Behaeddin Shakir, was mobilized to kill Armenians and that this organization was in constant contact with the Ministry of Interior. He explained:  Other sources also point to such telegrams directing massacre being sent from Talaat Pasha. Rafael de Nogales Méndez, a Venuzelan officer who served the Ottoman Army, visited Diyarbakır on 26 June 1915 and spoke with the governor Mehmet Reşid, who was later known as the "butcher of Diyarbakir". Nogales Méndez recounts in his memoirs that Reşid mentioned to him that he received a telegram directly from Talaat ordering him to "burn-destroy-kill". Abdulahad Nuri, an official in charge of the deportations, testified during the Turkish courts-martial of 1919–20 that he had been told by Talaat that the goal of the deportations was "extermination" and that he "personally received the orders of extermination" from Talaat himself. In many instances, there had been additional instructions to "destroy" the telegrams after they had been read.  In a memorandum sent to Berlin demanding the removal of German ambassador Paul Wolff Metternich because he interceded on behalf of the Armenians, Talaat reaffirmed such a commitment: "the work must be done now, after the war it will be too late." By the end of the war, the subsequent German ambassador Johann von Bernstorff described his discussion with Talaat: "When I kept on pestering him about the Armenian question, he once said with a smile: 'What on earth do you want? The question is settled, there are no more Armenians'". A similar statement by Talaat was made to Swedish military attaché Einar af Wirsén: "The way the Armenian problem was solved was hair-raising. I can still see in front of me Talaat's cynical expression, when he emphasized that the Armenian question was solved." Talaat is reported to have said the following to American ambassador Henry Morgenthau, Sr. (as recorded in "Ambassador Morgenthau's Story"), who confronted Talaat on several occasions: "I have accomplished more toward solving the Armenian problem in three months than Abdulhamid II accomplished in thirty years!" Morgenthau then relates an exchange he had with Talaat:  In another exchange, Talaat demanded from Morgenthau the list of the holders of American insurance policies belonging to dead Armenians in an effort to appropriate the funds to the state. Morgenthau categorically refused his request describing it as "one of the most astonishing requests I have ever heard."  Notable Turkish politicians and figures also condemned the policy. Turkish feminist Halide Edip, writing in her memoirs, captured a defiant reaction from Talaat Pasha when she probed him on the deportations and extermination. He allegedly told her that he was of the conviction that as long as a nation does what is best for its own interests and succeeds, the world admires it. Abdülmecid II, the last Caliph of Islam of the Ottoman Dynasty, said: "I refer to those awful massacres. They are the greatest stain that has ever disgraced our nation and race. They were entirely the work of Talat and Enver."

Turkification.

Talaat Pasha was also a leading force in the Turkification and deportation of Kurds. In 1916 he was a major force behind the policies regarding the resettlements of Kurds and wanted to be informed whether the Kurds would really be turkifyed or not and how they get along with the Turkish habitants in the areas where they had been resettled too.

Grand vizier, 1917–1918.

In 1917, Talaat became the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, a post equivalent to that of prime minister, but was unable to reverse the downward spiral of Ottoman fortunes in his new position.  Over the next year, Jerusalem and Baghdad were lost. On January 11, 1918, the special decree "On Armenia" was signed by Lenin and Stalin which rearmed and repatriated over 100,000 Armenians from the former Tsar's Army to be sent to the Caucasus for operations against Ottoman interests. At the beginning of January 1918 with the Tsarist Army of the Caucasus departing, he had been influential in pursuing an offensive policy, convinced that despite all the pacifist rhetoric coming from Moscow 'the Russian leopard had not changed its spots'. The fall of Kars on 25 April 1918 reversed Russia's last conquest from the Berlin Treaty (1878) and Ottoman Turkey restored the 1877 borders against its Russian enemy. In October 1918 however, the British shattered both Ottoman armies they faced – and the armistice the British forced on Turkey at Mudros (30 October 1918) obliged the Ottoman army to evacuate Transcaucasia. With defeat certain, Talaat had resigned on 14 October 1918.

Exile, 1919–1921.

Talaat Pasha fled the Ottoman capital in a German submarine on 3 November 1918, from Constantinople harbour to Berlin. Just a week later the Ottoman Porte capitulated to the Allies and signed the Armistice of Mudros.  Public opinion was shocked by the departure of Talaat Pasha, even though he had been known to turn a blind eye on corrupt ministers appointed because of their associations with the CUP. Talaat Pasha had a reputation for being courageous and patriotic, the type of individual who would willingly face the consequences of his actions. With the occupation of Constantinople, Izzet Pasha resigned. Tevfik Pasha took the position of grand vizier the same day that British ships entered the Golden Horn. Tevfik Pasha lasted until 4 March 1919, replaced by Ferid Pasha whose first order was the arrest of leading members of the CUP.

Turkish courts-martial of 1919–1920.

Following the occupation of Constantinople by the Allied Powers, the British exerted pressure on the Ottoman Porte and brought to trial the Ottoman leaders who had held positions of responsibility between 1914 and 1918 for having committed, among other charges, the Armenian Genocide. Those who were caught were put under arrest at the Bekirağa division and were subsequently exiled to Malta. The courts-martial were designed by Sultan Mehmed VI to punish the Committee of Union and Progress for the empire's ill-conceived involvement in World War I. The Pashas who had held the highest positions in the administration and whose names were at the top of the execution lists of the Armenian assassination teams could be condemned in absentia because they had gone abroad.  By January 1919, a report to Sultan Mehmed VI accused over 130 suspects, most of whom were high officials. The indictment accused the main defendants, including Talaat, of being "mired in an unending chain of bloodthirstiness, plunder and abuses". They were accused of deliberately engineering Turkey's entry into the war "by a recourse to a number of vile tricks and deceitful means". They were also accused of "the massacre and destruction of the Armenians" and of trying to "pile up fortunes for themselves" through "the pillage and plunder" of their possessions. The indictment alleged that "The massacre and destruction of the Armenians were the result of decisions by the Central Committee of Ittihadd". The Court released its verdict on 5 July 1919: Talaat, Enver, Cemal, and Dr. Nazim were condemned to death in absentia.  The British were determined not to leave Talaat alone. The British had intelligence reports indicating that he had gone to Germany, and the British High Commissioner pressured Damad Ferit Pasha and the Sublime Porte to demand that Germany return him to the Ottoman Empire. As a result of efforts pursued personally by (Sir) Andrew Ryan, a former Dragoman and now a member of the British intelligence service, Germany responded to the Ottoman Empire stating that it was willing to be helpful if official papers could be produced showing these persons had been found guilty, and added that the presence of these persons in Germany could not as yet be ascertained.

Aubrey Herbert interview, 1921.

The last official interview Talaat granted was to Aubrey Herbert, a British intelligence agent. It was nine days before his assassination. The interview was conducted during a series of short meetings in a park in a small German town. The interview gave chance to Talaat to explain the policies of the Ottoman Empire during the last 10 years.  These meetings corroborated earlier intelligence to the effect that Talaat Pasha was seeking support from Muslim countries to form a serious opposition movement against the Allied Powers, and that he was soon intending to take refuge in Ankara, where the Turkish national movement was forming. Furthermore, Talaat Pasha also threatened that he was going to incite the Pan-Turanist and Pan-Islamist movements against the United Kingdom unless it signed a peace treaty favorable for Turkey.  During this interview, Talaat maintained on several occasions that the CUP had always sought British friendship and advice, but that Britain was in no mood to offer any assistance whatsoever.

Assassination, 1921.

Before the assassination, the British intelligence services identified Talaat in Stockholm, where he had gone for a few days. The British intelligence first planned to apprehend him in Berlin, where he was planning to return, but then changed its mind because it feared the complications this would create in Germany. Another view in British intelligence was that Talaat should be apprehended by the Royal Navy at sea while returning from Scandinavia by ship. In the end, it was decided to let him return to Berlin, find out what he was trying to accomplish with his activities abroad, and to establish direct contact with him before giving the final verdict. This was achieved with the help of Aubrey Herbert.  The British intelligence service established contact with its counterpart in the Soviet Union to evaluate the situation. Talaat Pasha's plans made the Russian officials as anxious as the British. The two intelligence services collaborated and signed between them the 'death warrant' of Talaat. Information concerning his physical description and his whereabouts was forwarded to their men in Germany.  It was decided that Armenian revolutionaries should carry out the verdict. Talaat was assassinated with a single bullet on 15 March 1921 as he came out of his house in Hardenbergstrasse, Charlottenburg. His assassin was an Armenian Revolutionary Federation member from Erzurum named Soghomon Tehlirian. Soghomon Tehlirian admitted committing the shooting, but after a cursory two-day trial, he was found innocent by a German court on grounds of temporary insanity because of the traumatic experience he had gone through during the genocide.

Legacy.

Immediately following World War I.

Talaat Pasha received widespread condemnation across the world for his leading role in the Armenian Genocide. He was found guilty of massacre of Armenians and sentenced to death in absentia by the Turkish Court on July 5, 1919. Commenting on the widespread rape, torture and killings of the Armenians, U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Henry Morgenthau wrote in his 1919 memoir:

Post mortem.

Shortly after the assassination of Talaat in March 1921, the "Posthumous Memoirs of Talaat" was published in the October volume of "The New York Times Current History". In his memoir, Talaat admitted to purposefully deporting the Armenians to the Ottoman Empire's eastern provinces in a prepared scheme. He however blamed Armenian civilians themselves for the deportations, implying the civilian population could have caused a revolution and it was therefore justified to exterminate them. He was buried in the Turkish Cemetery in Berlin. In 1943, his remains were taken to Istanbul and reburied in Şişli.

Modern views.

Talaat Pasha, Enver Pasha and Djemal Pasha are widely considered the main authors of the Armenian Genocide by historians.  Historians have cited the influence of the Armenian Genocide on the Holocaust, which took place a few decades later. Records show the Nazis discussing and praising the Turkish model of extermination as early as the 1920s.  Within modern Turkey, criticism also focuses on Talaat and the rest of the Three Pashas for causing the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I and its subsequent partitioning by the Allies. Turkey's founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk widely criticized Talaat Pasha and his colleagues for their policies during and immediately prior to the First World War.  A multitude of streets in Turkey display his name, as well as a street in the city of Paphos in the Republic of Cyprus that contains a large Turkish minority.

In film.

Talaat is depicted in two films:

References.

Notes References

Mehmed Talaat (; ; 1 September 1874 – 15 March 1921), commonly known as Talaat Pasha (; ), was one of the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas that "de facto" ruled the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. He was one of the leaders of the Young Turks and ruled the empire during the Armenian Genocide, which he initiated as Minister of Interior Affairs in 1915.

Mehmed Talât Bey, bekannt als Talât Pascha (nach heutiger türkischer Orthographie "Talat Paşa", * 1. September 1874 in Kardschali/Provinz Edirne, heute in Bulgarien; † 15. März 1921 in Berlin), war Innenminister und Großwesir des Osmanischen Reichs und Führer der Jungtürken.


History.

Artists have created tondi since Greek antiquity. The circular paintings in the centre of painted vases of that period are known as tondi, and the inside of the broad low winecup called a "kylix" also lent itself to circular enframed compositions. The style was revived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly in Italy, where it may have developed from the smaller desco da parto or birthing tray. Since then it has been less common. In Ford Madox Brown's painting "The Last of England", the ship's wire railing curving round the figures helps enclose the composition within its tondo shape.  The background scene is consolidated or omitted, and to a large extent, unimportant. While the background may be visible in tondo paintings, in tondo relief carvings the background is not seen. Andrea della Robbia and other members of his family created glazed terracotta tondi that were often framed in a wreath of fruit and leaves and which were intended for immuring in a stuccoed wall. In Brunelleschi's Hospital of the Innocents, Florence, 1421–24, Andrea della Robbia provided glazed terracotta babes in swaddling clothes in tondos with plain blue backgrounds to be set in the spandrels of the arches.  In the sixteenth century the painterly style of "istoriato" decoration for maiolica wares was applied to large circular dishes (see also charger).  The tondo has also been used as a design element in architecture since the Renaissance; it may serve centred in the gable-end of a pediment or under the round-headed arch that was revived in the fifteenth century.  Although the earliest true Renaissance, or late Gothic painted tondo is Burgundian, from Champmol (of a "Pietá" by Jean Malouel of 1400–1415, now in the Louvre), the tondo became fashionable in 15th-century Florence, with Botticelli painting many examples, both Madonnas and narrative scenes. Michelangelo employed the circular tondo for several compositions, both painted and sculpted, including "The Holy Family with the infant St. John the Baptist", the "Doni Tondo" at the Uffizi, as did Raphael.  The infrequently-encountered synonym "rondo" much more usually refers to a musical form.

A tondo (plural "tondi" or "tondos") is a Renaissance term for a circular work of art, either a painting or a sculpture. The word derives from the Italian "rotondo," "round." The term is usually not used in English for small round paintings, but only those over about 60 cm (two feet) in diameter, thus excluding many round portrait miniatures – for sculpture the threshold is rather lower.

Ein Tondo ("das" oder "der" Tondo; Mehrzahl: "Tondi" oder "Tondos") oder Rundbild ist ein kreisrundes Bildwerk. Ein Tondo kann als Gemälde oder Relief gestaltet sein. Das Wort ist abgeleitet vom italienischen "rotondo" für „rund“ (lateinisch "rotundus") und davon eine abgekürzte Form.