Location.

Birmingham Airport is east-south-east of Birmingham city centre, in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull. It is bordered by the National Exhibition Centre to the east, Marston Green to the north, Sheldon to the west, the village of Bickenhill to the south, and the village of Elmdon to the south west.  It is primarily served by the A45 main road, and is near Junction 6 of the M42 motorway. It is connected by the elevated AirRail Link with Birmingham International railway station on the West Coast Main Line.  The airport's location southeast of the city, plus the only operational runway being northwest–southeast (15/33), means that depending on wind direction, aircraft land or take-off directly over Birmingham. The former northeast–southwest runway (06/24) has been incorporated into a taxiway for aircraft accessing runway 15/33.

History.

Construction and opening.

In 1928, the Birmingham City Council decided that the city required a municipal airport; thus soon thereafter a committee was established to work towards establishing such a facility. By 1931, several locations, including Shirley, Elmdon and Aldridge, were reportedly under consideration as potential sites. While Elmdon was considered to be an impressive and appropriate site for the airport, further progress was delayed due to spending cutbacks that had been initiated as a consequence of the Great Depression. By 1933, the project was revived and a new airport committee was formed during the following year to oversee the airport's establishment. Prior to any major construction decisions being taken, members of the committee visited various successful airports around Europe in 1935, including Amsterdam, Berlin, Lyon, Paris, Brussels and London.  During January 1935, the airport committee approached British architectural and engineering practice Norman and Dawbarn, inviting their attendance and seeking their participation as expert advisers on the airport's construction, the practice was subsequently appointed as the project's architects. In 1933, Birmingham City Council authorised the compulsory purchase of 300 acres of land for the use by the airport; another 214 acres were similarly acquired during the following year. During 1936, a private bill presented by the Birmingham Corporation was passed through Parliament, which authorised the acquisition of further land as well as the diversion of various roads and footpaths to permit the airport's development. Shortly following the bill's passing, various agencies, including the City Engineer and Surveyor, the Public Works Department and a firm of aeronautical consultants, including Norman and Dawbarn, commenced work on preparing the ground, designing both the terminal and hangar buildings, and planning out the airport's detailed layout.  By January 1937, Norman and Dawbarn had been authorised to finalise the design drawings; these were apparently completed by June 1937. In October of that year, various contractors were appointed to construct various elements of the airport's buildings, including its elaborate terminal. Reportedly, the project's total expenditure amounted to around £360,000. Construction work proceeded at a rapid pace; on 1 May 1939, the airport had been completed to such a degree that it was ready to handle traffic.  On 8 July 1939, the Duchess of Kent, Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark, accompanied by the Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, officiated at the opening of "Elmdon Airport". Its terminal, which incorporated the airport's air traffic control tower, was designed by Norman and Dawbarn in an Art Deco style; this facility would continue to be used as a terminal until 1984 and subsequently as staff offices and for private flights; it is still intact as of 2018. The airport was owned and operated by Birmingham City Council. Initial services flew to Croydon, Glasgow, Liverpool, Ryde, Shoreham, Manchester, and Southampton; further services were added soon thereafter, although its use as a civilian airport would soon be interrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War.

Second World War.

During the Second World War, Elmdon Airport was requisitioned by the Air Ministry and was used by both the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Navy as "RAF Elmdon". It was largely operated as an Elementary Flying School and a base for the Fleet Air Arm. It was during this era that the original grass airstrip was replaced by two hard runways: 06/24 at and 15/33 at. Large numbers of Avro Lancaster and Stirling bombers were manufactured at the Austin Aero Company's shadow factory at Cofton Hackett, but were unable to take off from the short runways at Longbridge; thus, they were transported by road to RAF Elmdon, their wings being removed beforehand and re-attached after arrival. They were test flown from the aerodrome and, once declared airworthy, they were flown to their operational units. On 8 July 1946, the aerodrome was reopened to civilian operations, though it remained under government control.

1950 to 1980.

During the post-war years, a number of public events, such as air fairs and air races, were held on the site. In 1949, scheduled services began with British European Airways (BEA) launching routes to Paris; the number of flights to the continent steadily grew over the years, including services to Zurich, Düsseldorf, Palma, Amsterdam and Barcelona commencing between 1955 and 1960. During 1960, the City of Birmingham resumed responsibility for the airport's operation again, ending central government control.  In 1961, an additional terminal building to handle the growing international traffic was opened, which was fittingly called "The International Building". Furthermore, work to extend the airport's main runway to 7,400 feet (1.4 miles) was undertaken between 1967 and 1970, which permitted the launch of new services using turboprop and jet-powered airliners. Accordingly, a new service to New York using VC-10 airliner was launched during 1967. By the early 1970s, Birmingham Airport was reportedly handling around one million passengers per year, albeit through a relatively congested passenger terminal. In 1974, the newly-formed West Midlands Metropolitan County Council took over management of the airport.  On 16 September 1980, the supersonic airliner Concorde made its first visit to Birmingham Airport. On 20 October 2003, Concorde made its final visit to the airport as part of its farewell tour.

1981 to 2000.

Birmingham Airport was once home to the world's first commercial maglev system in the form of a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran along a 620-metre line between the terminal and the nearby Birmingham International railway station. Following a year of testing and trial use, the Birmingham Airport Maglev was opened to great fanfare during April 1984. However, during 1995, the Maglev rail link was discontinued after 11 years; the closure has been attributed to the system's unreliability, it having suffered from frequent breakdowns. The original guideway lay dormant but intact for a time, while proposals for its restoration or adaption for other uses were considered. In 2003, a replacement cable-hauled system, the AirRail Link Cable Liner people mover, was opened, which reused the track and much of the existing infrastructure.  During 1993, the government limited public sector borrowing came into force and was applied to Birmingham Airport. This change meant that the airport could only expand by using private sector finance. 51% of the local council shares were sold to restructure the airport into a private sector company; this initiative led to the commencement of a £260 million restructuring programme in 1997.

2000s.

During November 2007, Birmingham Airport published a master plan for its development up to 2030, called "Towards 2030: Planning a Sustainable Future for Air Transport in the Midlands". This set out details of changes to the terminals, airfield layout and off-site infrastructure. As with all large scale plans, the proposals were controversial, with opposition from environmentalists and local residents. In particular, the requirement for a second parallel runway based on projected demand was disputed by opponents. Plans for a second runway (a third when demand requires) on the other side of the M42 and a new terminal complex and business park have been published, and they could help to create around 250,000 jobs. It has been estimated that if these plans went ahead, the airport could handle around 70,000,000 passengers annually, and around 500,000 aircraft movements.  In January 2008, the shorter runway (06/24) was decommissioned. It had been used less often due to its short length, noise impact, and its inconvenient position crossing the main runway, making it uneconomic to continue operation. The closure also allowed for apron expansion on both sides of the main runway. However, runway 06/24 remains open as a taxiway and a helicopter airstrip. In the same month, plans for the extension of the airport runway and the construction of a new air traffic control tower were submitted to Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council.  In June 2008, work began on building the new three-storey International Pier; it was officially opened on 9 September 2009. As part of the airport's 70th anniversary, the airport welcomed the Airbus A380 as the first user of the pier. The special service was the first commercial A380 flight in the UK outside London Heathrow Airport. The new pier is 240 metres long and 24 metres wide. Departing passengers are accommodated on the top level, with arriving passengers on the middle level and office accommodation for airline and handling agents on the ground floor. The new facility provides air-bridged aircraft parking for seven wide-bodied aircraft and enough space for 13 smaller aircraft. It can accommodate 'next generation' environmentally-efficient wide-bodied aircraft such as the Airbus A380, the A340-500, the A340-600, the Boeing 747-8, and the Boeing 777X. The new pier also has a new lounge for business class Emirates passengers. In March 2009, the runway extension plans were approved.

Since 2010.

In September 2010, it was announced that after the merging of Terminals 1 and 2 into a single facility in 2011, the airport would drop the "International" from its official name to become "Birmingham Airport'". A Midlands-based marketing agency was recruited to "create a new corporate identity that reflects Birmingham Airport's current position in the market place, as well as its future potential". Figures from Birmingham Airport show that 8 million people live within a one hour's drive of the airport, but less than 40% of them use it. It is hoped that the rebrand will make the airport "more visible to the market". In November 2010, the new name started to be used. The new logo, interlocking circles in shades of blue, and slogan, "Hello World", were designed to reflect the airport's new positioning as a global travel hub.  In January 2011 the viewing gallery, 'Aviation Experience And Gift Shop', closed indefinitely. In the same month, the airport merged its two terminals into a single terminal building, which involved the construction of two additional floors. A new lower ground floor accommodates the new Arrivals and Meet & Greet area, while the 3rd floor was built in the Millennium Link and the two terminals to accommodate the new Centralised Security Search area. In July 2011, construction of a new control tower began. The new control tower was completed in March 2012; it replaced the airport's original tower, which had been used since the airport opened in 1939.  On 23 February 2011, Birmingham Airport announced that the High Speed 2 railway could be a solution to runway capacity problems in London; management figures suggested that it would be quicker to get to London from Birmingham than from Stansted Airport once completed, and claimed that the airport had capacity for nine million more passengers.  Plans for the extension of the airport's runway, and the construction of the new air traffic control tower, were submitted to Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council in January 2008, and approved in March 2009. Originally, the target for completion was in time for the 2012 London Olympics and Paralympics. An Olympic ceremony was held at the airport on 23 April 2012. The Olympic rings were unveiled on the tower and could be seen from the A45 road and the main terminal building. This was to commemorate the build-up to the London 2012 Olympic Games. These rings were removed once the Olympic Games officially closed, just before the 2012 Summer Paralympics began. Work on the new runway eventually began in autumn 2012. The extension to the southern end of the runway originally required the A45 Coventry Road to be diverted into a tunnel under the extended section, but to cut costs, it was diverted south of the runway instead. In Summer 2013 the new air traffic control tower became fully operational; the old carriageway of the A45 was closed and the new carriageway was opened. In May 2014, the 400-metre runway extension was officially opened; the full length was first used on 22 July 2014, when China Southern Airlines operated its first charter between Birmingham and Beijing.  The Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan, a Canadian institutional investor, increased its stake in the airport to 48.25% in early 2015. It also owns 100% of Bristol Airport. Birmingham handled over 11.6 million passengers in 2016, a record total for the airport, making it the seventh busiest UK airport.  On 28 September 2016, £100 million of investment was allocated to a new baggage handling system and two new car parks, including a drop-off car park.  During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, a temporary mortuary was established in a hangar at the airport, with space for 12,000 bodies.

Facilities and infrastructure.

Birmingham Airport's current terminal complex is divided into two terminals, labelled as Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 and are connected by the Millennium Link (building in 2000).  Terminal 1 was opened on 3 April 1984, seventeen years after the original plans to construct a new terminal to ease congestion in the original Elmdon Terminal (Grade II listed since August 2018 and used for private and official flights). Since then, T1 has been extended multiple times to accommodate the increase in both passenger numbers and aircraft movements. Check in and the arrivals are located on the ground floor with security areas, shops, restaurants bars and gates located on the terminal's first floor.  Terminal 2 (also known as Eurohub) was opened in 1991 and is served by several European carriers including Air France and KLM. British Airways' European and domestic operations also operate out of T2. In the terminal, check-in desks and the Arrivals area are located on the ground floor with security areas and lounges located on the first floor.

Airlines and destinations.

The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter services to and from Birmingham:

Ground transport.

Public transport.

Rail.

Birmingham Airport is served by Birmingham International railway station. The station is on the West Coast Main Line between Birmingham and London, and trains are operated by West Midlands Trains, Avanti West Coast, TfW Rail, and CrossCountry. Access between the railway station and the airport terminal is provided by free AirRail Link.

Proposed High Speed 2.

As part of Phase 1 of the High Speed 2 rail link, a new railway station called Birmingham Interchange will be built to serve both the airport and the National Exhibition Centre. The station will be built on the far side of the M42 motorway and connect to the airport using a "rapid transit people mover". High Speed 2 is currently planned for completion by 2026.

Bus and coach.

National Express West Midlands operates the main bus routes calling at Birmingham Airport, those being the X1 to Birmingham city centre and Coventry, and the X12 to Chelmsley Wood and Solihull. Other smaller operators also call at the airport. Bus stops are situated outside Terminal One. Most buses are operated by National Express West Midlands.  National Express Coaches operates various long distance coaches calling at Birmingham Airport on the way to or from Birmingham Coach Station.

Taxi.

Black cabs are available at the taxi-rank outside the arrivals area of the terminal.

Car.

Birmingham Airport is accessible from the north and south via Junction Six of the M42 motorway. From Birmingham city centre, the A45 runs directly to the airport. Charges apply in some areas even for very short periods of time, with locations farther from the airport being cheaper than those near the airport.

Bicycle.

The only cycle route available heads south over the A45 travelling towards Solihull. Birmingham Airport has however published "recommended routes" for cyclists. Free short term cycle parking is available close to the terminal. For longer stays, bicycles must be stored in the Left Luggage for a charge.

Birmingham Airport, formerly "Birmingham International Airport" is an international airport located east-southeast of Birmingham city centre, slightly north of Bickenhill in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull, England.

Birmingham Airport (IATA: BHX, ICAO: EGBB) ist der internationale Verkehrsflughafen der zweitgrößten britischen Stadt Birmingham und nach Passagieraufkommen der derzeit siebtgrößte Flughafen des Landes.


Biography.

Scott was born August 10, 1889 in Indianapolis, Indiana. Appointed to the Naval Academy in 1907, he graduated four years later and received his commission as ensign in March 1912. During 1911–13, Ensign Scott served in the battleship, then served in destroyers and related duty. In December 1917, he was executive officer of when she was sunk by a German submarine and was commended for his performance at that time. During the rest of World War I, Lieutenant Scott had duty in the Navy Department and as Naval Aide to President Woodrow Wilson. In 1919, while holding the temporary rank of lieutenant commander, he was in charge of a division of Eagle Boats (PE) and commanded "Eagle" PE-2 and "Eagle" PE-3.  During the first years of the 1920s, Norman Scott served afloat in destroyers and in the battleship and ashore in Hawaii. From 1924 to 1930, he was assigned to the staff of Commander Battle Fleet and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. He commanded the destroyers and in the early 1930s, then had further Navy Department duty and attended the Naval War College's Senior Course. After a tour as executive officer of the light cruiser, Commander Scott was a member of the U.S. Naval Mission to Brazil in 1937–39. Following promotion to the rank of captain, he was commanding officer of the heavy cruiser until shortly after the United States entered World War II in December 1941.  Captain Scott was assigned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations during the first months of 1942. After becoming a rear admiral in May, he was sent to the south Pacific, where he commanded a fire support group during the invasion of Guadalcanal and Tulagi in early August. Rear Admiral Scott continued to lead surface task units for the next three months, as the campaign to hold Guadalcanal intensified. He was present during the Battle of Savo Island on the cruiser, albeit miles from the action. In September 1942, he was named commander of Task Force 64, a mixed Cruiser-Destroyer surface warfare unit. The combat-minded, pugilistic Scott thoroughly trained and drilled his combat group in gunnery, maneuvers, and night fighting. This training paid off when, on 11–12 October 1942, he led his force to victory in the Battle of Cape Esperance, the U.S. Navy's first surface victory of the campaign. He maneuvered his ships so as to successfully perform the classically desired "Crossing the T" of the opposing Japanese force.  A month later, on November 13, he was second-in-command during the initial night action of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. Many felt, at the time and with hindsight, that the fighting-minded and experienced Scott would have made a more effective overall commander of the US force than inexperienced first-in-command Daniel J. Callaghan did, and that Scott perhaps would not have made some of the mistakes that Callaghan did. During that engagement, Rear Admiral Norman Scott was killed in action when the bridge of his flagship, the light cruiser, was inadvertently struck by gunfire from Callaghan's flagship, the heavy cruiser, which joined with an enemy torpedo to fatally damage the "Atlanta". For his "extraordinary heroism and conspicuous intrepidity" in the October and November battles, he posthumously received the Medal of Honor.  As with his fellow Admiral Callaghan, Admiral Scott was buried at sea.

Namesakes.

The U.S. Navy ships, 1943–1973, and, 1981–1998, were named in honor of Rear Admiral Scott. The Scott Center Annex, adjacent to Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth Virginia, is named for him. The Norman Scott Natatorium at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland is named for him for being instrumental in introducing intercollegiate swimming to the Naval Academy as a midshipmen. Norman Scott Road on Naval Base San Diego and Training Support Center Great Lakes also honors his memory.

Medal of Honor citation.

For extraordinary heroism and conspicuous intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty during action against enemy Japanese forces off Savo Island on the night of 11–12 October and again on the night of 12–13 November 1942. In the earlier action, intercepting a Japanese Task Force intent upon storming our island positions and landing reinforcements at Guadalcanal, Rear Adm. Scott, with courageous skill and superb coordination of the units under his command, destroyed 8 hostile vessels and put the others to flight. Again challenged, a month later, by the return of a stubborn and persistent foe, he led his force into a desperate battle against tremendous odds, directing close-range operations against the invading enemy until he himself was killed in the furious bombardment by their superior firepower. On each of these occasions his dauntless initiative, inspiring leadership and judicious foresight in a crisis of grave responsibility contributed decisively to the rout of a powerful invasion fleet and to the consequent frustration of a formidable Japanese offensive. He gallantly gave his life in the service of his country.

Norman (Nicholas) Scott (August 10, 1889 – November 13, 1942) was a rear admiral in the United States Navy, and was one of only two U.S. Navy admirals killed in action during a surface battle in World War II. Scott posthumously received the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Pacific Theater of World War II.

Norman Scott, USN (* 10. August 1889 in Indianapolis, Indiana; † (gefallen) 13. November 1942 an Bord des Kreuzers "USS Atlanta" vor Guadalcanal) war ein US-amerikanischer 2-Sterne-Admiral im Zweiten Weltkrieg.


Definition.

The term "avunculate" comes from the Latin "avunculus," the maternal uncle.  The 1989 "Oxford English Dictionary" defines "avunculate" as follows:

Avunculocal societies.

An avunculocal society is one in which a married couple traditionally lives with the man's mother's eldest brother, which most often occurs in matrilineal societies. The anthropological term "avunculocal residence" refers to this convention, which has been identified in about 4% of the world's societies.  This pattern generally occurs when a man obtains his status, his job role, or his privileges from their nearest elder matrilineal male relative. When a woman's son lives near her brother, he is able to more easily learn how he needs to behave in the matrilineal role he has inherited.

Cultures with a formal avunculate.

According to the Kazakh common law, the avunculate nephews could take anything from the relatives of the mother up to three times. In the Kyrgyz past a nephew, at a feast at his maternal uncle or grandfather, could take any horse from their herd or any delicacy.  In the Southwest United States, the Apache tribe practices a form of this, where the uncle is responsible for teaching the children social values and proper behavior while inheritance and ancestry is reckoned through the mother's family alone. Modern day influences have somewhat but not completely erased this tradition.  The Chamorros of the Mariana Islands and the Taíno of Turks and Caicos Islands are examples of societies that have practiced avunculocal residence.

Anthropology research.

Research on the avunculate in the early 20th century focused on the association between the avunculate and patrilineal/matrilineal societies. Franz Boas categorized various avunculate arrangements based on the location of residence in 1922. Henri Alexandre Juno made the claim that the avunculate in the Tsonga indicated that society had previously been matrilineal. Alfred Radcliffe-Brown identified the Tsonga (BaThonga) of Mozambique, the Tongans of the Pacific, and the Nama of Namibia as avunculate societies as early as 1924. He also expanded the concept to incorporate other family relationships.  Later research moved beyond the issue of matrilinealism. Claude Lévi-Strauss incorporating the avunculate into his "atom of kinship". Jan N. Bremmer argued based on a survey of the Indo-European peoples that the avunculate is explained by the principle of education outside the (extended) family, and does not indicate matrilinealism.

Avunculate marriage.

In historical (not anthropological) terminology, an avunculate marriage is the marriage of a man with the daughter of his sister (not explicitly forbidden by the listings in Leviticus 18). In most cultures with avunculate customs in the sense used by anthropologists, such a marriage would violate incest taboos governing relations between members of the same matrilineal lineage.

The avunculate, sometimes called avunculism or avuncularism, is any social institution where a special relationship exists between an uncle and his sisters' children. This relationship can be formal or informal, depending on the society. Early anthropological research focused on the association between the avunculate and matrilineal descent, while later research has expanded to consider the avunculate in general society.

__KEIN_INHALTSVERZEICHNIS__ Avunkulat (von lateinisch "avunculus" „Muttersbruder“) bezeichnet in der Ethnosoziologie eine Familienform und gemeinschaftliche Organisationsweise, bei welcher der Onkel mütterlicherseits (der Oheim: Bruder der Mutter) die soziale Vaterschaft für die Kinder seiner Schwester übernimmt; oft ziehen ihre Kinder auch zu ihm "(Avunkulokalität)" und erben schließlich seinen Status und Besitz, während seine eigenen Kinder bei ihrer Mutter oder deren Bruder verbleiben.


Royal Navy.

Batch 1.

"Tyne", "Severn" and "Mersey".

In early 2001, the Ministry of Defence placed an order with Vosper Thornycroft (VT) for three River-class offshore patrol vessels to replace the Island class. It was understood that the higher availability rates of the River class (up to 300 days per year), would enable the three new ships to perform the duties of the five ships they replaced. The Royal Navy initially chartered (or leased) the ships under a five-year, £60 million contract from the builder VT. As part of the contract, VT would be responsible for all maintenance and support during the charter period. This contract was renewed in January 2007 for another five years at £52 million. However, in September 2012, instead of renewing the contract again, it was announced by the then Defence Secretary Philip Hammond that the Ministry of Defence had purchased the vessels for £39 million.  The River class are significantly larger than the Island-class vessels and have a large open deck aft allowing them to be fitted with equipment for a specific role, which can include fire-fighting, disaster relief and anti-pollution work. For this purpose, a 25 tonne capacity crane is fitted. In addition, the deck is strong enough for the transport of various tracked and wheeled light vehicles, or an LCVP. The class are primarily used with the Fishery Protection Squadron and EEZ patrol.  In 2009, the running costs for the River class were estimated at £20 million: ""The average running cost... of [the] River class is £20 million... These figures, based on the expenditure incurred by the Ministry of Defence in 2009–10, include maintenance, safety certification, military upgrades, manpower, inventory, satellite communication, fuel costs and depreciation.""

"Clyde".

In February 2005, the Ministry of Defence placed an order with VT for the charter of a fourth modified River-class offshore patrol vessel. This fourth ship, "Clyde", was constructed at Portsmouth Dockyard and replaced the two s for duties around the South Atlantic and the Falkland Islands. To fulfill this role, "Clyde" incorporates several modifications, including an extended length hull, a top speed of, a 30 mm cannon, two miniguns and mountings for five general purpose machine guns. "Clyde"s elongated hull permits a 20-metre strengthened flight deck able to accommodate a Merlin-sized helicopter. The ship has a full load displacement between 1,850 and 2,000 tonnes. Clyde decommissioned on 20 December 2019.  "Clyde" is capable of temporarily embarking up to 110 troops and their equipment and inserting them anywhere on the Falkland Islands. "Clyde" has a complement of 36.

Future.

On 24 April 2017, in a written answer to a question raised by Sir Nicholas Soames, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Defence Harriet Baldwin stated "Severn" would be decommissioned in 2017, with "Mersey" and "Clyde" following in 2019.  "Severn" was decommissioned in a ceremony at Portsmouth on 27 October 2017, with "Tyne" due to follow in May 2018, however, the latter underwent reactivation due to defects with "Forth".  In March 2018, Baldwin's successor as Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Defence, Guto Bebb, revealed that £12.7M had been allocated from the EU Exit Preparedness Fund to maintain the three Batch 1 ships, should they be needed to control and enforce UK waters and fisheries following the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union.  On 22 November 2018, Defence Secretary, Gavin Williamson, formally announced that the first three Batch 1 River Class ships would be retained in service. "Clyde", unlike the other three, is not owned directly by the Royal Navy but is instead on lease. It is planned that the Brazilian Navy will take over the lease of "Clyde".

Batch 2.

"Forth", "Medway", "Trent".

On 6 November 2013 it was announced that the British Government had signed an Agreement in Principle to build three new offshore patrol vessels, based on the River-class design, at a fixed price of £348 million including spares and support for the Royal Navy. In August 2014, BAE Systems signed the contract to build the ships at their BAE Systems Maritime – Naval Ships shipyards in Glasgow on the River Clyde. The Ministry of Defence stated that the Batch 2 ships are capable of being used for constabulary duties such as "counter-terrorism, counter-piracy and anti-smuggling operations". According to BAE Systems, the vessels are designed to deploy globally, conducting anti-piracy, counter-terrorism and anti-smuggling tasks currently conducted by frigates and destroyers. Steel was cut on 10 October 2014 and they are expected to enter service starting 2017, with the last being delivered by the end of 2018. The ships are built at the BAE Systems Govan shipyard, then transferred to the BAE Systems Scotstoun shipyard for fitting out.  The Batch 2 ships are fundamentally different in appearance and capabilities from the preceding Batch 1. Notable differences include the long hull, a top speed of, Merlin-capable flight deck, a displacement of around 2,000 tonnes and greatly expanded capacity for accommodating troops. The Batch 2 ships also have a different (full width) superstructure, and a fundamentally different above-water hullform shape (greater bow flare, different & less-pronounced forward knuckle line compared to the Batch 1 ships, lack of the distinctive fwd & aft bulwarks of the Batch 1 vessels). The class is also fitted with the Kelvin Hughes SharpEye integrated radar system for navigation, the Terma Scanter 4100 2D radar for air and surface surveillance, and a BAE CMS-1 Combat Management System..  Batch 2 are also the first Royal Navy ships fitted with the BAE Systems Shared Infrastructure operating system. BAE describes Shared Infrastructure as ""a state-of-the-art system that will revolutionise the way ships operate by using virtual technologies to host and integrate the sensors, weapons and management systems that complex warships require. Replacing multiple large consoles dedicated to specific tasks with a single hardware solution reduces a number of spares required to be carried onboard and will significantly decrease through-life costs.""  The class has been criticised in Parliamentary evidence for: lacking a helicopter hangar (even a telescopic hangar), something that will limit utility of the helicopter deck by preventing embarkation of a helicopter for anything other than very short periods; lacking a medium calibre gun (such as 76 mm); and poor value for money. It is argued that because of the lacking features (which could have been incorporated for the price) the vessels will not be as capable in the ocean-going patrol capacity as claimed. Indeed a critique of the class is that the reasoning behind their commissioning was simply to ensure that public money continued to support BAE dockyards and jobs prior to the ordering of the Type 26 warship.  The Batch 2 ships for the Royal Navy include some 29 modifications and enhancements over the built by BAE Systems for the Brazilian Navy. The Royal Navy ships are built to more stringent naval standards, with features such as magazine protection, improved hull integrity and fire safety modifications, as well as greater redundancy.  The first, HMS "Forth", was christened at a ceremony at the BAE Systems Scotstoun shipyard in Glasgow on 9 March 2017. "Forth" replaced HMS "Clyde" as Falkland Islands guardship in December 2019.  HMS "Medway" was commissioned in September 2019 and in January 2020 deployed as the long-term Atlantic Patrol Task (North) guardship in the Caribbean. As of April 2020 HMS "Trent" is at Portsmouth completing her preparations for commissioning and deployment.

"Tamar" and "Spey".

The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 announced a further purchase of two more Batch 2 ships at an undisclosed date in the future, and a total fleet of 'up to six' offshore patrol vessels. Expectation at the time was that this would encompass the three Batch 2 ships announced in 2013, the two additional Batch 2 ships announced in the 2015 defence review, and the modified Batch 1 ship, "Clyde". The three Batch 1 ships without flight decks would be withdrawn in favour of the newer ships. The defence review also suggested that the ships could be used to increase the Royal Navy's ability to defend UK interests at home and abroad.  During a Defence Select Committee in July 2016, the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Philip Andrew Jones indicated that the option for a fleet of 'up to six' offshore patrol vessels had been reduced to five, with "Clyde" being replaced by HMS Forth, one of the new Batch 2 ships. The First Sea Lord also elaborated on the potential uses for the Batch 2 ships overseas, including the possibility of forward basing an extra ship at the Falklands Islands, or forward basing it elsewhere. A £287m order, for two new ships and support for all five Batch 2 ships, was announced on 8 December 2016. HM Ships "Tamar" and "Spey" will join the fleet in 2021.  On 21 April 2017, with construction of HMS "Tamar" already under way, the first steel was cut for HMS "Spey". Like their predecessors, the ships are constructed at the BAE Systems Govan shipyard, then transferred to the Scotstoun shipyard for fitting out.  "Tamar" arrived at her home port of Portsmouth for the first time on 2 April 2020, joining her sister ship HMS "Trent". She was formally commissioned on 4 June 2020.

Foreign orders.

Brazilian Navy.

Three vessels of the based on the River class were built by BAE in the United Kingdom. They were originally intended to be exported for use by the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force; however, the Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago cancelled the order in September 2010. In December 2011 it was reported that the Brazilian Navy were interested in buying the vessels, and possibly up to five additional vessels of the same design. The sale, for £133 million (compared to an original £150m), was then confirmed on 2 January 2012.

Royal Thai Navy.

was the first modified River-class vessel built for the Royal Thai Navy. The ship was built in Thailand but with design, technology transfer and support provided by BAE Systems. In January 2016 it was announced that a contract had been signed to provide the Royal Thai Navy with a second ship based on the River-class OPV to be built under license at Bangkok Dock Company. This second Thai-built ship, HTMS Prachuap Khiri Khan was launched in August 2019 fitted with 4x RGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles not present on the Krabi. The new vessel was commissioned less than two months later.

The River class is a class of offshore patrol vessels built primarily for the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom. A total of nine were built for the Royal Navy (RN); four Batch 1 and five of the significantly different Batch 2. One modified Batch 1 (HMS Clyde) has been decommissioned leaving eight vessels planned for RN service from 2021. The Batch 1 ships of the class replaced the seven ships of the and the two patrol vessels. was the first of two ships adapting the River design for the Royal Thai Navy and built in Thailand. The three ships of the in service with the Brazilian Navy are also a variation of the River design.

Die Schiffe der River-Klasse sind Hochseepatrouillenboote (engl. Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPV)) der britischen Royal Navy. Gemäß dem Sprachgebrauch der britischen Marine werden sie offiziell als "Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPV)" bezeichnet. Sie ersetzen die Schiffe der Island-Klasse und Castle-Klasse aus den 1970er-Jahren.


Early career.

Born at Stade 30 km west of Hamburg in the Kingdom of Hannover, he aspired from his earliest years to the Prussian service rather than that of his own country, and at the age of seventeen, obtained a commission in the 24th Regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern. Leaving the service in 1836, he enlisted in the Carlist army fighting the First Carlist War in Spain. In the five campaigns in which he served Don Carlos, he had many turns of fortune. He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded, into the hands of the Spanish royalist troops. After eight months' detention, he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and on two occasions, he was compelled to draw lots for his life with his fellow captives.  When released, Goeben served until 1840 with distinction. In that year, he made his way back, a man without means, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant colonel was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns could claim five years meritorious war service at the age of twenty-four. In a few years, he was a captain on the Great General Staff, and in 1848, he was transferred to the staff of the IV Army Corps, where his immediate superior was Major Helmuth Graf von Moltke. The two men became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed. In the Baden insurrection, Goeben distinguished himself on the staff of Prince William, the future emperor. He alternated staff and regimental duty in the Prussian service for some years after this, until in 1863, he was promoted to major-general commanding the 26th Infantry Brigade.  In 1860, he was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part in the Battle of Tetuan.

Military commands.

In the first of Prussia's great wars, the 1864 Danish-Prussian War, he distinguished himself at the head of his brigade at Rackebüll and Sonderburg. In the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded the 13th Division, of which his old brigade formed part, and, in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach (in Wartburgkreis), Laufach (in Aschaffenburg), Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauberbischofsheim and Würzburg.  The mobilization of 1870 at the start of the Franco-Prussian War placed him at the head of the VIII (Rhineland) Army Corps, forming part of the First Army under von Steinmetz. It was his resolute and energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory at the Spicheren on 6 August, and von Goeben won the only laurels gained on the Prussian right wing at Gravelotte on 18 August. Under Manteuffel, the VIII Corps took part in the operations about Amiens and Bapaume, and on 8 January 1871, Goeben succeeded that general in the command of the First Army.  A fortnight later, he brought the campaign in northern France to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory at the Battle of St. Quentin (19 January 1871). The close of the Franco-Prussian War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th Infantry, and was awarded the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII Corps at Coblenz until his death in 1880.

Writings.

General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to be found in his works:

Legacy and honors.

The former French fort de Queuleu at Metz was renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th Infantry bears his name. A statue of Goeben by Fritz Schaper was erected at Koblenz in 1884. The, a of the Kaiserliche Marine (German Navy) launched in 1911, was also named after him.

August Karl Friedrich Christian von Goeben (10 December 181613 November 1880), was a Prussian infantry general, who won the Iron Cross for his service in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71.

August Karl Friedrich Christian von Goeben (* 10. Dezember 1816 in Stade; † 13. November 1880 in Koblenz) war ein preußischer General der Infanterie.


Marine.

Commercial marine shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the United States, Japan, and Western Europe. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 2.1 million tonnes in 1991, representing a value of nearly US$9 billion. About 30% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, particularly in China and Indonesia. The other 54.1% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil, Ecuador, and Mexico are the largest producers. The largest exporting nation is Indonesia. Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and broodstock is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are of the family Penaeidae, and just two species – "Litopenaeus vannamei" (Pacific white shrimp) and "Penaeus monodon" (giant tiger prawn) – account for roughly 32.14% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to diseases, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both NGOs and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.

Freshwater.

Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental lifecycle of the main species (the giant river prawn, "Macrobrachium rosenbergii"). The global annual production of freshwater prawns in 2010 was about 670,000 tons, of which China produced 615,000 tons (92%).

Animal welfare.

Eyestalk ablation is the removal of one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) eyestalks from a crustacean. It is routinely practiced on female shrimps (or prawns) in almost every marine shrimp maturation or reproduction facility in the world, both research and commercial. The aim of ablation under these circumstances is to stimulate the female shrimp to develop mature ovaries and spawn.  Most captive conditions for shrimp cause inhibitions in females that prevent them from developing mature ovaries. Even in conditions where a given species will develop ovaries and spawn in captivity, use of eyestalk ablation increases total egg production and increases the percentage of females in a given population that participate in reproduction. Once females have been subjected to eyestalk ablation, complete ovarian development often ensues within as little as 3 to 10 days.

Shrimp farming is an aquaculture business that exists in either a marine or freshwater environment, producing shrimp or prawns (crustaceans of the groups Caridea or Dendrobranchiata) for human consumption.

Die Garnelenzucht (engl. "shrimp farming") ist eine besondere Form der Aquakultur, bei der Garnelen ("shrimps") für den menschlichen Verzehr herangezogen werden. Seit den 1970er Jahren hat die Produktion von gezüchteten Garnelen stetig zugenommen, um die Nachfrage nach solchen Meeresfrüchten insbesondere aus Europa, Nordamerika und Ostasien zu befriedigen. 2003 wurden weltweit mehr als 1,6 Millionen Tonnen auf solche Weise erzeugte Krebstiere auf den Markt gebracht. Ihr Marktwert betrug knapp 9 Milliarden USD.


General considerations.

The amount of propellant can be measured either in units of mass or weight. If mass is used, specific impulse is an impulse per unit mass, which dimensional analysis shows to have units of speed, specifically the effective exhaust velocity. As the SI system is mass-based, this type of analysis is usually done in meters per second. If a force-based unit system is used, impulse is divided by propellant weight (weight is a measure of force), resulting in units of time (seconds). These two formulations differ from each other by the standard gravitational acceleration ("g") at the surface of the earth.  The rate of change of momentum of a rocket (including its propellant) per unit time is equal to the thrust. The higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to produce a given thrust for a given time and the more efficient the propellant is. This should not be confused with the physics concept of energy efficiency, which can decrease as specific impulse increases, since propulsion systems that give high specific impulse require high energy to do so.  Thrust and specific impulse should not be confused. Thrust is the force supplied by the engine and depends on the amount of reaction mass flowing through the engine. Specific impulse measures the impulse produced per unit of propellant and is proportional to the exhaust velocity. Thrust and specific impulse are related by the design and propellants of the engine in question, but this relationship is tenuous. For example, LH/LOx bipropellant produces higher "I" but lower thrust than RP-1/LOx due to the exhaust gases having a lower density and higher velocity (HO vs CO and HO). In many cases, propulsion systems with very high specific impulse—some ion thrusters reach 10,000 seconds—produce low thrust.  When calculating specific impulse, only propellant carried with the vehicle before use is counted. For a chemical rocket, the propellant mass therefore would include both fuel and oxidizer. In rocketry, a heavier engine with a higher specific impulse may not be as effective in gaining altitude, distance, or velocity as a lighter engine with a lower specific impulse, especially if the latter engine possesses a higher thrust-to-weight ratio. This is a significant reason for most rocket designs having multiple stages. The first stage is optimised for high thrust to boost the later stages with higher specific impulse into higher altitudes where they can perform more efficiently.  For air-breathing engines, only the mass of the fuel is counted, not the mass of air passing through the engine. Air resistance and the engine's inability to keep a high specific impulse at a fast burn rate are why all the propellant is not used as fast as possible.  If it were not for air resistance and the reduction of propellant during flight, specific impulse would be a direct measure of the engine's effectiveness in converting propellant weight or mass into forward momentum.

Units.

The most common unit for specific impulse is the second, as values are identical regardless of whether the calculations are done in SI, imperial, or customary units. Nearly all manufacturers quote their engine performance in seconds, and the unit is also useful for specifying aircraft engine performance.  The use of metres per second to specify effective exhaust velocity is also reasonably common. The unit is intuitive when describing rocket engines, although the effective exhaust speed of the engines may be significantly different from the actual exhaust speed, especially in gas-generator cycle engines. For airbreathing jet engines, the effective exhaust velocity is not physically meaningful, although it can be used for comparison purposes.  Meters per second are numerically equivalent to Newton-seconds per kg (N·s/kg), and SI measurements of specific impulse can be written in terms of either units interchangeably.  Specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to specific impulse and has units of g/(kN·s) or lb/(lbf·hr). Specific fuel consumption is used extensively for describing the performance of air-breathing jet engines.

Specific impulse in seconds.

The time unit of seconds to measure the performance of a propellant/engine combination can be thought of as "How many seconds this propellant can accelerate its own initial mass at 1 g". The more seconds it can accelerate its own mass, the more delta-V it delivers to the whole system.  In other words, given a particular engine and a pound mass of a particular propellant, specific impulse measures for how long a time that engine can exert a continuous pound of force (thrust) until fully burning through that pound of propellant. A given mass of a more energy-dense propellant can burn for a longer duration than some less energy-dense propellant made to exert the same force while burning in an engine. Different engine designs burning the same propellant may not be equally efficient at directing their propellant's energy into effective thrust. In the same manner, some car engines are better built than others to maximize the miles-per-gallon of the gasoline they burn.  For all vehicles, specific impulse (impulse per unit weight-on-Earth of propellant) in seconds can be defined by the following equation:  where:  The English unit pound mass is more commonly used than the slug, and when using pounds per second for mass flow rate, the conversion constant "g" becomes unnecessary, because the slug is dimensionally equivalent to pounds divided by "g":  "I" in seconds is the amount of time a rocket engine can generate thrust, given a quantity of propellant whose weight is equal to the engine's thrust.  The advantage of this formulation is that it may be used for rockets, where all the reaction mass is carried on board, as well as airplanes, where most of the reaction mass is taken from the atmosphere. In addition, it gives a result that is independent of units used (provided the unit of time used is the second).

Rocketry.

In rocketry, the only reaction mass is the propellant, so an equivalent way of calculating the specific impulse in seconds is used. Specific impulse is defined as the thrust integrated over time per unit weight-on-Earth of the propellant:  where  In rockets, due to atmospheric effects, the specific impulse varies with altitude, reaching a maximum in a vacuum. This is because the exhaust velocity isn't simply a function of the chamber pressure, but is a function of the difference between the interior and exterior of the combustion chamber. Values are usually given for operation at sea level ("sl") or in a vacuum ("vac").

Specific impulse as effective exhaust velocity.

Because of the geocentric factor of "g" in the equation for specific impulse, many prefer an alternative definition. The specific impulse of a rocket can be defined in terms of thrust per unit mass flow of propellant. This is an equally valid (and in some ways somewhat simpler) way of defining the effectiveness of a rocket propellant. For a rocket, the specific impulse defined in this way is simply the effective exhaust velocity relative to the rocket, "v". "In actual rocket nozzles, the exhaust velocity is not really uniform over the entire exit cross section and such velocity profiles are difficult to measure accurately. A uniform axial velocity, "v", is assumed for all calculations which employ one-dimensional problem descriptions. This effective exhaust velocity represents an average or mass equivalent velocity at which propellant is being ejected from the rocket vehicle." The two definitions of specific impulse are proportional to one another, and related to each other by:  where  This equation is also valid for air-breathing jet engines, but is rarely used in practice.  It is related to the thrust, or forward force on the rocket by the equation:  where formula_5 is the propellant mass flow rate, which is the rate of decrease of the vehicle's mass.  A rocket must carry all its propellant with it, so the mass of the unburned propellant must be accelerated along with the rocket itself. Minimizing the mass of propellant required to achieve a given change in velocity is crucial to building effective rockets. The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation shows that for a rocket with a given empty mass and a given amount of propellant, the total change in velocity it can accomplish is proportional to the effective exhaust velocity.  A spacecraft without propulsion follows an orbit determined by its trajectory and any gravitational field. Deviations from the corresponding velocity pattern (these are called Δ"v") are achieved by sending exhaust mass in the direction opposite to that of the desired velocity change.

Actual exhaust speed versus effective exhaust speed.

When an engine is run within the atmosphere, the exhaust velocity is reduced by atmospheric pressure, in turn reducing specific impulse. This is a reduction in the effective exhaust velocity, versus the actual exhaust velocity achieved in vacuum conditions. In the case of gas-generator cycle rocket engines, more than one exhaust gas stream is present as turbopump exhaust gas exits through a separate nozzle. Calculating the effective exhaust velocity requires averaging the two mass flows as well as accounting for any atmospheric pressure.  For air-breathing jet engines, particularly turbofans, the actual exhaust velocity and the effective exhaust velocity are different by orders of magnitude. This is because a good deal of additional momentum is obtained by using air as reaction mass. This allows a better match between the airspeed and the exhaust speed, which saves energy/propellant and enormously increases the effective exhaust velocity while reducing the actual exhaust velocity.

Energy efficiency.

Rockets.

For rockets and rocket-like engines such as ion thrusters a higher formula_4 implies lower energy efficiency, as the power needed to run the engine is as follows:  where v is the actual exhaust jet velocity.  from momentum considerations the thrust generated is:  Dividing the power by the thrust to obtain the specific power requirements we get:  With constant thrust, the power needed increases as the exhaust velocity, leading to a lower energy efficiency per unit thrust. However, real-world vehicles are also limited in the mass amount of propellant they can carry. At low exhaust velocity the amount of reaction mass increases, at very high exhaust velocity the energy required becomes prohibitive.  Theoretically, for a given delta-v, in space, among all fixed values for the exhaust speed the value formula_22 is the most energy efficient for a specified (fixed) final mass, see energy in spacecraft propulsion.  However, a variable exhaust speed can be more energy efficient still. For example, if a rocket is accelerated from some positive initial speed using an exhaust speed equal to the speed of the rocket no energy is lost as kinetic energy of reaction mass, since it becomes stationary. (Theoretically, by making this initial speed low and using another method of obtaining this small speed, the energy efficiency approaches 100%, but requires a large initial mass.) In this case the rocket keeps the same momentum, so its speed is inversely proportional to its remaining mass. During such a flight the kinetic energy of the rocket is proportional to its speed and, correspondingly, inversely proportional to its remaining mass. The power needed per unit acceleration is constant throughout the flight; the reaction mass to be expelled per unit time to produce a given acceleration is proportional to the square of the rocket's remaining mass.  Also it is advantageous to expel reaction mass at a location where the gravity potential is low, see Oberth effect.

Air breathing.

Air-breathing engines such as turbojets increase the momentum generated from their propellant by using it to power the acceleration of inert air rearwards. It turns out that the amount of energy needed to generate a particular amount of thrust is inversely proportional to the amount of air propelled rearwards, thus increasing the mass of air (as with a turbofan) both improves energy efficiency as well as formula_4.

Examples.

An example of a specific impulse measured in time is 453 seconds, which is equivalent to an effective exhaust velocity of 4,440 m/s, for the RS-25 engines when operating in a vacuum. An air-breathing jet engine typically has a much larger specific impulse than a rocket; for example a turbofan jet engine may have a specific impulse of 6,000 seconds or more at sea level whereas a rocket would be around 200–400 seconds.  An air-breathing engine is thus much more propellant efficient than a rocket engine, because the actual exhaust speed is much lower, the air provides an oxidizer, and air is used as reaction mass. Since the physical exhaust velocity is lower, the kinetic energy the exhaust carries away is lower and thus the jet engine uses far less energy to generate thrust (at subsonic speeds). While the "actual" exhaust velocity is lower for air-breathing engines, the "effective" exhaust velocity is very high for jet engines. This is because the effective exhaust velocity calculation essentially assumes that the propellant is providing all the thrust, and hence is not physically meaningful for air-breathing engines; nevertheless, it is useful for comparison with other types of engines.  The highest specific impulse for a chemical propellant ever test-fired in a rocket engine was with a tripropellant of lithium, fluorine, and hydrogen. However, this combination is impractical. Lithium and fluorine are both extremely corrosive, lithium ignites on contact with air, fluorine ignites on contact with most fuels, and hydrogen, while not hypergolic, is an explosive hazard. Fluorine and the hydrogen fluoride (HF) in the exhaust are very toxic, which damages the environment, makes work around the launch pad difficult, and makes getting a launch license that much more difficult. The rocket exhaust is also ionized, which would interfere with radio communication with the rocket. Nuclear thermal rocket engines differ from conventional rocket engines in that energy is supplied to the propellants by an external nuclear heat source instead of the heat of combustion. The nuclear rocket typically operates by passing liquid hydrogen gas through an operating nuclear reactor. Testing in the 1960s yielded specific impulses of about 850 seconds (8,340 m/s), about twice that of the Space Shuttle engines.  A variety of other rocket propulsion methods, such as ion thrusters, give much higher specific impulse but with much lower thrust; for example the Hall effect thruster on the SMART-1 satellite has a specific impulse of 1,640 s (16,100 m/s) but a maximum thrust of only 68 millinewtons. The variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket (VASIMR) engine currently in development will theoretically yield 20,000−300,000 m/s, and a maximum thrust of 5.7 newtons.

Specific impulse (usually abbreviated "I") is a measure of how effectively a rocket uses propellant or a jet engine uses fuel. Specific impulse can be calculated in a variety of different ways with different units. By definition, it is the total impulse (or change in momentum) delivered per unit of propellant consumed and is dimensionally equivalent to the generated thrust divided by the propellant mass flow rate or weight flow rate. If mass (kilogram, pound-mass, or slug) is used as the unit of propellant, then specific impulse has units of velocity. If weight (newton or pound-force) is used instead, then specific impulse has units of time (seconds). Multiplying flow rate by the standard gravity ("g") converts specific impulse from the weight basis to the mass basis.

Der spezifische Impuls formula_1 eines Raketentriebwerkes ist die Änderung des Impulses pro ausgestoßener Masse (Verbrennungsgase oder Stützmasse). Der spezifische Impuls – es handelt sich um die effektive Austrittsgeschwindigkeit – ist eine wesentliche Kenngröße eines Antriebs oder eines Treibstoffs unabhängig von der Größe des Motors.


Plot.

In the year 2274, the remnants of human civilization live in a sealed city contained beneath a cluster of geodesic domes, a utopia run by a computer that takes care of all aspects of life, including reproduction. The citizens live a hedonistic lifestyle but, to prevent overpopulation, everyone must undergo the rite of "Carrousel" when they reach the age of 30. There, they are killed under the guise of being "renewed”.  To track this, each person is implanted at birth with a "life-clock" crystal in the palm of the hand that changes color as they get older and begins blinking as they approach their "Last Day.” Most residents accept this chance for rebirth, but those who do not and attempt to flee the city are known as "Runners”. An elite team of policemen known as "Sandmen”, outfitted in predominantly black uniforms and serving in an agency of the city called "Deep Sleep”, are assigned to pursue and terminate Runners as they try to escape.  Logan 5 and Francis 7 are both Sandmen. After terminating a Runner, to whose presence they were alerted during a Carrousel rite, Logan finds an ankh among his possessions. Later that evening, he meets Jessica 6, a young woman also wearing an ankh pendant. Logan takes the ankh to the computer, which tells him that it is a symbol for a secret group whose members help the Runners find "Sanctuary”, a mythic place where they will be safe to live out the rest of their lives.  Logan learns that the Sandmen have lost 1,056 Runners this way. The computer instructs Logan to find Sanctuary and destroy it, a mission which it code names "Procedure 033-03”, which he must keep secret from the other Sandmen of Deep Sleep. Then, by a procedure it calls "retrogram", the computer changes the color of his life clock to flashing red, suddenly making him four years closer to Carrousel. Scared, he asks if the four years will be restored to him when his mission is completed but receives no response. In order to escape this, Logan is now forced to become a Runner. Logan meets Jessica and explains his situation. They meet with the underground group that leads them to the periphery of the city.  Logan learns that the ankh symbol is actually a key that unlocks an exit from the city. They come out into a frozen cave, with Francis following closely behind. In the cave, they meet Box, a robot designed to capture food for the city from the outside. Logan discovers, to his horror, that Box also captures escaped Runners and freezes them for food. Before Box can freeze Logan and Jessica, they escape, causing the cave to collapse on the robot.  Once outside, Logan and Jessica notice that their life clocks are no longer operational. They see the Sun for the first time and discover that the remains of human civilization have become a wilderness. They explore an old, seemingly abandoned city which was once Washington, D.C. In the ruins of the United States Senate chamber, they discover an elderly man living with many cats. His appearance is a shock to them, since neither has ever seen anyone over the age of thirty. The old man recounts what he remembers about what happened to humanity outside the city, and Logan realizes that Sanctuary has always been a myth.  However, Francis has followed them and he and Logan fight. Logan fatally wounds Francis; as he dies, Francis sees that Logan's life clock is now clear and assumes Logan has renewed. Logan and Jessica persuade the old man to return to the city with them as proof that life exists outside the domed city. Leaving the man outside, the two enter and try to convince everyone that Carrousel is a lie and unnecessary. The two are captured by other Sandmen and taken to the computer, which interrogates Logan about Procedure 033-03 and asks if he completed his mission.  Logan insists, "There is no Sanctuary". What he had found was "old ruins, exposed”, "an old man”, and that the missing Runners were "all frozen”. These answers are not accepted by the computer, even after scanning Logan's mind, and the computer overloads, causing the city's systems to fail violently and release the exterior seals. Logan, Jessica, and the other citizens flee the ruined city. Once outside, the citizens see the old man, the first human they have met who is older than thirty, proving that they can, indeed, live their lives much longer.

Production.

Development.

MGM's early attempts to adapt the book led to development hell. Producer George Pal's attempt was troubled in 1969 by competing views of what the film's story should be, including the possibility of incorporating symbolism of real life issues, in comparison to screenwriter Richard Maibaum's vision.  Rewriting Maibaum's screenplay would have taken between two and three months, and the budget would have had to have been reassessed. Pal became concerned the delays would cause the film to miss the wave of success science fiction was enjoying with "" and "Planet of the Apes" in 1968.  American International Pictures offered to buy Pal's projects, including "Logan's Run", for $200,000, but MGM declined, only willing to accept a minimum of $350,000. Pal left the project to produce "" (1975) for Warner Bros.  Saul David assumed responsibility in 1974, with "Soylent Green" author Stanley R. Greenberg assigned to write. Greenberg devised the idea of Carrousel but afterwards dropped off the project. David Zelag Goodman wrote a nearly completely new screenplay, raising the age of death from 21 to 30 to allow for more actors to be considered for casting.

Casting.

York, Agutter, and William Devane were cast in the lead roles, with Devane announced to play an "elite" Sandman in May 1975. Devane withdrew from the project and replaced Roy Thinnes in Alfred Hitchcock's 1976 film "Family Plot".  Richard Jordan stepped in for Devane and was best known for his performances in "Lawman" (1971), "Chato's Land" (1972), "Rooster Cogburn" (1975) and the 1976 TV mini-series "Captains and the Kings". York had previously appeared in "Cabaret" (1972), "The Three Musketeers" (1973) and "Murder on the Orient Express" (1974), while Agutter was best known for "The Railway Children" (1970) and "Walkabout" (1971). York and Agutter were 33 and 23 respectively, casting made justifiable by Goodman raising the age of death to 30.  In September 1975, it was announced Peter Ustinov would play "the last man alive in Washington, D.C." in the film. Farrah Fawcett has a small role, but her rising celebrity in television earned her prominent credit as Farrah Fawcett-Majors.

Filming.

Special effects artists L. B. Abbott and Glen Robinson regarded Carrousel as the most difficult part of the film to portray, requiring hidden wires to depict the levitation. For the scene in which Logan is interrogated by the Deep Sleep central computer, it was decided that genuine holograms would be most convincing, with Saul David advocating a new hologram effect be created. The robot character Box was portrayed by placing actor Roscoe Lee Browne in a robot costume.  The filmmakers also made use of wide-angle lenses not generally available. It became the first film to use Dolby Stereo on 70 mm prints. Nine entire sound stages were used at MGM in Culver City, California, hosting a miniature city among the largest of its kind built to date.  Producers saved $3 million by finding readily available locations in numerous Dallas buildings, including the Apparel Mart at Dallas Market Center (The Great Hall), Oz Restaurant and Nightclub (The Love Shop) and Pegasus Place (Sandman headquarters), the Fort Worth Water Gardens, and the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Houston. The Sewage Disposal Plant in El Segundo, California was used for the underground escape sequences.

Post-production.

Post-production took eight months, including completion of the score. The score was composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith, with orchestrations by Arthur Morton. The score "adheres to two distinct sound palettes: strings, keyboards and abstract electronics only for cues inside the City and full orchestra for outside." The first release of portions of the score was on MGM Records on LP, in 1976. The complete expanded and newly remixed score was issued on CD in January, 2002 by "Film Score Monthly".  The film was previewed for test audiences prior to its release. A few sequences were edited or shortened as a result. These included a longer sequence in the ice cave, where Box asked Logan and Jessica to pose for his ice sculpture. This was cut due to extensive nudity so that the film could receive a PG rating (PG-13 did not exist yet) and for length. Other scenes were removed, including a sequence where Francis hunts down a runner by himself at the beginning of the film. Other sequences were trimmed. Some of these scenes are featured as extras in the 1998 DVD release. Other scenes survive in the shooting script, but the footage appears lost. At the end of the process, the budget had escalated from the projected $3 million to $9 million, an expensive film for 1976. It was noted for being the most expensive MGM film made in 10 years, with most of the budget going to the sets.

Themes.

"Logan's Run" explores utopian and dystopian themes, with the idea that characters willingly die instead of reaching advanced ages, reflecting the idea that "Utopias require its participants to give something up in order to create harmony and uniformity". Common dystopian themes include an evil ruling authority, the confiscation of children from parents, life in a city, and the idea of human overpopulation, in this case causing the protagonists to leave the urban environment.  Prominent concepts in the film are "the dangers of hedonism, youth worship, and, particularly, the dangers of government-sponsored euthanasia". The hedonism is primarily conveyed in the form of sensuality and "images of sexual abandon". Aside from sexual freedom, the pursuit of pleasure is also reflected in how this was envisioned in the 1970s, including miniskirts, little career, relaxed gyms, and Farrah Fawcett's "shag" haircut. Author Barna William Donovan argues this serves to criticize many social developments underway in the 1970s, targeting the "Me generation". Writer Robert Tinnell hypothesizes the design of the city, reminiscent of a shopping mall, is also suggestive of "anticonsumerist sentiment". The film may ultimately serve as a warning against overthrowing older generations, aimed at young viewers following the counterculture movements in the 1960s.  Another interpretation is that individualism, the "freedom to "live" and "be"," is curbed by "social mechanisms" telling citizens to have a good life for only a limited time. Logan, originally part of an "artificial society" centred on "pleasure and spectacle," becomes "re-individualised" and defies a "conformist system". Despite the reflections of the 1970s, Donovan argues the film may also have relevance to the Internet age, with elements evocative of online dating.  Writers have also examined the film's statements on gender and race. At one point in the film, Logan asks Jessica whether she is a lesbian after she expresses no romantic interest in him. His casual, nonjudgmental tone indicates homosexuality is no longer taboo in the film's futuristic society, a possible side effect of sex no longer being related to child bearing. Ultimately, author Bonnie Noonan believes the idea of returning to the concept of "beloved wife" is a sign that in the story, women's liberation, and not technology, is at the root of the dystopia.  The character of Box, being voiced by African-American actor Roscoe Lee Browne, could serve as a precursor to Darth Vader, voiced by African-American actor James Earl Jones in "Star Wars" (1977), in "racializing cyberphobic primers available to Generation X".

Reception.

Box office.

In its first five days in theatres in 1976, "Logan's Run" grossed $2.5 million, a substantial sum. The film finished its run with a gross of $25 million in North America, and a solid performance in other territories.  The film is credited with helping MGM recover from debt, and was a hit with young audiences in particular.

Critical response.

The film received a generally mixed response. Roger Ebert gave the film a three-star rating, calling the film a "vast, silly extravaganza", with a plot that's a "cross between Arthur C. Clarke's "The City and the Stars" and elements of "Planet of the Apes"" and "that delivers a certain amount of fun". "Variety" staff called the film "rewarding" in its escapism and intelligence.  Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" was less positive:  Just why and for what particular purpose Logan makes his run is anything but clear after you've sat through nearly two hours of this stuff. "Logan's Run" is less interested in logic than in gadgets and spectacle, but these are sometimes jazzily effective and even poetic. Had more attention been paid to the screenplay, the movie might have been a stunner.  Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film zero stars out of four, calling it "unquestionably the worst major motion picture I've seen this year." He described the technological gadgets as "lackluster" and the script "loaded with stupidities that had a preview audience laughing in derision." What he found "most contemptible is the way the film never justifies any of its characters' behavior. Jessica's subversive group doesn't do anything except hide in what looks like a boiler room. The main story of Logan's flight consists of a simple fistfight." He concluded, "'Logan's Run' is an artistic con job from beginning to end."  "New York" was also negative, writing that the film was "yet another of those tiresome world-after-the-holocaust bits," and "hardly a hop for your money". However, the review complimented York and Agutter as "gifted".  Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" was mixed, writing that "its visual razzle-dazzle... propels 'Logan's Run' past some foolish concocting, indifferent acting, slow pacing and uncertain toning."  In 2000, Ian Nathan wrote in "Empire" that the film "can't escape its '70s origins", but contains "warnings about decadence, ageism, and allowing technology and science to run riot, done to a disco groove". In his "2015 Movie Guide", Leonard Maltin gave the film two stars, finding the first half "dazzling" and the second "dreary". In 2015, "Rolling Stone" named it 27th among the 50 Best Sci-Fi Movies of the 1970s. The film has a 62% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 34 reviews.

Awards and honors.

At the Academy Awards, the film won a Special Academy Award for visual effects, tied with the 1976 remake of "King Kong", indicating "Logan's Run" made its mark in visual and special effects that few previous science fiction films had the money for. "Logan's Run" was very popular at the Saturn Awards, winning the six awards, including Best Science Fiction Film. The film was also in competition for the Golden Prize at the 10th Moscow International Film Festival.

Legacy.

Intrigued by the film's success with young viewers, CBS and MGM Television paid Nolan $9 million to base a television series on the film starring Gregory Harrison and Heather Menzies, but after debuting in 1977, the series was cancelled before the end of the season. MGM also expressed interest in adapting Nolan's sequel novel "Logan's World", but Saul David had opted to focus on the television series instead.  Marvel Comics published a short-lived comic book series in 1977, with George Pérez drawing five issues between January and May 1977, with "acceptable" sales. The comics adapted the film's story in five issues and briefly continued beyond. In his art, Pérez sought to follow the art direction of the film. The book was cancelled after issue #7 in July 1977.  In the mid-1990s, Warner Bros. began development of a remake. In 2000, ideas for a film remake centred on a more faithful adaptation of the novel, restoring Crazy Horse Mountain and the sky gypsies. In August 2010, Nolan confirmed that the long-awaited Warner Bros. remake would be on production in 2010–2011 and that producer Joel Silver announced that it [would] be shot in 3-D, and that Carl Rinsch [would] direct from a screenplay ([then still] in progress) from writer Alex Garland. The death age would be lowered to 21 to match the novel and the film would be much closer to the original book. However, as of 2018, the film was still in pre-production.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Logan's Run is a 1976 American science fiction action film directed by Michael Anderson and starring Michael York, Jenny Agutter, Richard Jordan, Roscoe Lee Browne, Farrah Fawcett, and Peter Ustinov. The screenplay by David Zelag Goodman is based on the 1967 novel "Logan's Run" by William F. Nolan and George Clayton Johnson. It depicts a utopian future society on the surface, revealed as a dystopia where the population and the consumption of resources are maintained in equilibrium by killing everyone who reaches the age of thirty. The story follows the actions of Logan 5, a "Sandman" who has terminated others who have attempted to escape death and is now faced with termination himself.

Flucht ins 23. Jahrhundert (Originaltitel "Logan’s Run") ist ein US-amerikanischer Science-Fiction-Film aus dem Jahr 1976 unter der Regie von Michael Anderson. Er basiert auf der Romanvorlage "Logan’s Run" von William F. Nolan und George Clayton Johnson. Im 23. Jahrhundert leben die Menschen in einer Wohlstandsgesellschaft in Städten unter der Erde und kennen keine Sorgen. Allerdings ist das Alter der Bewohner auf 30 Jahre begrenzt, womit sich aber nicht alle zufriedengeben. Logan 5, gespielt von Michael York, soll die sogenannte Zuflucht finden und zerstören, weshalb seine Lebenszeit vorzeitig verkürzt wird.


Early life.

Barberini was born on 5 August 1607 in Rome, the youngest of 6 children to Carlo Barberini and Costanza Magalotti (sister of Lorenzo Magalotti). Like his brothers, Antonio was educated at the "Collegio Romano".

Pontificate of Urban VIII.

Barberini's uncle, Maffeo Barberini was elected as pope on 6 August 1623 (the day after Antonio's 16th birthday) and took the papal throne as Pope Urban VIII. Almost immediately, he elevated his brother, Antonio's other uncle, Antonio Marcello Barberini to the position of cardinal. In the tradition of cardinal nephews, Urban also elevated Antonio's older brother Francesco Barberini to the rank of cardinal.  Urban's famous nepotism wasn't sufficiently quelled by the appointment of one cardinal-nephew. Less than a month after his 20th birthday and without having established an ecclesiastic career of his own, Antonio Barberini was appointed as a cardinal on 30 August 1627. His elevation was made "in pectore" and was published on 7 February 1628. Urban also purchased the comune of the town of Palestrina outside Rome, and Antonio's other brother, Taddeo Barberini, became the "Prince of Palestrina".  In 1628, Antonio was appointed Prefect of the Apostolic Signatura, in 1630 he was made the papal legate in Urbino and in 1633 he became legate in Avignon where he developed close contacts with various French church power brokers. During his time in France he became unwell and employed Joseph Barsalou as his "private physician". He returned to Rome and assumed the post of Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church in 1638. In 1636, against the wish of his uncle the Pope, he accepted the post of Crown-Cardinal-Protector of the Kingdom of France. It has been estimated that during Urban's 21-year pontificate, Barberini amassed more than 63 million scudi in personal wealth.

The Wars of Castro.

In 1639 Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, came to Rome. During his visit he insulted Antonio and his brother Francesco by suggesting to the Pope that the brothers were too young to manage the Pope's affairs. Pope Urban responded by banning grain shipments from Farnese controlled areas. When the Farnese were then unable to pay their debts the Pope sent debt collectors. Finally the Pope send troops to occupy Castro. The Pope's forces (12,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry) were led by Antonio, his brother Taddeo and mercenary field commander Luigi Mattei.  Castro fell to Urban's forces without significant resistance and the victory was celebrated in song by Barberini family composer, Marco Marazzoli. But the victory was short lived and thereafter Antonio and his troops suffered a series of decisive losses and Antonio himself was almost captured. Pope Urban was forced to accept defeat and signed a peace treaty with the Farnese Dukes in an attempt to prevent them from marching on Rome itself. When Urban died, the Church was facing financial struggle, the cardinals (despite francophile Urban's nepotism) were divided between France and Spain and the Farnese were moving toward Rome with a mercenary army in tow.

Pontificate of Innocent X.

Antonio had developed a strong relationship with Cardinal Jules Mazarin and was given responsibility for the French contingent within the College of Cardinals and for the nomination of Giulio Cesare Sacchetti at the papal conclave of 1644 which was to pick his uncle's successor. But his efforts were in vain and the Spanish nominee, Giovanni Battista Pamphili (of the powerful Pamphili family), was elected as Pope Innocent X.  Antonio's brother Francesco had sided with the Spanish and split the conclave and it was his negotiations that resulted in Pamphili's election. The final deal in Pamphili's favour included an agreement, designed by the brothers for their own benefit, that the new Pope would allow the Barberini to keep the titles, land and fortunes they had amassed under Pope Urban VIII's reign. Mazarin became so angry because of Antonio's attitude that he deprived him of the protectorate of the Kingdom of France. However, the conflict was of short duration and both cardinals quickly reconciled with each other.  For reasons unknown, Pope Innocent X reneged on the deal and Antonio and his brother Taddeo were accused of financial abuses during the War of Castro. The two went into exile in 1645 in Paris under the protection of Cardinal Mazarin, and were joined a year later by Francesco. Before leaving Rome, Antonio had the crest of the King of France affixed above his door as a warning to his political rivals that he was now protected by the French Kingdom.  Taddeo Barberini's wife, Anna Colonna made a passionate plea, in person, to the Pope and the Barberini were granted permission to keep their property but the family remained in exile until 1647. The family was finally reconciled with Pope in 1653 when Antonio's nephew (Taddeo's son) Maffeo Barberini married the Pope's grand-niece Olimpia Giustiniani. The reconciliation was, in part, engineered by Cardinal Mazarin and Antonio showed his appreciation by holding celebratory services at the San Luigi dei Francesi (Church of St. Louis of the French).

Pontificate of Alexander VII.

When Innocent X died in 1655, Antonio Barberini again played a leading role in the College of Cardinals and the conclave. Again, Antonio and the French nominated Giulio Cesare Sacchetti but he was vetoed by the Spanish. The fractured college came together to support Fabio Chigi, who was elected and took office as Pope Alexander VII.  Later that year he was ordained Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati. About that time he changed his dissolute lifestyle, devoted himself to religion and became strongly involved in the campaign against Jansenism.  King Louis XIV of France had previously nominated him (in 1653) as Bishop of Poitiers but the nomination was never ratified by the Holy See. Four years later, (1657) the King brought him back to France and transferred him to the Archdiocese of Reims but it took a further decade (1667) before the pope confirmed the post. For many years he served as Grand Almoner of the Kingdom of France. In 1661 he was appointed Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina, the diocese that covered the Barberini family comune of Palestrina.

Later life.

Barberini participated in the papal conclave of 1667 during which the French delegation successfully campaigned for the election of Giulio Rospigliosi (Pope Clement IX). He also participated in the conclave of 1669-1670 at which Emilio Altieri was elected as Pope Clement X. He became Vice-Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in March 1671; the dean at that time was his older brother Francesco.  He died in Nemi on 3 August 1671, two days before his 64th birthday.

Private life.

Contemporaries widely commented on Barberini's very dissolute conduct during the pontificate of his uncle. According to Gregorio Leti, "The great inclination he has had to women hath been no small blemish to his reputation". Contemporary John Bargrave, who met Barberini while he was travelling through the Alps on his way to exile in France, also made comment on Barberini's "vicious deportments" and "life full of liberty and debauchery".  According to the controversial anonymous text "The Scarlet Gown" (a tabloid published in 1653 listing the vices of each living cardinal of the day), Barberini had a number of mistresses including one he had whipped for flaunting herself during "Carnivale" and another who died mysteriously while carrying his child.  Barberini was also, apparently, involved in several affairs with men. He became particularly intimate with the castrato singer Marc'Antonio Pasqualini in the early 1640s. Contemporary testimony leaves little doubt that the "veritable passion" the cardinal felt extended to more than Pasqualini's beautiful voice. According to some historians, the scandal of his alleged homosexual relationships was the "talk of the town". However, in his later life he underwent conversion, changed his lifestyle and became deeply religious.

Patronage of the arts.

Music.

Antonio Barberini was patron to a number of significant musicians and composers of 17th century Rome including Marco Marazzoli who he commissioned to compose various works which praised the actions of the Barberini family. Marazzoli was appointed Antonio Barberini's "aiutante di camera" and became a tenor in the papal chapel that same year; in 1639 he was awarded the position of "musico" under Pope Urban VIII. Marazzoli composed "Le armi e gli amori" to be given at Carnival 1655, but the papal conclave of 1655 interrupted production, and it was not given until 1656, alongside "Dal male e bene" and Marazzoli's latest opera, "Vita humana" which was composed to honor the visit of Queen Christina of Sweden.  "Fiori musicali" was dedicated to Antonio Barberini in 1635. He was also said to have been a patron of Luigi Rossi.  Outside their intimate relationship, Antonio Barberini was an ongoing patron of Marc'Antonio Pasqualini.

Architecture.

In 1627, the Barberini family commissioned the architect Carlo Maderno to adapt and extend the Palazzo Sforza that they had purchased, into the Palazzo Barberini. In this work, Maderno was assisted by his relative Francesco Borromini. When Maderno died in 1629, Borromini was passed over and the commission was awarded to Bernini, a young prodigy then better known as a sculptor. Borromini stayed on and the two architects worked together; later in their careers fierce rivalries would develop. The palace was completed in 1633.  Prior to his election, Pope Urban VIII had been a member of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. Antonio Barberini was appointed prefect of the Congregation and set about commissioning a new palace, the Palazzo del Propaganda Fide. The construction was started by close Barberini family friend Gianlorenzo Bernini. In 1644, when Antonio was exiled, Bernini was replaced by Borromini who demolished Bernini's chapel and built his own design; the chapel is considered one of Borromini's masterpieces.  Antonio and his brothers also commissioned the Teatro delle Quattro Fontane (or "Theatre of the Four Fountains"); an opera house in Rome and built in 1632. It was located in "Via delle Quattro Fontane", near the Piazza Barberini and the Quattro Fontane or "Four Fountains".

Art.

Though Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio died when Antonio Barberini was only 3 years old, the Cardinal later became a great admirer of his work and his extensive art collection included Caravaggio's paintings such as "Still Life with Fruit", "Cardsharps" and "The Lute Player". Antonio had purchased the art collection of Francesco Maria Del Monte upon the cardinal's death which had included a large number of important works. Pope Urban VIII had purchased a number of works directly from Caravaggio and it is likely Antonio also inherited a number of these. An inventory of Antonio's assets was compiled upon his death in 1671 which included a large number of such artworks by artists of the period.  Antonio commissioned Lorenzo Ottoni to complete a number of Barberini family sculptures including that of his nephew Maffeo Barberini.  Antonio and his uncle also commissioned the painter Andrea Sacchi to complete various works at Antonio's Capuchin church and at the Palazzo Barberini. Today the Palazzo Barberini houses the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, one of the most important painting collections in Italy.

Antonio Barberini (5 August 1607 – 3 August 1671) was an Italian Catholic cardinal, Archbishop of Reims, military leader, patron of the arts and a prominent member of the House of Barberini. As one of the cardinal-nephews of Pope Urban VIII and a supporter of France, he played a significant role at a number of the papal conclaves of the 17th century. With his brothers Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Taddeo Barberini he helped to shape politics, religion, art and music of 17th century Italy. He is sometimes referred to as "Antonio the Younger" or "Antonio Barberini iuniore" to distinguish him from his uncle Antonio Marcello Barberini.

Antonio Barberini (* 5. August 1607 in Rom; † 3. August 1671 in Nemi), Herzog von Urbino, war Erzbischof von Reims und Kardinal der römisch-katholischen Kirche.


Career.

Dudley was born in Beckenham, Kent. She graduated with a master's in music from King's College London in 1978. Trained as a classical performer, she moved into the competitive commercial field as a session musician, where her professional relationship with Trevor Horn began. In 1982 Dudley made significant contributions to the Horn-produced "The Lexicon of Love" album by ABC. She went from fleshing-out keyboard parts to scoring the album's orchestrations (which were, according to Horn, her first-ever string arrangements) and also co-writing some of the songs. In 2019 she conducted the Southbank Sinfonia during Martin Fry's Lexicon of Love tour.  Dudley's association with Horn led on to working with artists such as Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Seal, Marc Almond, Rod Stewart, Robbie Williams and, more recently, Siphiwo. She has co-written songs with Malcolm McLaren ("Buffalo Gals"), Cathy Dennis ("Too Many Walls"), and a 1930s-inspired song with Sting called "This Was Never Meant To Be".  She produced the Tom Jones hit "You Can Leave Your Hat On" (1988) and a Debbie Harry single "Strike Me Pink" (1993). Dudley produced two tracks on the 2002 Opera Babes album "Beyond Imagination" (ranking No.1 on the UK classical charts for 11 weeks, and No.4 on the US billboard charts). In 2004 she produced the album "Voice" for Alison Moyet. The album, an eclectic collection of cover versions, reached No.7 in the UK Albums Chart.  Dudley was a founding member of the successful band Art of Noise, which helped pioneer the use of sampling within the pop genre. Their stand-out hits include "Beat Box" (1984), "Moments in Love" (1985), "Close (to the Edit)" (1984) and, with Tom Jones, "Kiss" (1988).  Her works for orchestra include "Northern Lights", a 14-minute reflection of Norway's Aurora Borealis for full orchestra, performed in 2005 and 2006 at the Royal Festival Hall and broadcast on BBC Radio 3's "Late Junction" programme in May 2005. Her first commission as Composer in Association with the BBC Concert Orchestra was "Music and Silence", inspired by the novel of the same name by Rose Tremain and first performed at The Royal Festival Hall in 2002. Dudley arranged Bach's Chaconne from Partita in D minor for piano trio, and a recording by the Eroica Trio appears on their "Baroque" album. Her album "Ancient and Modern", with modern versions of some traditional hymns and Bach chorales, was released in 1999. She was the musical director for "Bill Bailey's Remarkable Guide to the Orchestra", first performed in Brighton then at the Royal Albert Hall in 2008, which was recorded and released as a DVD in December 2009. The show was toured in 2009 with eight different regional orchestras participating. It involved the orchestra playing the Nokia theme tune and a french horn concerto evolving into the theme from "Coronation Street".  Dudley collaborated with Sam Taylor-Wood in producing the sound and video installation "Sigh" at the White Cube in 2008. This work featured the BBC Concert Orchestra on eight large projected screens, miming to Dudley's score.

Film scores.

Dudley's career in film music has spanned 20 years and her film scores include:  Her TV music includes:

Session musician work.

Dudley has worked as a session musician for many artists, and her string and orchestral arrangements appear on a diverse array of albums. These include:

Awards.

In addition to Dudley's Academy Award for "The Full Monty", she has received a number of awards and nominations.

Anne Jennifer Dudley (née Beckingham; born 7 May 1956) is an English composer, keyboardist, conductor and pop musician. She was the first BBC Concert Orchestra's Composer in Association in 2001. She has worked in the classical and pop genres, as a film composer, and was one of the core members of the synthpop band Art of Noise. In 1998, Dudley won an Oscar for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score for "The Full Monty". In addition to over twenty other film scores, in 2012 she served as music producer for the film version of "Les Misérables", also acting as arranger and composing some new additional music.

Anne Jennifer Valentino (* 7. Mai 1956 in Chatham, Kent, England als "Anne Jennifer Beckingham", besser bekannt als Anne Dudley) ist eine britische Komponistin und Popmusikerin.