Origins.

In Ancient Greek the word "praxis" (πρᾶξις) referred to activity engaged in by free people. The philosopher Aristotle held that there were three basic activities of humans: "theoria" (thinking), "poiesis" (making), and "praxis" (doing). Corresponding to these activities were three types of knowledge: theoretical, the end goal being truth; poietical, the end goal being production; and practical, the end goal being action. Aristotle further divided the knowledge derived from praxis into ethics, economics, and politics. He also distinguished between "eupraxia" (εὐπραξία, "good praxis") and "dyspraxia" (δυσπραξία, "bad praxis, misfortune").

Marxism.

Young Hegelian August Cieszkowski was one of the earliest philosophers to use the term "praxis" to mean "action oriented towards changing society" in his 1838 work "Prolegomena zur Historiosophie" ("Prolegomena to a Historiosophy"). Cieszkowski argued that while absolute truth had been achieved in the speculative philosophy of Hegel, the deep divisions and contradictions in man's consciousness could only be resolved through concrete practical activity that directly influences social life. Although there is no evidence that Karl Marx himself read this book, it may have had an indirect influence on his thought through the writings of his friend Moses Hess.  Marx uses the term "praxis" to refer to the free, universal, creative and self-creative activity through which man creates and changes his historical world and himself. Praxis is an activity unique to man, which distinguishes him from all other beings. The concept appears in two of Marx's early works: the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 and the Theses on Feuerbach (1845). In the former work, Marx contrasts the free, conscious productive activity of human beings with the unconscious compulsive production of animals. He also affirms the primacy of praxis over theory, claiming that theoretical contradictions can only be resolved through practical activity. In the latter work, revolutionary practice is a central theme:  Marx here criticizes the materialist philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach for envisaging objects in a contemplative way. Marx argues that perception is itself a component of man's practical relationship to the world. Society cannot be changed by reformers who understand its needs, only by the revolutionary praxis of the mass whose interest coincides with that of society as a whole - the proletariat. To understand the world does not mean considering it from the outside, judging it morally or explaining it scientifically; it means society understanding itself, an act in which the subject changes the object by the very fact of understanding it.  Seemingly inspired by the Theses, the nineteenth century socialist Antonio Labriola called Marxism the "philosophy of praxis". This description of Marxism would appear again in Antonio Gramsci's "Prison Notebooks" and the writings of the members of the Frankfurt School. Praxis is also an important theme for Marxist thinkers such as Georg Lukacs, Karl Korsch, Karel Kosik and Henri Lefebvre, and was seen as the central concept of Marx's thought by Yugoslavia's Praxis School, which established a journal of that name in 1964.

Jean-Paul Sartre.

In the "Critique of Dialectical Reason", Jean-Paul Sartre posits a view of individual praxis as the basis of human history. In his view, praxis is an attempt to negate human need. In a revision of Marxism and his earlier existentialism, Sartre argues that the fundamental relation of human history is scarcity. Conditions of scarcity generate competition for resources, exploitation of one over another and division of labor, which in its turn creates struggle between classes. Each individual experiences the other as a threat to his or her own survival and praxis; it is always a possibility that one's individual freedom limits another's. Sartre recognizes both natural and man-made constraints on freedom: he calls the non-unified practical activity of humans the "practico-inert". Sartre opposes to individual praxis a "group praxis" that fuses each individual to be accountable to each other in a common purpose. Sartre sees a mass movement in a successful revolution as the best exemplar of such a fused group.

Hannah Arendt.

In "The Human Condition", Hannah Arendt argues that Western philosophy too often has focused on the contemplative life ("vita contemplativa") and has neglected the active life ("vita activa"). This has led humanity to frequently miss much of the everyday relevance of philosophical ideas to real life. For Arendt, praxis is the highest and most important level of the active life. Thus, she argues that more philosophers need to engage in everyday political action or praxis, which she sees as the true realization of human freedom. According to Arendt, our capacity to analyze ideas, wrestle with them, and engage in active praxis is what makes us uniquely human.  In Maurizio Passerin d'Etreves's estimation, "Arendt's theory of action and her revival of the ancient notion of praxis represent one of the most original contributions to twentieth century political thought.... Moreover, by viewing action as a mode of human togetherness, Arendt is able to develop a conception of participatory democracy which stands in direct contrast to the bureaucratized and elitist forms of politics so characteristic of the modern epoch."

Education.

Praxis is used by educators to describe a recurring passage through a cyclical process of experiential learning, such as the cycle described and popularised by David A. Kolb.  Paulo Freire defines praxis in "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" as "reflection and action directed at the structures to be transformed." Through praxis, oppressed people can acquire a critical awareness of their own condition, and, with teacher-students and students-teachers, struggle for liberation.  In the Channel 4 television documentary "New Order: Play at Home", Factory Records owner Tony Wilson describes praxis as "doing something, and then only afterwards, finding out why you did it".  Praxis may be described as a form of critical thinking and comprises the combination of reflection and action. Praxis can be viewed as a progression of cognitive and physical actions:  This creates a cycle which can be viewed in terms of educational settings, learners and educational facilitators.  Scott and Marshall (2009) refer to praxis as "a philosophical term referring to human action on the natural and social world". Furthermore, Gramsci (1999) emphasises the power of praxis in Selections from the Prison Notebooks by stating that "The philosophy of praxis does not tend to leave the simple in their primitive philosophy of common sense but rather to lead them to a higher conception of life". To reveal the inadequacies of religion, folklore, intellectualism and other such 'one-sided' forms of reasoning, Gramsci appeals directly in his later work to Marx's 'philosophy of praxis', describing it as a 'concrete' mode of reasoning. This principally involves the juxtaposition of a dialectical and scientific audit of reality; against all existing normative, ideological, and therefore counterfeit accounts. Essentially a 'philosophy' based on 'a practise', Marx's philosophy, is described correspondingly in this manner, as the only 'philosophy' that is at the same time a 'history in action' or a 'life' itself (Gramsci, Hoare and Nowell-Smith, 1972, p. 332).

Spirituality.

Praxis is also key in meditation and spirituality, where emphasis is placed on gaining first-hand experience of concepts and certain areas, such as union with the Divine, which can only be explored through praxis due to the inability of the finite mind (and its tool, language) to comprehend or express the infinite. In an interview for "YES! Magazine", Matthew Fox explained it this way:  According to Strong's Hebrew dictionary, the Hebrew word, "ta‛am", is; properly a taste, that is, (figuratively) perception; by implication intelligence; transitively a mandate: advice, behaviour, decree, discretion, judgment, reason, taste, understanding.

Medicine.

Praxis is the ability to perform voluntary skilled movements. The partial or complete inability to do so in the absence of primary sensory or motor impairments is known as apraxia.

Praxis (from ) is the process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, embodied, or realized. "Praxis" may also refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas. This has been a recurrent topic in the field of philosophy, discussed in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Francis Bacon, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci, Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Jean-Paul Sartre, Paulo Freire, Ludwig von Mises, and many others. It has meaning in the political, educational, spiritual and medical realms.

Das Wort Praxis ist griechischen Ursprungs (griechisch "prâxis" oder "prâgma" und bedeutet ‚Tat, Handlung, Verrichtung‘, aber auch ‚Durchführung, Vollendung, Förderung‘). Es wird im Kontext der Philosophie in unterschiedlicher Bedeutung verwendet.


Life.

Akroyd-Stuart had lived in Australia in his early years. He was educated at Newbury Grammar School (now St. Bartholomew's School) and Finsbury Technical College in London. He was the son of Charles Stuart, founder of the Bletchley Iron and Tinplate Works, joining his father in the business in 1887.

Oil engines.

In 1885, Akroyd Stuart accidentally spilt paraffin oil (kerosene) into a pot of molten tin. The paraffin oil vaporised and caught fire when in contact with a paraffin lamp. This gave him an idea to pursue the possibility of using paraffin oil (very similar to modern-day diesel) for an engine, which unlike petrol would be difficult to be vaporised in a carburettor as its volatility is not sufficient to allow this.  His first prototype engines were built in 1886. In 1890, in collaboration with Charles Richard Binney, he filed Patent 7146 for Richard Hornsby and Sons of Grantham, Lincolnshire, England. The patent was entitled: ""Improvements in Engines Operated by the Explosion of Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and Air"". One such engine was sold to Newport Sanitary Authority, but the compression ratio was too low to get it started from cold, and it needed a heat poultice to get it going.

Hornsby-Akroyd engine.

Akroyd-Stuart's engines were built from 26 June 1891 by Richard Hornsby and Sons as the "Hornsby Akroyd Patent Oil Engine" under licence and were first sold commercially on 8 July 1892. It was the first internal combustion engine to use a pressurised fuel injection system.  The Hornsby-Akroyd engine used a comparatively low compression ratio, so that the temperature of the air compressed in the combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke was not high enough to initiate combustion. Combustion instead took place in a separated combustion chamber, the "vaporizer" (also called the "hot bulb") mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel was sprayed. It was connected to the cylinder by a narrow passage and was heated either by the cylinder's coolant or by exhaust gases while running; an external flame such as a blowtorch was used for starting. Self-ignition occurred from contact between the fuel-air mixture and the hot walls of the vaporizer. By contracting the bulb to a very narrow neck where it attached to the cylinder, a high degree of turbulence was set up as the ignited gases flashed through the neck into the cylinder, where combustion was completed. As the engine's load increased, so did the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advance; to counteract pre-ignition, water was dripped into the air intake.  Hot bulb engines were produced until the late 1920s, often being called "semi-diesels", even though they were not as efficient as compression ignition engines. They had the advantage of comparative simplicity, since they did not require the air compressor used by early Diesel engines; fuel was injected mechanically (solid injection) near the start of the compression stroke, at a much lower pressure than that of Diesel engines.

Oil-engined locomotive.

Richard Hornsby and Sons built the world's first oil-engined railway locomotive LACHESIS for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896. They also built the first compression-ignition powered automobile.  Similar engines were built by Bolinder in Sweden and some of these still survive in canal boats.  Hot bulb engines were built in the USA by the De La Vergne Company of New York City, later the New York Refrigerating Company - inventing the modern refrigerator in 1930, who purchased a licence in 1893.

Akroyd engine and Diesel engine.

Both the Diesel engine, and the Akroyd engine run the same kind of fuel, petroleum oil, which has led to a dispute about whether or not the Diesel engine is based upon the Akroyd engine. The fact that the Diesel engine's operating principle differs from the operating principle Rudolf Diesel describes in his essay "Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor" further contributed to this. The Akroyd engine was the first functional internal combustion engine that could use petroleum oil as fuel. It was operational in 1891, six sears before the Diesel engine ran for the first time. However, after the Diesel engine had proven successful, "Diesel engine" became the synonym for an engine that ran on any sort of petroleum oil. "Oil engines" that used the Akroyd operating principle were called "Semi-Diesel", and the name "Akroyd", which had been associated with oil engines, fell out of use. Therefore, Herbert Akroyd Stuart sought to replace the term Diesel engine with Akroyd engine in the early 20th century.  Herbert Akroyd Stuart had two patents, No. 7146 "Improvements in Engines Operated by the Explosion of Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and Air", and No. 15994. In the former, the Akroyd engine's operating principle is described as follows: "... at the desired part of this compression stroke, the supply of liquid hydrocarbon is forced, in a spray form, on to the heated vaporiser, which almost instantly changes it into a gas...". Early Akroyd engines indeed operated on this principle. Rudolf Diesel had a patent on the combustion process described in his essay (DRP 67207). The Diesel engine does neither operate on the process described in the Akroyd patent, nor on the process described in the DRP 67207 patent. It operates on a different operating principle, also invented by Rudolf Diesel (patented in 1893, DRP 82168), which is why Diesel is in fact the Diesel engine's inventor. However, Diesel never admitted that his engine operated on a "secret" operating principle, and claimed that the Diesel engine operates on the (impossible) operating process described in the DRP 67207 patent.  The key difference between Akroyd and Diesel engine is the ignition: In an Akroyd engine, an ignition device – the so-called "hot bulb" – ignites the fuel, because the compression is too low for compression ignition (<300 kPa). A Diesel engine on the other hand has no ignition devices, the fuel ignites only because of the engine's high compression (>3000 kPa). Since high compression is a key to good efficiency, the Akroyd engine has a much higher fuel consumption (approximately 80% higher) than a Diesel engine.

Death.

In 1900, he moved to Australia and set up a company Sanders & Stuart with his brother Charles, late in life moving back to Yorkshire, England. He died on 19 February 1927 of throat cancer and was buried in All Souls church in Boothtown, Halifax.  The University of Nottingham has hosted the Akroyd-Stuart Memorial Lecture on occasional years in his memory since 1928. One was presented by Sir Frank Whittle in 1946. Akroyd Stuart had worked with Professor William Robinson in the late 19th century, who was professor of engineering from 1890 to 1924 at University College Nottingham.  Akroyd-Stuart also left money to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Royal Aeronautical Society and Institute of Marine Engineering, which provided for their respective bi-annual Akroyd-Stuart Prizes.

Herbert Akroyd-Stuart (28 January 1864, Halifax, Yorkshire, England – 19 February 1927, Halifax) was an English inventor who is noted for his invention of the hot bulb engine, or heavy oil engine.

Herbert Akroyd Stuart (* 28. Januar 1864 in Halifax (West Yorkshire); † 19. Februar 1927 in Halifax) war ein englischer Erfinder. Er meldete unter anderem 1890 in London einen Viertakt-Glühkopfmotor zum Patent an.


History.

The town was first settled around 1780 and was part of the Schuyler Patent of 1788. The town of Poughkeepsie was established in 1788 as part of a general organization of towns in the county. In 1854, part of the western section of the town, already an independent village, became the city of Poughkeepsie. At least two National Historic Landmarks are located in the town: the Vassar College Observatory and the Main Building of Vassar College.

Education.

Vassar College, Dutchess Community College, and Marist College are located in the town of Poughkeepsie.  Our Lady of Lourdes High School is a private, co-educational, Catholic high school located at a former IBM site on Boardman Road.  Poughkeepsie Day School is an independent, co-educational, day school for students from pre-kindergarten (3 years) through grade 12, located at another former IBM site on Boardman Road.  Oakwood Friends School is a private, co-educational middle school and high school located near the western end of State Route 113 (Spackenkill Road).  Spackenkill High School is a co-educational public high school located on Spackenkill Road and has been named a Blue Ribbon School by the U.S Department of Education, which is part of the Spackenkill Union Free School District among Orville A. Todd Middle School, Hagan and Nassau Elementary. Their school mascot is the Spackenkill Spartan. Due to its proximity to the IBM plant nearby, many of the students are direct descendants of "IBMers".  There are several school districts in the immediate area, such as Poughkeepsie city; the town itself has Arlington's, Spackenkill's, and parts of Wappinger's and Hyde Park's districts. The first Arlington High School was in Poughkeepsie before being moved to the more rural Lagrangeville.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, of which is land and, or 8.44%, is water.  The Hudson River, which marks the boundary of Ulster County, forms the majority of the western border of the town. The city of Poughkeepsie occupies the remainder of the town's western border. The town is bordered by Hyde Park to the north, Pleasant Valley to the northeast, LaGrange to the east, and Wappinger to the southeast.  U.S. Route 9, U.S. Route 44 and State Route 55 pass through the town.

Government and emergency services.

Government.

The town of Poughkeepsie operates under a council–manager form of government. The Town Supervisor is the chief administrative officer of the town and village, selected to carry out the directives of the council. The Deputy Supervisor monitors the town's fiscal condition and enforces its ordinances and laws. The Town Supervisor is also involved in the discussion of all matters coming before council yet has no final vote. The Town Board is the legislative body consisting of the Town Supervisor and five council members. The Town Supervisor serves as the presiding officer of the council. The council functions to set policy, approve the annual budget and enact local laws, resolutions and ordinances. The Town Supervisor and Town Clerk are elected officials, as are the Town Council members from the six wards of the town.

Fire.

Three fire departments cover the town of Poughkeepsie: the Arlington Fire District covers most of the town, from the southern end to the LaGrange line, from the city line north, the Fairview Fire Department covers a small section in the northern section of the town near Saint Francis Hospital, and the New Hamburg Fire Department covers the south end. The fire districts operate a total of seven fire stations spread out over the town, as their district covers a very large area. The departments are capable of handling fires, rescues, extrications and natural disasters. The departments operate a varied fire apparatus fleet, along with basic life support and advanced life support emergency medical services (EMS) within the Arlington Fire District. Within the Fairview section, Mobile Life Support Services is contracted to handle advanced life support calls. All EMS transports in the New Hamburg Fire District are covered by Mobile Life Support Services through a contract with the town of Poughkeepsie.

Police.

Police protection is provided by the Town of Poughkeepsie Police Department. When someone calls 911, the call is routed to the Dutchess 911 center in the town of Poughkeepsie, and they route it to the town police department's communications center, who then dispatch the closest unit(s) based on a GPS map.

Medical.

The Mid-Hudson Regional Hospital of Westchester Medical Center is located in the town, and Vassar Brothers Medical Center is located a mile away in the city of Poughkeepsie.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 42,777 people, 14,605 households, and 10,121 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,487.5 people per square mile (574.3/km2). There were 15,132 housing units at an average density of 526.2 per square mile (203.1/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 63.01% White, 38.07% Black or African American, 0.14% Native American, 5.13% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.62% from other races, and 2.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.27% of the population.  There were 14,605 households out of which 32.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 9.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.7% were non-families. 25.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.10.  In the town, the population was spread out with 22.6% under the age of 18, 16.9% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 21.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.3 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $55,327, and the median income for a family was $65,258. Males had a median income of $46,701 versus $31,005 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,589. About 3.3% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.6% of those under age 18 and 5.0% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

Rail.

Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides regular service to Poughkeepsie city. Poughkeepsie also has commuter rail service via the Hudson Line (Metro-North).

Bus.

Dutchess County Public Transit bus system provides service throughout the town.

Poughkeepsie (), officially the Town of Poughkeepsie, is a town in Dutchess County, New York, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 43,341. The name is derived from the native term "Uppuqui" () meaning "lodge-covered", plus "ipis" meaning "little water", plus "ing" meaning "place", all of which translates to "the reed-covered lodge by the little water place", or "Uppuqui-ipis-ing". This later evolved into "Apokeepsing", then into "Poughkeepsing", and finally "Poughkeepsie".

Poughkeepsie ist ein Ort im Dutchess County in New York, Vereinigte Staaten. Im Jahr 2010 hatte die Stadt 43.341 Einwohner. Der Name der Town und der gleichnamigen City ist vom indianischen Ausdruck "Uppu-qui-ipis-in" abgeleitet, was in etwa „reetgedeckte Hütte am Wasser“ bedeutet.


Background.

After the Red Army followed the Soviet diplomatic department, and transferred its most secure communications from radio to telephone landline, the post-World War II Western Allies lost a major Cold War source of information. Operation Gold was hence at least the third tunnel built to aid intelligence in the Cold War period post the end of World War II. From 1948 onwards under Operation Silver, British SIS had undertaken a number of such operations in then still occupied Vienna, the information from which enabled the restoration of Austrian sovereignty in 1955. The KGB later commissioned the Red Army to construct a tunnel to tap into a cable that served the major US Army garrison for Berlin.

Operational agreement.

In early 1951, the CIA undertook an assessment process for replacing lost Soviet radio communications intelligence. Revealing their plans to the British, the SIS, having read the report which included the idea of tapping Soviet telephone lines, revealed the existence of Operation Silver in Vienna.  On the reassignment of CIA agent Bill Harvey to Berlin to explore available options, Reinhard Gehlen, the head of the "Bundesnachrichtendienst", alerted the CIA to the location of a crucial telephone junction, less than underground, where three cables came together close to the border of the American sector of West Berlin. Operation Gold was planned jointly by the SIS and the CIA. Initial planning meetings were held at No. 2 Carlton Gardens, London, from which the West German government were excluded, due to the "highly infiltrated nature" of their service. The resulting agreement was that the US would supply most of the financing and construct the tunnel (as the closest access point was in their sector), whilst the British would use their expertise from Operation Silver to tap the cables and provide the required electronic communications equipment.  One of those who attended the early meetings was George Blake, a mole in the British intelligence apparatus. Blake apparently alerted the KGB immediately, as two of Gehlen's agents were caught trying to get a potential tapping wire across a Berlin canal. The KGB decided to let Operation Gold proceed since, in order to attack the tunnel, the Soviets would have to compromise Blake and they found it preferable to sacrifice some information rather than their valuable agent. The KGB did not inform anyone in Germany, including the East Germans or the Soviet users of the cables, about the taps.

Construction.

In December 1953 the operation was placed under the direction of William King Harvey, a former U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) official who transferred to the CIA. Captain Williamson of the United States Army Corps of Engineers was placed in charge of construction.  The first project was the construction of a "warehouse", which acted as a disguise for a US Army ELINT station. The warehouse, in the Neukölln/Rudow district of the US sector of Berlin, had an unconventionally deep basement at to serve as the staging area for the tunnel. Digging the initial vertical shaft for the tunnel began on 2 September 1954 and was completed on 25 February the following year.  The covert construction of the tunnel under the world's most heavily patrolled border to intersect a series of cable less than below a busy street was an exceptional engineering challenge. Using a shield method of construction, which pushed forward on hydraulic rams, the resultant space was lined with sand and 1,700 cast-iron lining plates. A wooden railway track acted as a guide for the rubber-wheeled construction vehicles, which by end of construction had removed of material. This included a number of evacuations, including when the diggers broke through into an undocumented pre-World War II cesspool and flooded the tunnel. Throughout all stages of construction and in operational use, the entire tunnel was rigged with explosives, designed to ensure its complete destruction. Once complete, the tunnel ran into the Treptow/Altglienicke, where British Army Captain Peter Lunn—a former alpine skier, who was actually the head of the SIS in Berlin—personally undertook the tapping of the three cables. The British also installed most of the electronic handling equipment in the tunnel, which was manufactured and badged as British made.  The final cost of the completed tunnel was over US$6.5M, or equivalent to the final procurement cost of two Lockheed U-2 spy planes.

Operations.

The British and the Americans listened and recorded messages flowing to and from Soviet military headquarters in Zossen, near Berlin: conversations between Moscow and the Soviet embassy in East Berlin and conversations between East German and Soviet officials.  The West was unable to break Soviet encryption at this time. Instead they took advantage of valuable intelligence gained "from unguarded telephone conversations over official channels." "Sixty-seven thousand hours of Russian and German conversations, were sent to London for transcription by a special section staffed by 317 Russian emigres and German linguists. Teleprinter signals, many of them multiplexed, were also collected on magnetic tape and forwarded to Frank Rowlett's Staff D for processing."  To protect Blake, the KGB was forced to keep the flow of information as normal as possible with the result that the tunnel was a bonanza of intelligence collection for the US and Britain in a world that had yet to witness the U-2 or satellite imagery. For an overview of the types of intelligence collected by the tunnel taps, see Appendix B in CIA's declassified (in 1977 and further in 2007) history of the Berlin Tunnel [Clandestine Services History Paper (CSHP), number 150, published internally in CIA in 1968]. Also, the book "Battleground Berlin" reprises in Appendix 5 (1997) the summary of the collection originally compiled in CSHP 150.  According to Budiansky, "The KGB's own high-level communications went on a separate system of overhead lines that could not be tapped without its being obvious, and, concerned above all with protecting Blake as a valuable source inside SIS and unwilling to share its secrets with rival agencies, the KGB had simply left both the GRU and the Stasi in the dark about the tunnel's existence."

Discovery by the Soviets.

When Blake received a transfer in 1955, the Soviets were free to "discover" the tunnel. On 21 April 1956, eleven months after the tunnel went into operation, Soviet and East German soldiers broke into the eastern end of the tunnel, announcing it to the press as a "breach of the norms of international law" and "a gangster act". Newspapers around the world ran photographs of the underground partition of the tunnel directly under the inter-German frontier. The wall had a sign in German and Russian reading "Entry is Forbidden by the Commanding General."  In the planning phase, the CIA and SIS had estimated that the Soviets would cover-up any discovery of the tunnel, through embarrassment and any potential repercussions. However, most world media portrayed the tunnel project as a brilliant piece of engineering. The CIA may have gained more than did the Soviets from the "discovery" of the tunnel. In part, this was because the tunnel was discovered during Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev's state visit to the United Kingdom, and specifically the day before a state banquet with HM Queen Elizabeth II at Windsor Castle. It is suspected that the Soviets and the British agreed to mute media coverage of British participation in the project even though the equipment shown in most photographs was British-built and clearly labelled as such.  Only in 1961, when Blake was arrested, tried and convicted, did Western officials realize that the tunnel had been compromised long before construction had begun. Although DCI Allen Dulles has publicly celebrated the success of Operation Gold in providing order of battle and other information about Soviet and East Bloc activities behind the Iron Curtain, a declassified NSA history implied that NSA may have thought less of the value of the tunnel collection than did the CIA.  In 1996 the Berlin city government contracted a local construction company to excavate from the former American Berlin sector the tunnel approximately, 83 meters, to make way for a new housing development. In 1997 a 12 meter section was excavated under the guidance of William Durie from what had been the Soviet Berlin sector. This section of tunnel is displayed at the Allied Museum. The museum’s claim that this section was retrieved from the American sector is false. The CIA museum received outer tunnel shell elements in 1999 and the International Museum in Washington in 2001.

In later fiction.

Operation Gold forms the background to the novels "The Innocent" by Ian McEwan, "" by T.H.E. Hill and to the film "The Innocent" by John Schlesinger.

Operation Gold (also known as Operation Stopwatch by the British) was a joint operation conducted by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the British MI6 Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) in the 1950s to tap into landline communication of the Soviet Army headquarters in Berlin using a tunnel into the Soviet-occupied zone. This was a much more complex variation of the earlier Operation Silver project in Vienna. Soviet authorities were informed about Operation Gold from the very beginning by their mole George Blake and "discovered" the tunnel in 1956.

Die Operation Gold (bei den Briten auch als Operation Stopwatch bezeichnet) war eine gemeinsame Spionageaktion, die vom amerikanischen CIA und dem britischen Secret Intelligence Service durchgeführt wurde, um ab 1955 in Berlin Telefonleitungen der Deutschen Post der DDR, über die das Hauptquartier der Sowjetischen Armee Gespräche führte, mit Hilfe eines Tunnels anzuzapfen, der unter den sowjetisch besetzten Sektor der Stadt gegraben wurde.


Description.

Chesapeake & Ohio design study.

A series of design studies carried out by Chesapeake and Ohio Railway in the 1950s used the second-generation Talgo design for their car suspensions. The suspension arms for each neighboring pair of cars were attached to a common bogie ("truck") between them, as opposed to having a pair of separate bogies for each car. The bogies rode the common curve between the two cars, centered by traction springs that centered the axle between adjoining car bodies. TurboTrain cars are lower than conventional cars, to lower the center of gravity in relation to the swinging point at the top of the arms. The arms included air springs to smooth out the motion, although it still felt "odd" while the train navigated short turns in switchyards and stations.  Like the earlier articulated trains, this meant that train lengths would be difficult to change. Their solution to this problem was to modify the power cars (engines) to allow the trains to be coupled end-to-end. Since articulated trains required "special" cars at either end anyway (to fill in the otherwise missing bogie), the C&O was double-ended, with a power car at each end. The power cars were organized with their two diesel engines on either side of the train, and the operators cabin in a "pod" on top. This left enough room for a passageway to run between the engines and under the pod to the nose of the car, where a coupling and doors were hidden behind a pair of movable clamshell covers. That way the train could be attached front-to-end with another, providing some of the flexibility in train lengths that coupled cars offered, while still being as lightweight as a normal articulated design.

TurboTrain.

C&O's early work went undeveloped until the 1960s. At that time two major forces began operating that would re-invent the concept as the TurboTrain; one was the US Department of Transportation's desire to update train service in the US as a result of the High Speed Ground Transportation Act of 1965, the other was CN Rail's desire to update their passenger service with the ending of "pooled service" (with CP Rail) between Toronto and Montreal.  United Aircraft (UAC) purchased the C&O patents to enter into the DOT's Northeast Corridor Demonstration Project. The TurboTrain was designed by personnel of the Corporate Systems Center Division (CSC) of UAC, at Farmington, Connecticut. The design was similar to the original C&O version, but modified to use turbine power instead of diesel. The chosen engines were a modified version of the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 (also a UAC division) known as the ST6, downrated from. The PT6 uses a "free turbine" that acts as a torque coupler, so the new design did not require a transmission and was able to drive the powered wheels directly. The power cars had three engine bays on either side of the car and could mount engines in pairs for two to six turbines, depending on the needs of the carrier. Another ST6 drove an alternator to provide 'hotel' electrical power for the train. Each power car had a fuel capacity of.  The turbine engines were smaller and lighter ( with accessories) than the diesels they replaced, so the original power cars ended up being much larger than needed. Instead of a major redesign, UAC re-arranged the interior of the existing layout. The control room "pod" on top was lengthened to produce a viewing area with seating, and additional seating was added along the main level as well. This produced the Power Dome Cars (PDC) that were long (tip of nose to trailing articulated axle, while the Intermediate Cars (IC) were long (axle to axle), considerably shorter than the -long conventional passenger cars of this period.  The ability to connect trains together remained largely unchanged, although the routing of the internal passage changed slightly to rise up into the observation area of the pod, then back down under the control room and from there to the nose. This particular design, with the control cabs on top and couplers hidden behind doorways on the front, is similar to that of the NS Intercity Materieel used in the Netherlands.  The Turbotrains were evaluated by multiple journalists in the Canadian press as having "rail noise that substantially exceeds that of standard equipment" and having poor riding characteristics, especially on curves, with one journalist stating that "the single-axle articulation in practice negotiates curves in a series of short jerks rather than the smooth flowing motion promised in press releases".  The single-axle bogies on the Turbotrain were very mechanically complex and the suspension arms were "telescopic arms which were in essence ball-bearing screw actuators; the suspension of the inside-bearing powered bogies was "especially complex" and attached to the turbines via "an intricate web of mechanical couplings and shafts".

Production and use.

US service.

Two Turbotrains (DOT1 and DOT2) were built at the Pullman Works in Chicago. High-speed testing of the trains was performed from a base at Fields Point in Providence, Rhode Island, using track between Route 128 near Boston and Westerly, Rhode Island (track segments along this section, to this day, are the only areas where Amtrak operates Acela revenue service at 150 mph).  The maiden voyage of the Turbotrain from Chicago to points east occurred on August 1, 1967.  In a competition with a GE powered Metroliner on Penn Central's main-line between Trenton and New Brunswick, New Jersey on December 20, 1967, one of the TurboTrains reached. This remains the world speed record for gas turbine-powered rail vehicles.  On January 1, 1968, the TurboTrain program was transferred from CSC to Sikorsky Aircraft Division (SA) of UAC. The United States Department of Transportation leased both trainsets and contracted with the New Haven Railroad to operate them. The New Haven had been in bankruptcy since July 2, 1961; on January 1, 1969, it was absorbed into the Penn Central Railroad, which inherited the contract. On April 8, 1969, Penn Central placed the equipment in service on the Northeast Corridor between Boston and New York City. The three-car sets carried 144 people and operated at a maximum speed of. The TurboTrains were equipped with third rail shoes for operation into Grand Central Terminal. In their first year of operation the trains' on-time performance approached 90 percent. They covered the in three hours and 39 minutes.  After railroad bankruptcies and amid threats of more, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak) took over passenger service for most U.S. railroads, including the Penn Central, on May 1, 1971. Amtrak continued Turbotrain service between Boston and New York, switching to Pennsylvania Station as its New York terminal. It also briefly ran Turbotrains elsewhere.  In September 1976, Amtrak ceased revenue runs of Turbotrain trainsets and moved them to the Field's Point Maintenance Yard in Providence, Rhode Island pending any possible sales to CN. An additional attempt was made to sell the units to the Illinois Central, but the poor mechanical condition of the trainsets caused the deal to fall through.

Canadian service.

In May 1966, Canadian National Railways ordered five seven-car TurboTrains for the Montreal-Toronto service. They planned to operate the trains in tandem, connecting two trains together into a larger fourteen-car arrangement with a total capacity of 644 passengers. The Canadian trains were built by Montreal Locomotive Works, with their ST6 engines supplied by UAC's Canadian division (now Pratt & Whitney Canada) in Longueuil, Quebec. The Canadian Turbotrains were originally planned to have been in service by the summer of 1967, but technical difficulties with the trainsets delayed passenger service entry until December 12, 1969; the primary failures concerned the auxiliary equipment and caused the power on the trains to go out.  CN and their ad agency wanted to promote the new service as an entirely new form of transit, so they dropped the "train" from the name. In CN's marketing literature the train was referred to simply as the "Turbo", although it retained the full TurboTrain name in CN's own documentation and communication with UAC. A goal of CN's marketing campaign was to get the train into service for Expo 67, and the Turbo was rushed through its trials. It was late for Expo, a disappointment to all involved, but the hectic pace did not let up and it was cleared for service after only one year of testing – most trains go through six to seven years of testing before entering service.  The Turbo's first demonstration run in December 1968, included a large press contingent. An hour into its debut run, the Turbo collided with a truck at a highway crossing near Kingston. Despite the concerns that lightweight trains like the Turbo would be dangerous in collisions, the train remained upright and largely undamaged. Large beams just behind the nose, designed for this purpose, absorbed the impact of the collision and limited the damage to the fiberglass clamshell doors and underlying metal. The train was returned from repairs within a week. No one was killed, though this event has been cited as a main deterrent to Canada's efforts to develop modern passenger rail.  Initial commercial service started soon after. On its first westbound run the Turbo attained 10 minutes outside of Dorval. During speed runs on April 22, 1976, it achieved near Gananoque, the Canadian record to this day. However, in regular passenger service the Turbotrains were limited to 95 mph (153 km/hr) in Canada because of the Canadian route's numerous grade-crossings, estimated at 240 public highway grade-crossings and 700 agricultural or private crossings between Montreal and Toronto.  Technical problems, including brake systems freezing in winter, required a suspension of service in early January 1969. Service resumed in May 1970; however, technical problems again caused the Canadian National to withdraw all Turbotrains from service again in February 1971. At this point, the CN management publicly expressed great dissatisfaction with these trainsets, with one vice-president claiming, "the trains never did measure up to the original contract and they haven't yet"; the manufacturer United Aircraft Company publicly claimed that CN suspended Turbotrain service for relatively minor technical problems. Railroad analysts, including Geoffrey Freeman Allen (editor of Jane's World Railways), noted that the Turbotrains employed too many advanced, derived technologies which had been packed in "without extended practical evaluation in railroad conditions. From transmission to suspension to auxiliaries, far too many vital components seemed to have been translated straight from the drawing board to the series production line.  During the "downtime" CN changed their plans, and in 1971 a rebuild program began, converting the five seven-car sets to three nine-car sets. Several minor changes were added. The engine exhaust fouled the roof windows of the power car, so these were plated over, and a grill was added to the front of the engines just behind the clamshell doors. The remaining power and passenger cars were sold to Amtrak as two 4-car sets. One of those sets sideswiped a freight train on a test run in July 1973 and three of the cars were written off. The sale of the surviving Power Dome Coach car was cancelled, and it stood spare until a sister unit caught fire and burned in September 1975.  The three rebuilt 9-car sets entered service for CN in late 1973. CN ran the Turbos from Toronto-Montreal-Toronto with stops at Dorval, Kingston and Guildwood on the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor. Original train numbers were Train 62 which left Toronto at 12:45 p.m. and arrived in Montreal at 4:44 p.m. Train 63 left Montreal at 12:45 p.m. and arrived in Toronto at 4:44 p.m. (Both were daily trains.) Train 68 left Toronto at 6:10 p.m. and arrived in Montreal at 10:14 p.m., while Train 69 left Montreal at 6:10 p.m. and arrived in Toronto at 10:14 p.m. (The evening trains did not run on Saturdays.) The trip took 3 hours and 59 minutes downtown-to-downtown on trains 62 and 63, while the evening trains were slightly slower, taking four hours and four minutes to complete the run. Turbo service was about a full hour faster than CN's previous express trains, the "Rapido". However, even the runs made by the Turbotrains in the late 1970s still fell substantially short of their intended 120 mph design speed; the fastest average speed for the Turbotrain in regular scheduled Canadian passenger service was an intermediate booking was from Kingston to Guildwood (102 minutes for the 145.2 miles between the two cities nonstop at an average speed of 85.4 mph (137.4 km/hr).  By 1974, after substantial modifications of the gearbox device and pendular suspension, and reinforcement of the sound insulation, the Turbotrains finally took up untroubled service. CN operated the Turbos until 1978, when their passenger operations were taken over by Via Rail, who continued the service.  One of the three remaining trains developed an oil leak and caught fire on the afternoon run from Montréal to Toronto on May 29, 1979. It was stopped west of Morrisburg. It took some time for the fire engines to arrive as they were forced to drive on the track bed. The power car and two coaches were totally destroyed. There were no injuries, although a rapid disembarkation was needed. The train was eventually towed back to the Turcot yard in Montréal and remained there for several years, covered by tarpaulins.  The Turbo's final run was on October 31, 1982, when they were replaced by the all-Canadian LRC trainsets from Bombardier Transportation, which employed conventional diesel-electric locomotives. Although they had an early reputation for unreliability, according to CN's records, the rebuilt TurboTrains had an availability rate of over 97% for their careers with CN and Via. The LRC suffered from similar teething problems, notably with the tilt system locking the cars in a tilted position.  The withdrawal of the Turboliners was also precipitated by the rise in oil prices during the 1973 oil embargo and the following years, which destroyed "one of gas turbine traction's prime advantages, fuel cost economy".  None of the UAC TurboTrains were preserved.

The UAC TurboTrain was an early high-speed, gas turbine train manufactured by United Aircraft that operated in Canada between 1968 and 1982 and in the United States between 1968 and 1976. Amtrak disposed of the trains in 1980. It was one of the first gas turbine powered trains to enter service for passenger traffic, and was also one of the first tilting trains to enter service in North America.

Als TurboTrain werden von der United Aircraft Corporation entwickelte Hochgeschwindigkeitszüge mit Gasturbinenantrieb bezeichnet, die zwischen 1969 und 1976 in den USA sowie zwischen 1968 und 1982 in Kanada zum Einsatz kamen.


History.

The Intel hex format was originally designed for Intel's Intellec Microcomputer Development Systems (MDS) in 1973 in order to load and execute programs from paper tape in order to replace the "paper-intensive" BNPF/BPNF format. Also, it served the purpose of easing the data transmission from customers to Intel for ROM production. The format was used to program (E)PROMs via paper tapes (in "Intellec Hex Paper Tape Format") or to control punched card-controlled EPROM programmers (through the "Intellec Hex Computer Punched Card Format").  Since 1975, it was also utilized by the MCS Series II floppy-disk based ISIS-II systems, using the file extension HEX.

Format.

Intel HEX consists of lines of ASCII text that are separated by line feed or carriage return characters or both. Each text line contains hexadecimal characters that encode multiple binary numbers. The binary numbers may represent data, memory addresses, or other values, depending on their position in the line and the type and length of the line. Each text line is called a "record".

Record structure.

A record (line of text) consists of six fields (parts) that appear in order from left to right:

Color legend.

As a visual aid, the fields of Intel HEX records are colored throughout this article as follows:

Checksum calculation.

A record's checksum byte is the two's complement of the least significant byte (LSB) of the sum of all decoded byte values in the record preceding the checksum. It is computed by summing the decoded byte values and extracting the LSB of the sum (i.e., the data checksum), and then calculating the two's complement of the LSB (e.g., by inverting its bits and adding one).  For example, in the case of the record, the sum of the decoded byte values is + + + + + + = codice_1, which has LSB value codice_1. The two's complement of codice_1 is, which is the checksum byte appearing at the end of the record.  The validity of a record can be checked by computing its checksum and verifying that the computed checksum equals the checksum appearing in the record; an error is indicated if the checksums differ. Since the record's checksum byte is the two's complement — and therefore the additive inverse — of the data checksum, this process can be reduced to summing all decoded byte values, including the record's checksum, and verifying that the LSB of the sum is zero. When applied to the preceding example, this method produces the following result: + + + + + + + = codice_4, which has LSB value codice_5.

Text line terminators.

Intel HEX records are separated by one or more ASCII line termination characters so that each record appears alone on a text line. This enhances legibility by visually delimiting the records and it also provides padding between records that can be used to improve machine parsing efficiency.  Programs that create HEX records typically use line termination characters that conform to the conventions of their operating systems. For example, Linux programs use a single LF (line feed, hex value codice_6) character to terminate lines, whereas Windows programs use a CR (carriage return, hex value codice_7) followed by a LF.

Record types.

Intel HEX has six standard record types:

Named formats.

The original 4-bit/8-bit "Intellec Hex Paper Tape Format" and "Intellec Hex Computer Punched Card Format" supported only record types and.  The "Extended Intellec Hex Format" additionally supports record type.  Special names are sometimes used to denote the formats of HEX files that employ specific subsets of record types. For example:

File example.

This example shows a file that has four data records followed by an end-of-file record:

Variants.

Besides Intel's own extension, several third-parties have also defined variants and extensions of the Intel hex format, including Digital Research (as in the so called "Digital Research hex format"), Zilog, Texas Instruments, Microchip, and c't. These can have information on program entry points and register contents, a swapped byte order in the data fields, and other differences.  The Digital Research hex format for 8086 processors supports segment information by adding record types to distinguish between code, data, stack, and extra segments.  Most assemblers for CP/M-80 (and also XASM09 for the Motorola 6809) don't use record type 01h to indicate the end of a file, but use a zero-length data type 00h entry instead. This eases the concatenation of multiple hex files.  Texas Instruments defines a variant where addresses are based on the bit-width of a processor's registers, not bytes.  Microchip defines variants INTHX8S (INHX8L, INHX8H), INHX8M, INHX16 (INHX16M) and INHX32 for their PIC microcontrollers.  Alfred Arnold's cross-macro-assembler AS, Werner Hennig-Roleff's 8051-emulator SIM51, and Matthias R. Paul's cross-converter BINTEL are also known to define extensions to the Intel hex format.

Intel hexadecimal object file format, Intel hex format or Intellec Hex is a file format that conveys binary information in ASCII text form. It is commonly used for programming microcontrollers, EPROMs, and other types of programmable logic devices. In a typical application, a compiler or assembler converts a program's source code (such as in C or assembly language) to machine code and outputs it into a HEX file. Common file extensions used for the resulting files are.HEX or.H86. The HEX file is then read by a programmer to write the machine code into a PROM or is transferred to the target system for loading and execution.

Das Intel HEX-Format ist ein Datenformat zur Speicherung und Übertragung von binären Daten. Es wird heute hauptsächlich verwendet, um Programmierdaten für Mikrocontroller bzw. Mikroprozessoren, EPROMs und ähnliche Bausteine zu speichern. Es kann aber auch zur Speicherung von Lademodulen verwendet werden. Das HEX-Format ist das älteste Datenformat seiner Art und seit den 1970er Jahren in Gebrauch. Spätere Erweiterungen unterstützen speziell die segmentierte Adressierung der Intel-80x86-Prozessoren.


Career.

Professional.

Vitti started his career at hometown club Rosario Central. He made his breakthrough into the "canallas" first team in 2004, where he was a consistent goal scorer and was rewarded with the number 10 shirt. Vitti was considered one of the most promising youngsters in the Argentine First Division, but his progression has been halted slightly in recent seasons. He left his hometown club in 2006 to go to Banfield, but he only made fifteen appearances for Banfield without scoring a single goal.  After moving to Independiente he was quickly loaned to Ukrainian Premier League club Chornomorets Odessa. His stay in Odessa was brief, and on 9 February 2009, it was announced that Toronto FC of Major League Soccer had signed Vitti on a loan.  Pablo Vitti scored his first goal for Toronto FC on 24 June 2009 vs. New York Red Bulls. Vitti wore the captain's armband for Toronto FC in an international friendly vs. his fellow countrymen from River Plate at BMO Field on 22 July 2009. He scored 2 goals in 26 MLS games for Toronto in 2009, and returned to Independiente at the end of the season.  After being released by Toronto FC Vitti signed with Peruvian top flight club Universidad San Martín in mid-January. He scored his first goal for the club in a 4–1 over Inti Gas Deportes 6 March 2010. San Martin won the 2010 Torneo Descentralizado with Vitti playing an integral role all season scoring 15 goals in all competitions.  Most considered Vitti to be the best player in the Peruvian League during the 2010 season, earning him a three-year contract with the most successful team in Peru Universitario de Deportes.  In December 2015 it was announced that Vitti would become the joining Ratchaburi in the Thai Premier League.  On 9 August 2016, Vitti signed an one-year contract with Superleague Greece side Veria.

International.

Vitti was an integral part of the Argentina Under-20 squad that won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship in the Netherlands. Vitti's time with the Argentina youth programs he was considered to be one of Argentina's top prospects on the same level as Lionel Messi and Sergio Agüero his teammates on the winning U-20 team.

Honours.

Club.

Toronto FC  Universidad San Martín

International.

Argentina

Pablo Vitti (born 9 July 1985) is an Argentine footballer who plays as striker. In the lasts years Vitti played for different clubs both in his country and abroad, including Ukraine, Canada, Mexico and Ecuador. He is known for his dribbling and finishing ability.

Pablo Ernesto Vitti (* 9. Juli 1985 in Rosario) ist ein argentinischer Fußballspieler. Neben der argentinischen besitzt er außerdem noch die italienische Staatsbürgerschaft.


Early life.

Tallmadge was born in Chatham, New York on February 8, 1795, the son of Joel Tallmadge (1756-1834) and Phoebe (Potter) Tallmadge (1779-1842). Joel Tallmadge was a veteran of the American Revolution and a blacksmith before attaining success as a farmer and lumber merchant at his home on Tallmadge Hill in Barton, New York. Nathaniel Tallmadge attended Williams College before transferring to Union College, from which he graduated in 1815. He then moved to Poughkeepsie to study law with a relative, James Tallmadge Jr. He attained admission to the bar in 1818, and practiced in Poughkeepsie as the partner of James Tallmadge until James Tallmadge's election as Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1825, after which Nathaniel Tallmadge continued to practice on his own.

Career.

Tallmadge became active in politics as a Democratic-Republican. He was a member of the New York State Assembly (Dutchess Co.) in 1828, and he served in the New York State Senate (2nd D.) from 1830 to 1833, sitting in the 53rd, 54th, 55th and 56th New York State Legislatures.

United States Senator.

In 1833, he was elected as a Jacksonian Democrat to the United States Senate for the term beginning on March 4, 1833. In 1838, he was a member of the "Conservatives," a faction of former Democrats unhappy with the policies of Andrew Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren and Van Buren's grip on New York politics as head of the Albany Regency political machine. The conservatives endorsed the Whig candidates for Governor and Lieutenant Governor, William H. Seward and Luther Bradish, who were narrowly elected over incumbents William L. Marcy and John Tracy. The defection of the conservatives was considered a harbinger for the 1840 presidential election, at which Van Buren was defeated by William Henry Harrison.  By the time of New York's 1839 election for U.S. Senator, Tallmadge had become identified with the Whigs, who nominated him for reelection. Democrats controlled the State Senate, and they objected to Tallmadge because of his decision to abandon Van Buren. By refusing to vote, the Democrats in the State Senate prevented any candidate from obtaining a majority. As a result of the legislature's failure to make a choice, Tallmadge's seat became vacant on March 4, 1839. By 1840, the Whigs controlled both houses of the legislature. On January 13, 1840, they reelected Tallmadge to the Senate, and indicated in their approved resolutions that the effective date was as of March 4, 1839. He took his seat on January 27, 1840, and served until June 17, 1844, when he resigned to accept appointment as a territorial governor.  In 1840, Tallmadge was offered the Whig nomination for vice president. He declined, and John Tyler was nominated and elected on the Whig ticket with Harrison. According to published accounts in 1841, Tallmadge also declined a cabinet post and an ambassadorship, because he preferred to remain in the Senate.

Governor of Wisconsin Territory.

In the early 1840s, Tallmadge purchased a large tract of land in what became Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, in anticipation of constructing a home for his retirement. In 1844, John Tyler, who had become president following Harrison's death, offered Tallmadge the governorship of Wisconsin Territory. He accepted, and moved to Fond du Lac. The Senate confirmed the appointment in June, and Tallmadge arrived in Wisconsin in August. James Duane Doty, who had been governor since 1841, had a contentious relationship with the territorial legislature. Although legislators were initially suspicious of Tallmadge, who had not lived in Wisconsin prior to his appointment, he won them over by taking a conciliatory approach in his initial message. Promising not to take an overly partisan approach, he advocated for the expansion of railroads, in keeping with the position he had taken as a state legislator and a U.S. Senator. He also argued against extending the naturalization period for Wisconsin citizenship to 21 years, and promoted experimental farms and agricultural societies. The legislature authorized printing and distribution of his message, including 750 copies in German, the first time Wisconsin legislators had ever taken such an action.  The 1844 presidential election was won by Democrat James K. Polk. In April 1845, Polk nominated Henry Dodge to serve as territorial governor. Dodge, who had also been Wisconsin Territory's first governor, was easily confirmed by the U.S. Senate, and assumed his new post on April 8, 1845.

Later years.

Tallmadge decided to stay in Wisconsin, and built his planned residence in Fond du Lac, where he practiced law while living in semi-retirement. He also maintained a home in Washington, DC, where he frequently traveled to serve as an unofficial ambassador for Wisconsin to the federal government and lobbyist for its interests.  Later in his life Tallmadge became a spiritualist, and was convinced of the existence of the afterlife. He had previously been a believer in premonitions, and claimed he had one that resulted in him narrowly escaped death aboard the USS "Princeton" when a cannon exploded and took the lives of five people. In the 1840s, he began to claim that he was visited by spirits, and he authored introduction to Charles Linton's "The Healing of the Nations", a book which Linton claimed had been dictated to him by ghosts. He also wrote an Appendix to the first volume of "Spiritualism" by John W. Edmonds and George T. Dexter. After the death of John C. Calhoun, Tallmadge claimed to be visited by his spirit, and said that it could communicate with him. Tallmadge was also reported to be a believer in other supposed spirit communications, including the floor and table rappings that typically accompanied séances.

Personal life.

In 1824, Tallmadge was married to Abigail Lewis Smith (1804-1857), the daughter of Judge Isaac Smith of Washington, New York. In 1864, he married Clementine Ring. With his first wife, Tallmadge's children were:  In his later years, Tallmadge resided in Harmonia, a planned community for spiritualists in Battle Creek, Michigan. He died in Battle Creek on November 2, 1864, and was buried at Rienzi Cemetery in Fond du Lac.  The first person to be buried at Rienzi Cemetery was Tallmadge's son William, who died in 1845. In 1853, Tallmadge donated eight and a half acres from his home to be used in creating the cemetery. Its trustees subsequently purchased 24 additional acres, which it used for a planned expansion.

Descendants.

Through his daughter Mary Louisa Tallmadge (wife of Napoleon Boardman), he was a grandfather of Charles Ruggles Boardman, an adjutant general of Wisconsin.

Nathaniel Pitcher Tallmadge (February 8, 1795 – November 2, 1864) was an American lawyer and politician. He was a U.S. Senator from New York and Governor of the Wisconsin Territory.

Nathaniel Pitcher Tallmadge (* 8. Februar 1795 in Chatham, Columbia County, New York; † 2. November 1864 in Battle Creek, Michigan) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Er war US-Senator für den Bundesstaat New York und Gouverneur des Wisconsin-Territoriums.


Early life.

Parnell was born in Hanford, California, the elder of two sons of Thelma Carol (née Liebherr) and Kevin Patrick "Pat" Parnell. As children, Parnell and his younger brother, Schoen (pronounced "Shane"), were raised in a close-knit family. Two of his paternal great-grandparents were Norwegian.  Sean's father, Pat, was stationed at Fort Richardson, near Anchorage, Alaska, while he served in the U.S. Army during statehood years (1957–1959), and returned to Alaska with his family in 1973, establishing residence in Anchorage. Sean Parnell was 10 years old at the time.  Parnell's mother worked as a high school teacher for more than twenty-five years. She taught at Bartlett High School and East Anchorage High School, the latter a short distance from their home. Both of Parnell's parents were entrepreneurs, owning a retail photocopy and office supply business together in Anchorage for more than twenty-five years. Parnell worked in the family business as a teenager and during his college years.  In 1980, Pat Parnell, a Democrat, ran against incumbent Don Young for Alaska's sole seat in the United States House of Representatives, taking 25.82% of the vote.

Education.

Parnell graduated from East Anchorage High School in 1980, earned a bachelor's degree in business administration, B.B.A., in 1984 from Pacific Lutheran University, and a J.D. degree in 1987 from the University of Puget Sound School of Law (now known as Seattle University School of Law). He is admitted to the bar in both Alaska and Washington D.C.

Family life.

Parnell married his college girlfriend Sandy in 1987 and the couple returned to Anchorage, where Parnell began practicing law. The Parnells' daughters, Grace and Rachel, were born and raised in Anchorage.  Sandy Parnell became known for her involvement with the governor in his Choose Respect initiative – a campaign to raise awareness and educate communities around Alaska about domestic violence and sexual assault. They regularly visited domestic violence shelters and spoke with survivors of abuse and trafficking.  Grace is a professional photographer and Rachel is a university student pursuing a history degree.

Legal career.

Sean Parnell worked as an attorney in the private sector from 1987 through 2003, between 2005 and 2006, and again following his tenure as governor, beginning in 2015. For nine years of that time, he owned his own law practice. In the 1990s, he continued in private practice while he served in the Alaska House and the Alaska Senate. When Parnell left the Alaska Senate, he became director of government relations in Alaska for Phillips Petroleum Alaska, which later became ConocoPhillips Alaska. In 2005, he joined the law firm Patton Boggs, where he exclusively practiced law. Patton Boggs represented ExxonMobil in the Exxon Valdez oil spill litigation, though Parnell had no role in that representation or litigation. Parnell left Patton Boggs less than two years later on December 3, 2006.  In October 2015, Parnell and his wife Sandy, moved their residence to Palmer, Alaska, where he returned to working as an attorney in private practice and opened a law firm, specializing in business law, contracts and real estate.

Political career.

Alaska Legislature.

Parnell was first elected to the Alaska House of Representatives, in 1992 at the age of twenty-nine. He represented a district in Anchorage that included at that time, Independence Park, Dimond Blvd., and the Southport/Bayshore areas of Anchorage. After his first year in the state house, Parnell was named the "Most Effective Freshman Legislator" by his colleagues and those who worked in the State Capitol. This recognition arose because Parnell was known for taking the time to help other legislators hone and pass their legislation and in doing so, learned the legislative process and developed relationships with his colleagues. In 1994, Parnell was re-elected to represent South Anchorage in the Alaska House. Throughout his four years in the Alaska House of Representatives, Parnell was known for his work on the House Finance Committee and in the fight against domestic violence and sexual assault in Alaska. During those years he sponsored and passed seminal legislation known as the Domestic Violence Prevention Act of 1996 that was Alaska's first consistent, comprehensive statewide policy on this issue.  In 1996, Parnell ran for and was elected to a seat in the Alaska Senate and became a member of the Energy Council and served on the powerful Senate Finance Committee. In 1999 and 2000, he became a member of the Senate Republican Majority's Leadership when his Senate colleagues chose him to serve as the co-chair of the Senate Finance Committee.  In 2000, Parnell finished his first and only term in the state senate, choosing not to seek re-election. He cited his commitment to his family as his reason and returned to work in the private sector.  Six years later, in 2006, Parnell was elected lieutenant governor of Alaska, along with Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. In July 2009, when Governor Palin resigned her position, Parnell became governor and finished the term of office. In 2010, Parnell won a four-year term as governor in his own right.

Lieutenant governor.

In 2005, Parnell ran and won in the Republican primary to become lieutenant governor. Afterward, in the general election, he was paired with Sarah Palin as her running mate. In Alaska, the lieutenant governor candidates run separately from the governor candidates in the primary election race, but after the primaries, the nominees for governor and lieutenant governor run together as a slate. Palin and Parnell were elected with 48.33% of the vote over former Governor Tony Knowles and State Representative Ethan Berkowitz's 40.97% share of the vote.

2008 congressional campaign.

On March 14, 2008, Parnell began his campaign to take on embattled 18-term member of Congress Don Young in the August 26 Republican primary.  Parnell was endorsed by Sarah Palin, "National Review" magazine, and the fiscally conservative 501(c)4 organization Club for Growth.  On July 31, 2008, Parnell told "Roll Call" he would not drop out of his race against Young to run against U.S. Senator Ted Stevens, who had been indicted.  Parnell lost the primary for the U.S. House seat. The margin between incumbent Young and Parnell was narrow, and the winner was not immediately clear. The result released on September 18 showed Young winning by 304 votes. Parnell said he trusted the integrity of the work of the Division of Elections, an agency he oversaw as Alaska's lieutenant governor. He said in a statement, "While a recount could change the outcome of this exceedingly close election – normal human error being what it is – such a result is unlikely. As such, I do not believe it justifies an expenditure of taxpayer funds."

Governor of Alaska.

Ascent to office.

On July 26, 2009, halfway through her term as governor, Palin resigned. Parnell replaced her becoming Alaska's tenth governor in accordance with the Alaska Constitution. Craig Campbell, commissioner of Alaska's Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, succeeded Parnell as lieutenant governor after Palin first named Joe Schmidt, commissioner of corrections as a replacement for Parnell and Schmidt resigned from the second-in-line position on July 6, 2009.

2010 campaign.

Parnell ran for a full term as governor in 2010. In the primary, he faced off against Bill Walker, a former mayor of Valdez, Alaska and aide to former governor Walter J. Hickel, and Ralph Samuels, a retiring member of the Alaska House of Representatives. Although Walker seemed to gain traction towards the end based on the issue of building a natural gas pipeline, Samuels and Walker split the anti-Parnell vote and Parnell won the nomination. He and Mead Treadwell, who had won the August primary for lieutenant governor, faced off against the Democratic ticket of former House majority leader and 2008 congressional nominee Ethan Berkowitz and Diane Benson. Parnell-Treadwell eventually defeated Berkowitz-Benson by over ten points.

2014 campaign.

Parnell ran for re-election in 2014. Former Republican Bill Walker challenged Parnell as an independent politician, and merged his campaign with Democratic Party gubernatorial nominee Byron Mallott, who became Walker's running mate as an independent. He conceded the election to Bill Walker on November 15, 2014.  Parnell drew criticism during his re-election campaign over his support of billions in tax reductions for the petrochemical industry as well scandals regarding accusations of coverups of sexual abuse scandals, cronyism, corruption and whistleblower suppression, within the Alaska National Guard.  Out of 19 incumbent Republican governors running for re-election, Parnell and Pennsylvania's Tom Corbett were the only ones who lost the 2014 elections.

Sean Randall Parnell (born November 19, 1962) is an American attorney and politician. He succeeded Sarah Palin in July 2009 to become the tenth governor of Alaska and served until 2014. Parnell was elected governor in his own right in 2010 with 59.06% of the vote, as the largest percentage margin of any Alaska governor since statehood. In 2014, he narrowly lost his bid for re-election and has since returned to work in the private sector. He is a member of the Republican Party.

Sean R. Parnell (* 19. November 1962 in Hanford, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Politiker der Republikanischen Partei. Von Juli 2009 bis Dezember 2014 war er Gouverneur des Bundesstaates Alaska.


History and construction.

NASCAR committed to building a Hall of Fame and on March 6, 2006, the City of Charlotte was selected as the location. Ground was broken for the $160 million facility on January 26, 2007, and it officially opened on May 11, 2010, with the inaugural class inducted the day following the 2010 NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race. The new Hall of Fame brings hundreds of jobs and an increase in tourism to Charlotte. In addition to the Hall of Fame, the NASCAR Plaza, a 20-story office building, opened in May 2009. The structure serves as the home of Hall of Fame-related offices, NASCAR Digital Media, NASCAR's licensing division, as well as NASCAR video game licensee Dusenberry Martin Racing (now known as 704Games). Other tenants include the Charlotte Regional Partnership and Lauth Property Group. Richard Petty and Dale Inman helped unveil the first artifact at the Hall of Fame — the Plymouth Belvedere that Petty drove to 27 wins in 1967.  The City of Charlotte was responsible for the construction of the building and is the owner of the NASCAR Hall of Fame. However, it is operated by the Charlotte Regional Visitors Authority. Winston Kelley is the NASCAR Hall of Fame executive director. Internationally renowned Pei Cobb Freed & Partners led the design effort, and Leslie E. Robertson Associates were the structural engineers. Little Diversified Architectural Consulting based in Charlotte is the local architectural firm overseeing many aspects of design and construction of the project. LS3P Associates, Ltd. was the associate architect for the office tower. Tobin Starr + Partners served as site architect, providing full-time representation for Pei Cobb Freed & Partners during construction. Engineering and fabrication of the stainless steel möbius that wraps around the structure was completed by Zahner, of Kansas City. Exhibition design is by Ralph Appelbaum Associates, and exhibition lighting by Technical Artistry. Tobin Starr + Partners is architect-of-record for exhibit and auditorium spaces. Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) was the mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineer. Site excavation and grading services started on May 21, 2007. The facility features a Hall of Fame and a 19-story office tower. The NASCAR Hall of Fame is set on a 150,000 square feet surface. In June 2008, NASCAR announced that the inauguration is planned in May 11, 2010. In 2009, Nascar Hall of Fame established a partnership with Buffalo Wild Wings to be its exclusive restaurant partner in Charlotte.

Site selection.

Because of stock car racing's roots in and wealth of famous drivers from North Carolina, Charlotte was considered the favorite by many fans and commentators. There are many NASCAR offices in the area and many teams in the three major NASCAR series (Cup, Xfinity and Truck Series) totaling over 73% of motorsports employees in the United States, in what the committee called "NASCAR Valley." The Hall of Fame is in Uptown Charlotte, about 25 minutes south of Charlotte Motor Speedway. The bid was led by NASCAR car owner Rick Hendrick, then Mayor Pat McCrory, and business leaders in Charlotte. Pei Cobb Freed & Partners were enlisted to design the complex, which is near the Charlotte Convention Center.

Hall of Fame building.

The building contains the following:  There is a gift shop, the Hall of Fame Café and a Buffalo Wild Wings restaurant on site. An expansion, which includes a new ballroom, is part of the project.  While most information on the Charlotte bid has been released voluntarily, the "Charlotte Observer" has asked the state Attorney General for an opinion requiring full disclosure of the financial details.  The self-proclaimed slogan used by Charlotte for the Hall of Fame was "Racing Was Built Here. Racing Belongs Here."

Other final candidates.

The other two cities at the time of the announcement that were in the running were the cities of Atlanta and Daytona Beach.

Other bids.

The state of Alabama had been mentioned as a potential candidate location, and was no longer seen as a contender, possibly because Lincoln, Alabama is home to the International Motorsports Hall of Fame, which is not affiliated with NASCAR. The only northern area that considered bidding was in the state of Michigan. Detroit prepared bids, but state officials decided not to submit the proposals. The cities of Richmond, Virginia and Kansas City, Kansas, were among the five finalists, but on January 5, 2006, NASCAR announced they had been eliminated from the running, leaving just Atlanta, Charlotte and Daytona Beach as the remaining cities.

Eligibility and selection process.

Eligibility.

Former drivers must have been active in NASCAR for at least 10 years and retired for at least three. Starting with the 2015 Hall of Fame nominations that were voted in the 2014 nomination process, the three-year rule is waived for drivers who compete in 30 or more years in NASCAR-sanctioned competition or turn 55 years of age. The rule applies to all NASCAR-sanctioned competitions; some drivers in the Hall of Fame did not participate in the Cup Series.  Non-drivers must have been involved in the industry at least ten years. Some candidates with shorter careers will be considered if there were special circumstances.

Selection process.

Nomination.

A 20-member nominating committee chooses nominees from those who are eligible. The committee consists of:

Induction.

After the nomination committee selects the list of candidates, a total of 48 votes are cast by a voting committee consisting of the nominating committee and the following:

Inductees.

A total of 58 individuals have been inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame. 43 were inducted as drivers, 24 of whom were inducted solely as drivers. The other 19 were inducted for their accomplishments as drivers, owners and/or broadcasters. Among non-drivers, 8 were inducted for being owners, 4 as promoters, and 4 for being crew chiefs.

The NASCAR Hall of Fame, located in Charlotte, North Carolina, honors drivers who have shown exceptional skill at NASCAR driving, all-time great crew chiefs and owners, broadcasters and other major contributors to competition within the sanctioning body.

Die NASCAR Hall of Fame ist eine Ruhmeshalle in Charlotte, North Carolina. Sie ehrt Fahrer, die außergewöhnliche Fähigkeiten in den Rennen der NASCAR gezeigt haben, bedeutende Crew Chiefs und Teambesitzer sowie andere wichtige Personen, die sich für die NASCAR engagiert haben.


History and boundaries.

The constituency, numbered constituency 78 by the German electoral authorities, contains the whole of the Berlin borough of Reinickendorf. It has been a marginal constituency, being held by the CDU from 1990 to 1998 and from 2009 to the present, with the SPD holding the seat from 1998 to 2009, though their majority in 2002 was 635 votes which was just 0.5% of the total.  A suburban constituency, it includes Tegel airport, currently Berlin's main airport, together with a number of Berlin lakes.

Profile.

The number of residents with German citizenship was 91.0%, a figure above the Berlin average of 86.6%. 38.9% of residents had University qualifications.

Electoral system.

Elections in Germany take place using the Additional Member System. Voters have two votes, one for a constituency MP and one for a regional list to elect representatives for the whole of Berlin city. Elections for the Reinickendorf constituency take place using the first past the post system.

Results.

2009 election.

Out of a total electorate of 183,112, the total number of votes cast was 132,532 (72.4%) of which 3,039 votes were invalid.  Source:

2005 election.

Out of a total electorate of 185,854, the total number of votes cast was 147,047 (79.1%) of which 3,294 votes were invalid.  Source:

2002 election.

Out of a total electorate of 187,183, the total number of votes cast was 150,276 (80.3%) of which 2,042 votes were invalid.  Source:

Berlin Reinickendorf is one of the 299 single member constituencies used for the German parliament, the Bundestag. Located in north-west Berlin, the constituency was created for the 1990 election, the first following German reunification. The first two elections in 1990 and 1994 were won by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). The constituency was then regained by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in 1998 but was one of several Berlin districts which the CDU gained at the 2009 election. The current MP is Frank Steffel.

Der Bundestagswahlkreis Berlin-Reinickendorf (Wahlkreis 77) ist einer von zwölf Berliner Wahlkreisen für die Wahlen zum Deutschen Bundestag und umfasst den Bezirk Reinickendorf.


Swimming career.

Juniors.

Kromowidjojo won a total of three medals at the European Junior Swimming Championships in 2005 and 2006, in the 50 meter freestyle and butterfly events.

2006.

Kromowidjojo made her international senior debut at the European LC Championships 2006 in Budapest, Hungary. She won her first international senior medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, alongside Inge Dekker, Chantal Groot and Marleen Veldhuis, at the age of 15.

2007.

Kromowidjojo qualified for her first World Championships in 2007. At the World LC Championships 2007 in Melbourne, Australia, she won a bronze medal in the 4×100 freestyle relay together with Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. Individually she finished 13th in the 100 freestyle. At the end of 2007 she swam the A-qualification standard for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 50 m and 100 m freestyle and swam the world record in the 4 × 100 m freestyle Short course, with Hinkelien Schreuder, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis, at the Dutch Open Swim Cup. In the week afterwards she competed in the European Short Course Swimming Championships 2007 in Debrecen, Hungary. There she swam another world record in the 4 × 50 m freestyle short course with Hinkelien Schreuder, Inge Dekker and Marleen Veldhuis.

2008.

Spring.

Kromowidjojo's first major tournament in 2008 was the 2008 European Aquatics Championships in Eindhoven. In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, she won the gold medal and with the team: Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. They broke the world record with a time of 3:33.62. With the same team she finished fourth in the 4 × 200 m freestyle. Individually she finished 9th in the 200 m freestyle. A few weeks later at the 2008 FINA Short Course World Championships in Manchester she won the world title in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay and broke another world record, again with Dekker, Heemskerk and Veldhuis. After the 100 m freestyle heats she withdrew from the tournament with an elbow injury.

Beijing Olympics.

At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing and a few days before her 18th birthday, Kromowidjojo became an Olympic champion by winning the gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle, again alongside Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis. Their time was 3:33.76; just outside their own world record. The day after she started individually in the 200 m freestyle ending 23rd in the heats. She was also part of both the 4 × 200 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley relay teams, which failed to qualify for the respective finals.

Autumn.

At the end of the year Kromowidjojo took part in several championships. She started with the Swim Cup Eindhoven 2008, where she broke the national record in the 50 m backstroke long course, her first individual national record, and qualified for the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in the 100 m freestyle. One week afterwards she took part in the European Short Course Swimming Championships 2008 in Rijeka, Croatia. She won two gold medals, in the 4×50 m freestyle and 4×50 m medley relay, and a bronze medal in the 100 m freestyle behind Marleen Veldhuis and Jeanette Ottesen. She also became sixth in the 50 m backstroke.

2009.

On 26 July 2009 at the World LC Championships 2009 in Rome, Italy, she won gold in the 4×100 freestyle relay with Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Marleen Veldhuis, setting a new world record (3:31.72).

2010.

In 2010 Kromowidjojo took part in the 2010 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) winning individual gold medals in both the 50m freestyle and the 100m freestyle, setting a championship record of 51.45. She also won a gold medal as part of the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team alongside Inge Dekker, Femke Heemskerk and Hinkelien Schreuder with another championship record of 3:28.54.

2011.

In 2011 Kromowidjojo won a gold medal at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships as part of the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team alongside Inge Dekker, Marleen Veldhuis and Femke Heemskerk in a time of 3:33.96, 2.24 seconds above their own world record. Individually she won a bronze medal in the 100m freestyle with a time of 53.66 behind Jeanette Ottesen and Aleksandra Gerasimenya who tied for first in 53.45.

2012.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Kromowidjojo and her teammates started the meet with a silver medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, an event in which they were the defending champions. The gold medal went to Australia.  Later during the week, Kromowidjojo set an Olympic record of 53.05 s in the semifinals of the 100 m freestyle. The next day in the final she followed this up by winning a gold medal in a new Olympic record of 53.00 s, ahead of reigning world champion Aleksandra Gerasimenya and Tang Yi. In the 50 m freestyle she qualified fastest for the final with a personal record of 24.07 s. In the final she completed the sprint double by winning a gold medal in a new Olympic record of 24.05 s, again beating Gerasimenya, as well as training partner and compatriot Marleen Veldhuis. Kromowidjojo was honoured for her performances in the 2012 Holland Heineken House in London.  By winning the 50 m and 100 m freestyle, Kromowidjojo followed in the footsteps of compatriot Inge de Bruijn, who won both events at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney. The European Swimming Federation named Kromowidjojo female European swimmer of the year 2012.

2013.

At the 2013 World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona, Kromowidjojo won the gold medal in the 50 m freestyle. This was her first individual long course world title. She also won three bronze medals, in the 100 m freestyle, 50 m butterfly, and 4 × 100 m freestyle relay.

2015.

She lost her world title in the 50 meter freestyle to Bronte Campbell of Australia, winning the silver medal 0.10 s behind. She won two more silver medals in relays.

2016.

Kromowidjojo qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, her third Olympics, in the 50 and 100 meter freestyle and the 4 × 100 meter freestyle relay. In the relay, the Dutch team finished 4th, the first time they finished outside the medals since the 1996 Olympics. In the 100 m freestyle, Kromowidjojo finished 5th, 0.09 seconds behind the third-place finisher. In the 50 m freestyle she finished 6th, 0.12 seconds behind gold medalist Pernille Blume.

2017.

Kromowidjojo competed in the Swim Cup Eindhoven (Dutch Championships) in April 2017 in the 100 m freestyle and won gold with a time of 53.72, also qualifying for Budapest World Championships. The race was very close and in the first 50 m Femke Heemskerk had the lead but in the second 50 m Kromowidjojo overtook her and finished first.

2019.

She represented the Netherlands at the 2019 World Aquatics Championships and won the silver medal in the women's 50 metre butterfly event.

International Swimming League.

In 2019 she was member of the 2019 International Swimming League representing Team Iron. She had a perfect record of winning all the skin races at each match the team competed in. She also won the 50 freestyle in Budapest and came third in the 100 freestyle. In Lewisville she picked up two second places in the 50 and 100 freestyle.

Personal life.

Kromowidjojo, who is of partly Javanese Surinamese heritage, was born in Sauwerd and started swimming at the age of 3, while on a family holiday in Spain.  She suffered viral meningitis while training with her national team in the Canary Islands in July 2010, but recovered to take part in the World Championships later that year.  Kromowidjojo was a student at the Business School Notenboom in Eindhoven. In 2013–14, she was dating former elite swimmer Pieter van den Hoogenband. They were chosen as the hottest couple of 2013 by several Dutch newspapers. Since 2015 she has a relationship with Dutch swimmer Ferry Weertman.

Ranomi Kromowidjojo (; born 20 August 1990) is a Dutch swimmer of mixed Dutch-Javanese Surinamese origin who mainly specialises in sprint freestyle events. She is a triple Olympic champion, winning the gold medal in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay at the 2008 Olympics, and in the 50 m freestyle and 100 m freestyle at the 2012 Olympics. Kromowidjojo holds the world record in the 50 meter freestyle short course (25 m pool), and as part of the Dutch team she holds the world records in the 4×50 m, 4 × 100 m, and 4 × 200 m freestyle relays (short course). She has won a total of 39 medals in FINA World Championship events.

Ranomi Kromowidjojo (* 20. August 1990 in Sauwerd) ist eine niederländische Schmetterlings- und Freistilschwimmerin. Sie ist Olympiasiegerin 2012 über 50 und 100 Meter Freistil und Weltmeisterin 2013 über 50 Meter Freistil. Bei Olympischen Spielen, Welt- und Europameisterschaften gewann sie bis 2019 79 Medaillen, davon 35 in Einzeldisziplinen.


Geography.

All but 25 of the district's 65 acres (6 of 26 ha) are accounted for by the Main Street District, which includes all property along that Street between Glen Avenue and the intersection with East Broadway. The Roslyn Village district includes most of the remaining properties within the triangle created by Main, East Broadway and Old Northern, and some areas to the northeast along Glen Avenue going up to Route 25A and the old northern mill pond.

History.

Since the settlement's earliest days, in the mid-17th century, its development had clustered around Main Street. That growth took off in the early 19th century after independence, when most of the houses on Main were built. After the Civil War, demand still existed for houses in Roslyn, and buyers and builders turned to East Broadway, which shared the steep hillside and Roslyn Pond shoreline as Main, although in opposite directions.  As a result, the East Broadway houses skew to the late 19th century, with Victorian styles predominating. James K. Davis, who had earlier designed some of the Main Street houses, embraced the new Second Empire mansard roofed look in 1876 for his own house at 139 East Broadway. The Queen Anne style is exemplified by Evangeline Charman's 207 East Broadway home, built in 1895.  In the early 20th century there was still some room left to build on at the edges of the district, and in 1921 the Bryant Library on East Broadway gave the future district its major Colonial Revival building. By 1930 the East Broadway area was as developed as Main Street had been several decades before, and builders turned elsewhere, leaving the district to retain its own historic character.  As Roslyn's Landmark Society began to focus local attention on identifying and preserving the village's historic buildings in the 1960s, leading to the creation of the Main Street district, threatened older houses from elsewhere in the village and greater Roslyn area were moved to East Broadway to better protect them. An expanded historic inventory in 1979 led to a local Multiple Property Submission, which included the Roslyn Village district. The reviewers of the National Park Service initially balked at the idea of having two separate districts, suggesting instead that the state Office of Historic Preservation apply to expand the boundaries of the existing district. The state resubmitted the application, carefully explaining how Main Street constituted a visually and historically distinct collection of properties even within the proposed new district, and the Roslyn Village Historic District was added to the National Register.

Preservation.

Roslyn has added to its ordinances a provision protecting the buildings in both its historic districts. They are recognized in its zoning and any additions, demolition or alterations are subject to approval by the six-member Historic District Board. The Roslyn Landmark Society also holds a restrictive covenant on some of the properties.

The Roslyn Village Historic District encompasses the center of that village in the U.S. state of New York. It includes within its boundaries the earlier Main Street Historic District, although that is considered a separate district by the National Park Service, which added the Roslyn Village district to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987.

Der Roslyn Village Historic District ist ein 1987 in das National Register of Historic Places eingetragener Denkmalschutzbezirk und umfasst das Zentrum dieses Ortes im US-Bundesstaat New York. Er umschließt den früher geschaffenen Main Street Historic District, der jedoch als eigenständiges Denkmalschutzgebiet angesehen wird. Im Gegensatz dazu besteht der neuere Bezirk aus mehr geschäftlichen Objekten entlang des Old Northern Boulevard, der einen Bogen durch das Zentrum Roslyns macht, abseits des North Hempstead Turnpikes (New York State Route 25A), der Hauptdurchgangsstraße entlang des North Shores von Long Island. Seine beitragenden Objekte, die teilweise Einzeleinträge des Registers sind, umfassen eine breitere Spanne von Architekturstilen des 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderts.


Plot.

Steven Seagal stars as a tough cop, Jacob King, whose brutal methods have gained him a legendary reputation among his colleagues. Seemingly indifferent to the fact his twin brother was murdered in front of him as a child, King investigates a series of brutal killings, most involving young, attractive women. The murderer, Lazerus, played by Michael Filipowich, leaves cryptic, astrological clues at the crime scenes. At the same time, another murderer, Billy Joe Hill (Mark Collie), is killing women. King finds him and kicks him out a window, after which Hill seeks revenge by murdering Celine (Karyn Michelle Baltzer), whom he believes to be King's girlfriend.  King goes on a brutal rampage through the Memphis underworld with the assistance of his partner, Detective Storm Anderson (Chris Thomas King) and the coroner (Isaac Hayes). King meets FBI agent Frankie Miller (Holly Dignard) but dislikes her because she doesn't approve of his methods. Lazerus attempts to frame King for the murder of a blonde barmaid, and Miller believes the frame and begins to pursue King. Meanwhile, King locates Lazerus and fights him, using a ball-peen hammer to break every bone in his body. He then goes after Billy Joe Hill and kills him after finding Celine dead.  King then chooses to exit the scene, leaving Anderson a note explaining he's quitting because no one likes his style of justice.  The final scene shows King returning to what appears to be his Russian wife and family.

Theatrical release.

The film later received theatrical distribution exclusively in the UAE in 2009.

Kill Switch is a 2008 direct-to-video action film that was later released for theatrical distribution starring Steven Seagal and directed by Jeff F. King. Steven Seagal plays Detective Jacob King, a tough cop with a reputation for violent street-justice methods. King investigates murders in Memphis, Tennessee, perpetrated by a serial killer known as Lazerus. The film is also notable for featuring one of the last roles of Isaac Hayes.

Kill Switch ist ein US-amerikanischer Direct-to-Video-Thriller aus dem Jahre 2008 mit Steven Seagal, der auch das Drehbuch zum Film schrieb, in der Hauptrolle.