Description.

"Musa basjoo" is a herbaceous perennial with trunk-like pseudostems growing to around, with a crown of mid-green leaves growing up to long and wide when mature. The species produces male and female flowers on the same inflorescence which may extend for over. The banana fruit formed are yellow-green, around long and broad; they are inedible, with sparse white pulp and many black seeds.

Uses.

Cultivation.

"Musa basjoo" has been cultivated both for its fibre and as an ornamental plant in gardens outside its natural range, first in Japan, and from the late 19th century, then in the warmer parts of western Europe (north to Britain), the United States, and southern Canada. In gardens, it is used as a hardy 'tropical foliage' plant. Although the pseudostem may only cope with a few degrees below freezing, the underground rhizome is considered frost hardy, if well insulated with thick mulch, in areas with winter temperatures down to. The roots are considered hardy to. If the pseudostem is killed, the banana will resprout from the ground where it rapidly grows to full size in a season under optimal conditions. Thus, it can be grown as far north as USDA zone 6a. It can also be overwintered undercover in a pot and kept growing, which is the only way it can be made to fruit in northern regions as it requires 12–24 months of warmth to bloom.  In the UK it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Fibre.

In Japan, "Musa basjoo" plant fibres are used to produce textiles known in Japanese as "kijōka-bashōfu" ("bashōfu" 芭蕉布, lit. "banana cloth"). Whole pseudostems are cut into strips up to 3 m long. These are beaten, bleached and dried to produce the raw material, which can then be made into products like hand-knotted carpets, tablecloths, kimonos and paper. Outside Japan, Manila hemp is obtained from related plant, "Musa textilis", whose unbleached fibres are used for high strength rope.

Traditional medicine.

In traditional Chinese medicine, the stem, flower, leaves and rhizome of "Musa basjoo" are considered useful for clearing heat-toxins, quenching thirst and disinhibiting urine.

Musa basjoo, known variously as Japanese banana, Japanese fibre banana or hardy banana, is a species belonging to the genus "Musa". It was previously thought to have originated in the Ryukyu islands of southern Japan, from where it was first described in cultivation, but is now known to have originated in subtropical southern China, where it is also widely cultivated, with wild populations found in Sichuan province.

Die Japanische Faser-Banane ("Musa basjoo"),, "bashō", ist eine in Ostasien heimische Pflanzenart aus der Gattung Bananen ("Musa") in der Familie der Bananengewächse (Musaceae).


Characteristics.

A covert channel is so called because it is hidden from the access control mechanisms of secure operating systems since it does not use the legitimate data transfer mechanisms of the computer system (typically, read and write), and therefore cannot be detected or controlled by the security mechanisms that underlie secure operating systems. Covert channels are exceedingly hard to install in real systems, and can often be detected by monitoring system performance. In addition, they suffer from a low signal-to-noise ratio and low data rates (typically, on the order of a few bits per second). They can also be removed manually with a high degree of assurance from secure systems by well established covert channel analysis strategies.  Covert channels are distinct from, and often confused with, legitimate channel exploitations that attack low-assurance pseudo-secure systems using schemes such as "steganography" or even less sophisticated schemes to disguise prohibited objects inside of legitimate information objects. The legitimate channel misuse by steganography is specifically not a form of covert channel.  Covert channels can tunnel through secure operating systems and require special measures to control. Covert channel analysis is the only proven way to control covert channels. By contrast, secure operating systems can easily prevent misuse of legitimate channels, so distinguishing both is important. Analysis of legitimate channels for hidden objects is often misrepresented as the only successful countermeasure for legitimate channel misuse. Because this amounts to analysis of large amounts of software, it was shown as early as 1972 to be impractical. Without being informed of this, some are misled to believe an analysis will "manage the risk" of these legitimate channels.

TCSEC criteria.

The Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) was a set of criteria, now deprecated, that had been established by the National Computer Security Center, an agency managed by the United States' National Security Agency.  Lampson's definition of a "covert channel" was paraphrased in the TCSEC specifically to refer to ways of transferring information from a higher classification compartment to a lower classification. In a shared processing environment, it is difficult to completely insulate one process from the effects another process can have on the operating environment. A covert channel is created by a sender process that modulates some condition (such as free space, availability of some service, wait time to execute) that can be detected by a receiving process.  The TCSEC defines two kinds of covert channels: The TCSEC, also known as the "Orange Book", requires analysis of covert storage channels to be classified as a B2 system and analysis of covert timing channels is a requirement for class B3.

Timing Channels.

The use of delays between packets transmitted over computer networks was first explored by Girling for covert communication. This work motivated many other works to establish or detect a covert communication and analyze the fundamental limitations of such scenarios.

Identifying covert channels.

Ordinary things, such as existence of a file or time used for a computation, have been the medium through which a covert channel communicates. Covert channels are not easy to find because these media are so numerous and frequently used.  Two relatively old techniques remain the standards for locating potential covert channels. One works by analyzing the resources of a system and other works at the source-code level.

Eliminating covert channels.

The possibility of covert channels cannot be completely eliminated, although it can be significantly reduced by careful design and analysis.  The detection of a covert channel can be made more difficult by using characteristics of the communications medium for the legitimate channel that are never controlled or examined by legitimate users. For example, a file can be opened and closed by a program in a specific, timed pattern that can be detected by another program, and the pattern can be interpreted as a string of bits, forming a covert channel. Since it is unlikely that legitimate users will check for patterns of file opening and closing operations, this type of covert channel can remain undetected for long periods.  A similar case is port knocking. In usual communications the timing of requests is irrelevant and unwatched. Port knocking makes it significant.

Data hiding in OSI model.

Handel and Sandford presented research where they study covert channels within the general design of network communication protocols. They employ the OSI model as a basis for their development in which they characterize system elements having potential to be used for data hiding. The adopted approach has advantages over these because standards opposed to specific network environments or architectures are considered.  Their study does not aim to present foolproof steganographic schemes. Rather, they establish basic principles for data hiding in each of seven OSI layers. Besides suggesting the use of the reserved fields of protocols headers (that are easily detectable) at higher network layers, they also propose the possibility of timing channels involving CSMA/CD manipulation at the physical layer.  Their work identifies covert channel merit such as:  Their covert channel analysis does not consider issues such as interoperability of these data hiding techniques with other network nodes, covert channel capacity estimation, effect of data hiding on the network in terms of complexity and compatibility. Moreover, the generality of the techniques cannot be fully justified in practice since the OSI model does not exist per se in functional systems.

Data hiding in LAN environment by covert channels.

As Girling first analyzes covert channels in a network environment. His work focuses on local area networks (LANs) in which three obvious covert channels (two storage channel and one timing channel) are identified. This demonstrates the real examples of bandwidth possibilities for simple covert channels in LANs. For a specific LAN environment, the author introduced the notion of a wiretapper who monitors the activities of a specific transmitter on LAN. The covertly communicating parties are the transmitter and the wiretapper. The covert information according to Girling can be communicated through any of following obvious ways:  The scenario transmits covert information through a "when-is-sent” strategy therefore termed as timing covert channel. The time to transmit a block of data is calculated as function of software processing time, network speed, network block sizes and protocol overhead. Assuming block of various sizes are transmitted on the LAN, software overhead is computed on average and novel time evaluation is used to estimate the bandwidth (capacity) of covert channels are also presented. The work paves the way for future research.

Data hiding in TCP/IP Protocol suite by covert channels.

Focusing on the IP and TCP headers of TCP/IP Protocol suite, an article published by Craig Rowland devises proper encoding and decoding techniques by utilizing the IP identification field, the TCP initial sequence number and acknowledge sequence number fields. These techniques are implemented in a simple utility written for Linux systems running version 2.0 kernels.  Rowland provides a proof of concept as well as practical encoding and decoding techniques for exploitation of covert channels using the TCP/IP protocol suite. These techniques are analyzed considering security mechanisms like firewall network address translation.  However, the non-detectability of these covert communication techniques is questionable. For instance, a case where sequence number field of TCP header is manipulated, the encoding scheme is adopted such that every time the same alphabet is covertly communicated, it is encoded with the same sequence number.  Moreover, the usages of sequence number field as well as the acknowledgment field cannot be made specific to the ASCII coding of English language alphabet as proposed, since both fields take into account the receipt of data bytes pertaining to specific network packet(s).  After Rowland, several authors in academia published more work on covert channels in the TCP/IP protocol suite, including a plethora of countermeasures ranging from statistical approaches to machine learning. The research on network covert channels overlaps with the domain of network steganography, which emerged later.

In computer security, a covert channel is a type of attack that creates a capability to transfer information objects between processes that are not supposed to be allowed to communicate by the computer security policy. The term, originated in 1973 by Lampson, is defined as channels "not intended for information transfer at all, such as the service program's effect on system load," to distinguish it from "legitimate" channels that are subjected to access controls by COMPUSEC.

Ein verdeckter Kanal (engl. "covert channel") ist in der IT-Sicherheit ein parasitärer Kommunikationskanal, welcher Bandbreite (Informationskapazität) eines legitimierten Kommunikationskanals benutzt, um Informationen zu übermitteln. Teilweise wird anstelle des Begriffs "verdeckter Kanal" auch der Begriff Tunnel verwendet. Allerdings ist der Begriff "verdeckter Kanal" aus akademischer Sicht vorzuziehen.


Early life and début.

Kelly Jones was born youngest of three boys for Beryl and Arwyn Jones in the small Welsh ex-mining village of Cwmaman, spending his childhood with them and his two older brothers, Kevin and Lee. Both of his parents worked in factories. His father coached youth football and pursued his own singing career. The name of Arwyn's backing band, Oscar and the Kingfishers, earned him the nickname 'Oscar' among friends and family. He went on to secure a record deal with Polydor, who renamed him 'Arwyn Davidson' due to the sheer number of Joneses in the music business at the time.  Despite making multiple recordings, sharing the Hollies' manager and supporting slots with the likes of Roy Orbison, Arwyn had minimal mainstream success and only released a few singles (including a cover of the Graham Nash song "Simple Man"). During Jones' youth his uncle, a boxing referee, got him interested in the sport, and he later competed at a high level in South Wales. Following this Jones moved onto football, where he played for his county. Jones grew up in the village of Cwmaman, near Aberdare, where he became friends with neighbours, Stuart Cable and Richard Jones, with whom he formed, in 1992, one of a string of covers bands.  Jones' talent for writing was apparent in his youth. He studied film at college and considered becoming a scriptwriter - attracting interest from the BBC for his work - before focusing on music. As his band progressed from covers to performing original material, Jones brought his gift for narrative to his lyrics. He also flirted with the idea of career in boxing, and was a successful fighter at junior levels.  There is a strong autobiographical thread to Jones' writing on Stereophonics' 1997 debut album, "Word Gets Around", including an account of his teenage years working on a market stall, "More Life in a Tramps Vest".

Career.

In 1996, after several years on the south Wales live circuit, Stereophonics were the first band to be signed to Richard Branson's new Virgin Records label V2. Their debut EP "Looks Like Chaplin" was not pressed in enough numbers to qualify for the charts, and their next single "Local Boy in the Photograph" peaked one place shy of the UK Top 50. However, their debut LP "Word Gets Around", helped by a busy touring schedule that included a support slot on fellow Welsh band Manic Street Preachers' 1996–97 tour, made it to number 6 on the UK Albums Chart.  In January 2005, Kelly Jones performed a solo set at the Tsunami Relief Cardiff charity concert at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.

Other projects.

In 2007, Jones released his first solo album, "Only the Names Have Been Changed", as a limited edition, which managed to reach number 1 on the iTunes download chart. He explained: "We were recording the sixth Stereophonics album last year and in-between takes I started doing these songs off the cuff. Three or four tracks in, I realised that this could actually be something [...] strange how it's always little things that makes big things happen." This created speculation that Jones would leave Stereophonics to pursue his solo career, however he denied this.

Influences and musical style.

Jones is influenced by musicians such as Neil Young, Bob Dylan, Otis Redding, Stevie Wonder, Led Zeppelin, AC/DC and the Sex Pistols. He is noted for his raspy voice, which has been described as "whiskey" and has drawn criticism as well as acclaim.

Controversy.

Jones has had a troubled relationship with the media and they have often criticised him, his contribution to music, and his vocal abilities. Jones has generated headlines several times by criticising other musical artists – most notably Radiohead frontman and solo artist Thom Yorke. Jones criticised Yorke's attitude in a 2002 interview due to what he felt was complaining about touring on Radiohead's 1998 home video release, "Meeting People Is Easy". He said: "We can all relate to that video – y'know, having to do a hundred fucking idents for radio stations – but that doesn't mean you've got to walk around and be a miserable twat to everybody. Which is what Thom Yorke is mostly." He later expressed regret for this comment, since he was in fact a fan of Yorke.  Jones is known for his cynical view of manufactured pop and has also criticised reality shows such as "Popstars" and "The X Factor", as well as manufactured bands such as Hear'Say.

Personal life.

Jones and his first girlfriend were together for almost 12 years and had become engaged but split up. In 2002, Jones, drunk, vandalized the house and car of a friend because Jones had discovered the friend was courting his ex-girlfriend. Jones was arrested, but his friend did not press charges. Janes wrote the song "Rainbows and Pots of Gold" in response to the event. Jones and Rebecca Walters had two children, but they split shortly after the birth of the second child. Jones then got married to MTV journalist Jakki Healy, and they have two children.

Kelly Jones (born 3 June 1974) is a Welsh singer-songwriter. He is the lead singer and lead guitarist of the rock band Stereophonics.

Kelly Jones (* 3. Juni 1974 in Cwmaman, Wales) ist ein walisischer Musiker und Sänger. Bekannt wurde er als Leadsänger der Band Stereophonics, die er zusammen mit Richard Jones und Stuart Cable 1992 ins Leben rief. Er ist auch für die Mehrzahl der Texte der Band verantwortlich.


Geography.

Located in southwestern Queensland, Australia, Charleville is west of Brisbane (the Queensland capital). It is the largest town and administrative centre of the Shire of Murweh, which covers an area of 43,905 square kilometres. Charleville is situated on the banks of the Warrego River, and is the terminus for the Warrego Highway.

History.

"Bidjara" (also known as "Bidyara, Pitjara," and "Peechara)" is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Bidjara people. The Bidjara language region includes the local government areas of the Shire of Murweh, particularly the towns of Charleville, Augathella and Blackall as well as the properties of Nive Downs and Mount Tabor.  "Gungabula" (also known as "Kongabula" and "Khungabula") is an Australian Aboriginal language of the headwaters of the Dawson River in Central Queensland. The language region includes areas within the local government area of Maranoa Region, particularly the towns of Charleville, Augathella and Blackall and as well as the Carnarvon Range.  The first European exploration of the area, which was Kunja tribal land, was conducted by Edmund Kennedy in 1847. A hotel was built in 1865, and a town began to grow to service the region. It was situated near Gowrie's Crossing, a permanent waterhole, now on the outskirts of the modern town. Gowrie Station had been established around the crossing along a natural stock route, for the grazing of sheep and cattle. The town was gazetted on 11 January 1865. It was planned with very wide streets to enable bullock teams of up to 14 pairs to turn with their wagons. It was William Alcock Tully, who was Commissioner of Crown Lands in the Warrego District from 1863 to 1864, who laid out the town's streets. An Irishman, Tully probably named the town after the town of Charleville, County Cork, Ireland. Members of the Roma-based Skinner family established a store in the town in 1872 that became known as the Warrego Stores.  Charleville Post Office opened on 1 August 1865.  In September 1875, the Queensland Government called for tenders to erect a courthouse in Charleville. The foundation stone (actually a bloodwood block) was laid on 23 November 1875. By January 1876, the courthouse was almost finished. In December 1884, the Queensland Government called for tenders to erect a hospital in Charleville. In March 1885 the contract was awarded to Richards and King for £2,265 10s. In November 1885, a hospital ball was held in the new hospital building, suggesting it was completed and opened around that time.  Cobb and Co, the legendary Australian stagecoach company, established a coach building business in the town in 1886, however, the railway arrived in 1888, beginning the long demise of coach transport in the area. Charleville station was the terminus for the Western railway line for more than a decade. Facilities included a locomotive depot, cattle and sheep yards, a 50-ton weighbridge, a booking and telegraph offices, goods shed, stationmaster's house, and guards, enginemen and firemen's cottages.  In 1902 Charleville was the location of an unsuccessful attempt by Clement Lindley Wragge to fire cannons into the clouds in order to break a drought. The cannons used remain on display in Charleville today.  St Mary's Catholic Primary School was opened on 26 January 1913 by the Sisters of Mercy.  In 1922, Qantas established an airmail service between Charleville and Cloncurry. At the same time, this was Qantas's first regularly scheduled route and the second scheduled air route in Australia.  On 9 October 1924, the Charleville War Memorial was unveiled by Sir Matthew Nathan, the Governor of Queensland.  Charleville was also one of the compulsory stop over/check points during the London to Melbourne MacRobertson Air Race in 1934. The winners of the great race were Tom Campbell Black and C. W. A. Scott. Their triumph was reported in "Time" magazine as:  "Scott and Black, keeping up their sensational pace, flashed into Charleville, refueled, sped toward the finish where waiting thousands cheered their progress, reported over loudspeakers. With one motor dead, with only two hours sleep since leaving England, the Britons triumphantly set their scarlet torpedo down in Melbourne at 3:34 p.m. In 71 hr. 1 min. 3 sec. – Just under three days – they had flown halfway around the world."  Proximity to the Warrego River has been problematic. In April 1990, major floods hit western Queensland, with Charleville being badly affected. Floodwaters peaked at 8.54 metres, over 1,000 homes were inundated, and almost 3,000 people evacuated. More recently, the district suffered flooding again in 1997, 2008 and March 2010. Flooding also occurred in February 2012.  There is a children's book called "The Flood Grungies"; it is written by Michelle Sheehan and illustrated by Donna Reynolds. It is about the notorious Charleville floods and features the Cosmos centre, the water tower and other famous landmarks.

Heritage listings.

Charleville has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: as well as a number in nearby localities:

Population.

According to the 2016 census of Population, there were 3,335 people in Charleville.

Climate.

Charleville has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa") verging on semi-arid ("BSk"), with maximum temperatures ranging from in summer to in winter. Summers are hot and sultry, although they can be very dry as well depending on the wind direction. Winters are mild to cool and crisp, with rather high diurnal ranges, which provide some frost. Rainfall is mild and distributed patchily throughout the year, with a peak in summer. Severe flooding events are usually caused by monsoon troughs and the remnants of tropical cyclones dumping large amounts of rain over the area; however, rain normally falls in the form of thunderstorms and light showers after hot summer days. Extremes have ranged from to. The highest rainfall total recorded for one month was in March 2010.

Attractions.

Charleville has several tourist attractions, including a museum of the Royal Flying Doctor Service of Australia, a historical museum, wildlife sanctuary (including a bilby reserve), and the Cosmos Centre.

Facilities.

Charleville has a range of facilities for the community including a swimming pool, bowling green, speedway, racing course, and the Gowrie sporting oval.  There is public library on Alfred Street run by the Murweh Shire Council.  The Charleville branch of the Queensland Country Women's Association has its rooms at 73 Galatea Street.  The Charleville Golf Course has eighteen sand greens and a licensed clubhouse in May Street.  North of the town is VMC, a marine weather transmitter operated by the Bureau of Meteorology.

Transport.

Aviation is served by the Charleville Airport. "The Westlander" rail passenger service links the town to Brisbane. Charleville would have been the southern end of the Transcontinental railway proposed in the 1880s, connecting to Point Parker on the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Charleville is a town and a locality in the Shire of Murweh, Queensland, Australia. In the, Charleville had a population of 3,335 people.

Charleville ist eine Stadt im Süden Queenslands. Sie befindet sich im Südwesten des Bundesstaates Queensland, Australien 758 km westlich von der Bundeshauptstadt Brisbane. Charleville ist mit 3077 Einwohnern die größte Stadt des Verwaltungsbezirks Murweh Shire und dessen Hauptstadt, welcher 43.905 km2 verwaltet. Charleville liegt an den Ufern des Warrego River, an dem der Warrego Highway endet.


Letters.

Sound values.

In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages. Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants () and aspirated plosives () in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable.  The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek.

Digraphs and letter combinations.

Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (), there is also, and, pronounced. The Ancient Greek diphthongs, and are pronounced, and in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to, and respectively. The Modern Greek consonant combinations and stand for and (or and ) respectively; stands for and stands for. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal ; thus and are pronounced like English. In analogy to and, is also used to stand for. There are also the combinations and.

Diacritics.

In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (), the grave accent (), or the circumflex accent ( or ). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (), marking an sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh.  The vowel letters carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, (i.e. ), which became monophthongized during antiquity.  Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (), indicating a hiatus.  This system of diacritics was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium ( 257 – 185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as "tonos", i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek.  Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ("ó,ti", "whatever") from ("óti", "that").

Romanization.

There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, is replaced with, the diphthongs and are rendered as and (or ) respectively; and and are simplified to and respectively. Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, will usually be rendered as, and the vowel combinations as respectively. The letters and are generally rendered as and ; as either or ; and word-initial as.  Multiple different transcription conventions exist for Modern Greek. These differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically-based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, by the Library of Congress, and others.

History.

Origins.

During the Mycenaean period, from around the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the thirteenth century BC. In the late ninth century BC or early eighth century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged. The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages, calling it Φοινικήια γράμματα 'Phoenician letters'. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants.  Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants ("yodh") and ("waw") were used for [i] (Ι, "iota") and [u] (Υ, "upsilon") respectively; the glottal stop consonant ("aleph") was used for [a] (Α, "alpha"); the pharyngeal ("ʿayin") was turned into [o] (Ο, "omicron"); and the letter for ("he") was turned into [e] (Ε, "epsilon"). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal ("heth") was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long (Ω, omega) was introduced.  Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ ("phi") for, Χ ("chi") for and Ψ ("psi") for. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for and Ψ for. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate.  Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ ("san"), which had been in competition with Σ ("sigma") denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter <unk> ("qoppa"), which was redundant with Κ ("kappa") for /k/, and Ϝ ("digamma"), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period.  Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called "boustrophedon", literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line.

Archaic variants.

There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/ph, kh/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek. These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on a colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, "Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets" by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867).  The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet, and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development. The "blue" (or eastern) type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged. Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. In the Old Attic alphabet, stood for and for. was used for all three sounds (correspondinɡ to classical respectively), and was used for all of (corresponding to classical respectively). The letter (heta) was used for the consonant. Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia: a form of that resembled a Latin "L" () and a form of that resembled a Latin "S" ().  <nowiki>*</nowiki>Upsilon is also derived from waw ().  The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia. By the late fifth century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians. In 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides, the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned the Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of the democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants. Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet". Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted a few years previously in Macedonia. By the end of the fourth century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet.

Letter names.

When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus "ʾaleph", the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop, "bet", or "house", for the sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, "ʾaleph, bet, gimel" became "alpha, beta, gamma".  The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of "beta", ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation "vita"). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as besides ; in Modern Greek the spelling is often, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled in Modern Greek ( is conventionally transcribed word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and ). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system.  In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular.  In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with, indicating an original pronunciation with "-ē". In Modern Greek these names are spelled with.  The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters and, pronounced identically by this time, were called "o mikron" ("small o") and "o mega" ("big o") respectively. The letter was called "e psilon" ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph, while, similarly,, which at this time was pronounced, was called "y psilon" ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph.  Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce and ; also, has come to be pronounced in Cypriot.

Letter shapes.

Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting.  The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters.  In the ninth and tenth century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive. This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages.

Derived alphabets.

The Greek alphabet was the model for various others:  The Armenian and Georgian alphabets are almost certainly modeled on the Greek alphabet, but their graphic forms are quite different.

Other uses.

Use for other languages.

Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages. For some of them, additional letters were introduced.

In mathematics and science.

Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

Astronomy.

Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

International Phonetic Alphabet.

Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper:  On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones.  The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda, but in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase "y".

Use as numerals.

Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma for 6, koppa for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as, and respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called "keraia" is added to the right of it.

Use by student fraternities and sororities.

In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society at the College of William and Mary in 1776. The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης ("Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs"), which means "Love of wisdom, the guide of life" and serves as the organization's motto. Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by their Greek letter names because the mottos that these names stood for were secret and revealed only to members of the fraternity. The Greek letter names of most fraternal organizations today are meaningless and do not stand for anything, which Caroline Winterer states is "understandable, considering that general knowledge of the ancient Greek alphabet and language has almost entirely vanished."  Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) designated using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B chapter, a Γ chapter, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω chapter is AA chapter, followed by AB chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "chapter Letter", albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization.

Glyph variants.

Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

Computer encodings.

For computer usage, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in.  The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies.

ISO/IEC 8859-7.

For the range A0–FF (hex), it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, 1⁄2, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings, it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex).

Greek in Unicode.

Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be "represented" as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well:.  There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.  This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly, most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF).  To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

Combining and letter-free diacritics.

Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet.

IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternative interpretation for ß).

The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late ninth or early eighth century BC. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the first alphabetic script in history to have distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants. In Archaic and early Classical times, the Greek alphabet existed in many different local variants, but, by the end of the fourth century BC, the Euclidean alphabet, with twenty-four letters, ordered from alpha to omega, had become standard and it is this version that is still used to write Greek today. These twenty-four letters (each in uppercase and lowercase forms) are:,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, /ς,,,,,, and.

Das griechische Alphabet (;, auch ) ist die Schrift, in der die griechische Sprache seit dem 9. Jahrhundert v. Chr. geschrieben wird. Das griechische Alphabet umfasst heute 24 Buchstaben, die ebenso wie im lateinischen Alphabet als Majuskeln (Großbuchstaben) und Minuskeln (Kleinbuchstaben) vorkommen.


Biography.

After winning the ‘Miss Seventeen’ contest held by a popular magazine in 1978, a sixteen-year-old girl named Noriko Kamachi from Fukuoka adopted the stage name "Seiko Matsuda" and rose to fame in 1980 as a teen idol, making her debut with the song "Hadashi no Kisetsu" (lit. "Season of Bare Feet"). Later in the same year, her 3rd single "Kaze wa Aki-iro" (lit. "Wind Is Autumn Color") became the first of her 24 consecutive number 1 hits in Japan. She shattered the former Japanese record of nine consecutive number-ones by popular 1970s music duo Pink Lady. Her run of number-one records ended in 1989 when her 27th single "Precious Heart" ranked at number two, behind Tetsuya Komuro's "Gravity of Love". Matsuda had another number-one single "Anata ni Aitakute ~Missing You~" (lit. "I want to meet you ~Missing you~") in 1996, which would become her last number-one single to date. It was certified a million-seller by RIAJ.  Matsuda held the record for the most number-one singles (25) and most consecutive number-one singles (24) on Japan's Oricon charts for 12 years, from 1988 to 2000. Both were surpassed by B'z in late 2000. She held the record for the most number-one singles (25) by a female singer for 18 years, from 1988 till 2006, when Ayumi Hamasaki's "Startin'/Born to Be..." became her 26th single to top the charts. Matsuda's held the record for the most consecutive number-one singles (24) by a female singer and any soloist for 22 years, from 1988 to 2010. It was broken by Hamasaki's "L" in September/October 2010. Matsuda also held records for the most top-ten albums (50) and most number-one albums. Both records have since been broken by Hamasaki. Matsuda was the first artist to have a single and an album debut at No. 1 on the Oricon Chart in the same week. So far, this has only happened three times.  In a May 2011 an Oricon survey crowned her the No. 1 everlasting idol of all time, beating Momoe Yamaguchi (2), Kyōko Koizumi (3), Morning Musume (4) and Akina Nakamori (5).  Her long staying power is mainly due to her continuous re-invention of herself. She was labeled a 'Mamadol' (idol who remains popular even after having children). Her hair styles, fashion sense and makeup have all been copied by millions of girls and women in Japan and in certain parts of Asia.  Matsuda's voice and singing technique have won her two best performance awards from Nippon Record Awards, first in 1983 for ガラスの林檎 (lit. Glass Apple) and again in 1993 for 'きっと、また逢える・・・' (lit. Surely, will meet again).  Matsuda began to write her songs by herself. She wrote lyrics for the first time when she produced her song "Chiisana Love Song" (lit. "Small Love Song") in 1983. This was followed by her first composed song "Canary". All music and lyrics of her 2007 album "Baby's Breath" were written by herself. It became her first completely self-produced album.  Matsuda attempted to break into the North American market with an English-language, self-titled album in 1990. She managed to score a hit – "The Right Combination", a duet with boy band New Kids on the Block singer Donnie Wahlberg. The album sales were mediocre, and her follow-up "Was it the Future" failed to generate significant sales. In 2002, however, Matsuda's English dance hits "All to You" and "Just for Tonight" managed to reached the Billboard dance chart at No. 8 and No. 2, respectively.  In July 2006, Matsuda's compilation album "Seiko Matsuda", which consisted of 74 CDs, debuted at number 96, becoming the highest-priced album in the Oricon history at the price of 100,000 yen (about 850 dollars). Hibari Misora, a well-known enka singer from the 1950s held the previous record with her 1989 album "Kyō no Ware ni Asu wa Katsu" (60,000 yen).  Although some up-and-coming female singers like Namie Amuro and Hamasaki became successful after the end of the 1980s, most "typical" pop idols from Matsuda's era disappeared as the golden age of idols began to fade away, except Matsuda, who was still going strong, releasing single after single. She has been a secret idol for subsequent female celebrities such as Shoko Nakagawa who called Matsuda "God" and "My Universe". Japanese voice actress Nana Mizuki released her cover version of Matsuda's "Akai Sweet Pea" (lit. "Red Sweet Pea") as the B-side of an image song single under the character name Moka Akashiya of the anime "Rosario + Vampire" on 14 February 2008. There are endless cover version of Matsuda songs and tribute albums being released every year. Among those 'Diamond Eyes', 'Missing You' and 'Akai Sweet Pea' (lit. Red Sweet Pea) and Sweet Memories have been reinterpreted by other artists countless times, including a cover performance by Akina Nakamori.  On 5 August 2009, Sony re-released 16 of Matsuda's early albums under the Blu-spec CD format. Thirteen of these entered the Oricon Top 100 Album Chart at the same time, surpassing the record set by Hibari Misora (12 albums) and making her the first female artist to do so.  Matsuda is also on the Top 3 list of Most No.1 albums, Most Top 10 singles and Most Top 10 albums for a solo artist. HMV Japan ranked her No. 10 Top Japanese Artist of All Time, and No. 7 Top Singer of All Time.  Matsuda still holds annual concerts, Christmas dinner shows and New Year's Eve Countdown shows. Despite the high ticket prices (her dinner show tickets are the most expensive among female artists) for many years and to this day, she always performs to a sold-out crowd. Matsuda is also listed as second only behind Eikichi Yazawa as an artist to have performed many concerts at the Nippon Budokan.  Matsuda made a guest appearance on one of Fox Broadcasting Company's popular TV dramas "Bones" in 2010. In 2011, she was invited to performed in American music producer Quincy Jones's concert at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. She also performed as a guest vocalist on the album "Esprit De Four" by the contemporary Jazz super-group Fourplay, released worldwide on 18 September 2012  In 2015, Matsuda won the Japanese equivalent of a Grammy Award when she received Best Vocal Performance at the Japan Record Awards, the most prestigious award in the Japan music industry.

Personal life.

In 1983, Seiko was romantically linked with singer, Hiromi Go. Although there were rumours of an impending engagement, Go's traditional values would have required Seiko to give up her singing career and focus on raising a family instead. Momoe Yamaguchi, Japan's top female idol of the 1970s, had followed such a course, but Seiko ended her relationship with Go instead. Her break from tradition set a precedent for Japanese women in the 1980s and 1990s to continue their careers even after marriage.  Matsuda has been married three times. She was married to actor, Masaki Kanda, from 1985 to 1997. Their only child and daughter, Sayaka Kanda, is also a singer.  Her second husband, Hiroyuki Hatano, was a dentist to who she was married from 1998 to 2000.  On 13 June 2012, she announced her marriage to university associate professor, Hiromasa Kawana, on her official website.  In addition to music, Matsuda's career include appearances in film, radio, and television. Along with other books about Matsuda and several books of her photos including "Five Seasons, No Comments, Akai Sweet Pea", have been published. Matsuda has appeared in numerous commercials, such as numerous Ezaki Glico products, Minolta, Sony, Diosa Hair Color, Suntory, DirecTV, NTT DoCoMo, Astalift, Kanebo, Doctor Drive, Takano Yuri, Alba, and Shiseido. In 2015, Matsuda caused a stir in the Japanese entertainment industry when she modelled for lingerie company, Triumph International.

In January 2011, the Japanese music television program Music Station listed her as the 2nd best-selling idol of all time in Japan, with 29,510,000 records sold. She placed right behind pop group SMAP and ahead of Akina Nakamori, her biggest rival from the 1980s, who was listed in third place.

Seiko Matsuda (jap., "Matsuda Seiko", eigentlich "Noriko Kamachi" (); * 10. März 1962 in Kurume) ist eine japanische Singer-Songwriterin.


Content.

Pope Benedict examines the important relationship between the Eucharist and the other sacraments. He also highlights the social implications of the Eucharist and connects it with the Church's social teaching. The document is divided in three parts revolving around the Eucharist as a mystery (1) to be believed, (2) to be celebrated, and (3) to be lived.  In "Sacramentum caritatis", Benedict quotes John 6:51, ""I am the living bread which came down from heaven; if anyone eats of this bread, he will live forever; and the bread which I shall give for the life of the world is my flesh". He points out that the Eucharist is essentially Trinitarian. "Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses, states that we "call upon God in his mercy to send his Holy Spirit upon the offerings before us, to transform the bread into the body of Christ and the wine into the blood of Christ." The epiclesis of the Mass is a petition to the Father to send down the gift of the Spirit so that the bread and the wine will become the body and blood of Jesus Christ.  Benedict also expands on the relationship between the Eucharist and the Sacrament of Penance. "We know that the faithful are surrounded by a culture that tends to eliminate the sense of sin and to promote a superficial approach that overlooks the need to be in a state of grace in order to approach sacramental communion worthily. The loss of a consciousness of sin always entails a certain superficiality in the understanding of God's love. Bringing out the elements within the rite of Mass that express consciousness of personal sin and, at the same time, of God's mercy, can prove most helpful to the faithful."  Since the beauty of the Eucharist pertains directly to Christ in his person, it enables the participants a glimpse into the eschatological dimension inherent in the Eucharist as a pledge of future glory.  In the celebration of the Eucharist, Jesus Christ shows us how the truth of love can transform even the dark mystery of death into the radiant light of the resurrection. Through the Eucharist, He becomes all in all, present in his totality within the members of the Church (par #36). The individual members make up the spiritual stones of the Church. Singing is an expression of joy and, if we consider the matter, an expression of love. The new man sings a new song. (par #42)

Sacramentum caritatis () is the first post-synodal (Rome, October 2, 2005 – October 23, 2005) apostolic exhortation by Pope Benedict XVI. It was signed February 22, 2007.

Sacramentum caritatis („Sakrament der Liebe“) "über die Eucharistie als Quelle und Höhepunkt von Leben und Sendung der Kirche" ist ein nachsynodales apostolisches Schreiben Papst Benedikts XVI vom 22. Februar 2007. Das Schreiben fasst die Ergebnisse der 11. ordentlichen Bischofssynode vom 2. bis 23. Oktober 2005 zusammen.


History.

Following the 1722 Treaty of St. Albans which established the Blue Ridge Mountains as the buffer between Native Americans and white settlers, German immigrants began arriving in the northern Loudoun Valley to farm the rich topsoil. They established several villages, many constructed of log and wooden buildings, and began to expand their land holdings. Lovettsville was then called The German Settlement.  In 1820 David Lovett subdivided his property into quarter-acre "city lots." As a result of the ensuing construction boom, the town was called Newtown. In 1828, the town was again renamed Lovettsville. In 1836 the Virginia General Assembly established Lovettsville as a town, but the town was not fully incorporated until 1876.  During the Civil War, Lovettsville was an important transportation stop for Union troops crossing the Potomac River. Lovettsville was also among the few communities in Loudoun County to vote against secession.  In 1940, Lovettsville was the site of a crash of a DC-3. It was the worst in US history at that time, killing 25 people including U.S. Senator Ernest Lundeen, and became known as the Lovettsville air disaster.  The Lovettsville Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012.  In 2018, after the NHL's Washington Capitals advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the second time in franchise history, the town's council voted to temporarily rename Lovettsville to "Capitals-ville" for the duration of the Finals.

Geography.

Lovettsville is located at (39.2728, -77.6399).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2), all of it land.

Government.

Lovettsville is governed by a Council/Manager Form of Government:  Nathaniel O. Fontaine, Mayor James McIntyre, Vice Mayor Mike Dunlap Renee Edmonston Christopher Hornbaker Matthew Schilling Michael Senate  Sam Finz, Town Manager  Planning Commission Members-----Term Expires Tom Ciolkosz, Chairman 06/30/20 Bob Custard, Vice Chair 06/30/19 Stacey Evans 06/30/17 Vacant 06/30/17 Vacant 06/30/17 Shiva Schilling 06/30/20 Christopher Hornbaker 06/30/18

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1613 people, 566 households, and 424 families residing in the town. The population density was 1832.9 people per square mile (701.3/km2). There were 599 housing units at an average density of 680.7 per square mile (260.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 87.0% White, 6.0% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islands American, 1.9% from other races, and 3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.3% of the population.  There were 566 households out of which 46.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.4% were married couples living together, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.1% were non-families. 18.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.3.  In the town, the population was spread out with 32.4% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 33.4% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.5 years. For every 100 females there were 92.4 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $100,288, and the median income for a family was $109,808. Males had a median income of $72,661 versus $51,438 for females. The per capita income for the town was $33,212. None of the families and.6% of the population were living below the poverty line, including no under eighteens and 9.1% of those over 64.

Transportation.

The only primary highway directly serving Lovettsville is Virginia State Route 287. SR 287 extends southward to Virginia State Route 7 at Purcellville. It also continues north to the Potomac River, where a bridge connects the north end of SR 287 to Brunswick, Maryland.

Lovettsville is a town in Loudoun County, located near the very northern tip of the Commonwealth of Virginia, United States. Settled primarily by German immigrants, the town was originally established in 1836.

Lovettsville ist eine Stadt im Loudoun County im US-Bundesstaat Virginia. Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2000 lebten in Lovettsville 853 Menschen.


Early life.

Hachette was born at Rethel in the Ardennes "département" of France. After studying three years at prestigious École Normale Supérieure with the view of becoming a teacher 1822, he was, on political grounds, expelled from the seminary. In 1826, after briefly studying law, Hachette opened Brédif, a bookshop located near the Sorbonne in Paris. The focus of the business was to produce works adapted to improve the system of school instruction and to promote the general culture in the community. He published manuals on various topics including, dictionaries of modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent authorities.

Milestones.

In 1833, the Guizot Schools Law was passed which required all municipalities to open a primary school. Louis Hachette had been putting together an alphabet primer since 1829 and his was the only company capable of responding to the public order for a million textbooks.  In 1846, the L. Hachette & Company was founded. That year, Emile Littré signed a contract with the new firm to publish a dictionary, the first volumes of which appear in 1863.  In 1852, Hachette contracted with seven railway companies to create station bookstalls. In addition to travel guides for rail passengers, the small outlets sold novels by authors including Charles Dickens, Gérard de Nerval, George Sand and the children’s series Bibliothèque Rose, including those by La Comtesse de Ségur.  In 1855 Hachette founded "Le Journal pour tous", a publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly.  Hachette started printing "Le Tour du Monde", a weekly travel journal, in January 1860  Hachette also manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor, a subject on which he wrote various pamphlets. He also lent the weight of his influence towards a just settlement of issues relating to international literary copyright.

Louis Christophe François Hachette () (5 May 1800 – 31 July 1864) was a French publisher who established a Paris publishing house designed to produce books and other material to improve the system of school instruction. Publications were initially focused on the classics and subsequently expanded to include books and magazines of all types. The firm is currently part of a global publishing house.

Louis Christophe François Hachette (* 5. Mai 1800 in Rethel, Département Ardennes; † 31. Juli 1864 in Paris) war ein französischer Buchhändler und Verleger.


Playing career.

As a youth, Trudel played in the 1989 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Amos, Quebec.  Trudel played junior ice hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League, his last two seasons for the Hull Olympiques, helping his team to a Memorial Cup berth in 1995.  Undrafted by any NHL team, Trudel had a lengthy career in the minor leagues, most notably for the Springfield Falcons of the American Hockey League, for which he is the all-time leading career scorer in goals and points, and during which time he was named an AHL Second Team All-Star in the 2000 season. He played his penultimate season in North America with the Houston Aeros of the AHL in 2003, finishing second in league scoring by a single point.  He then went to Europe to play in the Swiss National League A for the rest of his career, save for a single season with the Peoria Rivermen of the AHL in 2008, principally for HC Ambri-Piotta, for whom he finished in the top three in the league in either goals or points his four seasons with the team.

Coaching career.

Trudel is currently a part owner and formerly the GM/Head Coach of the Peoria Mustangs in the NA3HL. He left his positions with the Mustangs to become head coach of the newest iteration of the Peoria Rivermen in the Southern Professional Hockey League. While with the Rivermen, he has won the SPHL's Coach of the Year three times.

Jean-Guy Andre Trudel (born October 10, 1975) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey left winger. He played five games in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Phoenix Coyotes and the Minnesota Wild. Trudel is currently the head coach of the Peoria Rivermen in the Southern Professional Hockey League (SPHL). He is also in charge of the Peoria Youth Hockey Association.

Jean-Guy Trudel (* 18. Oktober 1975 in Sudbury, Ontario) ist ein ehemaliger kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, derzeitiger -trainer und -funktionär, der während seiner aktiven Karriere unter anderem für die Phoenix Coyotes und Minnesota Wild in der National Hockey League sowie für den HC Ambrì-Piotta und die ZSC Lions in der National League A aktiv war.


Format.

From the 2019–20 season onwards the tournament features 20 clubs from the 11 highest-ranked EHF member countries. Although the competition is called the Euro Hockey League, after round 1 the competition was a knock-out, rather than league format (similar to the UEFA Champions League in football). From the 2019–20 season onwards round one is also a knock-out format.

Qualification.

From the 2019–20 season onwards each year the 20 available league places are allocated between 11 EHF member countries' National Associations, depending on those National Associations' EHF Club Ranking. National Associations ranked 1-3 in the EHL Ranking Table may enter three teams each in the Euro Hockey League, while National Associations ranked 4-6 may enter two teams each, and National Associations ranked 7-11 one team.  National Associations rankings are derived from each country's results in the Euro Hockey League and EuroHockey Club Trophy over the previous 3 years, with the points in the earlier years discounted by 50% (year 2) and 75% (year 1). This ranking of National Associations is based on the performance of all their clubs in the Euro Hockey League and EuroHockey Club Trophy. The total number of points won by clubs from each country is divided by the number of clubs to which the National Association was entitled in that year's competitions.  Each qualifying National Association is required to enter their national champion club but is otherwise free to decide the system of qualification for their own clubs for any remaining places to which they are entitled that year.  To be eligible to play in the Euro Hockey League a country must enter 2 clubs in the EHF club competitions.

Tournament.

For the 2019–20 season the EHL moves to a new format with the removal of the round-robin tournament in round one. Instead, a knock-out format will be used from the start of the tournament. Round one will be replaced by the knockout 16 with four sides advancing to the quarter-finals, or Final 8 as it's called, on Easter. The Final8 will consist of the champions from the top four nations on the EHL rankings table alongside the four sides that qualified from the knockout 16. This means that instead of a total of 24 teams from 12 associations there will be 20 teams from 11 associations.

Sponsorship.

The much-improved presentation and packaging of the Euro Hockey League have attracted a number of high-profile sponsors, most notably Dutch bank ABN-AMRO, who are the presenting sponsor of the tournament. Volvo and Intersport are also named sponsors of the Euro Hockey League, while partnerships have been formed with McGregor, ErmaSport, ATP - The Advanced Travel Partner and Dutch advertising agency Ideas for Brands.

Lower tournaments.

The Euro Hockey League is the top men's club competition in Europe. Below the Euro Hockey League is the EuroHockey Club Trophy, then below that the EuroHockey Club Challenge 1, the EuroHockey Club Challenge 2, and so on. This structure is designed to give every EHF member nation the opportunity to enter their best clubs into European competition at an appropriate level, and through that exposure to improve the level of their domestic hockey.

The Euro Hockey League is an annual men's field hockey cup competition organized by the EHF for the very top hockey clubs in Europe. The competition was launched at the start of the 2007-08 hockey season when it merged and replaced the men's EuroHockey Club Champions Cup (the champions competition) and the EuroHockey Cup Winners Cup (the Cup Winners' competition). Featuring many of the world's best players, the EHL is now seen as the pinnacle of club hockey in Europe (hockey's equivalent of the UEFA Champions League) with top clubs from across the continent playing what many consider to be the most exciting and dynamic club hockey in the world.

Die Euro Hockey League (EHL) ist ein zur Saison 2007/08 vom europäischen Verband EHF neu eingeführter Europapokal-Wettbewerb im Hockey (Feld) der Herren und seit 2009/10 auch der Damen, ähnlich der "Champions League" im Fußball oder Handball, der die beiden bisherigen Europapokal-Wettbewerbe EuroHockey Club Champions Cup und EuroHockey Cup Winners Cup ablöst. Im Damenbereich wurden diese Wettbewerbe bis einschließlich der Saison 2018/19 weiter ausgespielt, zu Ostern 2020 startet die EHL mit einem etwas kleineren Format auch für die Damen.


Presentation.

The hypothesis applies to thoughts that have propositional content, and is not meant to describe everything that goes on in the mind. It appeals to the representational theory of thought to explain what those tokens actually are and how they behave. There must be a mental representation that stands in some unique relationship with the subject of the representation and has specific content. Complex thoughts get their semantic content from the content of the basic thoughts and the relations that they hold to each other. Thoughts can only relate to each other in ways that do not violate the syntax of thought. The syntax by means of which these two sub-parts are combined can be expressed in first-order predicate calculus.  The thought "John is tall" is clearly composed of two sub-parts, the concept of John and the concept of tallness, combined in a manner that may be expressed in first-order predicate calculus as a predicate 'T' ("is tall") that holds of the entity 'j' (John). A fully articulated proposal for what a LOT would have to take into account greater complexities such as quantification and propositional attitudes (the various attitudes people can have towards statements; for example I might "believe" or "see" or merely "suspect" that John is tall).

Reception.

The language of thought hypothesis has been both controversial and groundbreaking. Some philosophers reject the LOTH, arguing that our public language "is" our mental language—a person who speaks English "thinks" in English. But others contend that complex thought is present even in those who do not possess a public language (e.g. babies, aphasics, and even higher-order primates), and therefore some form of mentalese must be innate.  The notion that mental states are causally efficacious diverges from behaviorists like Gilbert Ryle, who held that there is no break between the cause of mental state and effect of behavior. Rather, Ryle proposed that people act in some way because they are in a disposition to act in that way, that these causal mental states are representational. An objection to this point comes from John Searle in the form of biological naturalism, a non-representational theory of mind that accepts the causal efficacy of mental states. Searle divides intentional states into low-level brain activity and high-level mental activity. The lower-level, nonrepresentational neurophysiological processes have causal power in intention and behavior rather than some higher-level mental representation.  Tim Crane, in his book "The Mechanical Mind", states that, while he agrees with Fodor, his reason is very different. A logical objection challenges LOTH’s explanation of how sentences in natural languages get their meaning. That is the view that “Snow is white” is TRUE if and only if "P" is TRUE in the LOT, where "P" means the same thing in LOT as “Snow is white” means in the natural language. Any symbol manipulation is in need of some way of deriving what those symbols mean. If the meaning of sentences is explained regarding sentences in the LOT, then the meaning of sentences in LOT must get their meaning from somewhere else. There seems to be an infinite regress of sentences getting their meaning. Sentences in natural languages get their meaning from their users (speakers, writers). Therefore, sentences in mentalese must get their meaning from the way in which they are used by thinkers and so on "ad infinitum". This regress is often called the homunculus regress.  Daniel Dennett accepts that homunculi may be explained by other homunculi and denies that this would yield an infinite regress of homunculi. Each explanatory homunculus is “stupider” or more basic than the homunculus it explains, but this regress is not infinite but bottoms out at a basic level that is so simple that it does not need interpretation. John Searle points out that it still follows that the bottom-level homunculi are manipulating some sorts of symbols.  LOTH implies that the mind has some tacit knowledge of the logical rules of inference and the linguistic rules of syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (concept or word meaning). If LOTH cannot show that the mind knows that it is following the particular set of rules in question, then the mind is not computational because it is not governed by computational rules. Also, the apparent incompleteness of this set of rules in explaining behavior is pointed out. Many conscious beings behave in ways that are contrary to the rules of logic. Yet this irrational behavior is not accounted for by any rules, showing that there is at least some behavior that does not act by this set of rules.  Another objection within representational theory of mind has to do with the relationship between propositional attitudes and representation. Dennett points out that a chess program can have the attitude of “wanting to get its queen out early,” without having representation or rule that explicitly states this. A multiplication program on a computer computes in the computer language of 1’s and 0’s, yielding representations that do not correspond with any propositional attitude.  Susan Schneider has recently developed a version of LOT that departs from Fodor's approach in numerous ways. In her book, The Language of Thought: a New Philosophical Direction, Schneider argues that Fodor's pessimism about the success of cognitive science is misguided, and she outlines an approach to LOT that integrates LOT with neuroscience. She also stresses that LOT that is not wedded to the extreme view that all concepts are innate. She fashions a new theory of mental symbols, and a related two-tiered theory of concepts, in which a concept's nature is determined by its LOT symbol type and its meaning.

Connection to connectionism.

Connectionism is an approach to artificial intelligence that often accepts a lot of the same theoretical framework that LOTH accepts, namely that mental states are computational and causally efficacious and very often that they are representational. However, connectionism stresses the possibility of thinking machines, most often realized as artificial neural networks, an inter-connectional set of nodes, and describes mental states as able to create memory by modifying the strength of these connections over time. Some popular types of neural networks are interpretations of units, and learning algorithm. "Units" can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons. A learning algorithm is such that, over time, a change in connection weight is possible, allowing networks to modify their connections. Connectionist neural networks are able to change over time via their activation. An activation is a numerical value that represents any aspect of a unit that a neural network has at any time. Activation spreading is the spreading or taking over of other over time of the activation to all other units connected to the activated unit.  Since connectionist models can change over time, supporters of connectionism claim that it can solve the problems that LOTH brings to classical AI. These problems are those that show that machines with a LOT syntactical framework very often are much better at solving problems and storing data than human minds, yet much worse at things that the human mind is quite adept at such as recognizing facial expressions and objects in photographs and understanding nuanced gestures. Fodor defends LOTH by arguing that a connectionist model is just some realization or implementation of the classical computational theory of mind and therein necessarily employs a symbol-manipulating LOT.  Fodor and Zenon Pylyshyn use the notion of cognitive architecture in their defense. Cognitive architecture is the set of basic functions of an organism with representational input and output. They argue that it is a law of nature that cognitive capacities are productive, systematic and inferentially coherent—they have the ability to produce and understand sentences of a certain structure if they can understand one sentence of that structure. A cognitive model must have a cognitive architecture that explains these laws and properties in some way that is compatible with the scientific method. Fodor and Pylyshyn say that cognitive architecture can only explain the property of systematicity by appealing to a system of representations and that connectionism either employs a cognitive architecture of representations or else does not. If it does, then connectionism uses LOT. If it does not then it is empirically false.  Connectionists have responded to Fodor and Pylyshyn by denying that connectionism uses LOT, by denying that cognition is essentially a function that uses representational input and output or denying that systematicity is a law of nature that rests on representation. Some connectionists have developed implementational connectionist models that can generalize in a symbolic fashion by incorporating variables.

Empirical testing.

Since LOTH came to be it has been empirically tested. Not all experiments have confirmed the hypothesis;

The language of thought hypothesis (LOTH), sometimes known as thought ordered mental expression (TOME), is a view in linguistics, philosophy of mind and cognitive science, forwarded by American philosopher Jerry Fodor. It describes the nature of thought as possessing "language-like" or compositional structure (sometimes known as "mentalese"). On this view, simple concepts combine in systematic ways (akin to the rules of grammar in language) to build thoughts. In its most basic form, the theory states that thought, like language, has syntax.

Die Sprache des Geistes (, ) ist eine Hypothese, die von der Existenz einer Art Sprache ausgeht, in der Denkvorgänge stattfinden. Der bedeutendste Vertreter dieser These ist Jerry Fodor, der die Idee 1975 in seinem Buch "The Language of Thought" ausarbeitet. Der Ausdruck wurde vermutlich 1973 von Gilbert Harman zum ersten Mal in diesem Zusammenhang gebraucht.


Biography.

Milan Radoje Vukčević was born in Belgrade. In 1955 he won the Yugoslav junior championship, drawing a six-game match with Bent Larsen in the same year. In 1960, he played for Yugoslavia at the Chess Olympiad in Leipzig and had the second best overall score at the Student Chess Olympiad in Leningrad. In 1963 he moved to the US, settling in Ohio, and westernising his surname.  Vukcevich decided on a career in science rather than chess, and in the year he moved to the United States he entered MIT. He was an instructor at Case Western Reserve University for six years before leaving to work for General Electric, where, from 1989, he served as Chief Scientist. He published two books on science.  Vukcevich continued to play chess. In 1969 he was joint winner of the U.S. Open Chess Championship, along with Pal Benko and Robert Byrne. In 1975 he finished third in the U.S. Championship, ahead of Samuel Reshevsky, Robert Byrne, Larry Evans and Arthur Bisguier among others. From 1976-79, he played in the National Telephone League, scoring 16.5 from 22 games, including wins against Bisguier, Yasser Seirawan, Nick De Firmian and Leonid Shamkovich.  Vukcevich died in 2003 in Cleveland, Ohio and is buried in Evergreen Hill Cemetery in Chagrin Falls.  His son, Marko, is a former guitar player in the band Mushroomhead from Cleveland. The "Vukcevich Super Cup" was created in his honor soon after his death.

Chess compositions.

Vukcevich is better known as an author of chess problems than as a player, however, being the first American resident to be awarded the title of International Composition Grandmaster by FIDE. In 1981 he published "Chess by Milan: Problems and Games of Dr. Milan R. Vukcevich" and in 1998 was inducted into the US Chess Hall of Fame, becoming only the second person (after Sam Loyd) to be primarily inducted for their achievements in problem composition.  Vukcevich's compositions were gathered together in "My Chess Compositions" (2003). He composed in all genres, including directmates, selfmates, helpmates, problems with fairy pieces and a small number of endgame studies. On the left is one of Vukcevich's famous problems. The key is 1. Bb6 with the threat 2. Qg6! and 3. Ne4# and 3. e4#. If 2.... Rxf3 then 3. Rxf3#, which explains the choice of the key. In the main variations Black unpins the Queen, which can then form new batteries: 1.... Rf5 2. Qf4!! (threat 3. Ne4#) Re5+ 3. Be4#; 2.... Rxf4+ e4#. 1.... Nf5! 2. Qh4!! (threat 3. Ne4#) Nxe3+ Rg6#; 2.... Nxh4+ 3. e4#. Additional variation occurs after 1.... e5 2. Qf5! Qxf5+ 3. e4#.

Milan R. Vukcevich (born Milan Radoje Vukčević; March 11, 1937 – May 10, 2003) was a Serbian-American chemist, a grandmaster of chess problem composition and writer.

Milan Radoje Vukcevich ("Vukčević") (* 11. März 1937 in Belgrad; † 10. Mai 2003 in Shaker Heights) war ein jugoslawischer Großmeister für Schachkomposition, starker Schachspieler und bedeutender Forscher.


The scale.

The Danjon scale is described in the following table:

Determining the value of L.

Determination of the value of L for an eclipse is best done near mid-totality with the naked eye. The scale is subjective, and different observers may determine different values. In addition, different parts of the Moon may have different L values, depending on their distance from the center of the Earth's umbra.

Factors affecting the value of L.

Many factors can affect the appearance of the Moon during a lunar eclipse. The Moon's path through the Earth's umbra is important, but so too are the current conditions of the Earth's atmosphere. While the Earth's shadow blocks any direct light from striking the Moon during a lunar eclipse, some light is refracted through the Earth's atmosphere giving the Moon a red hue.  The amount of light refracted affects the brightness of the moon at mid-eclipse, and this depends on several factors. Volcanic eruptions are one of the most significant - eruptions which spew significant amounts of volcanic ash into the air are generally followed by several years of dark, deep red eclipses. The effect of the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo on subsequent lunar eclipses was very noticeable, with the eclipse of 9 December 1992 rated 0 on the Danjon Scale by many observers.  It is also thought that the solar cycle has some effect on the darkness of lunar eclipses--indeed Danjon established the scale for this reason.

The Danjon scale is a five-point scale useful for measuring the appearance and luminosity of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse. It was proposed by André-Louis Danjon in 1921, when postulating that the brightness of a lunar eclipse was related to the solar cycle. An eclipse's rating on the scale is traditionally denoted by the letter "L".

Die Danjon-Skala ist eine fünfstufige Skala zur Klassifizierung der Färbung und Helligkeit von Mondfinsternissen, die neben den geometrischen Eigenschaften der Finsternis auch von den aktuellen Bedingungen in der Erdatmosphäre abhängen. Der Skala liegen keine physikalischen Messwerte zugrunde, sondern der entsprechende Wert wird vom Beobachter abgeschätzt. Sie wurde von André-Louis Danjon vorgeschlagen und ist heute nach ihm benannt. Der Wert der Dajon-Skala wird mit dem Buchstaben L bezeichnet.