History.

The Copernicus programme was established by the Regulation (EU) No 377/2014 in 2014, building on the previous EU's Earth monitoring initiative GMES (est. by Regulation (EU) No 911/2010).  Over a few decades, European and national institutions have made substantial R&D efforts in the field of Earth observation. These efforts have resulted in tremendous achievements but the services and products developed during this period had limitations that were inherent to R&D activities (e.g. lack of service continuity on the long-term). The idea for a global and continuous European earth observation system was developed under the name of Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) which was later re-branded into Copernicus after the EU became directly involved in financing and development. It follows and greatly expands on the work of the previous 2.3 billion euros European Envisat program which operated from 2002 to 2012.  Copernicus moved from R&D to operational services following a phased approach:

Earth Observation missions.

Sentinel missions.

ESA is currently developing seven missions under the Sentinel programme (Sentinel 1, 2, 3, 4, 5P, 5, 6). The Sentinel missions include radar and super-spectral imaging for land, ocean and atmospheric monitoring. Each Sentinel mission is based on a constellation of two satellites to fulfill and revisit the coverage requirements for each mission, providing robust datasets for all Copernicus services. The Sentinel missions will have the following objectives:  In preparation for the second-generation of Copernicus (Copernicus2.0), six High Priority Candidate "expansion" missions are currently being studied by ESA to address EU Policy and gaps in Copernicus user needs, and to increase the current capabilities of the Copernicus Space Component:

Contributing missions.

Before the Sentinel missions provide data to Copernicus, numerous existing or planned space missions provide or will provide data useful to the provision of Copernicus services. These missions are often referred to as ""GMES Contributing Missions (GCMs)"": Data provided by non-European satellite missions (e.g. LANDSAT, GOSAT, RADARSAT-2) can also be used by Copernicus.

"In-Situ" Coordination.

GMES In-Situ Coordination (GISC). GISC is a FP7 funded initiative, will last for three years (January 2010 – December 2012) and is coordinated by the European Environment Agency (EEA).  "In-situ" data are all data from sources other than Earth observation satellites. Consequently, all ground-based, air-borne, and ship/buoy-based observations and measurements that are needed to implement and operate the Copernicus services are part of the in-situ component. In-situ data are indispensable; they are assimilated into forecasting models, provide calibration and validation of space-based information, and contribute to analysis or filling gaps not available from space sources.  GISC objectives will be achieved by:  GISC is undertaken with reference to other initiatives, such as INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe) and SEIS (Shared Environmental Information System) as well as existing coordination and data exchange networks. The coordinated access to data will retain the capacity to link directly data providers and the service providers because it is based on the principles of SEIS and INSPIRE. The implementation of INSPIRE is embedded in the synergies and meta-data standards that are used in GISC. Data and information will aim to be managed as close as possible to its source in order to achieve a distributed system, by involving countries and existing capacities that maintain and operate the required observation infrastructure.

Services component.

Copernicus services are dedicated to the monitoring and forecasting of the Earth's subsystems. They contribute directly to the monitoring of climate change. Copernicus services also address emergency management (e.g. in case of natural disaster, technological accidents or humanitarian crises) and security-related issues (e.g. maritime surveillance, border control).  Copernicus services address six main thematic areas:  The development of the pre-operational version of the services has been realised by a series of projects launched by the European Commission and partly funded through the EU's 7th Framework Programme (FP7). These projects were geoland2 (land), MyOcean (marine), SAFER (emergency response), MACC and its successor MACC II (atmosphere) and G-MOSAIC (security). Most of these projects also contributed to the monitoring of Climate Change.

Interaction.

Users.

"The information provided by the Copernicus services can be used by end-users for a wide range of applications in a variety of areas. These include urban area management, sustainable development and nature protection, regional and local planning, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, health, civil protection, infrastructure, transport and mobility, as well as tourism."  Copernicus is the European Union's contribution to the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) thus delivering geospatial information globally.  Some Copernicus services make use of OpenStreetMap data in their maps production.

Other relevant initiatives.

Other initiatives will also facilitate the development and functioning of Copernicus services: Copernicus is one of three related initiatives that are the subject of the GIGAS ("GEOSS, INSPIRE and GMES an Action in Support") harmonization and analysis project under the auspices of the EU 7th Framework Programme.

Copernicus is the European Union's Earth observation programme coordinated and managed by the European Commission in partnership with the European Space Agency (ESA), the EU Member States and EU Agencies.

Copernicus, zuvor Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES, deutsch: Globale Umwelt- und Sicherheitsüberwachung) genannt, ist ein im Jahr 1998 gemeinsam von der Europäischen Kommission (EK) und der Europäischen Weltraumorganisation (ESA) gegründetes Erdbeobachtungsprogramm. Copernicus stellt eine Infrastruktur für Erdbeobachtung und Dienstleistungen der Geoinformation bereit. Auf der Grundlage von Erdbeobachtungs- und Informationstechnologien wurde durch Copernicus ein unabhängiges europäisches Beobachtungssystem geschaffen, das seit 2014 in Betrieb ist. Es liefert aktuelle Informationen für umwelt- und sicherheitsrelevante Fragestellungen. In der EU-Verordnung zur Einrichtung des Copernicus-Programms ist ein Budget von 4,3 Mrd. € bis 2020 vorgesehen.


Early life.

David Stern was born in Manhattan, New York City, one of three children of Anna (née Bronstein, 1918–1990) and William Stern (1918–1980), a Jewish family. He grew up in Teaneck, New Jersey, and his father ran a Jewish delicatessen in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan. Stern grew up a New York Knicks fan, considered Carl Braun his hero, and attended games at Madison Square Garden with his father. He played basketball briefly in adulthood before sustaining a serious right knee injury during a New York Lawyers League game.  After graduating from Teaneck High School in 1959, Stern went to Rutgers University, where he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity and graduated in 1963 with a B.A. in history. He then attended law school at Columbia University, receiving a J.D. in 1966.

National Basketball Association.

Early work.

After graduating from law school, Stern joined the law firm of Proskauer, Rose, Goetz & Mendelsohn (now Proskauer Rose), which has long represented the NBA. He was the lead attorney representing the firm in the case of "Robertson vs National Basketball Association", the landmark lawsuit brought against the NBA by star player Oscar Robertson. Stern helped the league negotiate a settlement that allowed the NBA/ABA merger to proceed in return for the NBA abolishing the "option" clause in its uniform player contract and allowing players to become free agents for the first time.  In 1978, Stern left Proskauer Rose to become the NBA's General Counsel under Commissioner Larry O'Brien. By 1980, O'Brien promoted Stern to be the NBA's executive vice president for business and legal affairs, which made Stern "de facto" in charge of marketing, television, and public relations for the league. During this time, Stern largely drove two landmark agreements with the NBA Players' Association: drug testing and team salary cap. An August 1980 report by the "Los Angeles Times" had estimated that 40 to 75 percent of NBA players used cocaine. The drug testing policy dealt with the perception that the NBA had a drug problem, which it admitted, and it was cleaning it up. The NBA was the first of the major sports leagues in North America to implement a drug testing policy. The salary cap created a revenue-sharing system where owner and player were effectively partners, with players receiving 53 percent of all revenues. Both of these agreements solidified Stern's standing inside NBA circles.

NBA Commissioner.

On February 1, 1984, Stern became the Commissioner of the NBA, succeeding O'Brien during the league's recovery from its darkest period. Instead of marketing the league's teams, he changed the focus to its star players, such as Magic Johnson and Larry Bird, and Michael Jordan and Charles Barkley from the 1984 NBA draft, which was held soon after Stern took office. Jordan's arrival, in particular, ushered in a new era of commercial bounty for the NBA. With him came his flair and talent for the game, and that brought in shoe contracts from Nike which helped to give the league even more national attention.  Stern guided the league through dwindling viewership en route to global growth. In his first year as commissioner, Stern offered Adrian Paenza, a South American basketball and soccer analyst, and the Argentina Channel 9 the rights to air weekly NBA highlights for $2,000 a year. In 1987, he started the shipping of VHS tapes from his New York office to China’s state-run television station to expand the league's reach beyond North America. Stern pushed to allow professionals to participate in the Olympics, helping spawn the 1992 U.S. Olympic team of NBA players, dubbed the "Dream Team", which begat the first wave of international NBA stars.  One of the Dream Team members was Johnson. A year earlier, he announced that he was HIV-positive and retiring from basketball in a press conference with Stern sitting by his side. At the time, the public was afraid of HIV and the disease was demonized. Some people feared it could be transmitted by sweat or a handshake. Despite backlash, Stern allowed Johnson to play in the 1992 NBA All-Star Game and later for the Dream Team. Having read medical literature and consulted experts, Stern helped inform league owners, players, sponsors and the public about the virus. The NBA put infection-control procedures in place; previously, players were allowed to play while bleeding.  In 1995, the NBA expanded into Canada, introducing the Toronto Raptors and the Vancouver Grizzlies to the league. During Stern's tenure, a total of seven new franchises (the Hornets, Timberwolves, Heat, Magic, Grizzlies, Raptors, and Bobcats) were admitted to the NBA, bringing the number of teams in the league to 30 by 2004.  In 2000, it was revealed that the Minnesota Timberwolves had tampered with Joe Smith two years earlier by promising him a more lucrative contract in future years in exchange for signing him below market value so they could sign more players in the short-term. The NBA voided the last year of Smith's contract, fined the franchise $3.5 million and took away the Timberwolves' next three 1st-round NBA Draft picks. Although many believed that tampering is a common practice, Stern abided by arbitrator Kenneth Dam's ruling that the Timberwolves had signed the secret agreement, and denied that the league was making an example of the Timberwolves.  Before the 2005–06 season, the NBA announced a new dress code, which banned players from wearing headphones, chains, shorts, sleeveless shirts, indoor sunglasses, T-shirts, jerseys and headgear such as baseball caps during NBA-related public appearances. Allen Iverson criticized the policy: "They're targeting guys who dress like me, guys who dress hip-hop... I think they went way overboard." A decade later, Stern's edict was credited with spawning a style trend among NBA stars toward high fashion.  Stern advocated a minimum age limit for NBA players. Starting with the 2006 NBA draft, players could no longer be selected straight out of high school and needed to be at least 19 years old, creating the one-and-done rule. In 2001, Stern had stated, "If these kids have the ability to get a little more maturity, a little more coaching, a little bit more life experience overall, that's good." He was criticized for his reference to the 18-year-old adults, most of whom were African American, as "these kids", when other professional sports and occupations allowed 18-year olds.  For the 2006–07 season the NBA introduced a new "microfiber" basketball for use in NBA games, replacing the previous style ball used since 1970. Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban agreed with the need for a new ball, claiming the old style ball was inconsistent. Many of the league's most prominent players openly expressed their dislike for the new ball, such as Shaquille O'Neal who said, "Feels like one of those cheap balls that you buy at the toy store." A study, financed by Cuban, claimed that the new ball "bounces 5 to 8% lower than typical leather balls when dropped from 4 feet...[and] the new ball bounces 30% more erratically."  However, Stern initially refused to go back to the original ball despite many complaints by players about the new ball. Two months into the season, the National Basketball Players Association filed a grievance related to the quality of the ball and the cuts it had caused on players' fingers. Stern acknowledged that the NBA "could have done a better job" with the decision and implementation, and that it would have been better to get the players' input in advance. On December 11, 2006 the NBA announced that it would in fact switch back to the leather ball starting on January 1, 2007.  In 2007, Stern injected himself in the controversy surrounding the purchase and subsequent relocation of the Seattle SuperSonics by Oklahoman Clay Bennett and his ownership group. His support for the surprising move from the nation's 14th-largest market to the 45th was questioned by many both in the public and media. Stern's tenure saw the relocation of 6 NBA franchises.  In the summer of 2011, the NBA lockout cost the league regular-season games for the second time in league history; the first occurred during the 1998–99 lockout. Those were the only times the league has lost games as a result of work stoppages. Stern was known as a relentless negotiator. During the 2011 lockout, he was accused by HBO commentator Bryant Gumbel of being "some kind of modern-day plantation overseer", a reference to the division between the NBA's primarily white owners and its predominantly black players.  On December 8, 2011, Stern vetoed a three-team trade that would have sent Chris Paul to the Lakers, Lamar Odom to the league-owned Hornets, and Pau Gasol to the Rockets for what a spokesman would only say were "basketball reasons". Early reactions from around the league, fanbase, and media were all largely negative, with players taking to Twitter to express their concerns, and several noted sports journalists criticizing the decision. The deal was maligned especially because of the conflict of interest posed by the league's ownership of one of its teams.  On October 25, 2012, Stern announced that he would step down as NBA commissioner on February 1, 2014, after 30 years in the role, longer than each of his three predecessors. He was succeeded by his deputy Adam Silver, but remained affiliated with the league with the title of commissioner emeritus.  Stern received the Olympic Order in 2012. In 2014, Stern was inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. In 2016, he became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame.

Personal life and death.

Stern was married to Dianne Bock Stern, and they had two sons: Eric and Andrew. They resided in Scarsdale, New York. By the later years of his commissionership, Stern was earning a $9 million salary. He stood at.  On December 12, 2019, Stern suffered a brain hemorrhage and underwent emergency surgery. He died in Manhattan on January 1, 2020, at age 77. In remembrance of Stern, all NBA teams wore black bands on their jerseys for the remainder of the 2019–20 season.

David Joel Stern (September 22, 1942 – January 1, 2020) was an American lawyer and business executive who was the commissioner of the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1984 to 2014 and oversaw NBA basketball's growth into one of the world's most popular sports during the 1990s and 2000s. He is credited with developing and broadening the NBA's audience, especially internationally setting up training camps, playing exhibition games, and recruiting more international players. In addition, with Stern's guidance the NBA opened 12 offices in cities outside the United States, and broadcast to over 200 territories in over 40 languages. Stern also helped found the Women's National Basketball Association and the NBA G League, the NBA's development league. Under Stern, the NBA launched their digital presence with NBA.com, NBA TV and NBA League Pass. He also established the NBA's social responsibility program, NBA Cares.

David Joel Stern (* 22. September 1942 in New York City, New York; † 1. Januar 2020 ebenda) war der vierte Commissioner der nordamerikanischen Basketball-Profiliga National Basketball Association (NBA). Der Jurist übernahm den Posten 1984 von Larry O’Brien.


Plot.

"Chicago Examiner" reporter Hildebrand "Hildy" Johnson (Jack Lemmon) has just quit his job in order to marry Peggy Grant (Susan Sarandon) and start a new career, when convict Earl Williams (Austin Pendleton) escapes from death row just prior to his execution. Earl is an impoverished, bumbling leftist whose only offense is stuffing fortune cookies with messages demanding the release of Sacco and Vanzetti, but the yellow press of Chicago has painted him as a dangerous threat from Moscow. As a result, the citizenry are anxious to see him put to death.  Earl has not left the jail, and enters the prison pressroom while Hildy is alone there. Hildy cannot resist the lure of what could be the biggest scoop of his soon-to-be-over career. Ruthless, egomaniacal managing editor Walter Burns (Walter Matthau), desperate to keep Hildy on the job, encourages him to cover the story, frustrating Peggy, who is eager to catch their train. When Earl is in danger of being discovered, Mollie Malloy (Carol Burnett), a self-described "$2 whore from Division Street" who befriended Earl, creates a distraction by leaping from the third-floor window.  When Earl is caught, Hildy and Walter are arrested for aiding and abetting a fugitive, but are released when they discover that the mayor and sheriff colluded to conceal Earl's last-minute reprieve by the governor. Walter grudgingly accepts that he is losing his ace reporter and presents him with a watch as a token of his appreciation. Hildy and Peggy set off to get married, and Walter telegraphs the next railway station to alert them that the man who stole his watch is on the inbound train and should be apprehended by the police.

Cast.

Allen Jenkins, who had appeared in the 1928 original production, plays a small role as a stenographer. It was his last film role, he died in July 1974.

Production.

The original play had been adapted for the screen in 1931 and as "His Girl Friday" in 1940. Billy Wilder was quoted by his biographer Charlotte Chandler as saying, "I'm against remakes in general... because if a picture is good, you shouldn't remake it, and if it's lousy, "why" remake it?... It was not one of my pictures I was particularly proud of."  After years of producing his films, he passed producing chores to Paul Monash and concentrate on screenwriting and directing when Jennings Lang suggested he film a new adaptation of "The Front Page" for Universal Pictures. The idea appealed to Wilder, a newspaperman in his younger days, who recalled, "A reporter was a glamorous fellow in those days, the way he wore a hat, and a raincoat, and a swagger, and had his camaraderie with fellow reporters, with local police, always hot on the tail of tips from them and from the fringes of the underworld." Whereas the two earlier screen adaptations of the play were set in their contemporary times, Wilder decided his would be a period piece set in 1929, primarily because the daily newspaper was no longer the dominant news medium in 1974.  Wilder hired Henry Bumstead as production designer. For exterior shots, Bumstead suggested Wilder film in San Francisco, where the buildings were a better match for 1920s Chicago than was Los Angeles. The final scene on the train was filmed in San Francisco, where a railroad enthusiast provided a vintage railway car for the setting. The interior shot of the theater in an earlier scene was done at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles. The opening credits scenes were filmed at the "Los Angeles Herald Examiner".  Wilder and Diamond insisted their dialogue be delivered exactly as written and clearly enough to be understood easily. Jack Lemmon, who portrayed Hildy Johnson, later said, "I had one regret about the film. Billy would not let us overlap our lines more. I think that would have made it better... I feel it's a piece in which you "must" overlap. But Billy, the writer, wanted to hear all of the words clearly, and he wanted the audience to hear the words. I would have liked to overlap to the point where you lost some of the dialogue."  Two characters not in the play were added to the film. Dr. Eggelhofer, a character only mentioned in the play, appears in the film as an eccentric, sex-obsessed Freudian psychiatrist whose theories are utterly incomprehensible to Williams. The other character added is Rudy Keppler, an young reporter who is seduced in the bathroom by the older reporter Roy Bensinger. In the play, the character of Bensigner was portrayed as effeminate and rather high-strung, suggesting he is gay, but in the film, he is portrayed as a stereotypical campy homosexual whose effeminacy and mincing manners leave no doubt about his sexuality even if he is not explicitly described as gay. Diamond and Wilder also worked in several "in jokes" to the film, such as describing Burns as still being upset with the loss of his star reporter Ben Hecht (who did work as a newsman in 1920s Chicago) to a Hollywood studio.  Because of Wilder's tendency to "cut in the camera", a form of spontaneous editing that results in a minimal footage being shot, editor Ralph E. Winters was able to assemble a rough cut of the film four days after principal photography was completed.  While the film was Wilder's first to show a financial return since "Irma la Douce" (1963), the director regretted not sticking to his instincts over remakes.

Reception.

Box office.

The film earned North American theatrical rentals of $7,460,000.

Critical reception.

Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" thought the story was "a natural" for Wilder and Diamond, who "have a special (and, to my mind, very appealing) appreciation for vulgar, brilliant con artists of monumental tackiness." He continued, "Even though the mechanics and demands of movie-making slow what should be the furious tempo, this "Front Page" displays a giddy bitterness that is rare in any films except those of Mr. Wilder. It is also, much of the time, extremely funny." He described Walter Matthau and Austin Pendleton as "marvelous" and added, "Mr. Lemmon is comparatively reserved as the flamboyant Hildy, never quite letting go of his familiar comic personality to become dominated by the lunacies of the farce. He always remains a little outside it, acting. Carol Burnett has an even tougher time as Molly Malloy... This role may well be impossible, however, since it requires the actress to play for straight melodrama while everyone around her is going for laughs... Mr. Wilder has great fun with the period newspaper detail... and admires his various supporting actors to such an extent that he allows them to play as broadly as they could possibly desire." He concluded, "The hysteria is not as consistent as one might wish, nor, indeed, as epic as in Mr. Wilder's own "One, Two, Three". The cohesive force is, instead, the director's fondness for frauds, which, I suspect, is really an admiration for people who barrel on through life completely intimidating those who should know better."  The British television network Channel 4 called it the "least satisfying screen adaptation of Hecht and MacArthur's play," saying it "adds little to the mix other than a bit of choice language. The direction is depressingly flat and stagy, Wilder running on empty. While it is easy to see why he was attracted to this material... he just does not seem to have the energy here to do it justice. Matthau and Lemmon put in their usual faultless turns, but cannot lift a pervading air of pointlessness."  "TV Guide" rated the film 21⁄2 out of four stars and noted, "This slick remake of the ebullient original falls short of being the film it could have been, despite the presence of master filmmaker Wilder and his engaging costars... Despite the obvious charismatic interaction between Lemmon and Matthau, the film is oddly stilted. In an overly emphatic turn, the miscast Burnett easily gives the most awful performance of her career. She projects only one emotion - a gratingly annoying hysteria. One never enjoys the film so much as when her character throws herself out of a window."  Burnett said in "This Time Together" that she was so displeased with her performance that when she was on an airplane where the film was shown, she apologized on the plane's intercom.

Awards.

The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy but lost to "The Longest Yard", and Lemmon and Matthau, competing with each other for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy, lost to Art Carney in "Harry and Tonto".  Wilder and Diamond were nominated for the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Comedy Adapted from Another Medium but lost to Lionel Chetwynd and Mordecai Richler for "The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz".  Wilder won the David di Donatello Award for Best Director of a Foreign Film, and Lemmon and Matthau shared Best Foreign Actor honors with Burt Lancaster for "Conversation Piece".

Home media.

GoodTimes Entertainment released the Region 1 DVD on June 17, 1998. The film is in fullscreen format with an audio track in English and subtitles in English, Spanish, and French. On May 31, 2005 it was re-released in a widescreen edition DVD by Universal Home Video. Kino Lorber released the film on Blu-ray on August 6, 2019.

Trivia.

The song performed by Peggy Grant is "Button up your overcoat", published in 1928, and was originally first introduced by vocalist Ruth Etting.

The Front Page is a 1974 American black comedy-drama film directed by Billy Wilder and starring Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau. The screenplay by Wilder and I.A.L. Diamond is based on Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur's 1928 play of the same name, which inspired several other films and televised movies and series episodes.

Extrablatt ist eine Filmsatire unter der Regie von Billy Wilder aus dem Jahr 1974. Sie basiert auf dem Theaterstück "Reporter" (Originaltitel: "The Front Page)" von Ben Hecht und Charles MacArthur.


History.

One of the most famous carpets in history was given by Louis XVI to George Washington. It was woven for the banquet room of Mount Vernon, where it can still be admired today.  In the early twentieth century, a new manufacturing method called "tufting" revolutionized the carpeting industry. Invented in Dalton (GA), it quickly replaced the traditional method of weaving. The pile yarns are stitched through a textile backing and coated on the underside of the coating. From 1930, the mechanization of tufting favored its development. It now represents 51% of total production while it amounted to only 10% in the 1950s.

Fabrication.

Tufted carpet.

The tufted carpet is the most common manufacturing technique. It implies poking yarn tufts in a textile support close to a sewing machine. The carpet is then equipped with a folder (rewoven, jute, plastic or cotton) pasted on the back of the tuft. This technique makes possible the production of cut pile, curly or structured carpets.

Woven carpet.

The woven carpet is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. It is woven like a carpet through a traditional weaving loom. The top and the back of the carpet are made simultaneously.

Needled carpet.

From several superposed layers of fibers, the needling technique consists in hanging the fibers together through the use of special needles. The carpets obtained are very solid but intended for temporary use since they do not have the comfort of woven and tufted carpets.

Fibers.

The different fibers constitute the carpet’s velvet. They have a direct impact on the physical properties of the floor they are covering such as resistance or longevity. There are three types of fiber: natural, coming from animals (wool), vegetable (seagrass, coir, sisal) and synthetic (polyamide or polypropylene). The wool was used for weaving carpets more than five centuries B.C before being predominantly used in the raw carpets' manufacture. However, synthetic fibers are predominantly used nowadays.

Fitted carpet, also "wall-to-wall carpet" or "carpeting", is a carpet intended to cover a floor entirely. Carpet over 4 meters in length is usually installed with the use of a power-stretcher (tubed or tubeless).

Als Teppichboden (auch Auslegware, Spannteppich) bezeichnet man einen textilen Bodenbelag. Als Teppichboden wird jeder textile Bodenbelag bezeichnet, der vollflächig in einem Raum verlegt werden kann. Teppichböden unterscheiden sich in ihrem Material, ihrer Struktur und der Beschaffenheit der Rückseite.


Background.

Henry, who had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1191, was known for being highly aggressive in guarding and expanding the rights of the imperial crown. In 1194 he also invaded the Kingdom of Sicily and conquered it from its king, William III. That same year his wife Constance gave birth to a son, Frederick II, who would, if all went well, inherit both the Imperial title and the Kingdom of Sicily. It was Henry's dream to have the Empire and Sicily permanently unified under the House of Hohenstaufen.  Unfortunately for Henry's plans, however, the Empire was an elective monarchy, meaning that the Hohenstaufens' hold on the imperial title depended on a favorable election by the princes after the death of every Emperor. The dynasty's hold on the empire could never be secure as long as the princes controlled the electoral process. Henry was aware of developments in other European countries such as France, where the principle of hereditary monarchy was firmly established and the strength of the crown was increasing. Henry ultimately decided on pursuing a way to change the imperial title into a hereditary one, and attempted to gain the support of the princes of the Empire.  The secular princes, for their part, feared Henry's extensive powers. Although hereditary succession for princes ("Leihezwang") had become customary within the Empire, it was still not a formal right and on multiple occasions Henry refused to enfeoff the direct heir of a deceased prince with the latter's territory (the most notable example of this being Henry's seizure of the Margraviate of Meissen in 1195 as a vacant fief after the death of Albrecht the Proud, rather than enfeoffing Albrecht's brother Dietrich I with the margraviate). As a result, the princes were nervous about their rights of inheritance and were willing to grant certain concessions to the Emperor in exchange for the preservation of these rights.

The Plan.

After his capture of Sicily in 1194 Henry was busy organizing for a possible crusade and negotiating over the election of his son Frederick as his successor within the Empire. The secular princes in the meantime made their desire for hereditary imperial fiefs, and for the recognition of the capacity for inheritance by the female line as well, known. By agreeing to consider these demands Henry was able to gain the acceptance by a majority of the secular princes for the idea of hereditary monarchy. Henry also bought the support of the ecclesiastical princes by announcing that he would be willing to give up the right of jus spolii, which had for years been used against Church lands.  Despite the high degree of support he had from the secular and ecclesiastical princes for the idea, however, Henry was unable to secure an agreement in writing. The first obstacle to the plan was the Archbishop of Cologne, Adolf of Altena. Besides being opposed towards Henry's rule in general, Adolf was unwilling to give up the significant level of influence that his position traditionally held over the imperial election. When he aroused the resistance of several Saxon and Thuringian princes against the Emperor, Henry realized that he would be unable to establish hereditary monarchy without resistance.  Henry next turned to the papacy, hoping that if he could get the support of the pope that the matter would be settled. Pope Celestine III, however, had many reasons to oppose such a plan, including the classic papal opposition to the expansion of Imperial power in Italy. Henry tried to compromise with Celestine, offering to meet several papal demands and probably offering a financial incentive. Ultimately the pope decided that the hazards of a hereditary monarchy were too great and refused to support Henry.  Henry now found his campaign to turn his office into a hereditary one stalled. He gave up on his plans for the time being, in the meantime securing the election of Frederick as King of the Romans in late 1196. Over the next year he was bogged down by a revolt in Sicily and preparations for the Crusade, when he suddenly died in September 1197. His death put a definitive end to his plans for hereditary Imperial succession; the issue was quickly forgotten as the Empire quickly descended into civil war between Philip of Swabia and Otto IV. Henry's attempts to turn the Imperial title into a hereditary one were ultimately futile, and the Holy Roman Empire remained an elective monarchy (albeit "de facto" under the Habsburgs for the last four centuries, with a brief interruption) all the way up until its dissolution in 1806.

The Erbreichsplan (German for "Plan for a Hereditary Empire") was a plan formed by the Emperor Henry VI to change the Holy Roman Empire from an elective to a hereditary monarchy. Such a move would have drastically changed the character of the Empire, but Henry was unable to garner sufficient support for the plan and it was ultimately forgotten.

Als Erbreichsplan wird der Plan des Stauferkaisers Heinrich VI. bezeichnet, innerhalb des Heiligen Römischen Reiches im deutschen Königreich die Erbmonarchie „wie in Frankreich“ ("Annalen von Marbach zum Jahr 1196") einzuführen. Dieser Plan sei „unerhört“ (ebenda) gewesen, da er das Königswahlrecht der Großen des Reichs beseitigt hätte. Die Quellenlage zu diesem bedeutenden Projekt einer Verfassungsreform ist allerdings spärlich, die zuverlässigsten Quellen hierzu sind die Marbacher Annalen und die Reinhardsbrunner Chronik.


Design and development.

The Il-14 was developed as a replacement for the widespread Douglas DC-3 and its Soviet built version, the Lisunov Li-2. A development of the earlier Ilyushin Il-12, (that first flew in 1945), the Il-14 was intended for use in both military and civil applications. The Il-12 had major problems with poor engine-out behaviour. Also, it had less payload capability than was originally planned (although the Il-12 was intended to carry 32 passengers, in service it only carried 18, which was uneconomical). The development into the Il-14 was a vast improvement over the Il-12, with a new wing and a broader tailfin. It was powered by two 1,400 kW (1,900 hp) Shvetsov ASh-82T-7 radial piston engines. These changes greatly improved aerodynamic performance in engine-out conditions.  Total production of the Il-14 was 1,345 aircraft: 1,065 in Moscow (Moscow Machinery Plant Nr.30) from 1956 to 1958 and Tashkent (Factory Nr.84) from 1954 to 1958. Licensed production of 80 in East Germany by VEB Flugzeugwerke Dresden (FWD) from 1956 to 1959 and 203 in Czechoslovakia by Avia, Prague, from 1956 to 1960. It was rugged and reliable, and thus was widely used in rural areas with poor quality airfields.  The type was also used by the East German aircraft industry as a test aircraft for the horizontal stabilizer of the Baade 152.

Operators.

The Il-14 operated in the Soviet Union until the 1980s and early 90s, and other nations like Cuba and Vietnam. However, the unlicensed Chinese built Y-6 remained in the People's Liberation Army Air Force as a trainer until the late 1980s.

Military operators.

There are no current military operators of the Ilyushin Il-14.

Civil operators.

Very few examples remain airworthy, with some still in use for freight duties, and a handful maintained by aviation clubs and enthusiasts. Today only three aircraft remain airworthy in Russia: one, called "Soviet Union" at Gorelovo airfield near St. Petersburg, another, called "Penguin" has performed its maiden flight after restoration on 1.10.2012 and now is based at Stupino airfield near Moscow. The third aircraft, called "The Blue Dream" performed its maiden flight from Tushino airfield to Stupino airfield in May 2014 after more than 10 years repair performed by a team of aero enthusiasts. There was also one Il-14 that was possibly airworthy in the United States, but its registration was cancelled in July 2014. Yugoslav Airlines purchased six Il-14M aircraft in 1957. They were withdrawn in 1963 because they were not as profitable as the Convair CV-440, used by JAT in this period. They were given to the Yugoslav Air Force after the purchase of the Sud Aviation Caravelle and were used until 1974.

The Ilyushin Il-14 (NATO reporting name: Crate) was a Soviet twin-engine commercial and military personnel and cargo transport aircraft that first flew in 1950, and entered service in 1954. Il-14 was also manufactured in East Germany by VVB Flugzeugbau, in Czechoslovakia as the Avia 14. The Ilyushin Il-14 was typically replaced by the Antonov An-24 and Yakovlev Yak-40.

Die Iljuschin Il-14 (, NATO-Codename: "Crate") ist ein sowjetisches Kurz- und Mittelstrecken-Verkehrsflugzeug mit zwei Kolbenmotoren. Sie war die verbesserte Nachfolgerin der Il-12. Bis auf die Version "Avia 14 Super" war die Il-14 nicht mit Druckkabine ausgestattet.


Early life.

Cornelius Crane Chase was born in the Lower Manhattan area of New York City on October 8, 1943. He grew up in Woodstock, New York. His father, Edward Tinsley "Ned" Chase (1919–2005), was a Princeton-educated Manhattan book editor and magazine writer. His mother, Cathalene Parker (née Browning; 1923–2005), was a concert pianist and librettist whose father, Admiral Miles Browning served as Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance's Chief of Staff on the aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) at the Battle of Midway in World War II. Cathalene was adopted as a child by her stepfather, Cornelius Vanderbilt Crane, heir to The Crane Company, and took the name Catherine Crane. Chase's paternal grandfather was artist and illustrator Edward Leigh Chase, and his great-uncle was painter and teacher Frank Swift Chase. His maternal grandmother, Cathalene, was an opera singer who performed several times at Carnegie Hall.  Chase was named for his adoptive grandfather, Cornelius, while the nickname "Chevy" was bestowed by his grandmother from the medieval English ballad "The Ballad of Chevy Chase". As a descendant of the Scottish Clan Douglas, the name seemed appropriate to her. He is a 14th-generation New Yorker, and was listed in the "Social Register" at an early age. His mother's ancestors arrived in Manhattan starting in 1624—among his ancestors are New York City mayors Stephanus Van Cortlandt and John Johnstone; the Dutch Schuyler family, through his ancestor Gertrude Schuyler, the wife of Stephanus Van Cortlandt; John Morin Scott, General of the New York Militia during the American Revolution; Anne Hutchinson, dissident Puritan preacher and healer; and "Mayflower" passengers and signers of the Mayflower Compact from England, John Howland, and the Pilgrim colonist leader and spiritual elder of the Plymouth Colony, William Brewster. According to his brother John:  As a child, Chase vacationed at Castle Hill, the Cranes' summer estate in Ipswich, Massachusetts. Chase's parents divorced when he was four; his father remarried into the Folgers coffee family, and his mother remarried twice. He has stated that he grew up in an upper middle class environment and that his adoptive maternal grandfather did not bequeath any assets to Chase's mother when he died. In a 2007 biography, Chase stated that he was physically and psychologically abused as a child by his mother and stepfather, John Cederquist. Both of his parents died in 2005.  Chase was educated at Riverdale Country School, an independent day school in the Riverdale neighborhood of New York City, before being expelled. He ultimately graduated in 1962 from the Stockbridge School, an independent boarding school in the town of Stockbridge, Massachusetts. At Stockbridge, he was known as a practical joker with an occasional mean streak. He attended Haverford College during the 1962–1963 term, where he was noted for slapstick comedy and an absurd sense of physical humor, including his signature pratfalls and "sticking forks into his orifices." During a 2009 interview on the "Today" show, he ostensibly verified the oft-publicized urban legend that he was expelled for harboring a cow in his fourth floor room, although his former roommate David Felson asserted in a 2003 interview that Chase left for academic reasons. Chase transferred to Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, where he studied a pre-med curriculum and graduated in 1967 with a Bachelor of Arts in English.  Chase did not enter medical school, which meant he was subject to the military draft. Chase was not drafted; when he appeared in January 1989 as the first guest of the just-launched late-night "The Pat Sajak Show", he said he had convinced his draft board he deserved a 4-F classification by "falsely claiming, among other things, that he had homosexual tendencies". He played drums with the college band The Leather Canary, headed by school friends Walter Becker and Donald Fagen. Chase has called the group "a bad jazz band"; Becker and Fagen later founded the successful group Steely Dan. Chase has absolute pitch. He played drums and keyboards for a rock band called Chamaeleon Church, which recorded one album for MGM Records before disbanding in 1969. To give the album a more soft-rock sound, producer Alan Lorber made several alterations in the mixing, including the muting of Chase's bass drum, and Chase was reportedly incensed when he heard the final mix. Before fame, Chase worked as a cab driver, truck driver, motorcycle messenger, construction worker, waiter, busboy, fruit picker, produce manager in a supermarket, audio engineer, salesman in a wine store, and theater usher.

Career.

Early career.

Chase was a member of an early underground comedy ensemble called Channel One, which he co-founded in 1967. He also wrote a one-page spoof on "" for "Mad" magazine in 1970 and was a writer for the short-lived "Smothers Brothers" TV show comeback in the spring of 1975. Chase made the move to comedy as a full-time career by 1973, when he became a writer and cast member of "The National Lampoon Radio Hour", a syndicated satirical radio series. "The National Lampoon Radio Hour" also featured John Belushi, Gilda Radner, Bill Murray, and Brian Doyle-Murray, all of whom later became "Not-Ready-For-Prime Time Players" on "NBC Saturday Night" (later re-titled "NBC's Saturday Night" and finally "Saturday Night Live"). Chase and Belushi also appeared in National Lampoon's off-Broadway revue "Lemmings", a sketch and musical send-up of popular youth culture, in which Chase also played the drums and piano during the musical numbers. He appeared in the movie "The Groove Tube", which was directed by another co-founder of Channel One, Ken Shapiro, featuring several Channel One sketches.

"Saturday Night Live".

Chase was one of the original cast members of "Saturday Night Live" ("SNL"), NBC's late-night comedy television show, beginning in October 1975. During the first season, he introduced every show except two, with "Live from New York, it's "Saturday Night!"" The remark was often preceded by a pratfall, known as "The Fall of the Week." Chase became known for his skill at physical comedy. In one comedy sketch, he mimicked a real-life incident in which President Gerald Ford accidentally tripped while disembarking from Air Force One in Salzburg, Austria. This portrayal of President Ford, as a bumbling klutz, became a favorite device of Chase's and helped form the popular concept of Ford as being a clumsy man. In later years, Chase met and became friendly with President Ford.  Chase was the original anchor for the "Weekend Update" segment of "SNL", and his catchphrase introduction, "I'm Chevy Chase... and you're not" became well known. His trademark conclusion, "Good night, and have a pleasant tomorrow" was later resurrected by Jane Curtin and Tina Fey. Chase also wrote comedy material for "Weekend Update". For example, he wrote and performed "The News for the Hard of Hearing." In this skit, Chase read the top story of the day, aided by Garrett Morris, who repeated the story by loudly shouting it. Chase claimed that his version of "Weekend Update" was the inspiration for later news satire shows such as "The Daily Show" and "The Colbert Report". "Weekend Update" was later revived as a segment on "The Chevy Chase Show", a short-lived late-night talk show produced by Chase and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company.  Chase was committed contractually to "SNL" for only one year as a writer and became a cast member during rehearsals just before the show's premiere. He received two Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for his comedy writing and live comic acting on the show. In "Rolling Stone"s February 2015 appraisal of all 141 "SNL" cast members to date, Chase was ranked tenth in overall importance. "Strange as it sounds, Chase might be the most "under"-rated "SNL" player," they wrote. "It took him only one season to define the franchise...without that deadpan arrogance, the whole "SNL" style of humor would fall flat."  In a 1975 "New York" magazine cover story, which called him "The funniest man in America," NBC executives referred to Chase as "The first real potential successor to Johnny Carson" and claimed he would begin guest-hosting "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" within six months of the article. Chase dismissed chatter that he could be the next Carson by telling "New York", "I'd never be tied down for five years interviewing TV personalities." Chase did not appear on the program until May 4, 1977, when he was promoting a prime-time special for NBC. Carson later said of Chase: "He couldn't ad lib a fart after a baked bean dinner."  Chase acknowledged Ernie Kovacs's influence on his work in "Saturday Night Live", and he thanked Kovacs during his acceptance speech for his Emmy Award. In addition, Chase spoke of Kovacs's influence on his work in an appearance in the 1982 documentary called "Ernie Kovacs: Television's Original Genius".

Leaving "SNL".

In late 1976, in the middle of the second season, Chase became the first member of the original cast to leave the show. While he landed starring roles in several films on the strength of his "SNL" notoriety, he asserted that the principal reason for his departure was the reluctance of his girlfriend, Jacqueline Carlin, to move to New York. Chase moved to Los Angeles, married Carlin, and was replaced by Bill Murray, although he made a few appearances on the show during the second season.  Chase hosted "SNL" eight times through 1997. He appeared on the show's 25th anniversary special in 1999 and was interviewed for a 2005 NBC special on the first five years of "SNL". Later appearances included a "Caddyshack" skit featuring Bill Murray, a 1997 episode with guest host Chris Farley, as the Land Shark in a Weekend Update segment in 2001, another Weekend Update segment in 2007, and in Justin Timberlake's monologue in 2013 as a member of the Five-Timers Club, where he was reunited with his "Three Amigos" co-stars Steve Martin and Martin Short. He also participated in the 40th anniversary special in February 2015.

Film success.

Chase's early film roles included "Tunnel Vision", the box office hit "Foul Play", and "Oh! Heavenly Dog". The role of Eric "Otter" Stratton in "National Lampoon's Animal House" was originally written with Chase in mind, but he turned the role down to work on "Foul Play". The role went to Tim Matheson instead. Chase said in an interview that he chose to do "Foul Play" so he could do "real acting" for the first time in his career instead of just doing "schtick." Chase followed "Foul Play" with the successful Harold Ramis comedy "Caddyshack", in 1980. That same year, he also reunited with "Foul Play" co-star Goldie Hawn for Neil Simon's "Seems Like Old Times" and released a self-titled record album, co-produced by Chase and Tom Scott, with novelty and cover versions of songs by Randy Newman, Barry White, Bob Marley, the Beatles, Donna Summer, Tennessee Ernie Ford, The Troggs, and The Sugarhill Gang.  Chase narrowly escaped death by electrocution during the filming of "Modern Problems" in 1980. During a sequence in which Chase's character wears "landing lights" as he dreams that he is an airplane, the lights malfunctioned and electrical current passed through Chase's arm, back, and neck muscles. The near-death experience caused Chase to experience a period of deep depression, as his marriage to Jacqueline had ended just prior to the start of filming. Chase continued his film career in 1983's "National Lampoon's Vacation", directed by Ramis and written by John Hughes. He married Jayni Luke in 1982, and in 1985, he starred in "Fletch", the first of two films based on Gregory Mcdonald's "Fletch" books as well as "Spies Like Us". Chase joined "SNL" veterans Steve Martin and Martin Short in the Lorne Michaels–produced comedy "Three Amigos" in 1986, declaring in an interview that making "Three Amigos" was the most fun he had making a film. The trio hosted "SNL" that year, the only time the show has had three hosts on one show.  At the height of his career in the late 1980s, Chase earned around US$7 million per film and was a highly visible celebrity. He appeared alongside Paul Simon, one of his best friends, in Simon's 1986 second video for "You Can Call Me Al," in which he lip-syncs all of Simon's lyrics. Chase hosted the Academy Awards in 1987 and 1988, signing on to the proceedings in 1988 with the opener, "Good evening, Hollywood phonies!" Chase filmed a sequel to "Vacation", 1985's "National Lampoon's European Vacation" and then a third, "National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation", in 1989, which, thanks to its holiday theme, has become one of his more durable films, airing on NBC every December. He played saxophone onstage at Simon's free concert at the Great Lawn in Central Park in the summer of 1991. Later in 1991, he helped record and appeared in the music video "Voices That Care" to entertain and support U.S. troops involved in Operation Desert Storm, and supported the International Red Cross.

Later work.

Chase's career took a downturn in the early to mid-1990s. Chase had three consecutive film flops—1991's Razzie Award–nominated "Nothing but Trouble", 1992's "Memoirs of an Invisible Man", and 1994's "Cops & Robbersons". The three releases had a combined gross of $34 million in the United States. Even the durable "Vacation" series ground to a halt, following 1997's "Vegas Vacation" installment. Some of the more recent films starring Chase (e.g., "Vacuums", "Rent-a-Husband", "Goose!") have not been widely released in the United States. He returned to mainstream movie-making in 2006, co-starring with Tim Allen and Courteney Cox in the comedy "Zoom", though it was both a critical and commercial failure.  In September 1993, Chase hosted "The Chevy Chase Show", a weeknight talk show, for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Although it had high commercial expectations, the show was cancelled by Fox after five weeks. Chase later appeared in a commercial for Doritos, airing during the Super Bowl, in which he made humorous reference to the show's failure.  Chase was Hasty Pudding's 1993 Man of the Year, and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994. After having starred with Farrah Fawcett in the relatively successful "Man of the House" in 1995, he received The Harvard Lampoon's Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996.  In 1998, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him. He was roasted by the New York Friars Club for a Comedy Central television special in 2002. This roast was noted for being unusually vitriolic, even by the standards of a roast. In 2015, Chase reprised his role as Clark Griswold in the fifth "Vacation" installment, titled "Vacation". Unlike the previous four films in which Clark is the main protagonist, he only has a brief though pivotal cameo appearance. In spite of largely negative critical reception, the film itself has proven to be a financial success grossing over $104 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing entry to date.  Chase guest-starred as an anti-Semitic murder suspect in "In Vino Veritas," the November 3, 2006, episode of "Law & Order". He also guest-starred in the ABC drama series "Brothers & Sisters" in two episodes as a former love interest of Sally Field's character. Chase appeared in a prominent recurring role as villainous software magnate Ted Roark on the NBC spy-comedy "Chuck". In 2009, Chase and Dan Aykroyd provided voices for the "Family Guy" episode "Spies Reminiscent of Us."

"Community" (2009–2014).

Starting in 2009, Chase returned to NBC in the sitcom "Community", as aging moist-towelette tycoon Pierce Hawthorne. The series also starred Joel McHale, Alison Brie, Gillian Jacobs, Yvette Nicole Brown, Danny Pudi and Donald Glover. The series received critical acclaim for its acting and writing, appeared on numerous critics' year-end "best-of" lists and developed a cult following. Chase starred in the first four seasons, leaving the show in 2012. He returned for a cameo appearance in the season-five premiere. Although he had sometimes been involved in conflicts with creator Dan Harmon over the direction of the show, the role was arguably his most prominent in many years.  In 2010, he appeared in the film "Hot Tub Time Machine", as well as a short online film featuring the Griswold Family, and in the "Funny or Die" original comedy sketch "Presidential Reunion," where he played President Ford alongside other current and former "SNL" president impersonators. 2019 saw him in the Netflix movie "The Last Laugh".  In 2018, Glover told The New Yorker that Chase made racist comments about him on the set of Community. Chase allegedly once told Glover, "People think you’re funnier because you're black."

Personal life.

Chase married Susan Hewitt in New York City on February 23, 1973. They divorced on February 1, 1976. His second marriage, to Jacqueline Carlin, was formalized on December 4, 1976, and ended in divorce on November 14, 1980. He married his third wife, Jayni Luke, in Pacific Palisades on June 19, 1982.  In 1986, Chase was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for treatment of a prescription painkiller addiction. His use began after he experienced ongoing back pain related to the pratfalls he took during his "Saturday Night Live" appearances. In 2010, he said that his drug abuse had been "low level". He entered the Hazelden Clinic in September 2016 to receive treatment for alcoholism.  An active environmentalist and philanthropist, Chase is known for his outspoken liberal political views. He raised money for Bill Clinton in the 1990s and John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election. He mocked President George W. Bush during a speech at a People for the American Way benefit at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, referring to Bush as an "uneducated, real lying schmuck" and a "dumb fuck".

Awards and nominations.

On September 23, 1993, Chase received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Blvd.

Cornelius Crane "Chevy" Chase (; born October 8, 1943) is an American actor, comedian, screenwriter, and producer. Born into a prominent family, he had a variety of jobs before moving into comedy and started acting with "National Lampoon". He became a key cast member in the first season of "Saturday Night Live", where his recurring "Weekend Update" segment became a staple of the show. As both a performer and writer, he earned three Primetime Emmy Awards out of five nominations.

Cornelius Crane „Chevy“ Chase (* 8. Oktober 1943 in New York City, New York) ist ein US-amerikanischer Komiker und Schauspieler. International bekannt wurde er vor allem in seiner Rolle als Familienvater "Clark W. Griswold" in den "National-Lampoon"-Filmkomödien.


Life.

Born in The Hague to a patrician family, his early training is obscure; a recent suggestion suggests an apprenticeship with Willem Danielsz. van Tetrode, known in Italy as Guglielmo Fiammingo, a pupil of Benvenuto Cellini who had returned to the Netherlands. Another possibility is that he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, his brother-in-law Simon Adriaensz Rottermont. Both possibilities are suggestive in view of de Vries' virtuoso casting technique and refined finish.

Apprenticeship in Italy.

He travelled to Florence, where, as early as 1581, he is documented working in the studio of the master Mannerist sculptor Giambologna, a Northerner like himself, and the greatest influence on his mature work. Three of the "Virtues" and some of the putti for Giambologna's Grimaldi Chapel, in San Francesco di Castelletto, Genoa (1579), have been attributed to Adriaen de Vries. In 1586 he was called to Milan to assist Pompeo, the son of the ailing Leone Leoni, whom he succeeded as master of one of Italy's largest bronze-casting studios; for Leoni de Vries provided three heroically-scaled saints for Leoni's high altar at the basilica of San Lorenzo at the Escorial.

Commissions in Savoy and Germany.

This led to his brief appointment as court sculptor to Philip II's son-in-law Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy in Turin. In 1589-94 he worked for the first time in Prague, making busts and reliefs for Emperor Rudolf II. These sculptures are now housed in Vienna and at the Victoria and Albert Museum, which possesses a bust of Rudolf in bas-relief. He left Prague in 1594 for a visit to study in Rome. On his return through Germany he executed two fountains in 1596 for the city of Augsburg, the "Mercury" and "Hercules and the Hydra" fountains, which may still be seen in Maximilianstraße.

Return to Bohemia (after 1601).

De Vries returned in 1601 to Prague, where Rudolf made him "Kammerbildhauer" ("chamber sculptor", i.e. privileged artist). During his hypothetical stay in Rome in 1604, he had cast a statue of "Christ at the column", a centrepiece for Adam von Hannewaldt's tomb monument in the Holy Trinity Church in Rothsürben (Żórawina), today in the National Museum in Warsaw. It was conceived as a part of a five figure group of the "Flagellation of Christ". He remained in Prague after Rudolf's death in 1612, though the Imperial court returned to Vienna, until his own death in Prague in 1626.  During this late period he found a new patron in the Prince Karl of Liechtenstein and received sculpture commissions from several German sovereigns, such as from Ernst of Schaumburg for the resurrection group in Stadthagen mausoleum, today the only work of De Vries to be seen in its original situation; he was also commissioned to make a Neptune fountain for the gardens of the king of Denmark's royal palace, Frederiksborg (one of the statues from this fountain is now displayed in the Rijksmuseum).

Works.

The Rijksmuseum owns the only two sculptures by de Vries found in his native Netherlands, a bronze relief of Bacchus and Ariadne, and the recently-purchased (2014) Bacchant. The artist was scarcely known there until the exhibition mounted by the Rijksmuseum, the Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and the J. Paul Getty Museum in 1999. Fourteen sculptures, the largest collection of De Vries' work, are in "Museum De Vries" at Drottningholm Palace, opened in 2001. Their presence in Sweden is the result of the Sack of Prague in the last days of the Thirty Years' War, when the Swedes pillaged what remained of Rudolf's huge collections, and took a great many statues, in particular duke Albrecht von Wallenstein's garden statues, that used to adorn his palace on the Lesser Town (city quarter) of Prague. The originals, now to be found in Museum de Vries, are represented by bronze replicas at the Wallenstein Palace in Prague, now seat of the Czech senate. Another famous work by de Vries also now at Drottningholm was the Neptunus Fountain, made for Frederiksborg Palace in Denmark. These sculptures were also taken as prizes of war, during the Dano-Swedish War (1658–60).

Adriaen de Vries (c.1556–1626) was a Northern Mannerist sculptor born in the Netherlands but working in Central Europe, whose international style crossed the threshold to the Baroque; he excelled in refined modelling and bronze casting and in the manipulation of patina and became the most famous European sculptor of his generation. He also excelled in draughtsmanship.

Adriaen de Vries (* um 1545 oder 1556 in Den Haag; † vor 15. Dezember 1626 in Prag) war ein niederländischer Bildhauer des Manierismus, der auf Bronzeskulpturen spezialisiert war.


Analysis.

If one chooses to split the two words as (maranâ thâ), a vocative concept with an imperative verb, then it can be translated as a command to the Lord to come. On the other hand, if one decides that the two words (maran 'athâ), a possessive "Our Lord" and a perfect/preterite verb "has come," are actually more warranted, then it would be seen as a credal expression. This interpretation, "Our Lord has come," is supported by what appears to be an equivalent of this in the early credal acclamation found in the biblical books of and, "Jesus is Lord." In general, the recent interpretation has been to select the command option ("Come, Lord!"; ), changing older decisions to follow the preterite option ("Our Lord has come") as found in the ancient Aramaic Peshitta, in the Latin Clementine Vulgate, in the Greek Byzantine texts, maranatha ("O Lord, come!" in ), which was part of the eucharistic dialogue of the early Church. Textus Receptus, critical Greek texts like Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, Cambridge, etc., and in the English translations like the King James Version, the Finnish Raamattu, etc.  The NRSV of 1 Corinthians 16:22 translates the expression as: "Our Lord, come!" but notes that it could also be translated as: "Our Lord has come"; the NIV translates: "Come, O Lord"; the "Message" version puts it differently as: "Make room for the Master!" ; the NAB notes:  The 1985 New Jerusalem Bible translates 1 Corinthians 16:22, "If there is anyone who does not love the Lord, a curse on such a one. Maran atha." In the context of 1 Corinthians, understanding the Greek "maranatha" as Aramaic "Maran atha" in the preterite sense would provide substantiation for the preceding anathema. That is, one who does not love the Lord is accursed because our Lord has ascended and come unto his throne (e.g., ). It would also substantiate the following prayer for grace from the ascended Lord Jesus, who has come to his throne and then sends the Holy Spirit.  The last chapter of the Book of Revelation makes use of the same concept as "marana tha" by the Greek ( NA28) "erchou kurie Iesou", "Come, Lord Jesus" ("come" in the second person singular imperative, "Lord Jesus" in the vocative case).  In the Catholic Church, the word "Maranatha" has also been used as a solemn formula of excommunication (alongside "anathema").

Use in contemplative prayer.

Based on the teachings of John Cassian, John Main recommended the recitation of "Maranatha" as "the ideal Christian mantra", meaning "Come Lord", repeated silently interiorly as four equally stressed syllables "Ma-ra-na-tha": "Not only is this one of the most ancient Christian prayers, in the language Jesus spoke, but it also has a harmonic quality that helps to bring the mind to silence. Other words or short phrases could be used but he saw it as important that during the meditation one doesn't think about the meaning or use the imagination." Other Christian authors and communities cultivate similar practices centred on this recitation.

Maranatha (Aramaic: ""; ; ) is an Aramaic phrase. It occurs once in the New Testament (). It also appears in Didache 10:14, which is part of the Apostolic Fathers' collection. It is transliterated into Greek letters rather than translated and, given the nature of early manuscripts, the lexical difficulty rests in determining just which two Aramaic words constitute the single Greek expression, found at the end of Paul's "First Epistle to the Corinthians" ().

Maranatha (auch: "Maranata"; ܡܪܢܐ ܬܐ/מרנא תא "maranâ’ thâ’" oder ܡܪܢ ܐܬܐ/מרן אתא "maran ’athâ’") ist ein aramäischer Ausruf, der wohl von den frühen Christen benutzt wurde. In frühchristlicher Zeit drückte das aramäische Wort "Maranatha" die Erwartung der baldigen Wiederkehr Jesu Christi nach seiner Himmelfahrt aus. Es findet sich in der Bibel an einer einzigen Stelle, und zwar in. Mögliche Übersetzungen sind: „Unser Herr ist gekommen“ "(maran atha)" oder „Unser Herr wird kommen“ oder – am wahrscheinlichsten – „Unser Herr, komm!“ "(marana tha)". Ähnlich ist, wo es in Griechisch geschrieben heißt: „Amen. Komm, Herr Jesus!“. Vermutlich stammt der Ruf aus den christlichen Urgemeinden, dort war die Erwartung der Wiederkehr Jesu sehr ausgeprägt.


History.

Identification of the Rho family of GTPases began in the mid-1980s. The first identified Rho member was RhoA, isolated serendipitously in 1985 from a low stringency cDNA screening. Rac1 and Rac2 were identified next, in 1989 followed by Cdc42 in 1990. Eight additional mammalian Rho members were identified from biological screenings until the late 1990s, a turning point in biology where availability of complete genome sequences allowed full identification of gene families. All eukaryote cells contain Rho GTPase (ranging from 6 in yeast to 20 in mammals). In mammals, the Rho family is thus made of 20 members distributed in 8 subfamilies: Rho, Rnd, RhoD/F, RhoH, Rac, Cdc42, RhoU/V and RhoBTB.  As early as 1990, Paterson et al. began expressing activated Rho protein in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.  By the mid-1990s, Rho proteins had been observed to affect the formation of cellular projections ("processes") in fibroblasts. In a 1998 review article, Alan Hall compiled evidence showing that not only do fibroblasts form processes upon Rho activation, but so do virtually all eukaryotic cells.  A 2006 review article by Bement et al. explored the significance of spatial zones of Rho activation.

Categorization.

The Rho family of GTPases belong to the Ras superfamily of proteins, which consists of over 150 varieties in mammals. Rho proteins sometimes denote some members of the Rho family (RhoA, RhoB, and RhoC), and sometimes refers to all members of the family. This article is about the family as a whole.  In mammals, the Rho family contains 20 members. Almost all research involves the three most common members of the Rho family: Cdc42, Rac1 and RhoA.  These 20 mammalian members are subdivided in the Rac subfamily (Rac1, Rac2, Rac3, and RhoG), Cdc42 subfamily (Cdc42, TC10/RhoQ, TCL/RhoJ), the RhoUV family (RhoV/Chp and RhoU/Wrch-1/), RhoA subfamlly (RhoA, RhoB, and RhoC), the Rnd subfamily (Rnd1/Rho6, Rnd2/RhoN and Rnd3/RhoE), the RhoD subfamily (RhoD and RhoF/Rif), RhoBTB (RhoBTB1&2) and RhoH/TTF.

Regulators.

Three general classes of regulators of Rho protein signaling have been identified: guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEFs), GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) and guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (GDIs). GEFs activate Rho proteins by catalyzing the exchange of GDP for GTP. GAPs control the ability of the GTPase to hydrolyze GTP to GDP, controlling the natural rate of movement from the active conformation to the inactive conformation. GDI proteins form a large complex with the Rho protein, helping to prevent diffusion within the membrane and into the cytosol and thus acting as an anchor and allowing tight spatial control of Rho activation. In human, 82 GEF (71 Dbl-like and 11 DOCK-like ) control positively the activity of Rho members, while 66 GAP proteins control it negatively.  Recent work has unveiled important additional regulatory mechanisms: microRNAs regulate post-transcriptional processing of Rho GTPase-encoding mRNAs; palmitoylation and nuclear targeting affect intracellular distribution; post-translational phosphorylation, transglutamination and AMPylation modulate Rho GTPase signaling; and ubiquitination controls Rho GTPase protein stability and turnover. These modes of regulation add to the complexity of the Rho GTPase signaling network and allow precise spatiotemporal control of individual Rho GTPases.

Effectors.

Each Rho protein affects numerous proteins downstream, all of which having roles in various cell processes. Over 60 targets of the three common Rho GTPases have been found. Two molecules that directly stimulate actin polymerization are the Arp2/3 proteins and the Diaphanous-related formins.

Functions.

Rho/Rac proteins are involved in a wide variety of cellular functions such as cell polarity, vesicular trafficking, the cell cycle and transcriptomal dynamics.

Morphology.

Animal cells form many different shapes based on their function and location in the body. Rho proteins help cells regulate changes in shape throughout their life-cycle. Before cells can undergo key processes such as budding, mitosis, or locomotion, it must have some manner of cell polarity.  One example of Rho GTPases' role in cell polarity is seen in the much-studied yeast cell. Before the cell can bud, Cdc42 is used to locate the region of the cell's membrane that will begin to bulge into the new cell. When Cdc42 is removed from the cell, the outgrowths still form, but do so in an unorganized manner.  One of the most obvious changes to cell morphology controlled by Rho proteins is the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, projecting processes that look like "fingers" or "feet" and often propel cells or growth cones across surfaces. Virtually all eukaryotic cells form such processes upon Rho activation. Fibroblasts such as Swiss 3T3 cells are often used to study these phenomena.

Study techniques.

Much of what is known about cellular morphology changes and the effects of Rho proteins comes from the creation of a constitutively active mutated form of the protein. Mutation of a key amino acid can alter the conformation of the entire protein, causing it to permanently adopt a conformation that resembles the GTP-bound state. This protein cannot be inactivated normally, through GTP hydrolysis, and is thus "stuck on". When a Rho protein activated in this manner is expressed in 3T3 cells, morphological changes such as contractions and filopodia formation ensue.  Because Rho proteins are G-proteins and plasma membrane bound, their location can be easily controlled. In each situation, whether it be wound healing, cytokinesis, or budding, the location of the Rho activation can be imaged and identified. For example, if a circular hole is inflicted in a spherical cell, Cdc42 and other active Rhos are seen in highest concentration around the circumference of the circular injury. One method of maintaining the spatial zones of activation is through anchoring to the actin cytoskeleton, keeping the membrane-bound protein from diffusing away from the region where it is most needed. Another method of maintenance is through the formation of a large complex that is resistant to diffusion and more rigidly bound to the membrane than the Rho itself.

Morphogenesis of dendritic spines.

The morphogenesis of dendritic spines is critical to the induction of long-term potentiation (LTP). The morphology of the spine depends on the states of actin, either in globular (G-actin) or filamentous (F-actin) forms. The role of Rho family of GTPases and its effects in the stability of actin and spine motility has important implications for memory. If the dendritic spine is the basic unit of information storage, then the spine's ability to extend and retract spontaneously must be constrained. If not, information may be lost. Rho family of GTPases makes significant contributions to the process that stimulates actin polymerization, which in turn increases the size and shape of the spine. Large spines are more stable than smaller ones and may be resistant to modification by additional synaptic activity. Because changes in the shape and size of dendritic spines are correlated with the strength of excitatory synaptic connections and heavily depend on remodeling of its underlying actin cytoskeleton, the specific mechanisms of actin regulation, and therefore the Rho family of GTPases, are integral to the formation, maturation, and plasticity of dendritic spines and to learning and memory.

RhoA pathway.

One of the major Rho GTPases involved in spine morphogenesis is RhoA, a protein that also modulates the regulation and timing of cell division. In the context of activity in neurons, RhoA is activated in the following manner: once calcium has entered a cell through NMDA receptors, it binds to calmodulin and activates CaMKII, which leads to the activation of RhoA. The activation of the RhoA protein will activate ROCK, a RhoA kinase, which leads to the stimulation of LIM kinase, which in turn inhibits the protein cofilin. Cofilin's function is to reorganize the actin cytoskeleton of a cell; namely, it depolymerizes actin segments and thus inhibits the growth of growth cones and the repair of axons.  A study conducted by Murakoshi et al. in 2011 implicated the Rho GTPases RhoA and Cdc42 in dendritic spine morphogenesis. Both GTPases were quickly activated in single dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus during structural plasticity brought on by long-term potentiation stimuli. Concurrent RhoA and Cdc42 activation led to a transient increase in spine growth of up to 300% for five minutes, which decayed into a smaller but sustained growth for thirty minutes. The activation of RhoA diffused around the vicinity of the spine undergoing stimulation, and it was determined that RhoA is necessary for the transient phase and most likely the sustained phase as well of spine growth.

Cdc42 pathway.

Cdc42 has been implicated in many different functions including dendritic growth, branching, and branch stability. Calcium influx into the cell through NMDA receptors binds to calmodulin and activates the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases II (CaMKII). In turn, CaMKII is activated and this activates Cdc42, after which no feedback signaling occurs upstream to calcium and CaMKII. If tagged with monomeric-enhanced green fluorescent protein, one can see that the activation of Cdc42 is limited to just the stimulated spine of a dendrite. This is because the molecule is continuously activated during plasticity and immediately inactivates after diffusing out of the spine. Despite its compartmentalized activity, Cdc42 is still mobile out of the stimulated spine, just like RhoA. Cdc42 activates PAK, which is a protein kinase that specifically phosphorylates and, therefore, inactivates ADF/cofilin. Inactivation of cofilin leads to increased actin polymerization and expansion of the spine's volume. Activation of Cdc42 is required for this increase in spinal volume to be sustained.

Observed changes in structural plasticity.

Murakoshi, Wang, and Yasuda (2011) examined the effects of Rho GTPase activation on the structural plasticity of single dendritic spines elucidating differences between the transient and sustained phases.

Transient changes in structural plasticity.

Applying a low-frequency train of two-photon glutamate uncaging in a single dendritic spine can elicit rapid activation of both RhoA and Cdc42. During the next two minutes, the volume of the stimulated spine can expand to 300 percent of its original size. However, this change in spine morphology is only temporary; the volume of the spine decreases after five minutes. Administration of C3 transferase, a Rho inhibitor, or glycyl-H1152, a Rock inhibitor, inhibits the transient expansion of the spine, indicating that activation of the Rho-Rock pathway is required in some way for this process.

Sustained changes in structural plasticity.

After the transient changes described above take place, the spine's volume decreases until it is elevated by 70 to 80 percent of the original volume. This sustained change in structural plasticity will last about thirty minutes. Once again, administration of C3 transferase and Glycyl-H1152 suppressed this growth, suggesting that the Rho-Rock pathway is necessary for more persistent increases in spinal volume. In addition, administration of the Cdc42 binding domain of Wasp or inhibitor targeting Pak1 activation-3 (IPA3) decreases this sustained growth in volume, demonstrating that the Cdc42-Pak pathway is needed for this growth in spinal volume as well. This is important because sustained changes in structural plasticity may provide a mechanism for the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of memories. The observations made may suggest that Rho GTPases are necessary for these processes.

Movement.

In addition to the formation of lamellipodia and filopodia, intracellular concentration and cross-talk between different Rho proteins drives the extensions and contractions that cause cellular locomotion. Sakumura et al. proposed a model based on differential equations that helps explain the activity of Rho proteins and their relationship to motion. This model encompassed the three proteins Cdc42, RhoA, and Rac. Cdc42 was assumed to encourage filopodia elongation and block actin depolymerization. RhoA was considered to encourage actin retraction. Rac was treated to encourage lamellipodia extension but block actin depolymerization. These three proteins, although significantly simplified, covered the key steps in cellular locomotion. Through various mathematical techniques, solutions to the differential equations that described various regions of activity based on intracellular activity were found. The paper concludes by showing that the model predicts that there are a few threshold concentrations that cause interesting effects on the activity of the cell. Below a certain concentration, there is very little activity, causing no extension of the arms and feet of the cell. Above a certain concentration, the Rho protein causes a sinusoidal oscillation much like the extensions and contractions of the lamellipodia and filopodia. In essence, this model predicts that increasing the intracellular concentration of these three key active Rho proteins causes an out-of-phase activity of the cell, resulting in extensions and contractions that are also out of phase.

Wound healing.

One example of behavior that is modulated by Rho GTPase proteins is in the healing of wounds. Wounds heal differently between young chicks and adult chickens. In young chicks, wounds heal by contraction, much like a draw-string being pulled to close a bag. In older chickens, cells crawl across the wound through locomotion. The actin formation required to close the wounds in young chicks is controlled by Rho GTPase proteins, since, after injection of a bacterial exoenzyme used to block rho and rac activity, the actin polymers do not form, and thus the healing completely fails.

Cell polarity.

Studies in fibroblasts indicate positive feedback between Cdc42 activity and H+ efflux by the Na-H exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) at the leading edge of migrating cells. NHE1-mediated H+ efflux is required for guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF)-catalyzed GTP binding to Cdc42, suggesting a mechanism for regulation of polarity by this small GTPase in migrating cells.

Phagocytosis.

Another cellular behavior that is affected by rho proteins is phagocytosis. As with most other types of cell membrane modulation, phagocytosis requires the actin cytoskeleton in order to engulf other items. The actin filaments control the formation of the phagocytic cup, and active Rac1 and Cdc42 have been implicated in this signaling cascade.

Mitosis.

Yet another major aspect of cellular behavior that is thought to include rho protein signaling is mitosis. While rho GTPase activity was thought for years to be restricted to actin polymerization and therefore to cytokinesis, which occurs after mitosis, new evidence has arisen that shows some activity in microtubule formation and the process of mitosis itself. This topic is still debated, and there is evidence both for and against for the importance of rho in mitosis.

Applications.

Nervous system regeneration.

Because of their implications in cellular motility and shape, Rho proteins became a clear target in the study of the growth cones that form during axonal generation and regeneration in the nervous system. Rho proteins may be a potential target for delivery into spinal cord lesions after traumatic injury. Following injury to the spinal cord, the extracellular space becomes inhibitory to the natural efforts neurons undergo to regenerate.  These natural efforts include the formation of a growth cone at the proximal end of an injured axon. Newly formed growth cones subsequently attempt to "crawl" across the lesion. These are sensitive to chemical cues in the extracellular environment. One of the many inhibitory cues includes chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs). Neurons growing in culture become more able to cross regions of substrate coated with CSPG after expression of constitutively active Cdc42 or Rac1 or expression of a dominant negative form (inhibition) of RhoA. This is partly due to the exogenous Rho proteins driving cellular locomotion despite the extracellular cues promoting apoptosis and growth cone collapse. Intracellular modulation of Rho proteins has thus become of interest in research aimed at spinal cord regeneration.

Mental retardation.

Dysfunction of Rho proteins has also been implicated in mental retardation. Mental retardation in some cases involves malformation of the dendritic spines, which form the post-synaptic connections between neurons. The misshapen dendritic spines can result from modulation of rho protein signaling. After the cloning of various genes implicated in X-linked mental retardation, three genes that have effects on Rho signaling were identified, including oligophrenin-1 (a GAP protein that stimulates GTPase activity of Rac1, Cdc42, and RhoA), PAK3 (involved with the effects of Rac and Cdc42 on the actin cytoskeleton) and αPIX (a GEF that helps activate Rac1 and Cdc42). Because of the effect of Rho signaling on the actin cytoskeleton, genetic malfunctions of a rho protein could explain the irregular morphology of neuronal dendrites seen in some cases of mental retardation.

Cancer.

After finding that Ras proteins are mutated in 30% of human cancers, it was suspected that mutated Rho proteins might also be involved in cancer reproduction. However, as of August 2007, no oncogenic mutations have been found in Rho proteins, and only one has been found to be genetically altered. To explain the role of Rho pathways without mutation, researchers have now turned to the regulators of rho activity and the levels of expression of the Rho proteins for answers.  One way to explain altered signaling in the absence of mutation is through increased expression. Overexpression of RhoA, RhoB, RhoC, Rac1, Rac2, Rac3, RhoE, RhoG, RhoH, and Cdc42 has been shown in multiple types of cancer. This increased presence of so many signaling molecules implies that these proteins promote the cellular functions that become overly active in cancerous cells.  A second target to explain the role of the Rho proteins in cancer is their regulatory proteins. Rho proteins are very tightly controlled by a wide variety of sources, and over 60 activators and 70 inactivators have been identified. Multiple GAPs, GDIs, and GEFs have been shown to undergo overexpression, downregulation, or mutation in different types of cancer. Once an upstream signal is changed, the activity of its targets downstream—i.e., the Rho proteins—will change in activity.  Ellenbroek et al. outlined a number of different effects of Rho activation in cancerous cells. First, in the initiation of the tumor modification of Rho activity can suppress apoptosis and therefore contribute to artificial cell longevity. After natural apoptosis is suppressed, abnormal tumor growth can be observed through the loss of polarity in which Rho proteins play an integral role. Next, the growing mass can invade across its normal boundaries through the alteration of adhesion proteins potentially caused by Rho proteins. Finally, after inhibition of apoptosis, cell polarity and adhesion molecules, the cancerous mass is free to metastasize and spread to other regions of the body.

References.

Several mutations in Rho proteins have been identified in large scale sequencing of cancers. These mutations are listed in the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations database (http://www.sanger.ac.uk/genetics/CGP/cosmic/). The functional consequences of these mutations are unknown.

The Rho family of GTPases is a family of small (~21 kDa) signaling G proteins, and is a subfamily of the Ras superfamily. The members of the Rho GTPase family have been shown to regulate many aspects of intracellular actin dynamics, and are found in all eukaryotic kingdoms, including yeasts and some plants. Three members of the family have been studied in detail: Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoA. All G proteins are "molecular switches", and Rho proteins play a role in organelle development, cytoskeletal dynamics, cell movement, and other common cellular functions.

Die Familie der Rho-GTPasen (Ras homologue) gehört zur Superfamilie der kleinen GTPasen mit einer molaren Masse von 20 bis 40 kDa. Sie sind wichtige Regulatoren der Signaltransduktion, indem sie Signale ausgehend von den Rezeptoren zu den Effektoren weiterleiten und so verschiedenste Zellfunktionen beeinflussen. Im menschlichen Genom wurden bisher über 20 Gene ermittelt, die Proteine der Rho-Familie codieren. Rho-GTPasen können in fünf Unterfamilien mit jeweils mehreren Mitgliedern unterteilt werden: Rho, Rac, Cdc42, Rnd und RhoBTB. Daneben gibt es einzelne Rho-GTPasen, die keiner dieser Unterfamilie zugeordnet werden. Rho-GTPasen regulieren viele zelluläre Vorgänge, wie die Organisation und den Umbau des Aktinzytoskeletts, Zelladhäsion, Migration, Zellpolarität, Zellteilung, Membrantransport, Vesikeltransport und Onkogenese.


Location.

Jinja is in Jinja District, Busoga sub-region, in the Eastern Region of Uganda. It is approximately, by road, east of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda.  It sits along the northern shores of Lake Victoria, near the source of the White Nile. The city sits at an average elevation of above sea level.

History.

The town was planned under colonial rule in 1948 by Ernst May, German architect and urban planner. May also designed the urban planning scheme for Kampala, creating what he called "neighborhood units." Estates were built for the ruling elite in many parts outside the center city. This led to the area's'slum clearance' which displaced more than 1,000 residents in the 1950s.  In 1954, the construction of the Owen Falls Dam submerged the Ripon Falls. Most of the "Flat Rocks" that gave the area its name disappeared under water as well. A description of what the area looked like can be found in the notes of John Hanning Speke, the first European to lay eyes on the source of the Nile:  Though beautiful, the scene was not exactly what I expected, for the broad surface of the lake was shut out from view by a spur of hill, and the falls, about twelve feet deep and four to five hundred feet broad, were broken by rocks; still it was a sight that attracted one to it for hours. The roar of the waters, the thousands of passenger fish leaping at the falls with all their might, the fishermen coming out in boats, and taking post on all the rocks with rod and hook, hippopotami and crocodiles lying sleepily on the water, the ferry at work above the falls, and cattle driven down to drink at the margin of the lake, made in all, with the pretty nature of the country—small grassy-topped hills, with trees in the intervening valleys and on the lower slopes—as interesting a picture as one could wish to see."

Population during the 2000s.

The national census of 2002 estimated Jinja's population to be 71,213 of which 36,325 were males and 34,888 were females. In 2010, the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) estimated the population at 82,800. In 2011, UBOS estimated the population at 89,700. In 2014, the national population census put the population at 72,931 However, the Municipality Authority contested the recent census of 2014, saying it under-counted Jinja's population. According to the 2014 national population census data, Jinja is the largest metropolitan area in the Jinja District and the 14th-largest metropolis in the country.  The majority of the population are of Bantu origin. Lusoga is the main local language. Jinja has a large population of inhabitants who are defined as "working urban poor". The average annual household income is estimated at US $100.

Economy.

Jinja had the second largest economy in Uganda. In the past, factories chose Jinja as their base because of the nearby electric power station at the Owen Falls Dam. Since the early 2000s, the economy of Jinja has picked up steadily. The main economic activities take place in the central business district.  A new market for fresh produce was completed during the fourth quarter of 2014. The facility can accommodate up to 4,500 vendors and cost US$13.7 million to construct, with a loan from the African Development Bank from 2011 until 2014.  The biggest local employer is the Kakira Sugar Works (KSW), a member of the Madhvani Group of companies. KSW is one of the largest sugar factories in East Africa, employing over 7,500. The factory burns bagasse byproducts from sugar manufacturing to generate 50 megawatts of electricity for internal use and sale to the national grid. Sugar cane cutting median wages are about UGX:1,000 per day.  The headquarters of Nile Breweries Limited are in Njeru, a suburb of Jinja, near the Source of the Nile, from which the brewery has been drawing its water since 1956. Building of the brewery commenced in 1952 and was completed four years later. Bottles of Nile Beer, renamed Nile Special Lager, the company's flagship brand, were first consumed in 1956. In 2001, Nile Breweries Limited was fully acquired by South African Breweries.  MM Integrated Steel Uganda Limited is one of the leading manufacturers of steel in the region. It has completed a $47 million (Shs122 billion) plant to produce 50,000 tonnes of steel products a year and directly employs 1,800 people. The company has projected to invest US$600 million through 2018.  Bidco International Oil Refining Company maintains a palm oil factory in the city. The palm oil fruits come from Bidco's plantation on Bugala Island in the Ssese Islands Archipelago, Kalangala District, in Lake Victoria. The factory in the islands crushes the fruit, and the crude palm oil is transported to Jinja for refining into edible oil and other products.  Kiira Motors Corporation, also known as the Kiira EV Project, a locally based startup car company, expects to set up the first car manufacturing facility in Uganda, based in Jinja. The Kiira EV Project received of land at the Jinja Industrial and Business Park. Production is expected to start in 2018. The government of Uganda will provide funding to the initial production and setting up of a factory for the project.

Education.

The city also has several educational establishments including the following:

Defense.

The Qaddafi Barracks, an institution of the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF), are in Jinja. They are the location of the Uganda Junior Staff College, one of the about a dozen military schools in Uganda. The town is also the site of the Uganda Senior Command and Staff College, another UPDF institution, located in the Kimaka neighborhood about north of Jinja's central business district.

Electricity generation.

In 1993, construction began on a second power station at the source of the White Nile; an extension of the original Nalubaale Power Station. The extension was completed in 2003, named the Kiira Power Station, and is capable of producing 200 megawatts of hydroelectric power at maximum utilization.

Transport.

Jinja is a major station on the Uganda Railway and is a port for Lake Victoria ferries.  Jinja Airport, a small civilian and military airport, is located at Kimaka, about north of Jinja's central business district.  A bridge, known as the Source of the Nile Bridge, was built across the Nile, connecting the town of Njeru to Jinja. Construction started in 2013 and the completed structure was commissioned on 17 October 2018.

Local attractions.

Jinja is commonly regarded as "the adventure capital of East Africa" due to the very many activities in town that one could engage in, especially for tourists  Local attractions include white-water rafting, the "Source of the Nile", Bungee Jumping, and the Nile Breweries Limited's large brewery. About north of Jinja is the Bujagali Power Station. The hydroelectric facility is providing 250 megawatts of electric power.  There is an active Hindu temple near Jinja, which has a bronze bust of Gandhi.  Since 2015, the city has hosted the Nyege Nyege Festival, at Discovery Beach in the suburb of Njeru approximately 20 minutes from the Jinja Central Business District. It is East Africa's largest electronic music festival.

Other landmarks.

Jinja is the location of the headquarters of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organisation, a subsidiary of the East African Community. Jinja also has the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Jinja, headed by Bishop Charles Martin Wamika.

Geographic data.

Jinja hosts the regional offices of the Uganda Red Cross Society, a humanitarian organization.

Jinja is a town in the Eastern Region of Uganda, located on the shores of Lake Victoria and lies in the north of the lake.

Jinja ist eine Stadt im Südosten Ugandas mit etwa 76.000 Einwohnern. Sie ist die viertgrößte Stadt Ugandas und Hauptstadt des Distrikt Jinja. Sie liegt nahe dem Austritt des Weißen Nils an der Küste des Viktoriasees.


Geography.

The Endeavour Strait is approximately in length from its northernmost tip to its southern extremities, and varies from in breadth. The strait is, on average, between deep, and its sandy floor is carpetted with a moderately thick layer of coral. The strait is generally safe to travel through, and is not littered with any major sunken dangers or foul ground, although, for larger vessels, there is potential danger at the strait's western end, at the point that it connects with the Arafura Sea, where the depth of the water is only around.  The danger that this shallow western point presents was a barrier that the Dutch explorers of Australia never overcame in their earlier sea explorations of the region. If they had been able to pass through the Endeavour Strait at the time, it is likely they would have discovered eastern Australia approximately one hundred and fifty years before the British did, in 1770, as the Dutch had been successful in mapping most of the west coast of Australia during the early 17th century following Willem Janszoon's sighting of the Cape York Peninsula in 1606.  The shallow western end of Endeavour Strait was also responsible for the wrecking of the cutter, "America", in November 1844. All on board were supposedly drowned, except 13-year-old Scottish girl Barbara Thompson who was rescued by Torres Strait Islanders living on Prince of Wales Island, the Kaurareg people, with whom she lived for five years.  Today, the strait is travelled sparsely by passing small vessels, and its western side is often used as a bank for these ships. Due to the relatively shallow average depth of the strait, especially at its westernmost extremities, and the dangers that this presents, there have been recent calls for the body to be deepened, but there are no plans for this at the present time.

The Endeavour Strait is a strait running between the Australian mainland Cape York Peninsula and Prince of Wales Island in the extreme south of the Torres Strait, in northern Queensland, Australia. It was named in 1770 by explorer James Cook, after his own vessel, HMS "Endeavour", and he used the strait as passage out to the Indian Ocean on his voyage.

Als Endeavour-Straße [] bezeichnet man den südlichen Teil der Torres-Straße zwischen Australien und Papua-Neuguinea, genauer die Meerenge zwischen dem Cape York und der Prince-of-Wales-Insel. Entdeckt wurde sie bereits von Luiz Vaéz de Torres, der 1606 die "Torres Strait Islands" entdeckte und durch die spätere Endeavour-Straße in die Arafurasee fuhr.