Early life.

Jackman was born in Sydney, New South Wales, to Grace McNeil (née Greenwood) and Christopher John Jackman, a Cambridge-educated accountant. His parents were English and had come to Australia in 1967 as part of the "Ten Pound Poms" immigration. Thus, in addition to his Australian citizenship, Jackman holds British citizenship by virtue of being born to UK-born parents. One of his paternal great-grandfathers, Nicholas Isidor Bellas, was Greek, from the Ottoman Empire (now in Greece). His parents were devout Christians, having been converted by Evangelist Billy Graham after their marriage. Jackman has four older siblings and was the second of his parents' children to be born in Australia. He also has a younger half-sister, from his mother's remarriage. His parents divorced when he was eight, and Jackman remained in Australia with his father and two brothers, while his mother moved back to England with Jackman's two sisters. As a child, Jackman liked the outdoors, spending much time at the beach and on camping trips and school holidays all over Australia. He wanted to see the world saying, "I used to spend nights looking at atlases. I decided I wanted to be a chef on a plane. Because I'd been on a plane and there was food on board, I presumed there was a chef. I thought that would be an ideal job."  Jackman went to primary school at Pymble Public School and later attended the all-boys Knox Grammar School on Sydney's Upper North Shore, where he starred in its production of "My Fair Lady" in 1985 and became the school captain in 1986. Following graduation, he spent a gap year working at Uppingham School in England as a Physical Education teacher. On his return, he studied at the University of Technology, Sydney, graduating in 1991 with a BA in Communications. In his final year of university, he took a drama course to make up additional credits. The class did Václav Havel's "The Memorandum" with Jackman as the lead. He later commented, "In that week I felt more at home with those people than I did in the entire three years [at university]".  After obtaining his BA, Jackman completed the one-year course "The Journey" at the Actors' Centre in Sydney. About studying acting full-time, he stated, "It wasn't until I was 22 that I ever thought about my hobby being something I could make a living out of. As a boy, I'd always had an interest in theatre. But the idea at my school was that drama and music were to round out the man. It wasn't what one did for a living. I got over that. I found the courage to stand up and say, 'I want to do it'." After completing "The Journey", he was offered a role on the popular soap opera "Neighbours" but turned it down to attend the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts of Edith Cowan University in Perth, Western Australia, from which he graduated in 1994.  Jackman has said he "always loved acting but when I started at drama school I was like the dunce of the class. It just wasn't coming right to me. Everyone was cooler, everyone seemed more likely to succeed, everyone seemed more natural at it and in retrospect, I think that is good. I think it is good to come from behind as an actor. I think it is good to go into an audition thinking, 'Man I've got to be at my best to get this gig.'" He has cited actor Gary Oldman as an inspiration, personally thanking him on a 2017 edition of "The Graham Norton Show".

Career.

1995–1999: Early career in theatre.

On the night of his final Academy graduation performance, Jackman received a phone call offering him a role on "Correlli": "I was technically unemployed for thirteen seconds." "Correlli", devised by Australian actress Denise Roberts, was a 10-part drama series on ABC, Jackman's first major professional job, and where he met his future wife Deborra-Lee Furness. "Meeting my wife was the greatest thing to come out of it," he said, as the show lasted only one season. After "Correlli" Jackman went on the stage in Melbourne. In 1996, Jackman played Gaston in the local Walt Disney production of "Beauty and the Beast", and Joe Gillis in "Sunset Boulevard". During his stage musical career in Melbourne, he starred in the 1998 Midsumma festival cabaret production "Summa Cabaret". He also hosted Melbourne's Carols by Candlelight and Sydney's Carols in the Domain. Jackman's early film works include "Erskineville Kings" and "Paperback Hero" (1999), and his television work includes "Law of the Land", "Halifax f.p.", "Blue Heelers", and "Banjo Paterson's The Man from Snowy River".  Jackman became known outside Australia in 1998, when he played the leading role of Curly in the Royal National Theatre's acclaimed stage production of "Oklahoma!", in London's West End. The performance earned him an Olivier Award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical. Jackman said, "I totally felt like it can't get any better than this. On some level that production will be one of the highlights of my career." He also starred in the 1999 film version of the same stage musical, which has been screened in many countries.

2000–2004: Breakthrough with "X-Men".

Jackman had his breakthrough role playing Wolverine in Bryan Singer's "X-Men" (2000)—a superhero film based on the Marvel Comics team of the same name. Co-starring Patrick Stewart, James Marsden, Famke Janssen and Ian McKellen, the film tells the story of a group of mutants, whose superhuman powers make them distrusted by normal humans. The role was originally written for Russell Crowe who instead suggested Jackman for the part. Jackman says that his wife advised him against taking on the role, as she found it "ridiculous". He initially studied wolves to develop his character, as he thought that Wolverine alluded to wolves. "X-Men" was successful at the box-office, earning US$296 million. The role earned him a Saturn Award for Best Actor.  Wolverine was tough for Jackman to portray because he had few lines, but much emotion to convey in them. To prepare, he watched Clint Eastwood in the "Dirty Harry" movies and Mel Gibson in "Mad Max 2". "There were guys who had relatively little dialogue, like Wolverine had, but you knew and felt everything. I'm not normally one to copy, but I wanted to see how these guys achieved it." Jackman was adamant about doing his own stunts for the movie. "We worked a lot on the movement style of Wolverine, and I studied some martial arts. I watched a lot of Mike Tyson fights, especially his early fights. There's something about his style, the animal rage, that seemed right for Wolverine. I kept saying to the writers, 'Don't give me long, choreographed fights for the sake of it. Don't make the fights pretty." Jackman also had to get used to wearing Wolverine's claws. He said, "Every day in my living room, I'd just walk around with those claws, to get used to them. I've got scars on one leg, punctures straight through the cheek, on my forehead. I'm a bit clumsy. I'm lucky I didn't tell them that when I auditioned." Jackman, at stands 30 cm taller than Wolverine, who is said in the original comic book to be. Hence, the filmmakers were frequently forced to shoot Jackman at unusual angles or only from the waist up to make him appear shorter than he actually is, and his co-stars wore platform soles. Jackman was also required to add a great deal of muscle for the role, and in preparing for the fourth film in the series, he bench-pressed over 136 kg (300 lb).  Jackman reprised his role in 2003's "X2", 2006's "", and the 2009 prequel "", where Troye Sivan played the younger version of James Howlett. He also cameoed as Wolverine in 2011's "". He returned for the role of Wolverine again in 2013's "The Wolverine", a stand-alone sequel taking place after the events of "X-Men: The Last Stand", and reprised the character in the 2014 sequel "" and briefly in the 2016 follow-up "". In 2015, Jackman announced that the 2017 sequel to "The Wolverine", "Logan", was the final time that he would play the role. It earned him the Guinness World Record of 'longest career as a live-action Marvel superhero'.  Jackman starred as Leopold in the 2001 romantic comedy film "Kate & Leopold", a role for which he received a Best Actor Golden Globe nomination. Jackman plays a Victorian English duke who accidentally time-travels to 21st-century Manhattan, where he meets Kate (Meg Ryan), a cynical advertising executive. In 2001, Jackman also starred in the action/drama "Swordfish" with John Travolta and Halle Berry. This was the second time Jackman worked with Berry, and the two have worked together thrice more in the "X-Men" movies. He hosted an episode of "Saturday Night Live" in 2001.  In 2002, Jackman sang the role of Billy Bigelow in the musical "Carousel" in a special concert performance at Carnegie Hall with the Orchestra of St. Luke's. In 2004, Jackman won the Tony Award and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical for his 2003–2004 Broadway portrayal of Australian songwriter and performer Peter Allen in the hit musical "The Boy from Oz", which he also performed in Australia in 2006. In addition, Jackman hosted the Tony Awards in 2003, 2004, and 2005, garnering positive reviews. His hosting of the 2004 Tony Awards earned him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Performer in a Variety, Musical or Comedy program.  After 2003's "X2", Jackman played the title role of monster killer Gabriel Van Helsing in the 2004 film "Van Helsing". Jackman and the film were noted in Bruce A. McClelland's book "Slayers and Their Vampires: A Cultural History of Killing the Dead".

2005–2007: Success and more major roles.

Jackman was asked to consider taking on the role as James Bond before Daniel Craig was chosen to play the character, but turned it down due to other commitments. Speaking to the British Press Association in 2011, Jackman said: "I was about to shoot X-Men 2 and Wolverine had become this thing in my life and I didn't want to be doing two such iconic characters at once."  Alongside Christian Bale, Michael Caine, and Scarlett Johansson, Jackman starred in "The Prestige" (2006), a mystery thriller from Christopher Nolan. Jackman portrayed Robert Angier, an aristocratic magician who builds up a rivalry with contemporary Alfred Borden (Bale) in attempt to one-up each other in the art of deception. After reading the script, Jackman expressed interest in starring in the film, and Nolan believed that the actor had the qualities of the character. Jackman based his portrayal of Angier on 1950s-era American magician Channing Pollock. "The Prestige" was acclaimed and a box-office success.  Jackman portrayed three different characters in Darren Aronofsky's science-fiction film "The Fountain": Tommy Creo, a neuroscientist, who is torn between his wife, Izzi (Rachel Weisz), who is dying of a brain tumor, and his work at trying to cure her; Captain Tomas Creo, a Spanish conquistador in 1532 Seville; and a future astronaut, Tom, travelling to a golden nebula in an eco-spacecraft seeking to be reunited with Izzi. Jackman said "The Fountain" was his most difficult film thus far due to the physical and emotional demands of the part.  Jackman also starred in Woody Allen's 2006 film "Scoop" opposite Scarlett Johansson. That year he also reprised the role of Wolverine in "". He rounded out 2006 with two animated films: "Happy Feet", directed by George Miller, in which he voiced the part of Memphis, an emperor penguin; and "Flushed Away", where Jackman supplied the voice of a rat named Roddy who ends up being flushed down a family's toilet into the London sewer system. "Flushed Away" co-starred Kate Winslet and Ian McKellen (Jackman's fourth time working with him).  In 2007, Jackman produced and guest-starred in the television musical-dramedy series "Viva Laughlin", which was cancelled by CBS after two episodes.

2008–2011: Return to musical performance alongside acting.

In 2008, director Baz Luhrmann cast Jackman to replace Russell Crowe as the male lead in his much-publicized epic film, "Australia", which co-starred Nicole Kidman. The movie was released in late November 2008 in Australia and the U.S. Jackman played a tough, independent cattle drover, who reluctantly helps an English noblewoman in her quest to save both her philandering husband's Australian cattle station and the mixed race Aboriginal child she finds there. Of the movie, Jackman said, "This is pretty much one of those roles that had me pinching myself all the way through the shoot. I got to shoot a big-budget, shamelessly old-fashioned romantic epic set against one of the most turbulent times in my native country's history, while, at the same time, celebrating that country's natural beauty, its people, its cultures... I'll die a happy man knowing I've got this film on my CV." That year, "People" Magazine named Jackman its 2008 "Sexiest Man Alive.  Jackman co-starred with Daniel Craig on Broadway at the Schoenfeld Theatre in a limited engagement of the play "A Steady Rain", which ran from 10 September 2009, to 6 December 2009.  Jackman has reprised his role as the Wolverine in "X-Men" spin-off films. Jackman starred in "" which opened in 2009 and later starred in 2013's "The Wolverine". Jackman made a cameo appearance as Wolverine in "" in 2011. Jackman had a one-man show at the Curran Theatre in San Francisco from 3–15 May 2011. The production was a mixture of his favourite Broadway and Hollywood musical numbers, backed by a 17-piece orchestra, from shows including "Oklahoma" and "The Boy from Oz". The show had a run-time of approximately 100 minutes, and also included slide shows of Jackman's youth, family, and work, as well as some one-on-one interaction with the audience. Jackman was backed by fellow musical theatre veterans Merle Dandridge and Angel Reda. He later returned to Broadway in a new show, "" at the Broadhurst Theatre, which began performances on 25 October 2011 and concluded on 1 January 2012.

2012–2018: Awards success and box office hits.

In a November 2012 release, Jackman voiced the role of E.Aster Bunnymund (the Easter Bunny) in the animated film "Rise of the Guardians". Jackman starred as Jean Valjean in the film "Les Misérables", an adaptation of the musical. The film opened on 25 December 2012. For the role, he lost 15 pounds and later had to regain 30 pounds to mirror his character's newfound success. He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy in January 2013 for this performance and received his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. Jackman appeared alongside Kate Winslet in "Movie 43", an ensemble comedy, in January 2013. Jackman (along with actress Kristen Wiig) was featured on "You've Got the Look", a song by comedy hip hop group The Lonely Island on their third album, "The Wack Album", released in June 2013. Jackman returned to Broadway in the new play, "The River", which ran at the Circle in the Square Theatre from October 2014 to February 2015. In November and December 2015, Jackman made a national tour of Australia with his show "Broadway to Oz". He performed a range of songs from Broadway musicals, from "Les Misérables" to a Peter Allen tribute (including classics such as "I Still Call Australia Home"), with his 150-piece orchestra, choir, and backup dancers. The show began at Melbourne's Rod Laver Arena and proceeded to Qantas Credit Union Arena, Brisbane Entertainment Centre, the Adelaide Entertainment Centre, and the Perth Arena.  Jackman then portrayed the villain Blackbeard in the film "Pan", which revolved around the backstories of J.M. Barrie's characters Peter Pan and Captain Hook. The movie received generally negative reviews and was a failure at the box office. In 2016, Jackman played fictional ski coach, Bronson Peary, in "Eddie the Eagle", which portrayed how Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards became the first competitor to represent Great Britain in Olympic ski jumping in 1988.  Jackman had an uncredited cameo as Wolverine in the 2016 film "". In 2017, he reprised the character for the final time in the third Wolverine film, "Logan." Jackman's performance and the film were critically acclaimed and it is regarded as one of the greatest superhero films of all-time. For his 17-year spanning long performance as Wolverine, Jackman topped "The Hollywood Reporter"'s Greatest Superhero Movie Performances of All Time list. That year, he also starred as P. T. Barnum in the musical "The Greatest Showman". He received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy nomination for the film, his third Golden Globe nomination, and also received a Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album.  In 2018, he starred as American senator, Gary Hart, in Jason Reitman's political drama film, The Front Runner, which chronicled the rise of Hart, a Democratic presidential candidate in 1988, and his subsequent fall from grace when media reports surfaced of his extramarital affair. In 2019, he voiced the character, Sir Lionel Frost, in the animated film, "Missing Link".

2019: Concert tour.

In 2019, Jackman went on his first world tour called The Man. The Music. The Show. to perform songs from the album, "", and Broadway/Hollywood musical numbers. Comprising 88 shows, the tour visits North America, Europe, and Oceania. It began on May 7, 2019, in Glasgow, Scotland and concludes on October 15, 2019, in San Antonio, United States. In the 2019 Queen's Birthday Honours, Jackman was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia, for "eminent service to the performing arts as an acclaimed actor and performer, and to the global community, particularly as an advocate for poverty eradication."  He will return to Broadway in a revival of "The Music Man", playing Harold Hill, which is set to begin previews in September 2020 and open in October 2020. He also starred in the comedy-drama "Bad Education", opposite Allison Janney.

Production company.

In 2005, Jackman joined with longtime assistant John Palermo to form a production company, Seed Productions, whose first project was "Viva Laughlin" in 2007. Jackman's wife Deborra-Lee Furness is also involved in the company, and Palermo had three rings made with a "unity" inscription for himself, Furness, and Jackman. Jackman said, "I'm very lucky in the partners I work with in my life, Deb and John Palermo. It really works. We all have different strengths. I love it. It's very exciting."

Personal life.

Jackman married Deborra-Lee Furness on 11 April 1996, at St. John's in Toorak, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne. They met on the set of Australian TV show "Correlli". Jackman personally designed an engagement ring for Furness, and their wedding rings bore the Sanskrit inscription "Om paramar mainamar", translated as "we dedicate our union to a greater source". Furness had two miscarriages, following which she and Jackman adopted two children, Oscar and Ava.  Jackman has described himself as a Christian and a "religious person". He meditates daily and follows the spiritually eclectic School of Practical Philosophy.  In November 2013, Jackman announced he had basal-cell carcinoma removed from his nose. He had a second carcinoma removed from his nose in May 2014, telling Associated Press that he expects to have future recurrences. This resulted in Jackman attending the various worldwide premieres of "X-Men: Days of Future Past" with a bandage on his nose, and urging his followers on Instagram to "wear sunscreen".  On 18 March 2015, Jackman revealed that he had to cancel stage performances in Turkey because he had a left vocal cord haemorrhage.

Philanthropy.

As a philanthropist, Jackman is a longtime proponent of microcredit – the extension of very small loans to prospective entrepreneurs in impoverished countries. He is a vocal supporter of Muhammad Yunus, microcredit pioneer and the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize winner. Jackman also uses his Twitter account for charity. On 14 April 2009, Jackman posted on his Twitter page that he would donate $100,000 to one individual's favourite non-profit organisation. On 21 April 2009, he revealed his decision to donate $50,000 to and $50,000 to Operation of Hope.  Jackman is a global advisor of the Global Poverty Project, for which he narrated a documentary; and he and the project's founder Hugh Evans visited the UN for the cause in 2009. Jackman hosted a preview of the Global Poverty Project Presentation in New York together with Donna Karan, Lisa Fox, and his wife Deborra-Lee Furness. Jackman supports The Art of Elysium and the MPTV Fund Foundation, and he and Furness are patrons of the Bone Marrow Institute in Australia.  Jackman and fellow actor Daniel Craig made a unique place for themselves in the history of Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS fundraising 8 December 2009, when it was announced that they had raised $1,549,953 in the 21st annual Gypsy of the Year competition, from six weeks of curtain appeals at their hit Broadway drama, "A Steady Rain". Jackman continued his support of Broadway Cares in 2011, raising nearly $1 million during his run of "Hugh Jackman: Back on Broadway".  Jackman also narrated the 2008 documentary about global warming, "The Burning Season". He is also a World Vision ambassador and participated in the climate week NYC ceremony on 21 September 2009.  Jackman launched the Laughing Man Coffee company in 2011. He founded two cafés in Lower Manhattan, and also sold the coffee online, before it also became a brand for Keurig. Jackman founded the company after a trip to Ethiopia in 2009 for World Vision, where he met a fair trade coffee farmer named Dukale. All profits from Laughing Man Coffee go to the Laughing Man Foundation, which supports educational programs, community development, and social entrepreneurs around the world.

Other interests.

Jackman has shown keen interest in sport. In high school, he played rugby union and cricket, took part in high jumping and was on the swimming team. He enjoys basketball and kayaking. He has expressed an interest in football, committing his support to Norwich City F.C. In the United States, Jackman supports the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer, attending a match at PPL Park in June 2010.  Jackman supports the Port Adelaide Football Club in the Australian Football League and once gave the team a pep talk prior to a Showdown clash. He is also a long-time fan and supporter of the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, a National Rugby League (NRL) club based in Sydney's north. He sang the Australian national anthem at the 1999 NRL Grand Final.  Jackman also guest starred on 19 September 2011 edition of WWE Monday Night Raw, assisting Zack Ryder in a win over WWE United States Champion Dolph Ziggler by punching the champion in the jaw whilst the referee was not looking.  Jackman is a multi-instrumentalist. He plays the guitar, piano and violin. He also does yoga and has been a member of the School of Practical Philosophy since 1992.  Jackman has been an avid practitioner of Transcendental Meditation since the age of twenty. He said "Nothing has ever opened my eyes like Transcendental Meditation has. It makes me calm and happy, and, well, it gives me some peace and quiet in what's a pretty chaotic life!". He now helps the David Lynch Foundation to "bring meditation to everyone from PTSD sufferers to inner-city kids".  Jackman has been the face of several high-profile brands. He is a global ambassador for Montblanc. He is also the brand ambassador of R. M. Williams since March 2019.

Hugh Michael Jackman (born 12 October 1968) is an Australian–British actor, singer, and producer. He is best known for playing Wolverine in the "X-Men" film series from 2000 to 2018, a role for which he holds the Guinness World Record for "longest career as a live-action Marvel superhero".

Hugh Michael Jackman (* 12. Oktober 1968 in Sydney) ist ein australischer Schauspieler, Filmproduzent und Sänger, der besonders als Wolverine in der "X-Men-Filmreihe" sowie durch den Action-Thriller "" (2001) bekannt wurde. Große Erfolge hat er auch als Musicaldarsteller, besonders mit der Rolle des Peter Allen in "The Boy from Oz" und als Jean Valjean in "Les Misérables" (2012). Gemeinsam mit John Palermo gründete er die Filmproduktionsgesellschaft Seed Productions.


Main branches of algebraic topology.

Below are some of the main areas studied in algebraic topology:

Homotopy groups.

In mathematics, homotopy groups are used in algebraic topology to classify topological spaces. The first and simplest homotopy group is the fundamental group, which records information about loops in a space. Intuitively, homotopy groups record information about the basic shape, or holes, of a topological space.

Homology.

In algebraic topology and abstract algebra, homology (in part from Greek ὁμός "homos" "identical") is a certain general procedure to associate a sequence of abelian groups or modules with a given mathematical object such as a topological space or a group.

Cohomology.

In homology theory and algebraic topology, cohomology is a general term for a sequence of abelian groups defined from a co-chain complex. That is, cohomology is defined as the abstract study of cochains, cocycles, and coboundaries. Cohomology can be viewed as a method of assigning algebraic invariants to a topological space that has a more refined algebraic structure than does homology. Cohomology arises from the algebraic dualization of the construction of homology. In less abstract language, cochains in the fundamental sense should assign 'quantities' to the "chains" of homology theory.

Manifolds.

A manifold is a topological space that near each point resembles Euclidean space. Examples include the plane, the sphere, and the torus, which can all be realized in three dimensions, but also the Klein bottle and real projective plane which cannot be realized in three dimensions, but can be realized in four dimensions. Typically, results in algebraic topology focus on global, non-differentiable aspects of manifolds; for example Poincaré duality.

Knot theory.

Knot theory is the study of mathematical knots. While inspired by knots that appear in daily life in shoelaces and rope, a mathematician's knot differs in that the ends are joined together so that it cannot be undone. In precise mathematical language, a knot is an embedding of a circle in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, formula_1. Two mathematical knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of formula_1 upon itself (known as an ambient isotopy); these transformations correspond to manipulations of a knotted string that do not involve cutting the string or passing the string through itself.

Complexes.

A simplicial complex is a topological space of a certain kind, constructed by "gluing together" points, line segments, triangles, and their "n"-dimensional counterparts (see illustration). Simplicial complexes should not be confused with the more abstract notion of a simplicial set appearing in modern simplicial homotopy theory. The purely combinatorial counterpart to a simplicial complex is an abstract simplicial complex.  A CW complex is a type of topological space introduced by J. H. C. Whitehead to meet the needs of homotopy theory. This class of spaces is broader and has some better categorical properties than simplicial complexes, but still retains a combinatorial nature that allows for computation (often with a much smaller complex).

Method of algebraic invariants.

An older name for the subject was combinatorial topology, implying an emphasis on how a space X was constructed from simpler ones (the modern standard tool for such construction is the CW complex). In the 1920s and 1930s, there was growing emphasis on investigating topological spaces by finding correspondences from them to algebraic groups, which led to the change of name to algebraic topology. The combinatorial topology name is still sometimes used to emphasize an algorithmic approach based on decomposition of spaces.  In the algebraic approach, one finds a correspondence between spaces and groups that respects the relation of homeomorphism (or more general homotopy) of spaces. This allows one to recast statements about topological spaces into statements about groups, which have a great deal of manageable structure, often making these statement easier to prove. Two major ways in which this can be done are through fundamental groups, or more generally homotopy theory, and through homology and cohomology groups. The fundamental groups give us basic information about the structure of a topological space, but they are often nonabelian and can be difficult to work with. The fundamental group of a (finite) simplicial complex does have a finite presentation.  Homology and cohomology groups, on the other hand, are abelian and in many important cases finitely generated. Finitely generated abelian groups are completely classified and are particularly easy to work with.

Setting in category theory.

In general, all constructions of algebraic topology are functorial; the notions of category, functor and natural transformation originated here. Fundamental groups and homology and cohomology groups are not only "invariants" of the underlying topological space, in the sense that two topological spaces which are homeomorphic have the same associated groups, but their associated morphisms also correspond — a continuous mapping of spaces induces a group homomorphism on the associated groups, and these homomorphisms can be used to show non-existence (or, much more deeply, existence) of mappings.  One of the first mathematicians to work with different types of cohomology was Georges de Rham. One can use the differential structure of smooth manifolds via de Rham cohomology, or Čech or sheaf cohomology to investigate the solvability of differential equations defined on the manifold in question. De Rham showed that all of these approaches were interrelated and that, for a closed, oriented manifold, the Betti numbers derived through simplicial homology were the same Betti numbers as those derived through de Rham cohomology. This was extended in the 1950s, when Samuel Eilenberg and Norman Steenrod generalized this approach. They defined homology and cohomology as functors equipped with natural transformations subject to certain axioms (e.g., a weak equivalence of spaces passes to an isomorphism of homology groups), verified that all existing (co)homology theories satisfied these axioms, and then proved that such an axiomatization uniquely characterized the theory.

Applications of algebraic topology.

Classic applications of algebraic topology include:

Algebraic topology is a branch of mathematics that uses tools from abstract algebra to study topological spaces. The basic goal is to find algebraic invariants that classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism, though usually most classify up to homotopy equivalence.

Die algebraische Topologie ist ein Teilgebiet der Mathematik, das topologische Räume (oder auch Lagebeziehungen im Raum wie zum Beispiel in der Knotentheorie) mit Hilfe von algebraischen Strukturen untersucht. Sie ist eine Teildisziplin der Topologie.


Working fields.

"Pro Asyl" helps refugees individually in situations in which they need support, including legal consulting and representation in the court, if necessary all the way up to Germany's Constitutional Court or the European Court of Human Rights.  The organization also does political lobbying for the rights of refugees by launching campaigns and taking part in panel and TV discussions. Politically, they strive for "a humane society, open towards foreigners."  In 2004, "Pro Asyl" and partner organizations from seven Central European countries founded the European Refugee Fund-funded "Information and Cooperation Forum" (ICF), where "Pro Asyl" is Lead Agency for Medical Care and Therapy. The organization is a member of the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) and closely cooperates with the UNHCR and other international human rights organizations. With their pan-European network of correspondents, "Pro Asyl" conducts analysis and surveys about refugees' situation both in their countries of origin and on their escape routes and intermediate stopovers.  In the past, "Pro Asyl" has waged nationwide campaigns against a legal requirement for refugee status applicants and those with a deportation deferment, the so-called "Residenzpflicht," requiring them not to leave their local office's district often for years, until in January 2015 it was limited to the first three months, and often altogether abolished.  The organization has always criticized the steady expansion of the government-designated list of "safe origin countries" as institutionalized discrimination, as it deprives citizens of more and more non-EU countries, including Kosovo, Senegal and Ghana, of their right to receive an individual evaluation of their individual protective rights. During the 2015 European migrant crisis "Pro Asyl" representative Marei Pelzer criticised the coalition member CSU party of diffusing "cheap propaganda at the expense of the refugees," that was "designed to put the wind in the sails of far-right populists," thereby contributing to the social climate that led to numerous xenophobic attacks on refugees and their shelters.

Awards.

The organization received a number of awards of national relevance, including the Bonhoeffer-Prize 1998, the Aachener Friedenspreis 2001, and the Theodor-Heuss-Medal 2008.

PRO ASYL is Germany's largest pro immigration advocacy organization. Founded in 1986 by protestant priest Jürgen Micksch, the organization has over 18.000 members and an annual budget of more than (as of 2014).

Pro Asyl (Eigenschreibung in Majuskeln) ist ein deutscher Verein mit Sitz in Frankfurt am Main. Die Menschenrechtsorganisation setzt sich für den Schutz und die Rechte von asylsuchenden Menschen in Deutschland und Europa ein. Neben Öffentlichkeits- und politischer Lobbyarbeit, Recherchen und der Unterstützung bundesweiter Initiativgruppen will der Verein Flüchtlinge in ihren Asylverfahren begleiten. In der Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft Pro Asyl sind Mitarbeiter landesweiter Flüchtlingsräte, Kirchen, Gewerkschaften, Wohlfahrts- und Menschenrechtsorganisationen vertreten. Ende 2017 waren 24.126 Menschen Mitglied des Fördervereins Pro Asyl.


Situation.

The fort is located between Fort d'Aubin-Neufchâteau to the north and the Fort de Tancrémont to the south, about east of Liège. Tancrémont and Aubin-Neufchâteau are smaller than Eben-Emael and Battice. Collectively, the line was known as the Fortified Position of Liège I ("Position Fortifiée de Liège 1" (PFL I) ), the original Liège forts constituting PFL II.

Description.

The Fort de Battice was a greatly enlarged development of the original Belgian fortifications designed by General Henri Alexis Brialmont before World War I. Even in its larger form, the fort comprised a relatively compact ensemble of gun turrets and observation posts, surrounded by a defended ditch. This was in contrast with French thinking for the contemporary Maginot Line fortifications, which were based on the dispersed "fort palmé" concept, with no clearly defined perimeter, a lesson learned from the experiences of French and Belgian forts in World War I. The new Belgian forts, while more conservative in design than the French "ouvrages", included several new features as a result of World War I experience. The gun turrets were less closely grouped. Reinforced concrete was used in place of plain mass concrete, and its placement was done with greater care to avoid weak joints between pours. Ventilation was greatly improved, magazines were deeply buried and protected, and sanitary facilities and general living arrangements for the troops were given careful attention. Battice, along with Eben-Emael, featured 120 mm and 75 mm guns, giving the fort the ability to bombard targets across a wide area of eastern Liège region. The 120 mm guns had sufficient range to provide artillery cover to Tancrémont and Aubin-Neufchâteau, but not with 75 mm guns, nor could the other forts' 75 mm guns or Eben-Emael's 120 mm guns reach Battice.  The Fort de Battice comprised at least twelve combat blocks just to the east of Battice, north of the present-day E40 highway. The roughly pentagonal fort has a surface area of about, of a total site area of about. The fort was armed similarly to Eben-Emael in both scale and equipment, only with fewer 60 mm anti-personnel guns. All of Battice's heavy artillery was housed in turrets, while Eben-Emael also disposed heavy guns in casemates. The fort also included counterscarp positions arranged to fire along the ditches with 47 mm guns, machine guns and grenade launchers, one designated B.IVce. Three blocks designated B.J., B.O. and B.W. provided air and access. B.W. was located above the main living accommodations and was the combat entrance, armed with machine guns, while J and O were emergency exits. All were outside the defended perimeter, above deeply buried galleries. Block B.I also served as an entrance, with truck access along the railway grade. The subterranean accommodations and utilities are outside the surface perimeter. The fort included a false 120 mm cupola.  The subterranean galleries total about of passages buried between and below the surface, linking troop accommodations, a command post, ammunition magazines and utility plants.

Personnel.

In 1940 Battice was commanded by Commandant-Captain Guery of the 5th Battalion of the Liègeois Fortress Regiment. The battalion was commanded by Major Bovy from Battice. Major Bovy had been hospitalized on 6 May for heart problems, but returned to the fort on the 10th at 0430. He died of a heart attack at 0600 the same day.

History.

The Fort de Battice was largely complete by 1940. On 10 May 1940 German forces attacked all four PFL I forts, having largely neutralized Eben-Emael by airborne assault and driving its garrison below, unable to operate the fort's turrets. Battice supported Tancrémont and Aubin-Neufchâteau with suppressing fire, as well as Fléron and Evegnée. German 305 mm mortars fired on Battice on the 12th without significant damage. German infantry attacks started on the 13th. On 21 May Block B.I's sally port had been struck by an aerial bomb. A nine-hour cease-fire was negotiated to remove the thirty dead and four survivors. After Aubin-Neufchâteau was forced to surrender, the German commander, General Fedor von Bock demanded the surrender of Battice and Tancrémont. Battice finally surrendered on 22 May after twelve days of fighting. 34 defenders were killed in action and 36 died while prisoners of war, out of a garrison of 939 personnel.

Present day.

The fort is preserved and open for public tours. Much of the fort's equipment and armament was removed during and after World War II. A memorial to the 36 dead is located on the side of Block B.I.

The Fort of Battice () is a Belgian fortification located just to the east of the town of Battice. The fort was built in the 1930s as part of the fortified position of Liège, augmenting the twelve original forts built to defend Liège in the 1880s with four more forts closer to the Belgian frontier with Germany. Battice is nearly as large as the more famous Fort Eben-Emael. Work began in April 1934, with some finish work continuing in 1940 when war broke out. Following the successful German surprise attack on Eben-Emael, Battice held out against the Germans until 22 May 1940 (12 days). On 28 May 1940 all Belgian forces surrendered. Battice has been preserved and may be visited by the public.

Das Fort Battice ist eine nach 1934 in der Nähe der gleichnamigen Ortschaft und etwa 20 km östlich von Lüttich erbaute belgische Festungsanlage.


Family background and early life.

Power was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1914, son of Helen Emma "Patia" (née Reaume) and the Irish-ancestry English-born US stage and screen actor Tyrone Power Sr., often known by his first name "Fred". Power was descended from a long Irish theatrical line going back to his great-grandfather, the Irish actor and comedian Tyrone Power (1795–1841). Tyrone Power's sister, Ann Power, was born in 1915, after the family moved to California. His mother was Roman Catholic, and her ancestry included the French-Canadian Reaume family and Germans from Alsace-Lorraine. Through his paternal great-grandmother, Anne Gilbert, Power was related to the actor Laurence Olivier; through his paternal grandmother, stage actress Ethel Lavenu, he was related by marriage to author Evelyn Waugh; and through his father's first cousin, Norah Emily Gorman Power, he was related to the theatrical director Sir (William) Tyrone Guthrie, founder of the Stratford Festival in Canada and the Tyrone Guthrie Theatre in Minneapolis, Minnesota.  Power went to Cincinnati-area Catholic schools and graduated from Purcell High School in 1931. Upon his graduation, he opted to join his father to learn what he could about acting from one of the stage's most respected actors.

Career.

1930s.

Power joined his father for the summer of 1931, after being separated from him for some years due to his parents' divorce. His father suffered a heart attack in December 1931, dying in his son's arms, while preparing to perform in "The Miracle Man". Tyrone Power Jr., as he was then known, decided to continue his pursuit of an acting career. He went door to door, trying to find work as an actor, and, while many contacts knew his father well, they offered praise for his father but no work for his son. He appeared in a bit part in 1932 in "Tom Brown of Culver", a movie starring actor Tom Brown. Power's experience in that movie did not open any other doors, however, and, except for what amounted to little more than a job as an extra in "Flirtation Walk", he found himself frozen out of the movies but making some appearances in community theater. Discouraged, he took the advice of a friend, Arthur Caesar, to go to New York to gain experience as a stage actor. Among the Broadway plays in which he was cast are "Flowers of the Forest", "Saint Joan", and "Romeo and Juliet".  Power went to Hollywood in 1936. The director Henry King was impressed with his looks and poise, and he insisted that Power be tested for the lead role in "Lloyd's of London", a role thought already to belong to Don Ameche. Despite his own reservations, Darryl F. Zanuck decided to give Power the role, once King and Fox editor Barbara McLean convinced him that Power had a greater screen presence than Ameche. Power was billed fourth in the movie but he had by far the most screen time of any actor. He walked into the premiere of the movie an unknown and he walked out a star, which he remained the rest of his career.  Power racked up hit after hit from 1936 until 1943, when his career was interrupted by military service. In these years he starred in romantic comedies such as "Thin Ice" and "Day-Time Wife", in dramas such as "Suez", "Blood and Sand", "", "The Rains Came" and "In Old Chicago"; in musicals "Alexander's Ragtime Band", "Second Fiddle", and "Rose of Washington Square"; in the westerns "Jesse James" (1939) and "Brigham Young"; in the war films "A Yank in the R.A.F." and "This Above All"; and the swashbucklers "The Mark of Zorro" and "The Black Swan". "Jesse James" was a very big hit at the box office, but it did receive some criticism for fictionalizing and glamorizing the famous outlaw. The movie was shot in and around Pineville, Missouri, and was Power's first location shoot and his first Technicolor movie. (Before his career was over, he had filmed a total of 16 movies in color, including the movie he was filming when he died.) He was loaned out once, to MGM for "Marie Antoinette" (1938). Darryl F. Zanuck was angry that MGM used Fox's biggest star in what was, despite billing, a supporting role, and he vowed to never again loan him out, though Power's services were requested for the roles of Ashley Wilkes in "Gone with the Wind", Joe Bonaparte in "Golden Boy", and Paris in "King's Row"; roles in several films produced by Harry Cohn; and the role of Irving Thalberg in a planned production by Norma Shearer of "The Last Tycoon".  Power was named the second biggest box office draw in 1939, surpassed only by Mickey Rooney. His box office numbers are some of the best of all time.

1940s.

In 1940 the direction of Power's career took a dramatic turn when his movie "The Mark of Zorro" was released. Power played the role of Don Diego Vega/Zorro, fop by day, bandit hero by night. The role had been made famous by Douglas Fairbanks in the 1920 movie of the same title. The film was a hit, and 20th Century Fox often cast Power in other swashbucklers in the years that followed. Power was a talented swordsman in real life, and the dueling scene in "The Mark of Zorro" is highly regarded. The great Hollywood swordsman, Basil Rathbone, who starred with him in "The Mark of Zorro", commented, "Power was the most agile man with a sword I've ever faced before a camera. Tyrone could have fenced Errol Flynn into a cocked hat."  Power's career was interrupted in 1943 by military service. He reported to the United States Marine Corps for training in late 1942, but was sent back, at the request of 20th Century-Fox, to complete one more film, "Crash Dive", a patriotic war movie released in 1943. He was credited in the movie as Tyrone Power, U.S.M.C.R., and the movie served as a recruiting film.

Military service.

In August 1942, Power enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. He attended boot camp at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, then Officer's Candidate School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, where he was commissioned a second lieutenant on June 2, 1943. As he had already logged 180 solo hours as a pilot before enlisting, he was able to do a short, intense flight training program at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, Texas. The pass earned him his wings and a promotion to first lieutenant. The Marine Corps considered Power over the age limit for active combat flying, so he volunteered for piloting cargo planes that he felt would get him into active combat zones.  In July 1944, Power was assigned to Marine Transport Squadron (VMR)-352 as a R5C (Navy version of Army Curtiss Commando C-46) transport co-pilot at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina. The squadron moved to Marine Corps Air Station El Centro in California in December 1944. Power was later reassigned to VMR-353, joining them on Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands in February 1945. From there, he flew missions carrying cargo in and wounded Marines out during the Battles of Iwo Jima (Feb-Mar 1945) and Okinawa (Apr-Jun 1945).  For his services in the Pacific War, Power was awarded the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with two bronze stars, and the World War II Victory Medal.  Power returned to the United States in November 1945 and was released from active duty in January 1946. He was promoted to the rank of captain in the reserves on May 8, 1951. He remained in the reserves the rest of his life and reached the rank of major in 1957.  In the June 2001 "Marine Air Transporter" newsletter, Jerry Taylor, a retired Marine Corps flight instructor, recalled training Power as a Marine pilot, saying, "He was an excellent student, never forgot a procedure I showed him or anything I told him." Others who served with him have also commented on how well Power was respected by those with whom he served. When Power died suddenly at age 44, he was buried with full military honors.

Post-war career.

Other than re-releases of his films, Power was not seen on screen again after his entry into the Marines until 1946, when he co-starred with Gene Tierney and Anne Baxter in "The Razor's Edge", an adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham's novel of the same title.  Next up for release was a movie that Power had to fight hard to make, the film noir "Nightmare Alley" (1947). Darryl F. Zanuck was reluctant for Power to make the movie because his handsome appearance and charming manner had been marketable assets for the studio for years. Zanuck feared that the dark role might damage Power's image. Zanuck eventually agreed, giving Power A-list production values for what normally would be a B film. The movie was directed by Edmund Goulding, and though it died at the box office, it was one of Power's favorite roles for which he received some of the best reviews of his career. However, Zanuck was horrified that his "darling boy" would be seen in such a film with a downward spiral. So, he did not publicize it and removed it from release after only a few weeks insisting that it was a flop. The film was released on DVD in 2005 after years of legal battles.  Zanuck quickly released another costume-clad movie, "Captain from Castile" (also 1947), directed by Henry King, who directed Power in eleven movies. After making a couple of light romantic comedies reuniting him with two actresses under contract to 20th Century Fox, "That Wonderful Urge" with Gene Tierney and "The Luck of the Irish" (both 1948) with Anne Baxter. After these films, Power once again found himself in two swashbucklers, "Prince of Foxes" (1949) and "The Black Rose" (1950).

1950s.

Power was becoming increasingly dissatisfied with his costume roles, and he struggled between being a star and becoming a great actor. He was forced to take on assignments that did not appeal to him, such movies as "American Guerrilla in the Philippines" (1950) and "Pony Soldier" (1952). In 1950 he traveled to England to play the title role in "Mister Roberts" on stage at the London Coliseum, bringing in sellout crowds for twenty-three weeks. Another disappointing role for Power, "Diplomatic Courier" (1952) is a cold war drama, directed by Henry Hathaway, but received very modest reviews. It took its place among several other American spy movies, released previously, with similar material.  Power's movies had been very profitable for Fox in the past, and as an enticement to renew his contract a third time, Fox offered him the lead role in "The Robe" (1953). He turned it down (Richard Burton was cast instead) and on 1 November 1952, he left on a ten-week national tour with "John Brown's Body", a three-person dramatic reading of Stephen Vincent Benét's narrative poem, adapted and directed by Charles Laughton, featuring Power, Judith Anderson and Raymond Massey. The tour culminated in a run of 65 shows between February and April 1953 at the New Century Theatre on Broadway. A second national tour with the show began in October 1953, this time for four months, and with Raymond Massey and Anne Baxter. In the same year, Power filmed "King of The Khyber Rifles", a depiction of India in 1857, with Terry Moore and Michael Rennie.  Fox now gave Power permission to seek his own roles outside the studio, on the understanding that he would fulfill his fourteen-film commitment to them in between his other projects. He made "The Mississippi Gambler" (1953) for Universal-International, negotiating a deal entitling him to a percentage of the profits. He earned a million dollars from the movie. Also in 1953, actress and producer Katharine Cornell cast Power as her love interest in the play "The Dark is Light Enough", a verse drama by British dramatist Christopher Fry set in Austria in 1848. Between November 1954 and April 1955, Power toured the United States and Canada in the role, ending with 12 weeks at the ANTA Theater, New York, and two weeks at the Colonial Theater, Boston. His performance in Julian Claman's "A Quiet Place", staged at the National Theater, Washington, at the end of 1955 was warmly received by the critics.  "Untamed" (1955) was Tyrone Power's last movie made under his contract with 20th Century-Fox. The same year saw the release of "The Long Gray Line", a successful John Ford film for Columbia Pictures. In 1956, the year Columbia released "The Eddy Duchin Story", another great success for the star, he returned to England to play the rake Dick Dudgeon in a revival of Shaw's "The Devil's Disciple" for one week at the Opera House in Manchester, and nineteen weeks at the Winter Garden, London.  Power's old boss, Darryl F. Zanuck, persuaded him to play the lead role in "The Sun Also Rises" (1957), adapted from the Hemingway novel, with Ava Gardner and Errol Flynn. This was his final film with Fox. Released that same year were "Seven Waves Away" (US: "Abandon Ship"), shot in Great Britain, and John Ford's "Rising of the Moon" (narrator only), which was filmed in Ireland, both for Copa Productions.  For Power's last completed film role he was cast against type as the accused murderer Leonard Vole in the first film version of Agatha Christie's "Witness for the Prosecution" (1957), directed by Billy Wilder. The critic for "The National Post", Robert Fulford, commented on Power's "superb performance" as "the seedy, stop-at-nothing exploiter of women." The movie was a well-received box office success. Power returned to the stage in March of 1958, to play the lead in Arnold Moss's adaptation of Shaw's 1921 play, "Back to Methuselah".

Personal life.

Power was one of Hollywood's most eligible bachelors until he married French actress Annabella (born Suzanne Georgette Charpentier) on July 14, 1939. They had met on the 20th Century Fox lot around the time they starred together in the movie "Suez". Power adopted Annabella's daughter, Anne, before leaving for service. In an A&E biography, Annabella said that Zanuck "could not stop Tyrone's love for me, or my love for Tyrone." J. Watson Webb, close friend and an editor at 20th Century Fox, maintained in the "A&E Biography" that one of the reasons the marriage fell apart was Annabella's inability to give Power a son, yet, Webb said, there was no bitterness between the couple. In a March 1947 issue of "Photoplay", Power was interviewed and said that he wanted a home and children, especially a son to carry on his acting legacy. Annabella shed some light on the situation in an interview published in "Movieland" magazine in 1948. She said, "Our troubles began because the war started earlier for me, a French-born woman, than it did for Americans." She explained that the war clouds over Europe made her unhappy and irritable, and to get her mind off her troubles, she began accepting stage work, which often took her away from home. "It is always difficult to put one's finger exactly on the place and time where a marriage starts to break up," she said "but I think it began then. We were terribly sad about it, both of us, but we knew we were drifting apart. I didn't think then—and I don't think now—that it was his fault, or mine." The couple tried to make their marriage work when Power returned from military service, but they were unable to do so.  Following his separation from Annabella, Power entered into a love affair with Lana Turner that lasted for a couple of years. In her 1982 autobiography, Turner claimed that she became pregnant with Power's child in 1948, but chose to have an abortion.  On September 1, 1947, Power set out on a goodwill trip around the world, piloting his own plane, "The Geek." He flew with Bob Buck, an experienced pilot and war veteran. Buck stated in his autobiography that Power had a photographic mind, was an excellent pilot, and genuinely liked people. They flew with a crew to various locations in Europe and South Africa, often mobbed by fans when they hit the ground. However, in 1948 when "The Geek" reached Rome, Power met and fell in love with Mexican actress Linda Christian. Turner claimed that the story of her dining out with Power's friend Frank Sinatra was leaked to Power and that Power became very upset that she was "dating" another man in his absence. Turner also claimed that it could not have been a coincidence that Linda Christian was at the same hotel as Tyrone Power and implied that Christian had obtained Power's itinerary from 20th Century Fox.  Power and Christian were married on January 27, 1949, in the Church of Santa Francesca Romana, with an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 screaming fans outside. Christian miscarried three times before giving birth to a baby girl, Romina Francesca Power, on October 2, 1951. A second daughter, Taryn Stephanie Power, was born on September 13, 1953. Around the time of Taryn's birth, the marriage was becoming rocky. In her autobiography, Christian blamed the breakup of her marriage on her husband's extramarital affairs, but acknowledged that she had had an affair with Edmund Purdom, which created great tension between Christian and her husband. They divorced in 1955.  After his divorce from Christian, Power had a long-lasting love affair with Mai Zetterling, whom he had met on the set of "Abandon Ship". At the time, he vowed that he would never marry again, because he had been twice burned financially by his previous marriages. He also entered into an affair with a British actress, Thelma Ruby. However, in 1957, he met Deborah Ann Minardos. They were married on May 7, 1958, and she became pregnant soon after with Tyrone Power Jr., the son he had always wanted.

Death.

In September 1958, Power and his wife Deborah went to Madrid and Valdespartera, Spain, to film the epic "Solomon and Sheba," to be directed by King Vidor, co-starring Gina Lollobrigida. Power had filmed about 75 percent of his scenes when he was stricken by a massive heart attack while filming a dueling scene with his frequent co-star and friend, George Sanders. A doctor, Juan Olaguíbel, diagnosed Power's death as "fulminant angina pectoris." He died while being transported to the hospital in Madrid on November 15,  Power was interred at Hollywood Forever Cemetery (then known as Hollywood Cemetery) in a military service at noon on Flying over the service was Henry King. Almost 20 years before, Tyrone had flown in King's plane to the set of "Jesse James" in Missouri. It was then that Power had his first experience of flying, which became a big part of his life, both in the U.S. Marines and as a civilian. In the foreword to Dennis Belafonte's "The Films of Tyrone Power," King said, "Knowing his love for flying and feeling that I had started it, I flew over his funeral procession and memorial park during his burial, and felt that he was with me." Power was laid to rest beside a small lake. His grave is marked by a unique gravestone, in the form of a marble bench. On the gravestone are the masks of comedy and tragedy, with the inscription, "Good night, sweet prince." At his grave, Laurence Olivier read the poem "High Flight."  Power's will, filed on December 8, 1958, contained a then-unusual provision. It stated his wish that, upon his death, his eyes be donated to the Estelle Doheny Eye Foundation, for such purposes as the trustees of the foundation should deem advisable, including transplantation of the cornea to the eyes of a living person or for retinal study.  Deborah Power gave birth to their son on January 22, 1959, some two months after Power's death.

Honors.

For Power's contribution to motion pictures, he was honored in 1960 with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame that can be found at 6747 Hollywood Blvd. On the 50th anniversary of his death, Power was honored by American Cinematheque with a weekend of films and remembrances by co-stars and family as well as a memorabilia display at the Egyptian Theatre in Los Angeles from November 14–16, 2008. Also on display were the two known surviving panels from a large painted glass mural which Power and his wife had commissioned for their home, celebrating highlights of their lives and special moments in Tyrone's career, The December 2, 1952 issue of Look Magazine had also featured this mural in a four-page spread titled "The Tyrone Powers Pose For Their Portraits."  Power is shown on the cover of The Beatles' album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" in the third row.  Tyrone Power is the 21st most popular male film star of all time.

Tyrone Edmund Power III (May 5, 1914 – November 15, 1958) was an American film, stage and radio actor. From the 1930s to the 1950s, Power appeared in dozens of films, often in swashbuckler roles or romantic leads. His better-known films include "The Mark of Zorro", "Marie Antoinette", "Blood and Sand", "The Black Swan", "Prince of Foxes", "Witness for the Prosecution", "The Black Rose", and "Captain from Castile". Power's own favorite film among those that he starred in was "Nightmare Alley".

Tyrone Edmund Power III. (* 5. Mai 1914 in Cincinnati, Ohio; † 15. November 1958 in Madrid, Spanien) war ein US-amerikanischer Film- und Theaterschauspieler. Ende der 1930er-Jahre wurde er vor allem durch seine Hauptrollen in Abenteuerfilmen wie "Im Zeichen des Zorro" und "Der Seeräuber" zum Hollywood-Star. Die letzte Filmrolle vor seinem frühen Tod infolge eines Herzinfarktes hatte Power in Billy Wilders Gerichtsdrama "Zeugin der Anklage".


Medical uses.

Conditions that call for colonoscopies include gastrointestinal hemorrhage, unexplained changes in bowel habit and suspicion of malignancy. Colonoscopies are often used to diagnose colon cancer, but are also frequently used to diagnose inflammatory bowel disease. In older patients (sometimes even younger ones) an unexplained drop in hematocrit (one sign of anemia) is an indication that calls for a colonoscopy, usually along with an esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD), even if no obvious blood has been seen in the stool (feces).  Fecal occult blood is a quick test which can be done to test for microscopic traces of blood in the stool. A positive test is almost always an indication to do a colonoscopy. In most cases the positive result is just due to hemorrhoids; however, it can also be due to diverticulosis, inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis), colon cancer, or polyps. Colonic polypectomy has become a routine part of colonoscopy, allowing quick and simple removal of polyps during the procedure, without invasive surgery.

Colon cancer screening.

Colonoscopy is one of the colorectal cancer screening tests available to people in the US who are over 50 years of age. The other screening tests include flexible sigmoidoscopy, double-contrast barium enema, computed tomographic (CT) colongraphy (virtual colonoscopy), guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT), fecal immunochemical test (FIT), and multitarget stool DNA screening test (Cologuard).  Subsequent rescreenings are then scheduled based on the initial results found, with a five- or ten-year recall being common for colonoscopies that produce normal results. People with a family history of colon cancer are often first screened during their teenage years. Among people who have had an initial colonoscopy that found no polyps, the risk of developing colorectal cancer within five years is extremely low. Therefore, there is no need for those people to have another colonoscopy sooner than five years after the first screening.  Medical societies recommend a screening colonoscopy every 10 years beginning at age 50 for adults without increased risk for colorectal cancer. Research shows that the risk of cancer is low for 10 years if a high-quality colonoscopy does not detect cancer, so tests for this purpose are indicated every ten years.  Colonoscopy screening prevents approximately two-thirds of deaths due to colorectal cancers on the left side of the colon, and is not associated with a significant reduction in deaths from right-sided disease.  Colonoscopy reduces cancer rates by detecting some colon polyps and cancers on the left side of the colon early enough that they may be treated, and a smaller number on the right side; many of these left-sided growths would have been detected by a sigmoidoscopy procedure.  Since polyps often take 10 to 15 years to transform into cancer in someone at average risk of colorectal cancer, guidelines recommend 10 years after a normal screening colonoscopy before the next colonoscopy. (This interval does not apply to people at high risk of colorectal cancer, or to those who experience symptoms of colorectal cancer.)  Although widely touted in the US as the "gold standard" of colon cancer screening, colonoscopy has never been studied as a screening tool. Most of the potential benefits of colonoscopy have been extrapolated from randomized trials of the sigmoidoscopy. The CONFIRM trial, a randomized trial on colonoscopy vs. FIT is currently ongoing.

Recommendations.

The American Cancer Society recommends, beginning at age 50, both men and women follow one of these testing schedules for screening to find colon polyps and/or cancer:

Medicare coverage.

In the United States, Medicare insurance covers the following colorectal-cancer screening tests:

Risks.

About 1 in 200 people who undergo a colonoscopy experience a serious complication. Perforation of the colon occurs in about 1 in 2000 procedures, bleeding in 2.6 per 1000, and death in 3 per 100,000, with an overall risk of serious complications of 0.35%.  In some low-risk populations screening by colonoscopy in the absence of symptoms does not outweigh the risks of the procedure. For example, the odds of developing colorectal cancer between the ages of 20 and 40 in the absence of specific risk factors are about 1 in 1,250 (0.08%).  The rate of complications varies with the practitioner and institution performing the procedure, and other variables.

Perforation.

The most serious complication generally is gastrointestinal perforation, which is life-threatening and in most cases requires immediate major surgery for repair. Fewer than 20% of cases may be successfully managed with a conservative (non-surgical) approach.  A 2003 analysis of the relative risks of sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy brought into attention that the risk of perforation after colonoscopy is approximately double that after sigmoidoscopy (consistent with the fact that colonoscopy examines a longer section of the colon), a difference that appeared to be decreasing.

Bleeding.

Bleeding complications may be treated immediately during the procedure by cauterization via the instrument. Delayed bleeding may also occur at the site of polyp removal up to a week after the procedure, and a repeat procedure can then be performed to treat the bleeding site. Even more rarely, splenic rupture can occur after colonoscopy because of adhesions between the colon and the spleen.

Anaesthesia.

As with any procedure involving anaesthesia, other complications would include cardiopulmonary complications such as a temporary drop in blood pressure and oxygen saturation usually the result of overmedication, and are easily reversed. Anesthesia can also increase the risk of developing blood clots and lead to pulmonary embolism or deep venous thrombosis. (DVT) In rare cases, more serious cardiopulmonary events such as a heart attack, stroke, or even death may occur; these are extremely rare except in critically ill patients with multiple risk factors. In very rare cases, coma associated with anesthesia may occur.

Bowel preparation.

Dehydration caused by the laxatives that are usually administered during the bowel preparation for colonoscopy also may occur. Therefore, patients must drink large amounts of fluids during the day of colonoscopy preparation to prevent dehydration. Loss of electrolytes or dehydration is a potential risk that can even prove deadly. In rare cases, severe dehydration can lead to kidney damage or renal dysfunction under the form of phosphate nephropathy.

Other.

Virtual colonoscopies carry risks that are associated with radiation exposure.  Colonoscopy preparation and colonoscopy procedure can cause inflammation of the bowels and diarrhea or bowel obstruction.  During colonoscopies where a polyp is removed (a polypectomy), the risk of complications has been higher, although still low at about 2.3 percent. One of the most serious complications that may arise after colonoscopy is the postpolypectomy syndrome. This syndrome occurs due to potential burns to the bowel wall when the polyp is removed, and may cause fever and abdominal pain. It is a very rare complication, treated with intravenous fluids and antibiotics.  Bowel infections are a potential colonoscopy risk, although very rare. The colon is not a sterile environment; many bacteria that normally live in the colon ensure the well-functioning of the bowel, and the risk of infections is very low. Infections can occur during biopsies when too much tissue is removed and bacteria protrude in areas they do not belong to, or in cases when the lining of the colon is perforated and the bacteria get into the abdominal cavity. Infection may also be transmitted between patients if the colonoscope is not cleaned and sterilized properly between tests.  Minor colonoscopy risks may include nausea, vomiting or allergies to the sedatives that are used. If medication is given intravenously, the vein may become irritated. Most localized irritations to the vein leave a tender lump lasting a number of days but going away eventually. The incidence of these complications is less than 1%.  On very rare occasions, intracolonic explosion may occur. A meticulous bowel preparation is the key to prevent this complication.  Signs of complications include severe abdominal pain, fevers and chills, or rectal bleeding (more than half a cup or 100ml).

Procedure.

Preparation.

The colon must be free of solid matter for the test to be performed properly. For one to three days, the patient is required to follow a low fiber or clear-liquid only diet. Examples of clear fluids are apple juice, chicken and/or beef broth or bouillon, lemon-lime soda, lemonade, sports drink, and water. It is very important that the patient remain hydrated. Sports drinks contain electrolytes which are depleted during the purging of the bowel. Drinks containing fiber such as prune and orange juice should not be consumed, nor should liquids dyed red, purple, orange, or sometimes brown; however, cola is allowed. In most cases, tea or coffee taken without milk are allowed.  The day before the colonoscopy, the patient is either given a laxative preparation (such as bisacodyl, phospho soda, sodium picosulfate, or sodium phosphate and/or magnesium citrate) and large quantities of fluid, or whole bowel irrigation is performed using a solution of polyethylene glycol and electrolytes. The procedure may involve both a pill-form laxative and a bowel irrigation preparation with the polyethylene glycol powder dissolved into any clear liquid, such as a sports drink that contains electrolytes.  A typical procedure regimen then would be as follows: in the morning of the day before the procedure, a 238g bottle of polyethylene glycol powder should be poured into 1.9 litres (64 oz.) of the chosen clear liquid, which then should be mixed and refrigerated. Two bisacodyl 5mg tablets are taken 3 pm; at 5 pm, the patient starts drinking the mixture (approx. 8 oz. (0.5 litres) each 15-30 min. until finished); at 8 pm, take two bisacodyl 5mg tablets; continue drinking/hydrating into the evening until bedtime with clear permitted fluids. The procedure may be scheduled early in the day so the patient need not go without food and only limited fluids until later.  The goal of the preparation is to clear the colon of solid matter, and the patient may be advised to spend the day at home with ready access to toilet facilities. The patient may also want to have at hand moist towelettes or a bidet for cleaning the anus. A soothing salve such as petroleum jelly applied after cleaning the anus will reduce discomfort.  The patient may be asked not to take aspirin or similar products such as salicylate, ibuprofen, etc. for up to ten days before the procedure to avoid the risk of bleeding if a polypectomy is performed during the procedure. A blood test may be performed before the procedure.  Some hospitals and clinics have begun to utilize a technique used in colon hydrotherapy as an alternative to the standard preparation methods described above. In this case, special equipment is used to gently flush the patient's colon with warm water, just prior to the colonoscopy procedure, in order to remove any bowel contents. This alleviates the patient from having to ingest large quantities of fluids, or risk nausea, vomiting, or anal irritation. The time required for preparation overall is significantly reduced, which often facilitates easier scheduling of the procedure.

Investigation.

During the procedure the patient is often given sedation intravenously, employing agents such as fentanyl or midazolam. Although meperidine (Demerol) may be used as an alternative to fentanyl, the concern of seizures has relegated this agent to second choice for sedation behind the combination of fentanyl and midazolam. The average person will receive a combination of these two drugs, usually between 25 and 100μg IV fentanyl and 1–4mg IV midazolam. Sedation practices vary between practitioners and nations; in some clinics in Norway, sedation is rarely administered.  Some endoscopists are experimenting with, or routinely use, alternative or additional methods such as nitrous oxide and propofol, which have advantages and disadvantages relating to recovery time (particularly the duration of amnesia after the procedure is complete), patient experience, and the degree of supervision needed for safe administration. This sedation is called "twilight anesthesia". For some patients it is not fully effective, so they are indeed awake for the procedure and can watch the inside of their colon on the color monitor. Substituting propofol for midazolam, which gives the patient quicker recovery, is gaining wider use, but requires closer monitoring of respiration.  A meta-analysis found that playing music improves tolerability to patients of the procedure.  The first step is usually a digital rectal examination, to examine the tone of the sphincter and to determine if preparation has been adequate. The endoscope is then passed through the anus up the rectum, the colon (sigmoid, descending, transverse and ascending colon, the cecum), and ultimately the terminal ileum. The endoscope has a movable tip and multiple channels for instrumentation, air, suction and light. The bowel is occasionally insufflated with air to maximize visibility (a procedure which gives the patient the false sensation of needing to take a bowel movement). Biopsies are frequently taken for histology. Additionally in a procedure known as chromoendoscopy, a contrast-dye (such as indigo carmine) may be sprayed via the endoscope onto the bowel wall to help visualise any abnormalities in the mucosal morphology. A Cochrane review updated in 2016 found strong evidence that chromoscopy enhances the detection of cancerous tumours in the colon and rectum.  In most experienced hands, the endoscope is advanced to the junction of where the colon and small bowel join up (cecum) in under 10 minutes in 95% of cases. Due to tight turns and redundancy in areas of the colon that are not "fixed", loops may form in which advancement of the endoscope creates a "bowing" effect that causes the tip to actually retract. These loops often result in discomfort due to stretching of the colon and its associated mesentery. Manoeuvres to "reduce" or remove the loop include pulling the endoscope backwards while twisting it. Alternatively, body position changes and abdominal support from external hand pressure can often "straighten" the endoscope to allow the scope to move forward. In a minority of patients, looping is often cited as a cause for an incomplete examination. Usage of alternative instruments leading to completion of the examination has been investigated, including use of pediatric colonoscope, push enteroscope and upper GI endoscope variants.  For screening purposes, a closer visual inspection is then often performed upon withdrawal of the endoscope over the course of 20 to 25 minutes. Lawsuits over missed cancerous lesions have recently prompted some institutions to better document withdrawal time as rapid withdrawal times may be a source of potential medical legal liability. This is often a real concern in clinical settings where high caseloads could provide financial incentive to complete colonoscopies as quickly as possible.  Suspicious lesions may be cauterized, treated with laser light or cut with an electric wire for purposes of biopsy or complete removal polypectomy. Medication can be injected, e.g. to control bleeding lesions. The procedure typically takes 20–30 minutes, depending on the indication and findings; with multiple polypectomies or biopsies, procedure times may be longer. As mentioned above, anatomic considerations may also affect procedure times.  After the procedure, some recovery time is usually allowed to let the sedative wear off. Outpatient recovery time can take an estimated 30–60 minutes. Most facilities require that patients have a person with them to help them home afterwards (depending on the sedation method used).  One very common after-effect from the procedure is a bout of flatulence and minor wind pain caused by air insufflation into the colon during the procedure.  An advantage of colonoscopy over X-ray imaging or other less invasive tests is the ability to perform therapeutic interventions during the test. A polyp is a growth of excess of tissue that can develop into cancer. If a polyp is found, for example, it can be removed by one of several techniques. A snare device can be placed around a polyp for removal. Even if the polyp is flat on the surface it can often be removed. For example, the following shows a polyp removed in stages:

Pain management.

The pain associated with the procedure is not caused by the insertion of the scope but rather by the inflation of the colon in order to do the inspection. The scope itself is essentially a long, flexible tube about a centimeter in diameter, i.e. as big around as the little finger, which is less than the diameter of an average stool.  The colon is wrinkled and corrugated, somewhat like an accordion or a clothes-dryer exhaust tube, which gives it the large surface area needed for water absorption. In order to inspect this surface thoroughly, the physician blows it up like a balloon, using an air compressor, in order to get the creases out. The stomach, intestines, and colon have a so-called "second brain" wrapped around them, which autonomously runs the chemical factory of digestion. It uses complex hormone signals and nerve signals to communicate with the brain and the rest of the body. Normally a colon's job is to digest food and regulate the intestinal flora. The harmful bacteria in rancid food, for example, creates gas.  The colon has distension sensors that can tell when there is unexpected gas pushing the colon walls out—thus the "second brain" tells the person that he or she is having intestinal difficulties by way of the sensation of nausea. Doctors typically recommend either total anesthesia or a partial twilight sedative to either preclude or to lessen the patient's awareness of pain or discomfort, or just the unusual sensations of the procedure. Once the colon has been inflated, the doctor inspects it with the scope as it is slowly pulled backward. If any polyps are found they are then cut out for later biopsy.  Some doctors prefer to work with totally anesthetized patients inasmuch as the lack of any perceived pain or discomfort allows for a leisurely examination. Twilight sedation is, however, inherently safer than general anesthesia; it also allows the patients to follow simple commands and even to watch the procedure on a closed-circuit monitor. Tens of millions of adults annually need to have colonoscopies, and yet many don't because of concerns about the procedure.  Colonoscopy can be carried out without any sedation, without problems with pain; this is practised in several institutions in many countries with the patient's agreement. This allows the patient to shift their body position to help the doctor carry out the procedure, and significantly reduces recovery time and side-effects. There is some discomfort when the colon is distended with air, but this is not usually particularly painful and it passes relatively quickly. Unsedated patients can be released from the hospital on their own very swiftly without any feelings of nausea, able to continue with normal activities, and without the need for an escort as recommended after sedation.

Ultrasound.

Duodenography and colonography are performed like a standard abdominal examination using B-mode and color flow Doppler ultrasonography using a low frequency transducer — for example a 2.5MHz — and a high frequency transducer, for example a 7.5MHz probe. Detailed examination of duodenal walls and folds, colonic walls and haustra was performed using a 7.5MHz probe. Deeply located abdominal structures were examined using 2.5MHz probe. All ultrasound examinations are performed after overnight fasting (for at least 16 hours) using standard scanning procedure. Subjects are examined with and without water contrast. Water contrast imaging is performed by having adult subjects take at least one liter of water prior to examination. Patients are examined in the supine, left posterior oblique, and left lateral decubitus positions using the intercostal and subcostal approaches. The liver, gall bladder, spleen, pancreas, duodenum, colon, and kidneys are routinely evaluated in all patients.  With patient lying supine, the examination of the duodenum with "high frequency ultrasound duodenography" is performed with 7.5MHz probe placed in the right upper abdomen, and central epigastric successively; for "high frequency ultrasound colonography", the ascending colon, is examined with starting point usually midway of an imaginary line running from the iliac crest to the umbilicus and proceeding cephalid through the right mid abdomen; for the descending colon, the examination begins from the left upper abdomen proceeding caudally and traversing the left mid abdomen and left lower abdomen, terminating at the sigmoid colon in the lower pelvic region. Color flow Doppler sonography is used to examine the localization of lesions in relation to vessels. All measurements of diameter and wall thickness are performed with built-in software. Measurements are taken between peristaltic waves.

Economics.

Researchers have found that older patients with three or more significant health problems, like dementia or heart failure, had high rates of repeat colonoscopies without medical indications. These patients are less likely to live long enough to develop colon cancer. Gordon states, "At about $1,000 per procedure, there's clearly an economic incentive".  The Hemoccult II FOBT (combined with follow-up colonoscopy if indicated by the test) is over 5 times as cost effective as other screening strategies, but is only about 85% as sensitive. Because of this relatively low sensitivity, US guidelines advocate the over 5 times more expensive procedures instead, because even the relatively small increase in lives saved and 5-fold cost increase is seen as worth choosing, given US living standards.

History.

In the 1960s, Dr. Niwa and Dr. Yamagata at Tokyo University developed the device. After 1968, Dr. William Wolff and Dr. Hiromi Shinya pioneered the development of the colonoscope. Their invention, in 1969 in Japan, was an advance over the barium enema and the flexible sigmoidoscope because it allowed for the visualization and removal of polyps from the entire large intestine. Wolff and Shinya advocated for their invention and published much of the early evidence needed to overcome skepticism about the device's safety and efficacy.  Colonoscopy with CCD invention and market is led by Fuji film, Olympus and Hoya in Japan. In 1982, Dr. Lawrence Kaplan of Aspen Medical Group in St. Paul, MN reported a series of 100 consecutive colonoscopies and upper endoscopies performed in a free-standing clinic miles from the nearest hospital, demonstrating the safety and cost effectiveness of these outpatient procedures. (Personal communication to the Joint Commission on Ambulatory Care, May 1983)

Etymology.

The terms "colonoscopy" or "coloscopy" are derived from the ancient Greek noun κόλον, same as English "colon", and the verb σκοπεῖν, "look (in)to", "examine". The term "colonoscopy" is however ill-constructed, as this form supposes that the first part of the compound consists of a possible root κολωv- or κολοv-, with the connecting vowel -o, instead of the root κόλ- of κόλον. A compound such as κολωνοειδής, "like a hill", (with the additional -on-) is derived from the ancient Greek word κολώνη or κολωνός, "hill". Similarly, colonoscopy (with the additional -on-) can literally be translated as "examination of the hill", instead of the "examination of the colon".  In English, multiple words exist that are derived from κόλον, such as "colectomy", "colocentesis", "colopathy", and "colostomy" among many others, that actually lack the incorrect additional -on-. A few compound words such as "colonopathy" have doublets with -on- inserted.

Colonoscopy () or coloscopy () is the endoscopic examination of the large bowel and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g., ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions.

Eine Koloskopie (auch Darmspiegelung oder Colonoskopie) dient der Untersuchung des Dickdarmes und meistens auch der letzten Zentimeter des Dünndarmes. Ein Pionier auf dem Gebiet war der Schweizer Peter Deyhle (1969).