Signs and symptoms.

This disorder is characterized by episodes of severe facial pain along the trigeminal nerve divisions. The trigeminal nerve is a paired cranial nerve that has three major branches: the ophthalmic nerve (V), the maxillary nerve (V), and the mandibular nerve (V). One, two, or all three branches of the nerve may be affected. Trigeminal neuralgia most commonly involves the middle branch (the maxillary nerve or V) and lower branch (mandibular nerve or V) of the trigeminal nerve.  An individual attack usually lasts from a few seconds to several minutes or hours, but these can repeat for hours with very short intervals between attacks. In other instances, only 4-10 attacks are experienced daily. The episodes of intense pain may occur paroxysmally. To describe the pain sensation, people often describe a trigger area on the face so sensitive that touching or even air currents can trigger an episode; however, in many people, the pain is generated spontaneously without any apparent stimulation. It affects lifestyle as it can be triggered by common activities such as eating, talking, shaving and brushing teeth. The wind, chewing, and talking can aggravate the condition in many patients. The attacks are said by those affected to feel like stabbing electric shocks, burning, sharp, pressing, crushing, exploding or shooting pain that becomes intractable.  The pain also tends to occur in cycles with remissions lasting months or even years. 1–6% of cases occur on both sides of the face but extremely rare for both to be affected at the same time. This normally indicates problems with both trigeminal nerves, since one serves strictly the left side of the face and the other serves the right side. Pain attacks are known to worsen in frequency or severity over time, in some people. Pain may migrate to other branches over time but in some people remains very stable.  Rapid spreading of the pain, bilateral involvement or simultaneous participation with other major nerve trunks (such as Painful Tic Convulsif of nerves V & VII or occurrence of symptoms in the V and IX nerves) may suggest a systemic cause. Systemic causes could include multiple sclerosis or expanding cranial tumors.  The severity of the pain makes it difficult to wash the face, shave, and perform good oral hygiene. The pain has a significant impact on activities of daily living especially as people live in fear of when they are going to get their next attack of pain and how severe it will be. It can lead to severe depression and anxiety.  However, not all people will have the symptoms described above and there are variants of TN. One of which is atypical trigeminal neuralgia ("trigeminal neuralgia, type 2" or trigeminal neuralgia with concomitant pain), based on a recent classification of facial pain. In these instances there is also a more prolonged lower severity background pain that can be present for over 50% of the time and is described more as a burning or prickling, rather than a shock.  Trigeminal neuropathic pain is similar to TN2 but can have the electric pulses associated with classic TN. The pain is usually constant and can also give off a tingling, numbness sensation. This pain is due to unintentional damage to one or more of the trigeminal nerves from trauma, oral surgery, dentistry work, etc. It is difficult to treat but sufferers are usually given the same anticonvulsant and tricyclics antidepressant medicines as with the other types of neuralgias. Surgical options are DREZ (dorsal root entry zone) lesion and MCS or Motor Cortex Stimulation.  TN needs to be distinguished from other forms of unilateral pain which may be related to damage to the trigeminal nerve by trauma from surgery, accidents or - in rare cases - dental extractions. This is often termed painful trigeminal neuropathy or post-traumatic neuropathy as some sensory changes can be noted e.g. decrease in pain sensation or temperature. This is important as different care pathways are used. Trigeminal pain can also occur after an attack of herpes zoster, and post-herpetic neuralgia has the same manifestations as in other parts of the body. Trigeminal deafferentation pain (TDP), also termed anesthesia dolorosa, is from intentional damage to a trigeminal nerve following attempts to surgically fix a nerve problem. This pain is usually constant with a burning sensation and numbness. TDP is very difficult to treat as further surgeries are usually ineffective and possibly detrimental to the person.

Causes.

The trigeminal nerve is a mixed cranial nerve responsible for sensory data such as tactition (pressure), thermoception (temperature), and nociception (pain) originating from the face above the jawline; it is also responsible for the motor function of the muscles of mastication, the muscles involved in chewing but not facial expression.  Several theories exist to explain the possible causes of this pain syndrome. It was once believed that the nerve was compressed in the opening from the inside to the outside of the skull; but leading research indicates that it is an enlarged or lengthened blood vessel – most commonly the superior cerebellar artery – compressing or throbbing against the microvasculature of the trigeminal nerve near its connection with the pons. Such a compression can injure the nerve's protective myelin sheath and cause erratic and hyperactive functioning of the nerve. This can lead to pain attacks at the slightest stimulation of any area served by the nerve as well as hinder the nerve's ability to shut off the pain signals after the stimulation ends. This type of injury may rarely be caused by an aneurysm (an outpouching of a blood vessel); by an AVM (arteriovenous malformation); by a tumor; such as an arachnoid cyst or meningioma in the cerebellopontine angle; or by a traumatic event such as a car accident.  Short-term peripheral compression is often painless. Persistent compression results in local demyelination with no loss of axon potential continuity. Chronic nerve entrapment results in demyelination primarily, with progressive axonal degeneration subsequently. It is, "therefore widely accepted that trigeminal neuralgia is associated with demyelination of axons in the Gasserian ganglion, the dorsal root, or both." It has been suggested that this compression may be related to an aberrant branch of the superior cerebellar artery that lies on the trigeminal nerve. Further causes, besides an aneurysm, multiple sclerosis or cerebellopontine angle tumor, include: a posterior fossa tumor, any other expanding lesion or even brainstem diseases from strokes.  Trigeminal neuralgia is found in 3–4% of people with multiple sclerosis, according to data from seven studies. It has been theorized that this is due to damage to the spinal trigeminal complex. Trigeminal pain has a similar presentation in patients with and without MS.  Postherpetic neuralgia, which occurs after shingles, may cause similar symptoms if the trigeminal nerve is damaged.  When there is no [apparent] structural cause, the syndrome is called idiopathic.

Diagnosis.

Trigeminal neuralgia is diagnosed via the result of neurological and physical tests, as well as the individual's medical history.

Management.

As with many conditions without clear physical or laboratory diagnosis, TN is sometimes misdiagnosed. A TN sufferer will sometimes seek the help of numerous clinicians before a firm diagnosis is made.  There is evidence that points towards the need to quickly treat and diagnose TN. It is thought that the longer a patient suffers from TN, the harder it may be to reverse the neural pathways associated with the pain.  The differential diagnosis includes temporomandibular disorder. Since triggering may be caused by movements of the tongue or facial muscles, TN must be differentiated from masticatory pain that has the clinical characteristics of deep somatic rather than neuropathic pain. Masticatory pain will not be arrested by a conventional mandibular local anesthetic block. One quick test a dentist might perform is a conventional inferior dental local anaesthetic block, if the pain is in this branch, as it will not arrest masticatory pain but will TN.

Surgical.

The evidence for surgical therapy is poor. Surgery is normally recommended only after medication has proved ineffective, or if side effects of medication are intolerable. While there may be pain relief after surgery, there is also a considerable risk of side effects, such as facial numbness after the procedure. Microvascular decompression appears to result in the longest pain relief. Percutaneous radiofrequency thermorhizotomy may also be effective as may stereotactic radiosurgery; however the effectiveness decreases with time.  Surgical procedures can be separated into non-destructive and destructive:

Destructive.

All destructive procedures will cause facial numbness, post relief, as well as pain relief.

Support.

Psychological and social support has found to play a key role in the management of chronic illnesses and chronic pain conditions, such as trigeminal neuralgia. Chronic pain can cause constant frustration to an individual as well as to those around them. As a result, there are many advocacy groups.

History.

Trigeminal neuralgia was first described by physician John Fothergill and treated surgically by John Murray Carnochan, both of whom were graduates of the University of Edinburgh Medical School. Historically TN has been called "suicide disease" due to studies by Harvey Cushing involving 123 cases of TN during 1896 and 1912.

Society and culture.

Some individuals of note with TN include: Travis Barker, drummer of rock band blink 182

Trigeminal neuralgia (TN or TGN) is a long-term pain disorder that affects the trigeminal nerve. There are two main types: typical and atypical trigeminal neuralgia. The typical form results in episodes of severe, sudden, shock-like pain in one side of the face that lasts for seconds to a few minutes. Groups of these episodes can occur over a few hours. The atypical form results in a constant burning pain that is less severe. Episodes may be triggered by any touch to the face. Both forms may occur in the same person. It is one of the most painful conditions, and can result in depression. The exact cause is unclear, but believed to involve loss of the myelin around the trigeminal nerve. This may occur due to compression from a blood vessel as the nerve exits the brain stem, multiple sclerosis, stroke, or trauma. Less common causes include a tumor or arteriovenous malformation. It is a type of nerve pain. Diagnosis is typically based on the symptoms, after ruling out other possible causes such as postherpetic neuralgia. Treatment includes medication or surgery. The anticonvulsant carbamazepine or oxcarbazepine is usually the initial treatment, and is effective in about 80% of people. Other options include lamotrigine, baclofen, gabapentin, and pimozide. Amitriptyline may help with the pain, but opioids are not usually effective in the typical form. In those who do not improve or become resistant to other measures, a number of types of surgery may be tried. It is estimated that 1 in 8,000 people per year develop trigeminal neuralgia. It usually begins in people over 50 years old, but can occur at any age. Women are more commonly affected than men. The condition was first described in detail in 1773 by John Fothergill.

Die Trigeminusneuralgie (auch Tic douloureux, französisch "tic" ‚[nervöses] Zucken', "douloureux" ‚schmerzhaft‘) ist eine Form des Gesichtsschmerzes (Gesichtsneuralgie, Prosopalgie). Es handelt sich um einen äußerst schmerzhaften Reizungszustand des fünften Hirnnerven, des Nervus trigeminus, der aus drei Nervenästen besteht, die den Stirnbereich, den Oberkiefer und den Unterkiefer versorgen. Die Bezeichnung als "Tic douloureux" weist auf das gelegentlich den Schmerz begleitende reflektorische Zucken der Gesichtsmuskulatur hin. Davon abzugrenzen sind der "atypische Gesichtsschmerz" und andere Gesichtsschmerzen.


Background.

USP Leavenworth, a civilian facility, is the oldest of three major prisons built on federal land in Leavenworth County, Kansas. It is separate from, but often confused with, the United States Disciplinary Barracks (USDB), a military facility located on the adjacent Fort Leavenworth army base. Located north of the USP, the USDB is the sole maximum-security penal facility for the entire United States Military. Prisoners from the original USDB were used to build the civilian penitentiary. In addition, the military's medium-security Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility (JRCF), located southwest of the new USDB, opened in 2010. The USDB and JRCF operate independently from USP Leavenworth.  The prison was described by Pete Earley, the only writer at that time who had ever been granted unlimited access to the prison, in his book, "The Hot House". The prison's history has also been covered in a pictorial history titled "U.S. Penitentiary Leavenworth" by Kenneth M. LaMaster, the retired Institution Historian.  USP Leavenworth was the largest maximum-security federal prison in the United States from 1903 until 2005 when it was downgraded to a medium-security facility.

Design.

USP Leavenworth was one of three first-generation federal prisons which were built in the early 1900s. Prior to its construction, federal prisoners were held at state prisons. In 1895, Congress authorized the construction of the federal prison system.  The other two were Atlanta and McNeil Island (although McNeil dates to the 1870s the major expansion did not occur until the early 1900s).  The prison follows a format popularized at the Auburn Correctional Facility in New York where the cell blocks were in a large rectangular building. The rectangular building was focused on indoor group labor with a staff continually patrolling.  The Auburn system was a marked difference from the earlier Pennsylvania plan popularized at Eastern State Penitentiary in which cell blocks radiated out from a central building and was the original design for the nearby Disciplinary Barracks before it was torn down and replaced by a totally new prison.  The St. Louis, Missouri architecture firm of Eames and Young designed both Leavenworth and the United States Penitentiary, Atlanta. Leavenworth's prison cells are back to back in the middle of the structure facing the walls. The prison's walls are high, below the surface and long and enclose. Its domed main building was nicknamed the "Big Top" or "Big House." The domed Disciplinary Barracks two miles (3 km) to the north was nicknamed the "Little Top" until it was torn down in 2004 and replaced with a newer structure.

Famous escapees.

Frank Grigware, imprisoned for train robbery, escaped from Leavenworth in 1910 with 5 other men by smashing through the prison gates with a hijacked supply locomotive. While the others were quickly recaptured, Grigware escaped to Canada. In 1916 he became the mayor of the Canadian town Spirit River, Alberta. While discovered by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the FBI in 1933, serious doubts about his original conviction led the U.S. to drop its extradition request in 1934. Grigware never returned to the U.S. and died in Alberta in 1977.  Basil Banghart escaped from Leavenworth a total of 3 times. He escaped federal custody a fourth time while awaiting return to Leavenworth.  Frank Nash, George "Machine Gun" Kelly and Thomas James Holden assisted 7 inmates in taking Warden Thomas B. White hostage, and escaped on December 11, 1931.

Executions.

On September 5, 1930, serial killer Carl Panzram, under a federal death sentence for murder, was hanged at USP Leavenworth. On August 12, 1938, two men under the sentence of death for murder — Robert Suhay and Glenn Applegate — were hanged at USP Leavenworth.

Cemetery.

The penitentiary maintains a cemetery for deceased prisoners outside the walls of the prison.

The United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth (USP Leavenworth) is a medium security U.S. penitentiary with an adjacent minimum security satellite camp in northeast Kansas. It is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, a division of the United States Department of Justice. It also includes a satellite federal prison camp (FPC) for minimum-security male offenders.

Das Bundesgefängnis Leavenworth (offiziell engl. "United States Penitentiary (USP) Leavenworth") ist ein Gefängnis der amerikanischen Bundesregierung in Leavenworth, im US-Bundesstaat Kansas.


Legality.

Depending on jurisdiction, there may be penalties for driving outside permitted areas, without an approved helmet, without a drivers license, with an un-registered snowmobile, or while under the influence of alcohol or other substances. There may also be regulations regarding noise and wildlife.

Driver's license.

In some jurisdictions, a driver's license is required to operate snowmobile. A specific snowmobile driver's license is required in for example Norway and Sweden. In Finland, a snowmobile driver's license is not required if the driver already has another type of appropriate driver's license (for example car or tractor).

Early history.

In 1911 a 24 year old, Harold J. Kalenze (pronounced Collins), patented the Vehicle Propeller in Brandon, Manitoba, Canada.  In 1915 Ray H. Muscott of Waters, Michigan, received the Canadian patent for his motor sleigh, or "traineau automobile", and on June 27, 1916, he received the first United States patent for a snow-vehicle using the now recognized format of rear track(s) and front skis. Many individuals later modified Ford Model Ts with the undercarriage replaced by tracks and skis following this design. They were popular for rural mail delivery for a time. The common name for these conversion of cars and small trucks was Snowflyers.  In 1935 Joseph Bombardier assembled and successfully tested the first snowmobile. It was a vehicle with a sprocket wheel and a track drive system, and it was steered by skis.  The challenges of cross-country transportation in the winter led to the invention of the snowmobile, an all-terrain vehicle specifically designed for travel across deep snow where other vehicles foundered. During the 20th century, rapidly evolving designs produced machines that were two-person tracked vehicles powered by gas engines that enabled them to tow a sled or travel, initially at low-to-moderate speeds, depending on snow conditions, terrain and obstacles protruding above the snow like brush and trees. Where early designs had two-stroke engines, there has been a move toward newer style two and four-stroke gasoline engines, some with over.

Multi-passenger snowmobiles.

The origin of the snowmobile is not the work of any one inventor but more a process of advances in engines for the propulsion of vehicles and supporting devices over snow. It parallels the development of the automobile and later aviation, often inventors using the same components for a different use.  Wisconsinites experimented with over-snow vehicles before 1900, experimenting with bicycles equipped with runners and gripping fins; steam-propelled sleighs; and (later) Model T Fords converted with rear tractor treads and skis in front. A patent (554.482) for the Sled-Propeller design, without a model, was submitted on Sept. 5, 1895 by inventors William J. Culman and William B. Follis of Brule, Wisconsin. In the first races held near Three Lakes in 1926, 104 of these "snowbuggies" started. Carl Eliason of Sayner developed the prototype of the modern snowmobile in the 1920s when he mounted a two-cylinder motorcycle engine on a long sled, steered it with skis under the front, and propelled it with single, endless track. Eliason made 40 snowmobiles, patented in 1927. Upon receiving an order for 200 from Finland, he sold his patent to the FWD Company of Clintonville. They made 300 for military use, then transferred the patent to a Canadian subsidiary.  The American Motor Sleigh was a short-lived novelty vehicle produced in Boston in 1905. Designed for travel on snow, it consisted of a sleigh body mounted on a framework that held an engine, a drive-shaft system, and runners. Although considered an interesting novelty, sales were low and production ceased in 1906.  The Aerosani, propeller-driven and running on skis, was built in 1909–1910 by Russian inventor Igor Sikorsky of helicopter fame. Aerosanis were used by the Soviet Red Army during the Winter War and World War II. There is some dispute over whether Aerosanis count as snowmobiles because they were not propelled by tracks.  Adolphe Kégresse designed an original caterpillar tracks system, called the Kégresse track, while working for Tsar Nicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916. These used a flexible belt rather than interlocking metal segments and could be fitted to a conventional car or truck to turn it into a half-track, suitable for use over soft ground, including snow. Conventional front wheels and steering were used but the wheel could be fitted with skis as seen in the upper right image. He applied it to several cars in the Royal garage including Rolls-Royce cars and Packard trucks. Although this was not a snowmobile, it is an ancestor of the modern concept.  The relatively dry snow conditions of the United States Midwest suited the converted Ford Model Ts and other like vehicles, but they were not suitable for humid snow areas such as southern Quebec and New England. This led Joseph-Armand Bombardier from the small town of Valcourt, Quebec, to invent a different caterpillar track system suitable for all kinds of snow conditions. Bombardier had already made some "metal" tracked vehicles since 1928, but his new revolutionary track traction system (a toothed wheel covered in rubber, and a rubber-and-cotton track that wraps around the back wheels) was his first major invention. He started production of the B-7, an enclosed, seven-passenger snowmobile, in 1937, and introduced the B-12, a twelve-passenger model, in 1942. The B-7 had a V-8 flathead engine from Ford Motor Company. The B-12 had a flathead in line six-cylinder engine from Chrysler industrial, and 2,817 units were produced until 1951. It was used in many applications, such as ambulances, Canada Post vehicles, winter "school buses", forestry machines, and even army vehicles in World War II. Bombardier had always dreamed of a smaller version, more like the size of a motor scooter.

Early models.

Numerous people had ideas for a smaller personal snowmobile. In 1914, O. M. Erickson and Art Olsen of the P.N. Bushnell company in Aberdeen, South Dakota, built an open two-seater "motor-bob" out of an Indian motorcycle modified with a cowl-cover, side-by-side seating, and a set of sled-runners fore and aft. While it did not have the tracks of a true snowmobile, its appearance was otherwise similar to the modern version and is one of the earliest examples of a personal motorized snow-vehicle.  In 1951 Dr. Fritz Riemerschmid devised what he called a snow scooter. The machine had a track mounted beneath a snowboard like base, on top of which were an enclosed engine with motorcycle like seat and fuel tank. the vehicle was steered via a steering wheel and cables linked to two small skis on outriggers either side of the vehicle.  In the mid-1950s, a United States firm built a "snowmobile the arctic area of Alaska that had the drive train reversed of today's snowmobiles with two front wheels—the larger one behind the smaller one—with tires driving an endless loop track". Little is known about this "snowmobile" meant to haul cargo and trade goods to isolated settlements.

Polaris.

Edgar and Allen Hetteen and David Johnson of Roseau, Minnesota, invented what we now know as the modern snowmobile in 1955–1956, but the early machines were heavy () and slow (). Their company, Hetteen Hoist & Derrick Co., became Polaris Industries which introduced their first commercial model, the Polaris Sno Traveler in 1957.

BRP.

In 1960, Joseph-Armand Bombardier introduced his own snowmobile using an open-cockpit one- or two-person form, similar to the 1957 Polaris Sno Traveler, and started selling it under the brand name Ski-Doo through his company Bombardier Inc. (now manufactured by Bombardier Recreational Products).  Competitors copied and improved his design; in the 1970s there were over a hundred snowmobile manufacturers. From 1970 to 1973, two million machines were sold, peaking at 500,000 sold in 1971. Many of the snowmobile companies were small and the biggest manufacturers were often attempts by motorcycle makers and outboard motor makers to branch off in a new market. Most of these companies went bankrupt or were acquired by larger companies during the 1973 oil crisis and succeeding recessions. Sales rebounded to 260,000 in 1997 but gradually decreased afterwards, influenced by warmer winters and the use during all four seasons of small one- or two-person ATVs.

Alpina.

Alpina Snowmobiles are manufactured in Vicenza, Italy, by Alpina s.r.l., a manufacturer of various on-snow implements that had been building dual-track snowmobiles since 1995.  There are two manufacturers of dual-track snowmobiles. One is Alpina and the other is a Russian sled called Buran (Bombardier discontinued manufacturing its dual-track model, the Elite, in 2005).  Alpina manufactures one basic dual-track snowmobile design. In 2002 the "Sherpa" was introduced and is the model name for the four-stroke machine. Prior to introducing the Sherpa, Alpina offered a two-stroke series designated the "Superclass". The four-stroke Sherpa is currently the top machine in production. A new version of the Superclass has been released in 2017, with a lot of innovations and a new four-stroke engine.  The "Sherpa" and "Superclass" series shared the same basic dual-track platform, twin tracks with dual skis up front.  Power for the Sherpa is supplied by a 1.6L in-line four-cylinder gasoline automotive engine. The new Superclass power is provided by a 1.2L 3-cylinder four-stroke gasoline engine.  The "Sherpa" and "Superclass" are designed as working snowmobiles for carrying supplies, pulling cargo sleds, pulling trail grooming implements, carrying several passengers, and negotiating deep snow.  Engine and transmission combination are designed to deliver optimum power to pull or carry large loads while top-end speeds are kept below, depending on the model. The large footprint of the dual tracks and dual skis allows the "Sherpa" and "Superclass" to "float" on top of deep snow and not sink in and get stuck.

Taiga Electric.

Taiga Motors in Montreal created the first commercially produced electric snowmobile. The Taiga TS2 can go from zero to in 3 seconds, with of instant torque. At, the Taiga TS2 is one of the lightest in the industry. Maintains a range of even down past. Direct drive, no transmission. Integrated GPS for easy course mapping & accurate range estimation. DC quick charge (20 min) option. Different options are available for utility, touring, crossover and mountain machines.

Current markets.

, the snowmobile market has been shared between the four large North American makers (Bombardier Recreational Products (BRP), Arctic Cat, Yamaha, and Polaris) and some specialized makers like the Quebec-based AD Boivin, manufacturer of the Snow Hawk and the European Alpina snowmobile.  Higher-powered modern snowmobiles can achieve speeds in excess of. Drag racing snowmobiles can reach speeds in excess of.  Snowmobiles are widely used in arctic territories for travel. However, the small Arctic population means a correspondingly small market. Most snowmobiles are sold for recreational purposes, in places where snow cover is stable during winter. The number of snowmobiles in Europe and other parts of the world is low, but growing.  Snowmobiles designed to perform various work tasks have been available for many years with dual tracks from such manufacturers as Aktiv (Sweden), who made the Grizzly, Ockelbo (Sweden), who made the 8000, and Bombardier who made the Alpine and later the Alpine II. Currently there are two manufacturers of dual-track snowmobiles; Russia's Buran and the Italian Alpina snowmobiles (under the name "Sherpa" and "Superclass").  An odd version of snowmobile is the Swedish "Larven", made by the Lenko Company of Östersund, from the 1960s until the end of the 1980s. It was a very small and basic design, with just an engine in the rear and a track. The driver sat on it and steered using skis on his feet.

Propulsion.

Most modern snowmobiles are powered by either a four- or two-stroke internal combustion engine, with the exception of the Taiga TS2. Historically, snowmobiles have always used two-stroke engines because of their reduced complexity, weight and cost, compared to a similarly powered four-stroke. However, four-stroke powered snowmobiles have been gaining popularity steadily in the last fifteen or so years, with manufacturer Yamaha producing four-stroke snowmobiles only. The Whistler Blackcomb ski resort is testing Taiga's electric snowmobiles with lower noise, and similar vehicles exist.

Performance.

The first snowmobiles made do with as little as engines, but engine sizes and efficiency have improved drastically. In the early 1990s, the biggest engines available (typically 600cc-800cc displacement range) produced around. As of 2010, several snowmobiles are available with engines sizes up to 1,200 cc, producing 150+ hp, as well as several models with up to 1,000 cc engines producing closer to. Recently, some models are turbo-charged, resulting in dramatic increase of engine horsepower. Snowmobiles are capable of moving across steep hillsides without sliding down-slope if the rider transfers their weight towards the uphill side, a process called "side-hilling".  Mountain sleds permit access in remote areas with deep snow, which was nearly impossible a few decades ago. This is mainly due to alterations, enhancements, and additions of original trail model designs such as weight, weight distribution, track length, paddle depth, and power. Technology and design advances in mountain snowmobiles have improved since 2003 with Ski-Doo's introduction of the "REV" framework platform. Most two-stroke mountain snowmobiles have a top engine size of 800 cc, producing around, although some 1,000 cc factory machines have been produced. These may not be as popular as many 800 cc models outperform them because of weight and an increase of unneeded power.  Cornices and other kinds of jumps are sought after for aerial maneuvers. Riders often search for non-tracked, virgin terrain and are known to "trailblaze" or "boondock" deep into remote territory where there is absolutely no visible path to follow. However, this type of trailblazing is dangerous as contact with buried rocks, logs, and frozen ground can cause extensive damage and injuries. Riders look for large open fields of fresh snow where they can carve. Some riders use extensively modified snowmobiles, customized with aftermarket accessories like handle-bar risers, handguards, custom/lightweight hoods, windshields, and seats, running board supports, studs, and numerous other modifications that increase power and maneuverability. Many of these customizations can now be purchased straight off the showroom floor on stock models.  Trail snowmobiles improved in the past 15 years as well (many of them borrowed from endeavors to produce winning mountain sleds). Heavy "muscle sleds" can produce speeds in excess of due to powerful engines (up to 1,200 cc stock, and custom engines exceeding 1,200 cc), short tracks, and good traction on groomed trails. Sno-cross oriented snowmobiles often have an engine size cap of 440 or 600 cc, but lighter machines with redesigned stances, formats, and weight control have produced extremely fast and quickly accelerating race sleds.

Environmental impact.

The environmental impact of snowmobiles has been the subject of much debate. Governments have been reacting slowly to noise and air pollution, partly because of lobbying from manufacturers and snowmobilers. For instance, in 1999, the Canadian government adopted the "Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999", but the set of rules governing pollution emissions for off-road vehicles was only released in January 2005. In another example of regulation, only four-stroke snowmobiles are allowed in Yellowstone National Park since a bylaw was recently passed to minimize CO emissions and noise. In Yellowstone, snowmobiles account for 80% of total hydrocarbon emissions and 50% of carbon monoxide emissions in the winter. This is just less than 2% and 1% respectively of the overall annual pollution within the park. Snowmobiles are only allowed to be ridden on the unplowed roads used in the summer, and riding off the roads is prohibited. This accounts for less than 1% (0.002%) of the park area.  In 2005 the US Forest Service published a Travel Management Rule for off-highway vehicles, strengthening the implementation of Executive Orders issued in the 1970s. However, these rules were not applied to snowmobiles. In 2015, following a decision in a lawsuit brought by Winter Wildlands Alliance against the Forest Service, the rules were extended to snowmobiles. National Forests with sufficient snow for winter recreation are now required to designate where OSVs are allowed to travel and where they are prohibited. In doing so, the Forest Service must minimize 1) damage to soil, watershed, vegetation, and other forest resources; 2) harassment of wildlife and significant disruption of wildlife habitats; and 3) conflicts between motor vehicle use and existing or proposed recreational uses of National Forest System lands or neighboring Federal lands.

Air.

Most snowmobiles are still powered by two-stroke engines, although Alpina and Yamaha have been using four-strokes since 2002 and 2003, respectively. However, in the last decade several manufacturers have been successful in designing less polluting motors, and putting most of them in production. Yamaha and Arctic-Cat were the first to mass-produce four-stroke models, which are significantly less polluting than the early two-stroke machines. Alpina offers only four-stroke EFI engines equipped with a catalytic converter and dual oxygen-probe. Bombardier's E-Tec two-stroke motors emit 85% less pollutants than previous carbureted two-strokes. Polaris has developed a fuel-injection technology called "Cleanfire Injection" on their two-strokes. The industry is also working on a direct-injected "clean two strokes" that is better in terms of NO emissions.  Independent researchers, undergraduates and graduate students participate in contests to lessen the impact of emissions from snowmobiles. The "Clean Snow Mobile Challenge" is held yearly at Michigan Technological University regrouping the entries from universities from across United States and Canada. Some of the participants in recent years have been the École polytechnique de Montréal with a Quasiturbine engine and students from École de technologie supérieure of the UQAM with a less polluting two-stroke engine using E85 and direct injection.

Noise.

Maximum noise restrictions have been enacted by law for both production of snowmobiles and aftermarket components. For instance, in Quebec (Canada) noise levels must be 78 decibels or less at 20 meters from a snowmobile path. As of 2009, snowmobiles produce 90% less noise than in the 1960s but there are still numerous complaints. Efforts to reduce noise focus on suppressing mechanical noise of the suspension components and tracks. Arctic Cat in 2005 introduced "Silent Track technology" on touring models such as the T660 Turbo, Bearcat, and some M-Series sleds. Ski-Doo has since then also used comparative "silent track technology" on some models.  The use of aftermarket exhaust systems ("cans" or "silencers") is controversial. These replace the stock muffler with a less restrictive system that is usually claimed to increase power output of the engine. However, these aftermarket exhausts are often much louder than those from the factory, with only some being slightly quieter than a completely open, unbaffled system. Most, if not all, local snowmobile clubs (that maintain and groom trail systems) do not recommend them because of noise. Local and state authorities have set up checkpoints on high-traffic trails, checking for excessively loud systems and issuing citations. Typically these systems are installed on two-stroke powered machines (giving the distinctive "braap" sound); however, in recent years aftermarket companies have released silencers for four-stroke models as well.

Importance in isolated communities.

Since the invention of snowmobiles, isolated communities of northern North America have always had a demand for them. However, the early snowmobiles designs were not economical or functional enough for the harsh environment of northern North America. Joseph-Armand Bombardier started producing the Ski-Doo in 1959 at the request of a priest. The priest had asked Bombardier to make an economical and reliable means of winter travel. The Ski-Doo greatly changed life in northern North America's isolated communities, where Ski-Doo replaced sled dogs by the end of the 1960s. The Ski-Doo also greatly improved communication between isolated communities. Snowmobiles are also called "Snow Machines” in some areas of Alaska.

Work.

In northern North America, historically, isolated communities depended on dog sledding and snowshoeing as their primary method of transportation for hunting during the winter months. The Ski-Doo allowed trappers to travel greater distances faster, allowing them to expand their hunting grounds. Prospectors, mining companies, foresters, backcountry cabin owners, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Canadian Army also found snowmobiles very effective because they were the most economical method of transportation of small loads.

Recreation.

Joseph-Armand Bombardier's tests of Ski-Dog proved that snowmobiling was fun, and snowmobiling became a new form of outdoor recreation. People who once sat dormant throughout winter were now given the opportunity in more outdoor activities.

Economic impact.

According to the International Snowmobile Manufacturers Association, snowmobilers in Canada and the United States spend over $28 billion on snowmobiling each year. This includes expenditures on equipment, clothing, accessories, snowmobiling vacations (lodging, fuel, and food), maintenance and others. Often this is the only source of income for some smaller towns, such as Bralorne, British Columbia, that rely solely on tourism during the summer and winter months. Once a booming gold mining town, Bralorne is now a very small town with a population of 60, and it is relatively inaccessible by car in the winter. The economy relies on visits from snowmobilers, who contribute to the economy by spending money on gas, food, and hotels.

Accidents and safety.

As a result of their inherent maneuverability, acceleration, and high-speed abilities, both skill and physical strength are required to operate a snowmobile.  Snowmobile injuries and fatalities are high compared to those caused by on road motor vehicle traffic. Losing control of a snowmobile could easily cause extensive damage, injury, or death. One such cause of snowmobile accidents is loss of control from a loose grip. If the rider falls off, the loss of control can easily result in the snowmobile colliding with a nearby object, such as a rock or tree. Most snowmobiles are fitted with a cord connected to a kill switch, which would stop the snowmobile if the rider falls off; however, not all riders use this device every time they operate a snowmobile.  Swerving off of the path may result in rolling the snowmobile or crashing into an obstacle. In unfamiliar areas, riders may crash into suspended barbed wire or haywire fences at high speeds. Each year a number of serious or fatal accidents are caused by these factors.  Each year, riders are killed by hitting other snowmobiles, automobiles, pedestrians, rocks, trees, or fences, or falling through thin ice. On average, 10 people a year have died in such crashes in Minnesota alone, with alcohol a contributing factor in many cases. In Saskatchewan, 16 out of 21 deaths in snowmobile collisions between 1996 and 2000 were caused by the effects of alcohol. Wrestler Lindsey Durlacher died in 2011 following surgery for a broken sternum he sustained in a snowmobile accident.  Fatal collisions with trains can also occur when a snowmobile operator engages in the illegal practice of "rail riding", riding between railroad track rails over snow-covered sleepers. Inability to hear the sound of an oncoming train over the engine noise of a snowmobile makes this activity extremely dangerous. Collision with large animals such as moose and deer, which may venture onto a snowmobile trail, is another major cause of snowmobile accidents. Most often such encounters occur at night or in low-visibility conditions when the animal could not be seen in time to prevent a collision. Also even when successful, a sudden maneuver to miss hitting the animal could still result in the operator losing control of the snowmobile.  A large number of snowmobile deaths in Alaska are caused by drowning. Because of the cold weather in many parts of Alaska, the rivers and lakes are generally frozen over during certain times of the year in winter. People who ride early or late in the season run the risk of falling through weak ice, and heavy winter clothing can make it extremely difficult to escape the frozen water. While a snowmobile is heavy, it also distributes its weight at a larger area than a standing person, so a driver who has stopped his vehicle out on the ice of a frozen lake can go through the ice just by stepping off the snowmobile.  The next leading cause of injury and death is avalanches, which can result from the practice of highmarking, or driving a snowmobile as far up a hill as it can go. During the 2018–2019 season, 7 snowmobilers in the United States were killed. Avalanche safety education is critical for those accessing the backcountry.  Risks can be reduced through education, proper training, appropriate gear, attention to published avalanche warnings and avoiding drinking alcohol. In some areas of Western U.S., organizations provide avalanche training, some of which is free. It is recommended that snowmobile riders wear a helmet and a snowmobile suit.

A snowmobile, also known as a motor sled, motor sledge, skimobile, snowscooter, Ski-Doo, or snowmachine, is a motorized vehicle designed for winter travel and recreation on snow. It is designed to be operated on snow and ice and does not require a road or trail, but most are driven on open terrain or trails. Snowmobiling is a sport that many people have taken on as a serious hobby.

Als Schneemobil, Motorschlitten oder Schneemotorrad wird ein Kraftfahrzeug bezeichnet, das auf nicht präparierten Schneepisten ein bis zwei Personen transportieren kann.


Etymology.

In Ancient Greek "kouros" means "youth, boy, especially of noble rank." When a pubescent was received into the body of grown men, as a grown "Kouros", he could enter the initiation fest of the brotherhood (). "Apellaios" was the month of these rites, and Apollo ("Apellon") was the "megistos kouros" (the greatest Kouros).

Purpose.

The kouros type appears to have served several functions. It was previously thought that it was used only to represent the god Apollo, as attested by its depiction on a vase painting in the presence of supplicants. This association with Apollo was supported by the description of the statue of the Pythian Apollo at Samos by Diodoros as "Egyptian in style, with his arms hanging by his sides and his legs parted". However, not all kouroi are images of a deity; many have been discovered in cemeteries where they most likely served as commemorative tombstones of the deceased, also the type was used as a memorial for victors in the games (like trophies), kouroi were used as offerings to the gods, (Pausanias describes the statue of Arrhichion, an Olympic pankratiast, as in the kouros scheme), and some kouroi have been found in sanctuaries other than that of Apollo. Indeed, some kouroi placed in sanctuaries were not inscribed with the name of the god but with a mortal, for example the 'Delphi Twins' Kleobis and Biton were honoured for their piety with matching kouroi.  A direct influence between Egyptian sculptures (in particular the figure of Horus) and the kouros type has long been conjectured, not least because of trade and cultural relations that are known to have existed since the mid-seventh century BCE. A 1978 study by Eleanor Guralnick applied stereophotogrammetric measurement and cluster analysis to a number of Greek and Egyptian statues and found the correlation between the Second Canon of the 26th Dynasty and Greek kouroi to be widely distributed but not universal.

Origin and evolution.

The problem of the evolution of the kouros type is inevitably linked to that of the overall development of monumental Archaic Greek sculpture. There are fundamentally two schools of thought on how those Daedalic forms, some of which we know of only from the literature (kolossos, bretas, andrias and xoanon), became the free-standing sculpture in around the 6th century; namely, that it was a response to the internal development of Greek types and religious needs or a product of foreign influence. For an external cause for change, possible sources of influence have been cited, such as Egypt, Anatolia and Syria, with the strongest case made for Egypt. It is known that the Greeks had longstanding trade relations with Egypt prior to the founding of the Greek entrepôt of Naukratis in the mid-7th century, where the Greeks could have learned Egyptian sculpting methods.  The work of Guralnick along with the previous studies by Erik Iversen and Kim Levin have added considerably to the argument for an imitation by Greek sculptors of Egyptian sculpture. The system of proportion in the second Egyptian canon of the Saite period consisted of a grid of twenty-one and one-fourth parts, with twenty-one squares from the soles of the feet to a line drawn through the centre of the eyes. The grid was applied to the surface of the block being carved, allowing the major anatomical features to be located at fixed grid points. Iversen has shown that the New York kouros conforms to this ratio of proportion. It was Guralnick, however, who developed this discovery by comparing other kouroi by means of cluster and Z-score profile analysis to the Egyptian Canon II and a control group composed of statistically average Mediterranean men. As a result, she has identified two strains within methods of proportioning in sixth century kouroi, where the majority follow the general line of evolution from the foreign model towards an idealized human norm.

Attributes and meaning.

Kouroi are beardless, take a formulaic advancing posture, and are most often nude. Taking from the style of Egyptian figures, Greek kouroi often have their left leg extended forward as though walking; however, the figurine looks as though it could be either standing still or taking a long stride. A small number of early kouroi are belted around their waists, a practice that died out at the turn of the sixth century. Such belts have traditionally been assumed to be an abbreviated symbol of a more complex costume, however fully clothed contemporary figures also exist, suggesting that it was not just a sculptor's shorthand for clothing but a signifier in itself. Art historian Brunilde Ridgway suggests in her 1977 "The Archaic Style in Greek Sculpture" that this may have been an attribute of Apollo, athleticism or magical powers, though its iconography remains obscure. Further, there is the question of the nudity of the kouros and if this is also an attribute. Again this may have represented athletic or heroic nudity – immortalising the youth as he appeared in the palaestra, but no examples have been found at Olympia nor do they bear any allusion to athletic equipment.  As well as being found in the sanctuaries of Apollo at Delphi, Delos and Mt. Ptoion, kouroi have been found dedicated at the sanctuaries of Hera at Samos, and of Athena and Poseidon at Sounion, so the contention that they depict Apollo is at the very least problematic. However, the majority are from Apollonian sites and dedicated to that god, which has led Ridgway to suggest that the early, belted form of the kouros-type statue was introduced in the late seventh century as a replacement for the colossal representation of Apollo. Over time, the votive and funerary functions of the sculpture became divorced whilst its attributes were shed and its form became more generic until, in the late sixth century, it could serve a number of uses depending on context and location. This 'polyvalent' argument, initially put forth by historian Jean Ducat, was elaborated by art historian Andrew Stewart, who contends the distribution of kouroi coincides with city-states where the aristocracy were in ascendancy and that this alternation between the divine and the memorial was an identification of aristocratic "arete" with the immortal.

Development.

The earliest extant examples may be the two life-sized marble figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos dating from the second or third quarter of the seventh century. The canonical form of the kouros persists until the beginning of the classical period, by which time artists had achieved a high degree of anatomical verisimilitude, if not naturalism, as can be observed on such transitional works as the Kritios Boy, c. 480 BC.  The absolute chronology of the kouros form is uncertain; none of the sculptures have secure dates. Further there is a strong homogeneity across the various regional schools: where anatomical innovations were adopted they seem to have spread quickly amongst the different workshops so that "regional distinctions become merged in a common progression". Consequently, the development of the kouros type as we now understand it is based on the relative chronology delineated by Gisela Richter. She distinguishes six groups by their common anatomical features, with particular reference to the major muscle groups as illustrated in the écorchés to the right.

Sounion group.

C. 615–590 BC: the dates of this period are tentative, roughly late seventh-early sixth century, which Richter infers from the duration of development necessary for the previous generations from the more securely dated Tenea-Volomandra group. Additionally she notes a similarity of sculpture from this time to early Athenian pottery, particularly the Nessos amphora and the human figures on the Horse amphorae. She also detects a resemblance between the New York-Sounion kouroi and an early Corinthian pyxis of the last quarter of the seventh century. Notable works of the time include the New York kouros (Met 32.11.1), Dermys and Kittylos (NAMA 56), Delphi Twins (Delphi Mus. 467 and 1524), the Sounion kouros, and the Delos colossus.  The conception of form in this period is abstract and geometrical, emphasis is on architectural shape and the interrelation of parts which favoured expressive pattern over realism. Figures display the four faces of the block from which they are carved, their form is cubic with details incised, and their anatomy is only partially understood. Harmony and expressive pattern are the goal, and as such the proportions are abnormal. The torso is four-sided and flat, the back is higher than chest with the vertebral column expressed as a straight line. The skull is undeveloped; flat at the back and often on top. The ear is carved in one plane, and highly stylized. Tragus is knob like, either on cheek or lobe. Antitragus is not indicated. The eyes are large and flat, canthus is not marked, lachrymal caruncle is not indicated. The mouth is horizontal, with lips on same plane, and corners of mouth forming triangular depressions. Hair is arranged in parallel beaded tresses, which rarely radiates from the vertex. The Sterno-mastoids, when marked, are indicated by grooves running to the sternal notch. There is no indication of swelling of trapezius on the outline of shoulders. The clavicles are flat ridges along whole course of shoulders. Median line is sometimes marked by a groove from sternal notch to navel. The lower boundary of the thorax has the shape of a pointed arch. Rectus abdominis is formed by three or more transverse divisions above navel. The navel is generally a knob in a circular groove. Serratus magnus is not indicated. The shoulder blades are outlined by grooves on the surface of back. The erector spinae attachment to posterior part of the iliac crest is sometimes indicated by grooves in the lumbar regions. Forearm is supinated, with palm towards the body. Arms often separated from body between armpit and hand. Thumbs are large. Vastus internus descends to about the same level as vastus externus, the shin is vertical, and the malleoli are level. Weight is evenly distributed on both legs and the flanks are level.

Orchomenos–Thera group.

C. 590–570 BC: this period witnesses a lull in Attica with perhaps only two identifiable works from the beginning of the era until the second quarter of century (NAMA 3858 and 4181), this might be due to the Solonic reforms and their restriction on the extravagance of private funerals. Activity is more vigorous in Boeotia, especially those from the Ptoan sanctuary and the Orchomenos kouros (NAMA 9), early work there is probably native. Also Corinth, Actium produces one of the best examples of the period (Louvre MNB 767), detailing still of in the form of grooves and ridges but there is the beginning of modeling in the full roundness of natural form. One of the more accomplished products of the time is the Thera kouros (NAMA 8), softer and less muscular in modeling it is more Ionian than Dorian though Thera was a Dorian colony. We may deduce the chronology of this period only if the dates for the Sounion and Volodmera groups are correct since there is no external evidence for the dates of this style; however, we can usefully compare the heads on vase painting of middle Corinthian 600-575 which share the same stolid expression, flat skull, large eyes and horizontal mouth.  The characteristics of this style are as follows. The ear is still carved in one plane, but less stylised. Eyes are not so large as before and more rounded. Mouth is horizontal but no longer always in one plane. The slight protrusions of flanks are sometimes prolonged into a girdle-like ridge, the sculptor occasionally marks the anterior spine of the crest. Shoulder blades are now separate raised planes. The erector spinae sometimes indicated as raised planes. Arms are generally joined to body. The depression over great trochanter is generally omitted. Shin sometimes curves inwards. Left flank is occasionally placed slightly forward.

Tenea–Volomandra group.

C. 575–550 BC: named after an Attic kouros found at Volomandra (NAMA 1906) and a Corinthian specimen from Tenea (Munich 168) this period marks the flowering of the Middle Archaic, and these kouroi are contemporary with such works as the Berlin Standing Kore, the Moschophoros and the Bluebeard Pediment. There is a tension observable in this group between the solid, architectonic quality of early styles and the expressive possibilities of a vigorous, fluid naturalism. The anatomical novelties of this time are as follows. The ear is carved in more than one plane. A roundness of the eye is indicated henceforth. Lips curve upwards and meet more or less at corners, the upper lip protrudes over lower. Construction of neck is generalized, sterno-mastoids when indicated are marked by slightly modelled shapes. On the median line a groove along sternum is generally replaced by modelled shapes and only the linea alba is marked by only a groove. The lower boundary of thorax assumes the shape of a somewhat rounded arch. There is a slight indication of the external oblique bulging over the iliac crest. Shoulder blades are indicated as modelled shapes. The erector spinae is sometimes modelled. Size of thumb is normal. The vastus internus descends lower than vastus externus. Shins curve inwards. The external malleolus is lower and further back than the internal one. The little toes slant inwards. The metatarsal bones are lightly indicated.  The absolute chronology of this period is provided by the dedication of Rhombos on the Moschophoros, which may belong to the same time as a decree referring to the Panathenaia of 566. The Moschophoros is stylistically similar to early in this group giving us an approximate upper limit of 570. Additionally the terracotta kneeling boy found in a well in the Agora and dated by its black-figure pottery sherd stratum to circa 550 shares the flat almond eyes, absence of the trapezium and pointed arch of the lower thorax that characterizes the late Tenea-Volomandra, furnishing us with a tentative lower boundary for the style.

Melos group.

C. 555–540 BC: figures of this period are simpler than before; their muscles are no longer separately accentuated. There is a tendency to flowing contour and a generalization of form. The tragus now sometimes assumes its natural form. The anterior part of the helix, which is directed backwards (crus helicis), is often prominent, and joined with the upper end of tragus. The antitragus is sometimes tentatively indicated, though wrongly placed. The anterior triangle of the neck is now better understood. Navel generally modelled as a depression. Indication of external oblique bulging over iliac crest. The lower boundary of abdomen occasionally forms a deep curve. Forearm and arm sometimes correctly semi-pronated; both directed towards body. Arms sometimes arched towards body below the armpit. Big toe projects a little further or same as second toe. Four smaller toes and toe nails curve gently downwards.  "Astonishingly uniform" the products of this period are found across the Greek world in large quantities. This group is named after the best preserved example of the era (NAMA 1558). The date of this group is conjectured on the basis that one generation would be required for the development of the Melos group style prior to the more securely dated Anavysos-Ptoon style. However Richter argues there may be some relationship to other contemporary Greek art works, namely: the figures on Late Corinthian pottery circa 550 BC. exhibit the same degree of naturalism, and the archaic column sculptures from the Temple of Artemis Ephesos, thought to have been supplied by Croesus of Lydia, share some anatomical features. Of the important works that come done to us there is the colossal kouros from Megara (NAMA 13), a transitional early piece from Boeotia (Thebes 3) and an early Parian example (Louvre MND 888).

Anavysos–Ptoon 12 group.

C. 540–520 BC: this is the era of the Peisistratos dynasty and marks the assumption of Athens as the centre of artistic activity in Greece. In this period of great development the anatomical proportions become normal, the forms modelled and the spine clearly S-shaped. The head is now spherical and well-developed. The tragus takes on its natural form, the antitragus is also indicated. Hair occasionally descends as far as nape of neck. The sterno-mastoids when marked are indicated by modelled shapes. Their attachment to sternum and clavicles is often not indicated, this results in a continuous hollow groove or run above the clavicle. There is an attempt to indicate the backward curve of clavicle. Groove along linea alba is sometimes continued below the navel. The lower boundary of thorax arch is indicated. In the flanks the swelling of the external part is well developed. Lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of small semicircle or deep curve. The erector spinae always indicated as modelled shape. Generally hand and forearm is semi-pronated. Hands are no longer attached to body but joined by short supports. The metacarpal bones are sometimes indicated. The bulge of the vastus internus increases. Toes are no longer parallel but do not recede along a continuous curve. Toes and nails point upwards. The articulation of joints is well rendered. Sometimes the flank of the advanced leg is placed forward and higher than receding leg.  The characteristics of this group can be observed on the Siphnian Treasury which is dated on external evidence before 525 BC, therefore allowing time for the maturation of the style we can date the beginning of this group to, roughly, a generation prior. The earliest is perhaps the Munich kouros (Glyptothek 169) judging by the rendering of some of the muscles. Other significant Attic kouroi in this style are the Anavyssos (Base reads: "Stand and mourn Kroisos, first in line of battle and whom Ares [God of War] killed")(NAMA 3851), the akropolis torso (Akropolis 665, 596), and the Rayet head (Carlsberg Glyptothek 418). The island of Keos supplies us with one of the best examples of the time (NAMA 3686), notable for its advanced rendering of the back where the greatest protrusion of the back is level with that of the chest. Keos was likely under the cultural influence of Athens at this time and this kouros is comparable to and chronologically close to the Anavyssos kouros and akropolis head. From the Ptoan sanctuary in Boeotia we have the Ptoon 12 kouros (NAMA), "softer, less sturdy" suggests Richter it is, she asserts, a native Boeotian product and not an Athenian import.

Ptoon 20 group.

C. 520–485 BC: the last stage in the development of the kouros type is the period in which the Greek sculptor attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used it to create a harmonious, proportionate whole. The features that now become expressed are as follows. The lachrymal caruncle is sometimes indicated. Lips curved upwards only in early examples, the upper lip protrudes markedly over the lower and lips are well shaped. Hair is generally short or rolled up behind, it radiates from a point near vertex and carved in wavy strands. The structure of neck is now correct. There is an indication of swelling of trapezium on the outline of shoulder, becoming more pronounced over time. Clavicles assume an s-shape and lose themselves in shoulders. The lower boundary of thorax assumes a semicircular arch. The rectus abdominis, now reduced in number to two, with the top one incorporated into lower boundary of thorax. There is a small raised plane caused by projection of xiphoid appendage sometimes observable at lower end of sternum. Navel has fold of skin above in most examples. The lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of semicircle, and the upper edge of torso with two concave curves becomes regular in form. Forearm and hand correctly pronated. Arms sometimes held free from body. Flanks; occasionally at first later regularly, flank and buttock of supporting leg rise in conformity with action.  This period is framed by the stasis of the Peisistratid era and the beginning of Athenian democracy and the Persian war. The upper limit of this group may be fixed by the sculpture of the temple of Apollo, Delphi. Architecturally earlier than the Hekatompedon of Athens the Delphi temple has a probable date of c.520, thus the kouroi of its pediment which betray the swelling trapezium and semicircular lower boundary of the abdomen can be associated with later examples of the group. Yet these same youths have a grooved, narrow lower boundary to the thorax and their flanks are level, suggesting that they are early specimens of the style. Richter names this group after the kouros Ptoon 20, NAMA 20, which is likely a Boeotian work dedicated by Pythias of Akraiphia and Aischrion to Apollo of the silver bow. This along with the torso form Eutresis (Thebes 7) indicate a vigorous Boeotian school of sculpture which may have existed to serve the Ptoan sanctuary. Attic production is considerable up to c.500 BC after which it seems to peter out. Important late kouroi from Athens include the Aristodikos kouros (Ptoon 20 group, NAMA 3938), an akropolis statuette (NAMA 6445) and the bronze Apollo from Piraeus.

A kouros (,, plural kouroi) is the modern term given to free-standing ancient Greek sculptures that first appear in the Archaic period in Greece and represent nude male youths. In Ancient Greek "kouros" means "youth, boy, especially of noble rank". Although Kouroi have been found in many ancient Greek territories, they were especially prominent in Attica and Boiotia. The term "kouros" was first proposed for what were previously thought to be depictions of Apollo by V. I. Leonardos in 1895 in relation to the youth from Keratea, and adopted by Henri Lechat as a generic term for the standing male figure in 1904. Such statues are found across the Greek-speaking world; the preponderance of these were found in sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoion, Boeotia, alone. These free-standing sculptures were typically marble, but the form is also rendered in limestone, wood, bronze, ivory and terracotta. They are typically life-sized, though early colossal examples are up to 3 meters tall.

Kouros, auch Kuros, (; Plural "Kouroi" „Knabe, junger Mann“) ist die moderne Bezeichnung für die Statue eines jungen Mannes in der griechischen Kunst der Archaik. Das weibliche Pendant bezeichnet man als Kore. Das Schema des in der Regel unbekleideten Kouros war im ganzen griechischen Kulturraum verbreitet und vor dem 8. Jahrhundert v. Chr. bekannt. Die 54 cm hohe Figur des „Kouros von Palaikastro“, 1987 bis 1990 auf Kreta gefunden, belegt, dass das eigentliche Schema schon vor der Eroberung der Insel durch die Mykener und somit vor den Dunklen Jahrhunderten zur Anwendung kam. Das Kouros-Schema blieb eines der Leitmotive griechischer Kunst bis zum Einsetzen des Strengen Stils um 490/80 v. Chr., der die klassische Kunst einleitete.


Method.

Electrofishing relies on two electrodes which deliver direct current at high-voltage from the anode to the cathode through the water. When a fish encounters a large enough potential gradient on this path, it becomes affected by the electricity. Usually pulsed direct current (DC) is applied, which causes galvanotaxis in the fish. Galvanotaxis is uncontrolled muscular convulsion that results in the fish swimming towards the anode. At least two people are required for an effective electrofishing crew: one to operate the anode, and the other to catch the stunned fish with a dip net.

Types.

There are three types of electrofishers: backpack models, tote barge models, and boat mounted models, sometimes called a stunboat.  Backpack electrofisher generators are either battery or gas powered. They employ a transformer to pulse the current before it is delivered into the water. The anode is located at the end of a long, two meter pole and is usually in the form of a ring. The cathode is a long, three meter braided steel cable that trails behind the operator. The electrofisher is operated by a deadman's switch on the anode pole. There are a number of safety features built into newer backpack models, such as audible speakers that sound when the unit is operating, tilt-switches that incapacitate the electrofisher if the backpack is tilted more than 45 degrees, and quick-release straps to enable the user to quickly remove the electrofisher in the event of some emergency.  When boat electrofishing, the boat itself is the cathode, and the anode(s) are generally mounted off the bow. The stunned fish swim toward the anode, where they are caught alive using a dip net. Towed barge electrofishers operate similarly to backpack electrofishers, with the exception that the generator is located on a floating barge instead of on a backpack. Often the barge can be left stationary on the shore and longer cathodes and anodes allow the crew to sample large areas. Barge electrofishers often employ gas-powered generators since a user does not have to carry the extra weight on his or her back.  A method of electrofishing using illegally diverted electricity from overhead electric lines is prevalent in parts of the Indian State of Kerala. This can result in accidental deaths due to electrocution.

Effectiveness.

The effectiveness of electrofishing is influenced by a variety of biological, technical, logistical, and environmental factors. The catch is often selectively biased as to fish size and species composition. When using pulsed DC for fishing, the pulse rate and the intensity of the electric field strongly influence the size and nature of the catch. The conductivity of the water influences the shape and extent of the electric field and thus affects the field's ability to induce capture-prone behavior in the fish.  It can also cause injury to the fish. The electricity causes muscle spasms that damage the vertebrae. For unknown reasons, this is more common and severe in longer fish.

Legality.

While electrofishing is used by multiple government agencies, it may be illegal to use it as a form of recreational fishing. This method can be considered poaching. For example, in Florida, it is illegal statewide as recreational use.

Electrofishing uses direct current electricity flowing between a submerged cathode and anode. This affects the movement of the fish so that they swim toward the anode, where they can be caught.

Elektrofischen (auch "Pulsfischerei") ist eine Fischfang-Methode, bei der elektrischer Strom zum Fang der Fische eingesetzt wird. Dabei wird mit Hilfe eines "Elektrofanggerätes" ein Gleichstrom oder Impulsstrom durch das Wasser geleitet, und bei sachgemäßer Anwendung schwimmen die im Stromkreis befindlichen Fische zur Anode, wo sie eingesammelt werden können.


Early life.

Plummer was born on December 13, 1929, in Toronto, Ontario. He is the only child of John Orme Plummer, who sold stocks and securities, and his wife Isabella Mary (née Abbott), who worked as secretary to the Dean of Sciences at McGill University, and who was the granddaughter of Canadian Prime Minister Sir John Abbott. On his father's side, Plummer's great-uncle was patent lawyer and agent F. B. Fetherstonhaugh. Plummer is also a second cousin of British actor Nigel Bruce, known for portraying Doctor Watson to Basil Rathbone's Sherlock Holmes.  Plummer's parents divorced shortly after his birth, and he was brought up largely by his mother in the Abbott family home in Senneville, Quebec, outside of Montreal. He speaks both English and French fluently. As a schoolboy, he began studying to be a concert pianist, but developed a love for theatre at an early age, and began acting while he was attending the High School of Montreal. He attended McGill where he also took up acting, after watching Laurence Olivier's film "Henry V" (1944). In 1946, he caught the attention of "Montreal Gazette"'s theatre critic Herbert Whittaker with his performance as Mr Darcy in the Montreal High School production of "Pride and Prejudice". Whittaker was also amateur stage director of the Montreal Repertory theatre, and he cast Plummer at age 18 as Oedipus in Jean Cocteau's "La Machine infernale".

Stage career.

Broadway.

Plummer made his Broadway debut in January 1953 in "The Starcross Story", a show that closed on opening night. His next Broadway appearance, "Home is the Hero", lasted 30 performances from September to October 1954. He appeared in support of Broadway legend Katharine Cornell and film legend Tyrone Power in "The Dark Is Light Enough", which lasted 69 performances from February to April 1955. The play toured several cities, with Plummer serving as Power's understudy. Later that same year, he appeared in his first Broadway hit, opposite Julie Harris (who won a Tony Award) in Jean Anouilh's "The Lark". After appearing in "Night of the Auk", which was not a success, Plummer appeared in Elia Kazan's successful Broadway production of Archibald MacLeish's Pulitzer Prize-winning play "J.B."; Plummer was nominated for his first Tony as Best Actor in Play. ("J.B." also won Tonys as Best Play and for Kazan's direction.)  Plummer appeared less frequently on Broadway in the 1960s as he moved from New York to London. He appeared in the title role in a 1963 production of Bertolt Brecht's "The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui", which did not succeed, but he had a great success in Peter Shaffer's "The Royal Hunt of the Sun", playing conquistador Francisco Pizarro to David Carradine's Atahuallpa; both performances were "stunning," as Plummer did wonders "of extraordinary beauty and deep pain" in playing his complex character. (In the "1969 film adaptation", Plummer would take the title role.) From May to June 1973, he appeared on Broadway as the title character in "Cyrano", a musical adaptation of Edmond Rostand's 1897 play "Cyrano de Bergerac" by Anthony Burgess and Michael J. Lewis. For that performance, Plummer won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical and a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance. Later that year, he played Anton Chekhov in Neil Simon's adaptation of several Chekhov short stories, "The Good Doctor".  In the 1980s, he appeared on Broadway in two Shakespearean tragedies, "Othello", playing Iago to James Earl Jones' Moor, and the title role in "Macbeth" with Glenda Jackson playing his lady. His Iago brought him another Tony nomination. He appeared with Jason Robards in the 1994 revival of Harold Pinter's "No Man's Land" and had great success in 1997 in "Barrymore", which he also toured with after a successful Broadway run. His turn as John Barrymore brought him his second Tony Award (this time as Best Actor in Play) and a Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Actor in a Play. He was nominated for a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for his 2004 "King Lear" and for a Tony playing Henry Drummond in the 2007 revival of "Inherit the Wind".

Stratford Festival.

Plummer made his debut at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in 1956, playing the title role in "Henry V", which subsequently was performed that year at the Edinburgh Festival. He played the title role in "Hamlet" and Sir Andrew Aguecheek in "Twelfth Night" at Stratford in 1957. The following year, he played Leontes in "The Winter's Tale", Bardolph in "Henry IV, Part 1", and Benedick in "Much Ado About Nothing". In 1960, he played Philip the Bastard in "King John" and Mercutio in "Romeo and Juliet". In 1962, he played the title roles in both "Cyrano de Bergerac" and "Macbeth", returning in 1967 to play Mark Antony in "Antony and Cleopatra".  In 2002, he appeared in a lauded production of "King Lear", directed by Jonathan Miller. The production successfully transferred to New York City's Lincoln Center in 2004. He returned to the stage at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in August 2008 in a critically acclaimed performance as Julius Caesar in George Bernard Shaw's "Caesar and Cleopatra" directed by Tony winner Des McAnuff; this production was videotaped and shown in high-definition in Canadian cinemas on January 31, 2009 (with an encore presentation on February 23, 2009) and broadcast on April 4, 2009 on Bravo! in Canada. Plummer returned to the Stratford Festival in the summer of 2010 in "The Tempest" as the lead character, Prospero (also videotaped and shown in high-def in cinemas), and again in the summer of 2012 in the one-man show, "A Word or Two", an autobiographical exploration of his love of literature. In 2014, Plummer presented "A Word or Two" again, at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles.

United Kingdom.

In April 1961, he appeared as Benedick in "Much Ado About Nothing" with the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He also appeared with the RSC in May 1961 in the lead role of "Richard III". He made his London debut on June 11, 1961, playing King Henry II in Jean Anouilh's "Becket" with the RSC at the Aldwych Theatre, directed by Peter Hall. The production later transferred to the Globe for a December 1961 to April 1962 run. For his performance, Plummer won the Evening Standard Award for Best Actor.  From June 1971 to January 1972, he appeared at the National Theatre, acting in repertory for the season. The plays he appeared in were Jean Giraudoux's "Amphitryon 38" directed by Laurence Olivier; Georg Büchner's "Danton's Death" (director Jonathan Miller); Adrian Mitchell's "Tyger"; Luigi Pirandello's "The Rules of the Game"; and Eugene O'Neill's "Long Day's Journey into Night" at the New Theatre in London.

Other venues.

Edward Everett Horton hired Plummer to appear as Gerard in the 1953 road show production of André Roussin's "Nina", a role originated on Broadway by David Niven in 1951. He appeared as Jason opposite Dame Judith Anderson in Robinson Jeffers' adaptation of "Medea" at the Theatre Sara Bernhardt in Paris in 1955. The American National Theatre and Academy production, directed by Guthrie McClintic, was part of Le Festival International.  Also in 1955, he played Mark Antony in "Julius Caesar" and Ferdinand in "The Tempest" at the American Shakespeare Festival (Stratford, Connecticut). He returned to the American Shakespeare Festival in 1981 to play the title role in "Henry V".  Plummer appeared in "Lovers and Madmen" at the Opera House, Kennedy Center, Washington, D.C. in 1973 and in "Love and Master Will" at the same venue in 1975. "Love and Master Will" consisted of selections from the works of William Shakespeare on the subject of love, arranged by Plummer. His co-stars were Zoe Caldwell, Bibi Andersson and Leonard Nimoy. Plummer played "Edgar" in E. L. Doctorow's "Drinks before Dinner" with the New York Shakespeare Festival at the Public/Newman Theatre in New York City in 1978.

Film career.

Early films.

Plummer's film career began in 1958 when Sidney Lumet cast him as a young writer in "Stage Struck". That same year, Plummer played the lead in Nicholas Ray's film "Wind Across the Everglades".  He did not appear on screen again for six years, until he played the Emperor Commodus in Anthony Mann's epic "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964).  His next film, the Oscar-winning "The Sound of Music", made cinematic history, becoming the all-time top-grossing film, eclipsing "Gone with the Wind".  He was in "Inside Daisy Clover" (1965), then played World War Two agent Eddie Chapman in "Triple Cross" (1966) and had a support role as Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in "The Night of the Generals" (1967). Plummer was cast to replace Rex Harrison for the film adaptation of "Doctor Dolittle". This decision was later reversed, but Plummer was nonetheless paid $87,500 for signing the contract. At the same time, Plummer was performing in the stage play "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" and his whole "Dolittle" participation was so brief that Plummer never missed a performance.

"The Sound of Music".

Plummer remains widely known for his portrayal of Captain Von Trapp due to the box office success and continued popularity of "The Sound of Music" (1965), a role which he once described as "so awful and sentimental and gooey". He found all aspects of making the film unpleasant, except working with Andrews, and he avoids using its name, instead calling it "that movie", "S&M", or "The Sound of Mucus". He declined to attend the 40th Anniversary cast reunion, but he did provide commentary on the 2005 DVD release. He relented for the 45th anniversary and appeared with the full cast on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" on October 28, 2010.  In 2009, Plummer said that he was "a bit bored with the character" of Captain von Trapp. "Although we worked hard enough to make him interesting, it was a bit like flogging a dead horse. And the subject matter is not mine. I mean, it can't appeal to every person in the world." However, he admits that the film itself was well made and is proud to be associated with a film with such mass appeal. "But it was a very well-made movie, and it's a family movie and we haven't seen a family movie, I don't think, on that scale for ages."

Established career.

Plummer had the title role in "Oedipus the King" (1968) and "The High Commissioner" (1968), playing an Australian in the latter. Plummer was one of many stars in "Battle of Britain" (1969) and was Atahualpa in "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" (1969).  Plummer had the lead in a musical, "Lock Up Your Daughters" (1969) and was the Duke of Wellington in "Waterloo" (1970). "The Pyx" (1973) was his first Canadian film. Plummer appeared in "The Man Who Would Be King" (1975) (playing Rudyard Kipling), "The Return of the Pink Panther" (1975), "Aces High" (1976), "The Silent Partner" (1978), "International Velvet" (1978), "Murder by Decree" (1979) (playing Sherlock Holmes), "Somewhere in Time" (1980), "Eyewitness" (1981), "Dragnet" (1987), "Shadow Dancing" (1988), "" (1991), "Malcolm X" (1992), "Wolf" (1994), "Dolores Claiborne" (1995), "12 Monkeys" (1995), "Syriana" (2005), "Must Love Dogs" (2005), "The New World" (2005), "The Lake House" (2006) and "Remember" (2015).  One of Plummer's most critically acclaimed roles was that of television journalist Mike Wallace in Michael Mann's biographical film "The Insider" (1999), for which he was honoured with several critics' awards for Best Supporting Actor, though a corresponding Academy Award nomination did not materialize.  Other successes include his roles as Dr. Rosen in Ron Howard's Academy Award-winning "A Beautiful Mind" (2001), Arthur Case in Spike Lee's film "Inside Man" (2006), and the philosopher Aristotle in "Alexander", alongside Colin Farrell. In 2004, Plummer played John Adams Gates in "National Treasure".  Plummer has also done some voice work, such as his role of Henri the pigeon in "An American Tail" (1986), the villainous Grand Duke of Owls in "Rock-a-Doodle" (1991), the antagonistic Charles Muntz in "Up" (2009), and the elder leader 1 in the Tim Burton-produced action/science fiction film "9" (2009). He also served as the narrator in Philip Saville's film "The Gospel of John" (2003).  In 2019, he starred as murder mystery writer Harlan Thrombey in Rian Johnson's detective film "Knives Out".

Academy Award nominations.

In January 2010, Plummer received his first Academy Award nomination for his portrayal of author Leo Tolstoy in "The Last Station" (2009). Speaking to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in an interview that aired on March 7, 2010, Plummer added, tongue-in-cheek, "Well, I said it's about time! I mean, I'm 80 years old, for God's sake. Have mercy." On Oscar night, March 7, 2010, however, he lost to Christoph Waltz.  Plummer received his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "Beginners" (2011), and was announced as the winner at the 84th Academy Awards. Plummer's win made him, at age 82, the oldest actor to win an Academy Award. When he accepted the award, he quipped "You're only two years older than me, darling. Where have you been all my life?".

"All the Money in the World".

In November 2017, Plummer, who was director Ridley Scott's original choice to play J. Paul Getty in "All the Money in the World", was cast to replace Kevin Spacey in the then-already completed film. The move came amid numerous sexual harassment and sexual assault allegations made towards Spacey. All scenes that had included Spacey were re-shot with Plummer. Co-stars Mark Wahlberg and Michelle Williams were part of the necessary filming. The decision was made not long before the scheduled release date of December 22. TriStar Pictures intended to meet that release date in spite of the tight re-shooting and editing schedule; it was eventually pushed back to December 25. For his role, Plummer earned Golden Globe, BAFTA and Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor.

Documentaries.

In 1963, he was the subject of a short National Film Board of Canada documentary, "30 Minutes, Mister Plummer", directed by Anne Claire Poirier.  In 2004, Plummer appeared as a presenter in the CPAC documentary series "The Prime Ministers". He appears in the third episode, "John Abbott" (as Plummer is Abbott's great-grandson).  In 2011, he appeared in the feature-length documentary "The Captains". The film, written and directed by William Shatner, sees Shatner interview Plummer at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival Theatre where they talk about their young careers, long lasting friendship, and Plummer's role as Chang in "". The film references that Shatner, two years Plummer's junior, was the other's understudy in a production of "Henry V" at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. When Plummer had fallen ill, Shatner took the stage, earning his first big break.

Television.

Plummer made his Canadian television debut in the February 1953 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation production of "Othello", starring Lorne Greene as the Moor. His American television debut was also in 1953 on a "Studio One" episode entitled "The Gathering Night", as an artist who finds success just as his eyesight begins to fail him. He also appeared throughout the 1950s on both dramatic showcase programs like "The Alcoa Hour", "General Electric Theater", "Kraft Television Theatre" and "Omnibus" and episodic series. In 1956, he appeared with Jason Robards and Constance Ford in an episode entitled "A Thief There Was" of CBS's anthology series "Appointment with Adventure".  In 1958, he appeared in the live television drama "Little Moon of Alban" with Julie Harris, for which he received his first Emmy Award nomination. He also appeared with Harris in the 1958 television adaptation of "Johnny Belinda" and played Torvald Helmer to Harris' Nora in a 1959 television version of Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House".  He also starred in the television adaptations of Philip Barry's "The Philadelphia Story" (1959), George Bernard Shaw's "Captain Brassbound's Conversion" (1960), Jean Anouilh's "Time Remembered" (playing the role of Prince Albert originated by Richard Burton on Broadway), and Edmond Rostand's "Cyrano de Bergerac" (1962). In 1964, his performance of the Gloomy Dane in the BBC production "Hamlet at Elsinore" garnered his second Emmy nomination. Another notable play in which he appeared was the 1974 adaptation of Arthur Miller's "After the Fall", in which he played Quentin (a part originated on Broadway by Jason Robards) opposite Faye Dunaway's Maggie.  He appeared in almost 100 television roles, including appearances as Herod Antipas in "Jesus of Nazareth", the five-time Emmy Award-winning "The Thorn Birds", the Emmy-winning "Nuremberg", the Emmy-winning "Little Moon of Alban" and the Emmy-winning "The Moneychangers" (for which he won his first Emmy Award as Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series).  He co-starred in "American Tragedy" as F. Lee Bailey (for which he received a Golden Globe Award nomination), and appeared in "Four Minute Mile", "Miracle Planet", and a documentary by Ric Burns about Eugene O'Neill. He received an Emmy Award nomination for his performance in "Our Fathers" and reunited with Julie Andrews for a television production of "On Golden Pond". He was the narrator for "The Gospel of John". He also co-starred with Gregory Peck in "The Scarlet and the Black".  He narrated the animated television series "Madeline", for which he received an Emmy Award, as well as the animated television series "The World of David the Gnome".  At the age of 89, he appeared in a leading role in "Departure", a 2019 Canadian-British TV series by Global for NBC Universal about the disappearance of a trans-Atlantic flight.

Other works.

Plummer has also written for the stage, television and the concert-hall. He and Sir Neville Marriner rearranged Shakespeare's "Henry V" with Sir William Walton's music as a concert piece. They recorded the work with Marriner's chamber orchestra the Academy of St Martin in the Fields. He performed it and other works with the New York Philharmonic and symphony orchestras of London, Washington, D.C., Cleveland, Philadelphia, Chicago, Minneapolis, Toronto, Vancouver and Halifax. With Marriner he made his Carnegie Hall debut in his own arrangements of Mendelssohn's incidental music to "A Midsummer Night's Dream".  In 2000, he reprised his role from "" in the video game "". In 2011, he provided the voice of Arngeir, leader of the Greybeards, in "".

Awards and nominations.

In 2016, Plummer received the Canadian Screen Award for Lifetime Achievement.

Honours.

Canadian Honours System  In 1968, he was invested as Companion of the Order of Canada, at the time among Canada's highest civilian honours. In 2001, he received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts. He was made an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts at New York's Juilliard School and has received honorary doctorates from the University of Toronto, Ryerson University, McGill University, the University of Western Ontario, the University of Ottawa, and most recently the University of Guelph. Plummer was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1986 and into Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto in 1998.

Personal life.

Plummer has been married three times. His first wife was the actress Tammy Grimes, who he married in 1956. Their marriage lasted four years, and they had a daughter together, the actress Amanda Plummer (born 1957). However, as he mentions in his autobiography, Plummer was unable to have much contact with his daughter during her early and teenage years, because her mother was adamant about blocking access. He and Amanda, who is his only child, did establish contact after she became an adult, and they now maintain a friendly relationship.  Plummer was next married to journalist Patricia Lewis from May 4, 1962, until their divorce in 1967. Three years after his second divorce, Plummer married actress Elaine Taylor on October 2, 1970. Plummer and Elaine live in Weston, Connecticut. Plummer has no children by either his second or third marriages.  Plummer's memoir, "In Spite of Myself", was published by Alfred A. Knopf in November 2008. Plummer is a patron of Theatre Museum Canada.

Arthur Christopher Orme Plummer (born December 13, 1929) is a Canadian actor whose career has spanned six decades, beginning with his film debut in "Stage Struck" (1958).

Christopher Plummer CC (* 13. Dezember 1929 als "Arthur Christopher Orme Plummer" in Toronto, Ontario) ist ein kanadischer Schauspieler in Film, Fernsehen und Theater. Er gilt als einer der herausragenden Charakterdarsteller seiner Generation und wurde mit zwei Emmy Awards, zwei Tony Awards sowie für seine Rolle in "Beginners" (2011) mit einem Oscar und einem Golden Globe geehrt.


Description.

The many genera of wolf spiders range in body size (legs not included) from less than. They have eight eyes arranged in three rows. The bottom row consists of four small eyes, the middle row has two very large eyes (which distinguishes them from the Pisauridae), and the top row has two medium-sized eyes. Unlike most other arachnids, which are generally blind or have poor vision, wolf spiders have excellent eyesight with their large eyes. The sensory hairs on their legs and bodies give them an acute sense of touch.  Wolf spiders possess grate-shaped "tapeta lucida"; the "tapetum lucidum" is a retroreflective tissue found in eyes. This reflective tissue is only found in the four nonsmall eyes ("secondary eyes") of the wolf spider. Flashing a beam of light over the spider produces eyeshine; this eyeshine can be seen when the lighting source is roughly coaxial with the viewer or sensor. The light from the light source (e.g., a flashlight or sunlight) has been reflected from the spider's eyes directly back toward its source, producing a "glow" that is easily noticed. Wolf spiders possess the third-best eyesight of all spider groups, bettered by jumping spiders of the family Salticidae (which can distinguish colors) and the huntsman spiders.  Wolf spiders are unique in the way that they carry their eggs. The egg sac, a round, silken globe, is attached to the spinnerets at the end of the abdomen, allowing the spider to carry her unborn young with her. The abdomen must be held in a raised position to keep the egg case from dragging on the ground. However, despite this handicap, they are still capable of hunting. Another aspect unique to wolf spiders is their method of care of young. Immediately after the spiderlings emerge from their protective silken case, they clamber up their mother's legs and crowd onto the dorsal side of her abdomen. The mother carries the spiderlings for several weeks before they are large enough to disperse and fend for themselves. No other spiders are currently known to carry their young on their backs for any period of time.  Because they depend on camouflage for protection, they do not have the flashy appearance of some other kinds of spiders. In general, their coloration is appropriate to their favorite habitat.  "Hogna" is the genus with the largest of the wolf spiders. Among the "Hogna" species in the U.S., the nearly solid dark brown "H. carolinensis" (Carolina wolf spider) is the largest, with a body that can be more than long. It is sometimes confused with "H. helluo", which is somewhat smaller and different in coloration. The underside of "H. carolinensis" is solid black, but the underside of "H. helluo" is variegated and has reds, oranges, and yellows with shades of black.  Some members of the Lycosidae, such as "H. carolinensis", make deep, tubular burrows in which they lurk much of the time. Others, such as "H. helluo", seek shelter under rocks and other shelters as nature may provide. They may wander from place to place, so are likely to be attracted into human habitation when the weather starts to turn colder in autumn. As with spiders in general, males of almost any species can sometimes be found inside homes and buildings as they wander in search for females during the autumn.  Many smaller genera of wolf spiders are found in Britain and Ireland. They live in pastures and fields and feed on smaller prey, playing an important role in natural population control that keeps insect numbers in the wolf spiders' vicinity within acceptable levels.

Venom.

Wolf spiders inject venom if continually provoked. Symptoms of their bites include swelling, mild pain, and itching. In the past, necrotic bites have been attributed to some South American species, but further investigation has indicated that those problems that did occur were probably actually due to bites by members of other genera. Australian wolf spiders have also been associated with necrotic wounds, but careful study has likewise shown them not to produce such results.

Genera.

, the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera:

Habitats.

Wolf spiders are found in a wide range of habitats both coastal and inland. These include shrublands, woodland, wet coastal forest, alpine meadows, suburban gardens, and homes. Spiderlings disperse aerially; consequently, wolf spiders have wide distributions. Although some species have very specific microhabitat needs (such as stream-side gravel beds or montane herb-fields), most are wanderers without permanent homes. Some build burrows which can be left open or have a trap door (depending on species). Arid-zone species construct turrets or plug their holes with leaves and pebbles during the rainy season to protect themselves from flood waters. Often they are found in man-made locations such as sheds and other outdoor equipment.

In culture.

The Carolina wolf spider ("H. carolinensis") is the official state spider of South Carolina, designated as such in 2000. South Carolina is the only U.S. state that recognizes a state spider.

Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae, from the Ancient Greek word "" meaning "wolf". They are robust and agile hunters with excellent eyesight. They live mostly in solitude and hunt alone, and do not spin webs. Some are opportunistic hunters pouncing upon prey as they find it or even chasing it over short distances. Some wait for passing prey in or near the mouth of a burrow.

Die Wolfsspinnen (Lycosidae) sind eine Webspinnenfamilie innerhalb der Überfamilie der Lycosoidea und umfasst aktuell 124 Gattungen mit mehr als 2443 Arten.