Early life.

Harley was born in 1951 in Deptford, London, as Stephen Malcolm Ronald Nice, and was the second of five children in his family. His father was a milkman and his mother a semi-professional jazz singer.  During the summer of 1953, Harley contracted polio, causing him to spend four years in hospital between the ages of three and 16. He underwent two major surgeries in 1963 and 1966. After recovering from the first operation at the age of 12, Harley was introduced to the poetry of T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence, the prose of John Steinbeck, Virginia Woolf and Ernest Hemingway, and the music of Bob Dylan, which inspired him to a career of words and music.  From the age of nine, Harley began taking classical violin lessons and would later play as part of his grammar school orchestra. Aged 10, he began learning the guitar after receiving a Spanish nylon-strung guitar from his parents at Christmas. Harley was a pupil at Edmund Waller Primary School in New Cross, London. He then attended Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys' Grammar School until he was 17. He left school without completing his advanced level exams.

Career.

In 1968, at the age of 17, Harley began his first full-time job, working as a trainee accountant with the "Daily Express" – despite having gained only 24% in his mock O-level maths exam. From there he progressed to become a reporter. After being interviewed by several newspaper editors, Harley signed to train with Essex County Newspapers. Over three years, Harley worked at the "Essex County Standard", the "Braintree and Witham Times", the "Maldon and Burnham Standard" and the "Colchester Evening Gazette". He later returned to London to work for the "East London Advertiser" ("ELA"). Harley became disillusioned with the job when his editor insisted he write a report on a shoplifter who had absentmindedly walked out with a tin of soup and a tin of baked beans. Taking advice from his union representative, he stopped wearing a tie, grew his hair and was duly sacked. Among many of Harley's peers who went on to gain successful careers in national journalism were John Blake and Richard Madeley; the latter took over Harley's desk at the "ELA" in 1972.  Harley started his musical career playing in bars and clubs in 1971, mainly at folk venues on open-mike nights. He sang at Les Cousins, Bunjies and The Troubadour on nights featuring John Martyn, Ralph McTell, Martin Carthy and Julie Felix, who were all popular musicians within the London folk movement of the time. In 1971, he auditioned for the folk band Odin as rhythm guitarist and co-singer, which was where he met Jean-Paul Crocker, who would become the first Cockney Rebel violinist. Harley began busking around London in 1972, including on the Underground and in Portobello Road, whilst also writing songs. After the folk scene proved not to be his preference, he formed the band Cockney Rebel in late 1972 as a vehicle for his own work.

Cockney Rebel 1972–77.

The original Cockney Rebel consisted of Harley, Crocker, drummer Stuart Elliott, bassist Paul Jeffreys and guitarist Nick Jones. Jones was soon replaced by Pete Newnham; however, Harley felt the band did not need electric guitar, particularly with the arrival of keyboardist Milton Reame-James. They settled on the combination of Crocker's electric violin and Reame-James' Fender Rhodes piano.  During 1972, representatives of Cockney Rebel began to send demo tapes to various labels. Mickie Most discovered the band at a London nightclub known as The Speakeasy Club and offered them their first contract with his RAK Publishing. In turn this influenced the A&R personnel at EMI Records, who then offered the band a three-album deal. With producer Neil Harrison, Cockney Rebel recorded their debut album, "The Human Menagerie", during June and July 1973. Their debut single "Sebastian" became a hit across Europe, but failed to chart in the UK. When released in November 1973, "The Human Menagerie" suffered a similar fate. Despite the lack of commercial success, the album was critically well-received and soon gained cult status.  "The Human Menagerie"s lack of success led EMI to feel that the band had yet to record a potential hit single. In response, Harley went away to re-work the unrecorded song "Judy Teen", with the objective of making it a single material. "Judy Teen" was released in March 1974 and peaked at No. 5 in the UK. During February and March 1974, the band recorded their second album "The Psychomodo", which was produced by Harley and Alan Parsons. Released in June, the album peaked at No. 8 in the UK. From May until July the band embarked on a major UK tour to promote the album; tensions grew among them as the tour progressed. On 18 July they received a 'Gold Award' for outstanding new act of 1974; a week later, with the tour finished, several members left over the disagreements. Crocker, Reame-James and Jeffreys chose to quit, having unsuccessfully demanded to write material for the group despite the initial understanding that Harley was the sole songwriter. Following the band's split, the single "Mr. Soft", taken from "The Psychomodo", reached No. 8 in the UK.  Left without a permanent band, Harley soon began auditioning new musicians. Meanwhile, Harley and Parsons worked with Dutch singer Yvonne Keeley in the studio. In August 1974, EMI released her version of "Tumbling Down" as a single, backed by another Cockney Rebel cover, "Loretta's Tale". During September, Harley recorded his debut solo single "Big Big Deal", which was released in November. The song failed to enter the UK Top 50; however, it did enter the unnumbered BMRB's UK Breakers chart. By this time, a new line-up of Cockney Rebel had been finalised. With original drummer Stuart Elliott remaining in the band, the new line-up included guitarist Jim Cregan, keyboard player Duncan Mackay and bassist George Ford. Renamed Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel, they recorded the album "The Best Years of Our Lives" in November and December 1974, with Harley and Parsons again producing.  In January 1975, the lead single from the forthcoming album, "Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me)", was released. Becoming the band's biggest hit, the song reached the number one spot on the UK Chart in February and received a UK Silver certification that month. It was also Harley's only chart entry in America, reaching No. 96 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1976. In a 2002 television interview, Harley described how the lyrics were directed at the former band members who, he felt, had abandoned him. As of 2015, the song has sold around 1.5 million copies in the UK. The Performing Rights Society have confirmed the song as one of the most played records in British broadcasting, while over 120 cover versions of the song have been recorded by other artists.  "The Best Years of Our Lives" was released in March 1975, reaching No. 5 in the UK. The second single from the album, "Mr. Raffles (Man, It Was Mean)", was also a success, reaching No. 13. The band embarked on a UK and European tour to promote the album. During the summer, the band recorded their fourth studio album "Timeless Flight". Around the same period Harley also produced Dutch singer Patricia Paay's album "Beam of Light", with the members of Cockney Rebel contributing to many of the tracks. On the album, Paay covered "Sebastian", as well as "Understand", which would also appear on "Timeless Flight". Later in the year, Harley and the band went on tour in the US as a support act to The Kinks. As the band had not achieved commercial success in the States, the compilation "A Closer Look" was released exclusively for the American market.  "Timeless Flight" was released in February 1976, and became a Top 20 UK success, peaking at No. 18; however, the two singles "Black or White" and "White, White Dove" failed to reach the UK Top 50. They reached No. 2 and No. 6 on the BMRB's UK Breakers Chart respectively. Another UK and European tour followed the album's release. Between June and September 1976, the band recorded their fifth album "Love's a Prima Donna". In July they released a cover of George Harrison's "Here Comes the Sun", which reached No. 10 in the UK and became the band's last Top 40 single, discounting later re-releases of "Make Me Smile". "Love's a Prima Donna" was released in October 1976 and peaked at No. 28 in the UK. It also spawned a second charting single; "(I Believe) Love's a Prima Donna", which reached No. 41. In America, "(Love) Compared with You" was released as a single. During August and September 1976, Mackay recorded his second solo album "Score", which was released in 1977. Harley wrote the lyrics to four tracks, and provided lead vocals on "Time is No Healer".  In December 1976, the band embarked on an eight-date UK tour to promote "Love's a Prima Donna". During the early part of 1977, Harley provided lead vocals on The Alan Parsons Project's song "The Voice" for their album "I Robot". In July, it was announced that Harley was disbanding Cockney Rebel. To coincide with the split, the live album "" was released, which peaked at No. 40, and spawned the single "The Best Years of Our Lives (live)".

Beginnings of solo career 1977–79.

In 1977, Harley began working on his debut solo album, and flew to Los Angeles in February 1978 to complete it. Soon afterward he decided to leave Britain and live in Los Angeles. He purchased a house in Beverly Hills and stayed there for nearly a year to gain new experience and inspirations. However, Harley later admitted that during his time in America he was never inspired to write a single song. The album "Hobo with a Grin" was released in July 1978, but was a commercial failure. The lead single "Roll the Dice" failed to chart, as did the second single, a remixed version of "Someone's Coming", which was released in early 1979. On the album, the track "Amerika the Brave" featured Marc Bolan's last studio performance, recorded shortly before his fatal car accident.  Harley returned to London at the end of 1978. In February 1979, he recorded his second solo album "The Candidate". On 12 May, Harley and Peter Gabriel appeared as guest stars at one of Kate Bush's Hammersmith Odeon concerts during her Tour of Life. The show was staged as a benefit concert for the family of lighting technician Bill Duffield, who had died after a tragic fall earlier on Bush's tour. Duffield had previously worked for Harley and Gabriel. The concert was Harley's first performance on stage for over two years. Released in September, "The Candidate" was another commercial failure, although its single "Freedom's Prisoner" was moderately successful, peaking at No. 58. In October, Harley performed a one-off show at the Hammersmith Odeon. Following the disappointing sales of "The Candidate", EMI dropped Harley from their label.

1980–89.

During the 1980s, which he would later described as his "wilderness years", Harley took time out from the music business while his two children were growing up. In 1980 he formed a new line-up of Cockney Rebel for a short UK tour in July, followed by a UK Christmas tour. The latter tour followed the release of the compilation "The Best of Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel" in November. During the same year Harley also co-wrote "Somebody Special" for Rod Stewart's 1980 album "Foolish Behaviour". The song was released as the album's third single in 1981, reaching No. 71 on the US Billboard Hot 100.  In 1981, Harley was approached by Rick Wakeman to provide vocals on the song "No Name" for Wakeman's album "1984". He also made an appearance to perform the song at Wakeman's concert at the Hammersmith Odeon. Harley and his band would embark on another small UK tour during Christmas 1981.  In March 1982, the band released the non-album single "I Can't Even Touch You". Produced by Midge Ure, the song failed to chart, despite expectations that it would become a hit. The band played a one-off concert in London in June 1983, while Harley also released the single "Ballerina (Prima Donna)", which was written and produced by Mike Batt. It was one of Harley's most successful singles of the decade, peaking at No. 51 in the UK. In July, the band appeared at the Reading Festival.  In 1984, Harley signed to RAK for a five-album deal. In December 1984, Harley and his band played a one-off concert at the Camden Palace in London. It proved to be the band's last show until 1989, and was filmed for a special TV broadcast. It was also released on VHS in 1985, titled "Live from London". In May 1985, Harley released the single "Irresistible", under the band's name. Released as his debut for RAK Records, and produced by Mickie Most, it peaked at No. 81 in the UK. Harley had originally offered the song to Rod Stewart, who encouraged Harley to record it in the hope that it would put him back in the charts.  Later that year, Mike Batt suggested that Harley sing the title track of the upcoming "The Phantom of the Opera" musical. Andrew Lloyd Webber had decided to record and release a single to promote the upcoming musical. Agreeing to audition, Harley was given the job and soon recorded the song with Sarah Brightman. The song reached No. 7 in the UK charts in January 1986. A music video was also created, featuring Harley as the Phantom. A prime candidate for the role in the musical, Harley soon auditioned to play the Phantom. Successful in getting the part, he then spent five months working on the role, including rehearsal with producer Hal Prince. He was later surprised when he ended up being replaced by Michael Crawford.  While rehearsing for the musical, Harley released the non-album single "Heartbeat Like Thunder" in April 1986, though it was a commercial failure. In June 1986, a newly remixed version of "Irresistible" appeared as a single. Released as the lead single from Harley's forthcoming solo album "El Gran Senor", the single failed to chart. Shortly afterwards, RAK folded and was sold to EMI, leaving the album to be shelved. Later that year, Harley starred as the 16th-century playwright Christopher Marlowe in the musical-drama "Marlowe", which ran in New York and London. Harley's performance was described by one leading critic as "a major and moving performance." During the same period, Harley undertook an English 'A' level course, to which he devoted three hours of study each day. He passed in June 1987 with a 'B' grade.  In 1988, Batt approached Harley to provide vocals on his song "Whatever You Believe", alongside Jon Anderson. On 3 May 1988, the trio performed the song at a live TV broadcast at Battersea Park in London, as part of the Thames/LWT charity fundraising effort for the ITV Telethon. Later in November, a studio version was released as a charity TV tie-in single under the name Anderson, Harley & Batt. It did not chart. Following its use in a successful TV advert for Trebor Softmints, "Mr Soft" was re-issued as a single in 1988, but also failed to chart.  In 1989, Harley assembled a new line-up of Cockney Rebel and embarked on a comeback tour named "All is Forgiven". The tour was a success, which led Harley to continue performing with various incarnations of Cockney Rebel throughout the 1990s and beyond. To promote the 1989 tour, Harley released the solo single "When I'm with You", which had been recorded before the tour with ex-Cockney Rebel members Duncan Mackay and Jim Cregan at London's Point Studios. Later in October, a VHS using concert footage from the tour was released under the title "".  In late 1989, Harley was scheduled to play the title role in a feature film based on the true story of John 'Babbacombe' Lee, an Englishman famous for surviving three attempts to hang him for murder. However, the film never raised the necessary funding and the project was cancelled in the early 1990s.

1990–99.

Throughout 1989 and 1990, Harley continued recording material and working on a new album. During 1990, Harley also contributed to the album "Poetry in Motion" by providing lead vocals on the track "Harrow on the Hill". The album consisted of fourteen tracks featuring the words of Sir John Betjeman and music by Mike Read. In October 1991, Harley was invited to play Night of the Proms, where he performed "Sebastian" and "Make Me Smile".  Harley's solo album "Yes You Can" was released in Europe in 1992 and the UK in 1993. The album featured a mix of older songs dating from the "El Gran Senor" period, as well as some newer tracks. In Europe, "Irresistible" was released as a single from the album, while "Star for a Week (Dino)" was released as a UK promotional single in 1993. In 1992, a re-issue of "Make Me Smile" reached No. 46 in the UK. By the early 1990s, Harley and his band had established themselves as a major live act across Europe.  In 1995, the live compilation "Live at the BBC" was released; it included some early Cockney Rebel sessions from 1974, as well as a 1992 session. The same year saw a re-issue of "Make Me Smile" reach No. 33 in the UK. Harley released a new studio album, "Poetic Justice", in 1996, which was a critical success. In 1997, he participated in the Granada Men & Motors TV music quiz show "Elvis Has Just Left the Building", hosted by Mike Sweeney, with Noddy Holder and Clint Boon as team captains.  In 1998, Harley embarked on his first acoustic tour "Stripped to the Bare Bones". Alongside Cockney Rebel violinist/guitarist Nick Pynn, the pair played over a hundred dates, including fifty-four concerts in the UK alone. Coinciding with the tour was the release of the new compilation album "More Than Somewhat – The Very Best of Steve Harley", which reached No. 82 in the UK. In September 1999, the live acoustic album "Stripped to the Bare Bones" was released, which had been recorded at The Jazz Café in London during March 1998. In 1999, the new compilation "The Cream of Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel" was released, which would later reach No. 21 on the UK Budget Albums Chart in 2006.  In 1999, Harley began presenting the BBC Radio programme "The Sounds of the Seventies", with the first series that year featuring eight editions. He also formed his own label "Comeuppance" that year.

2000–09.

In 2000, Harley re-issued his first two solo albums "Hobo with a Grin" and "The Candidate" on CD through Comeuppance, while in March–May he embarked the acoustic tour "Stripped Again", accompanied by Cockney Rebel guitarist Robbie Gladwell. That same year saw the airing of the second series of "The Sounds of the Seventies" show, which had twelve editions across 2000. Following high listening figures for the first two series, Harley accepted the BBC's offer to present the show all-year round. To accommodate his touring schedule, Harley began the new deal by pre-recording three shows at a time. The show continued for the next eight years, with the last programme airing on 27 March 2008. The show reached an audience of over 400,000 weekly.  In 2000, Harley started working on a new studio album and began talks with various record companies. Although no album would surface for a few years, the single "A Friend for Life" was released in April 2001. It reached No. 125 in the UK. Co-written with Jim Cregan, Harley had offered the song to Rod Stewart, who would later record a version for his 2015 album "Another Country". In 2001, Harley and the band embarked on their first tour in four years, which was named "Back with the Band".  Since 2002, Harley has been involved with the charity Mines Advisory Group. He later became an Ambassador for the charity and has led two fundraising treks; one around Cambodia in 2002 and the other across Death Valley in 2007. During 2002, Harley was also awarded a Gold Badge of Merit by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters. In 2003, Harley released the acoustic live album "", featuring recordings from various UK concerts played during the previous autumn with Cregan. Towards the end of the year, Harley travelled to Cologne to collaborate with German artist Guido Dossche on the song "Ich Bin Gott", which was released as a single in Germany in 2004.  In 2004, the live album "Anytime! (A Live Set)" was released under the name The Steve Harley Band. During June of that year, Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel played at the Isle of Wight Festival. The full performance was released on DVD in 2005, titled "Live at the Isle of Wight Festival". In June 2005, a newly recorded version of "Make Me Smile" was released, dubbed as the "30th Anniversary Re-mix", which reached No. 55 in the UK.  A new studio album, "The Quality of Mercy", was released in 2005, which was Harley's first studio album to be released under the Cockney Rebel name since 1976. To promote the album, the band embarked on their biggest UK and European tour since the 1970s, with over 50 dates set between September–December. The album was a critical success and also charted at No. 40 in Norway in early 2006. The album included "A Friend for Life", while "The Last Goodbye" was released from it as a single in 2006. It reached No. 186 in the UK, and No. 21 on the UK Independent Singles Chart.  In 2006, EMI released a CD box-set compilation album spanning Cockney Rebel and Harley's solo work, titled "The Cockney Rebel - A Steve Harley Anthology". In 2007, Harley starred with Mike Bennett in the West End premiere of the Samuel Beckett plays "Rough for Theatre I" and "Rough for Theatre II". The plays ran for a week in July at London's Arts Theatre. In 2008, Harley released his first book "The Impression of Being Relaxed". Published by Halstar, it is a collection of diary entries Harley had published on his website between 2000 and 2008. In 2009, Harley received a Special Award from Childline Rocks for his work for charity at the "Classic Rock" magazine Award ceremony at London's Park Lane Hotel. His work raising money for the Mines Advisory group and several schools for Disabled Children were cited in a speech delivered by blues guitarist Joe Bonamassa.

2010–present.

During September and October 2009, Harley and his band returned to the studio to record a new album at Leeders Farm Residential Studios. In May 2010, Harley released his new studio album "Stranger Comes to Town", which peaked at No. 187 in the UK. Described by Harley as a protest album, two digital singles were released from the album; "Faith & Virtue" and "For Sale. Baby Shoes. Never Worn". Earlier that year in February, Harley, a self-confessed technophobe, attributed poor literacy rates and the moral corrosion of British society to modern technology.  In April 2012, Harley teamed up with Australian guitarist Joe Matera and embarked on a promotional tour of Australia. The pair made a number of appearances on radio and TV, performing live acoustic sessions. This included the SBS TV show RocKwiz, Noise 11 TV and Melbourne radio station Gold FM 104.3. In October 2012, EMI released a remastered four-disc box-set anthology compilation "", which chronicled the recording career of the original Cockney Rebel line-up.  On 24 November 2012, Harley and his band, along with the Orchestra of the Swan and their Chamber Choir, performed the first two Cockney Rebel albums "The Human Menagerie" and "The Psychomodo" in their entirety for the first time. A live double-CD and DVD was released in October 2013 of this performance, titled "Birmingham". The album peaked at No. 158 in the UK and No. 36 on the UK Independent Albums Chart. In 2014, Harley and the band performed the same show again four times in the UK.  In January 2015, "Make Me Smile" re-charted at No. 72 in the UK, after "Top Gear" presenters Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May urged viewers to download the song, as part of their discussion that Harley had recently received a speeding fine. Later in September, Harley's first new song of five years, "Ordinary People", was released as a single on iTunes. In November, Harley and the surviving members of the original second line-up of Cockney Rebel, embarked on a 16-date UK tour to celebrate the 40th anniversary of "The Best Years of Our Lives" album. On the tour, the band were backed by the Mona-Lisa Twins.  In 2015, Harley pledged to help raise funds for a new memorial to his late friend Mick Ronson. In April 2016, Harley played for free at the Hull City Hall to help kick-start the appeal. In November 2016, Harley was one of a number of musicians who teamed up with British Members of Parliament and the Royal Opera House Thurrock Community Chorus to record a charity version of the Rolling Stones song "You Can't Always Get What You Want" in memory of Labour MP Jo Cox. The song was released by Chrysalis Records in December 2016, with all proceedings going to the Jo Cox Foundation. It reached No. 136 on the UK Singles Chart, No. 24 on the UK Singles Sales Chart and No. 9 on the Top 30 Indie Singles Chart.  Between 2010 and 2019, Harley's acoustic concerts were played alongside Wickens and Lascelles. These concerts were originally marketed as the "3 Man Acoustic Show" before being renamed to "Acoustic Trio". Harley's sixth solo album, "Uncovered", including the single "I've Just Seen a Face", was released in February 2020. A touring band, billed as the Steve Harley Acoustic Band, was formed to promote the new album, featuring David Delarre on guitar, Wickens on guitar and violin, and Oli Heyhurst on double bass. In March 2020, all upcoming shows were postponed due to the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic.

Personal life.

Harley lives in North Essex with his wife, Dorothy, whom he married in February 1981. They have two children, Kerr and Greta. Harley has been involved in racehorse ownership since 1984, and racing has become his main pastime.

Steve Harley (born Stephen Malcolm Ronald Nice; 27 February 1951) is an English singer and songwriter, best known as frontman of the rock group Cockney Rebel, with whom he still tours.

Steve Harley, bürgerlich "Steven Nice" (* 27. Februar 1951 in London), ist ein britischer Musiker und Komponist. Bekannt wurde er in den 1970er Jahren als Gründer und Sänger der erfolgreichen britischen Glam-Rock-Band Cockney Rebel.


History.

The schweizerische Waggonfabrik ("Swiss Wagon Factory") was founded in 1853 by Friedrich Peyer im Hof, Heinrich Moser, and Johann Conrad Neher. From 1854, it produced railway cars for the emerging Swiss railway companies. Friedrich Peyer had been an early proponent of railway construction and was one of the directors of Swiss Northeastern Railway, also founded 1853. Their factory in Neuhausen am Rheinfall was originally powered by the nearby Rhine Falls and employed 150 workers, by the mid-1860s increased to 500 workers.

Firearms.

They produced a state-of-the-art rifle of their creation, the Prélaz-Burnand 1859, invented by gunsmith Jean-Louis Joseph Prélaz and forestry inspector Colonel Ėdouard Burnand (father of prolific Swiss painter Eugène Burnand In 1860, the rifle won a competition held by the Swiss Federal Ministry of Defence, resulting a contract to produce 30,000 pieces.). This rifle was adapted as the Springfield Model 1863.  Upon receiving the contract to produce rifles, the company name was changed to reflect its new emphasis on machined production, becoming Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft (SIG); in English, Swiss Industrial Company; and, in French, Société Industrielle Suisse.  SIG produced other firearms and pioneered the first automatic rifle, the Mondragón Rifle, which was produced by SIG between 1908 and 1910. The SIG P210 pistol was developed in 1937 based on the French Modèle 1935 pistol, and was adopted by the Swiss military in 1949 as the ""Pistole 49"". The single-action semi-automatic P210 brought SIG much acclaim, due to the precision manufacturing processes and resultant accuracy and reliability. The P210 frame design incorporates external rails that fit closely with the slide, thus eliminating play in the mechanism during firing. The P210 was noted for its extreme accuracy. The Petter-Browning patent was a refinement—and John Moses Browning's last design—of the Browning Hi-Power (P35).  In 1975, the Swiss military replaced the P210 with the P220, dubbed the ""Pistole 75"", and signalled the first product of a partnership with J.P. Sauer & Sohn. In a 1984 bidding contest to provide more than 300,000 sidearms to the US military, the SIG Sauer P226 was narrowly defeated by Beretta's 92FS which was awarded the contract for the M9 pistol. The SIG SG 510, or Sturmgewehr 57, battle rifle was produced by SIG from 1957 to 1983. Its appearance was vaguely similar to the German MG34 light machine-gun, due to its ventilated barrel jacket. It employed roller-delayed blowback, as used on the CETME/HK rifles. The only general purpose machine gun produced by SIG was the SIG 710-3, which is based on the MG42.  During the 1970s, SIG purchased both Hämmerli and J.P. Sauer and Sohn, resulting in the formation of SIG Sauer. Due to Swiss restrictions on the export of military weapons, SIG entered into a relationship with the German company J.P. Sauer & Sohn, in order to give SIG access to the global firearms market.  In January 1985, SIGARMS was established in Tyson's Corner, Virginia, where its handgun models P220 and P230 were imported into the US from Sig Sauer in Germany. In 2007, SIGARMS changed its name to SIG Sauer. SIG Arm's division was purchased in 2000 by L & O Holding, and is now known as SIG SAUER AG.

Railways.

In the late 1970s, SIG was the designer and builder of Toronto's newest streetcar, the CLRV L1. Only the first six CLRV cars were made by SIG (out of an order for 10, as the rest were cancelled for cost-saving measures). The remaining 190 L2 vehicles, along with 52 articulated variants, were made by Thunder Bay, Ontario-based Urban Transportation Development Corporation (UTDC), now a subsidiary of Bombardier Transportation, which had, in late 1991, negotiated a $17 million subsidy from the Ontario government for the purchase.  In the early 1980s, SIG was the designer and builder of the Utrecht sneltram trams. 27 were ordered and delivered in 1983 and are still running to date (though scheduled for replacement during 2017 - 2018, and 2020).  The tilting system of the SBB RABDe 500 was developed by SIG. The railway branch of SIG was sold in 1995 to Fiat Ferroviaria.

Packaging.

The first packaging machines were produced in 1906 on behalf of the Lausanne-based company SAPAL (Société Anonyme des Plieuses Automatiques).  Most of SIG's earlier packaging equipment efforts were focused on small dry food items such as chocolates and candy. Following the 1982 FDA approval of hydrogen peroxide sterilization; on June 28, 1983, SIG acquired Doboy Packaging Machinery, Inc. of Wisconsin, growing its international presence. SIG COMBIBLOC INC. was then incorporated on September 1, 1983, in Columbus, Ohio, where production commenced in 1984. In 1989, through the acquisition of PKL in Linnich, Germany; SIG then entered the field of aseptic carton liquid packaging—this business grew significantly, and was later known as SIG Combibloc.  In 2000, SIG concentrated solely on food and beverage packaging technology. Management directed revenues from the sales of SIG Sauer and Rocktools to acquire global businesses, including "Krupp Kunstofftechnik" (Corpoplast/Blowtec/Kautex brands) and HAMBA in Germany; Ryka Blow Molds in Canada; and a substantial portion of the Italian conglomerate SASIB. The food-related (dry) businesses were organized under the SIG Pack division, while the beverage-related (wet) businesses formed SIG Beverages. Aseptic liquid packaging remained separate under SIG Combibloc.  This strategy, while intended to provide common customer bases with turnkey solutions for entire bottling or packaging lines, never gained enough momentum to be of any durable competitive advantage. Difficulties integrating vastly different businesses and employee cultures resulted in operational execution issues. In particular, high-profile commissioning and installation failures at SIG Beverages in 2003 and 2004 ultimately resulted in erosion of goodwill serious enough to be recorded on financial statements. A refocusing towards primarily aseptics and PET blow-molding resulted in a high number of divestitures and plant closures. The former SASIB wet businesses Simonazzi, Alfa and Meyer/Mojonnier were sold to Tetra Laval in 2005, while HAMBA and Kautex and Blowtec were sold separately to private investor groups. The food packaging businesses were sold to Robert Bosch Verpackungstechnik in 2004. The former SASIB dry unit Stewart Systems (bakery products) was sold to UCA Group in 2004, then merged with AMF Bakery Systems in 2008. Laser-guided vehicle manufacturer 80, part of the 1999 SASIB acquisition, was sold back to its original Italian owners in 2004. The considerably slimmed-down SIG Beverages unit, manufacturer of PET bottle blow-molding machinery, was sold off to the German concern Salzgitter AG in March 2008. This sale encompassed the subsidiaries Corpoplast, Asbofill, Plasmax and Moldtec.

SIG Combibloc.

SIG Combibloc focuses on aseptic packaging and remains an innovator in the liquid food and beverage packaging industry, providing full-scale systems and manufacturing supplies for companies in over 65 countries. In 2016, the company introduced Combibloc RS Composite, a composite structural inner layer which increases system stability and reduces the carbon footprint of carton packs. In 2017, SIG introduced the first individual QR codes with digital sourcing transparency, tailored for dairy product consumers.

Known by its initials, SIG, SIG Combibloc Group AG was previously known as SIG Holding AG, and was originally founded as Schweizerische Industrie Gesellschaft (German for Swiss Industrial Company; in French, as Société Industrielle Suisse; and, in Italian, as Societa Industriale Svizzera). SIG Combibloc Group AG has been active in various businesses during its more than 170 years of operation. Since 2000, the company has undergone strategic refocus, selling the SIG Sauer branch to L & O Holdings, and focusing on its packaging operations, SIG Pack and SIG Beverages, then, solely, on its SIG Combibloc aseptic carton infrastructure and packaging division.

Die SIG Combibloc Services AG (bis September 2018 SIG Combibloc Group AG, bis April 2009 SIG Holding AG, ursprünglich Schweizerische Industrie-Gesellschaft) ist ein im schweizerischen Neuhausen am Rheinfall beheimatetes Industrieunternehmen. Heute hält es ausschliesslich Beteiligungen an Unternehmen der Verpackungsindustrie.


Early life.

Congar was born in Sedan in northeast France in 1904. His father Georges Congar was a bank manager. Congar's hometown was occupied by the Germans for much of World War I, and his father was among the men deported by the Germans to Lithuania. Upon the urging of his mother, Lucie Congar née Desoye (called "Tere" by Yves throughout his life), Congar recorded the occupation in an extensive series of illustrated diaries which were later published. They provide a unique historical insight into the war from a child's point of view.  Encouraged by a local priest Daniel Lallement, Congar entered the diocesan seminary. Moving to Paris in 1921, he had Jacques Maritain among his philosophy teachers and the Dominican theologian Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange as a retreat master.

Priest and prisoner-of-war.

After a year of compulsory military service (1924–1925), which Congar spent in the Rhineland, in 1925 he joined the Dominican Order at Amiens, where he took "Marie-Joseph" as his name in religion. Towards the end of his theological studies from 1926 to 1931 at Le Saulchoir, the Dominican theologate which was then located in Kain-la-Tombe, Belgium, and focused on historical theology, Congar was ordained a priest on 25 July 1930 by Luigi Maglione, nuncio in Paris. In 1931 Congar defended his doctoral dissertation written at Le Saulchoir, on the unity of the Church.  Congar was a faculty member at Le Saulchoir from 1931 to 1939, moving with the Institution in 1937 from Kain-la-Tombe to Étiolles near Paris. In 1932 he began his teaching career as Professor of Fundamental Theology, conducting a course on ecclesiology. Congar was influenced by the Dominicans Ambroise Gardeil and Marie-Dominique Chenu, by the writings of Johann Adam Möhler, and by his ecumenical contacts with Protestant and Eastern Orthodox theologians. Congar concluded that the mission of the church was impeded by what he and Chenu termed “baroque theology."  In 1937 Congar founded the "Unam Sanctam" series, addressing historical themes in Catholic ecclesiology. These books called for a “return to the sources” to set theological foundations for ecumenism, and the series would eventually run to 77 volumes. He wrote for a wide variety of scholarly and popular journals, and published numerous books.  During World War II Congar was drafted into the French army as a chaplain with the rank of Lieutenant. He was captured and held from 1940 to 1945 as a prisoner of war by the Germans in Colditz and Lübeck's Oflag, after repeated attempts to escape. Later he was made a Knight (Chevalier) of the French Legion of Honour, and awarded the Croix de Guerre. In addition he was awarded the Médaille des Évadés for his numerous escape attempts.

Scholar and ecumenist.

After the war, Congar continued to teach at Le Saulchoir, which had been returned to France, and to write, eventually becoming one of the most influential theologians of the 20th century on the topic of the Catholic Church and ecumenism.  Congar was an early advocate of the ecumenical movement, encouraging openness to ideas stemming from the Eastern Orthodox Church and Protestant Christianity. He promoted the concept of a "collegial" papacy and criticised the Roman Curia, ultramontanism, and the clerical pomp that he observed at the Vatican. He also promoted the role of lay people in the church. Congar worked closely with the founder of the Young Christian Workers, Joseph Cardijn, for decades.  From 1947 to 1956 Congar's controversial writing was restricted by the Vatican. One of his most important books "True and False Reform in the Church" (1950) and all of its translations were forbidden by Rome in 1952. Congar was prevented from teaching or publishing after 1954, during the pontificate of Pope Pius XII, following publication of an article in support of the "worker-priest" movement in France. He was subsequently assigned to minor posts in Jerusalem, Rome, Cambridge and Strasbourg. Eventually, in 1956, Archbishop Jean Julien Weber of Strasbourg assisted Congar in returning to France.  Congar's reputation recovered in 1960 when Pope John XXIII invited him to serve on the preparatory theological commission of the Second Vatican Council. Although Congar had little influence on the preparatory schemas, as the council progressed his expertise was recognized and some would regard him as the single most formative influence on Vatican II. He was a member of several committees that drafted conciliar texts, an experience that he documented in great detail in his daily journal. The journal extended from mid-1960 to December 1965. Following his direction, his journal was not released until 2000, and was first published in 2002 as "Mon Journal du Concile I-II, présenté et annoté par Éric Mahieu" (two volumes). A one-volume English translation appeared in 2012. Congar also wrote a diary during his years of trouble with the Holy Office entitled "Journal d'un théologien 1946-1956, édité et presenté par Étienne Fouilloux." An English translation appeared in 2015; there is a prior Spanish translation.  After the council, Congar said "respecting many questions, the council remained incomplete. It began a work which is not finished, whether it is a matter of collegiality, of the role of the laity, of missions and even of ecumenism." Congar's work focused increasingly on the theology of the Holy Spirit, and his 3-volume work on the Spirit has become a classic. He was also a member of the International Theological Commission from 1969 to 1985.  Congar continued to lecture and write, publishing work on wide-ranging topics including Mary, the Eucharist, lay ministry and the Holy Spirit, as well as his diaries. His works include "The Meaning of Tradition" and "After Nine Hundred Years" which addresses the East-West Schism.  In 1963, Congar was diagnosed with a "diffuse disease of the nervous system" which caused weakness and numbness in his extremities. In 1985, the diagnosis was changed to a form of sclerosis which increasingly affected his mobility and writing ability, and made his scholarly research difficult. He became a resident at the Military Hôpital des Invalides in Paris from 1986.

Cardinal and death.

In November 1994 he was named a cardinal deacon by Pope John Paul II, shortly before his death on 22 June the following year. His remains were buried in Montparnasse Cemetery.

Yves Marie-Joseph Congar (13 April 1904 – 22 June 1995) was a French Dominican friar, priest, and theologian. He is perhaps best known for his influence at the Second Vatican Council and for reviving theological interest in the Holy Spirit for the life of individuals and of the church. He was created a cardinal of the Catholic Church in 1994.

Yves-Marie-Joseph Kardinal Congar OP (* 8. April 1904 in Sedan, Frankreich als "Georges Yves Marie Congar"; † 22. Juni 1995 in Paris) war ein römisch-katholischer Theologe und Kardinal.


Biography.

Fomenko is the son of Timothy Grigorievich Fomenko (Russian: Тимофей Григорьевич Фоме́нко), an industrial engineer, and Valentina Polikarpovna (née Markova) (Russian: Валентина Поликарповна Маркова), a philologist and teacher of Russian language and literature. His parents would later co-author his works on history in 1983 and 1996. Born in Donetsk, then called Stalino, he was raised and schooled in Magadan. In 1959, his family returned to Eastern Ukraine and settled in the city of Luhansk, where Fomenko attended Secondary School No. 26. During secondary school, Fomenko participated in many competitions relating to mathematics and won several medals as a result. Also in 1959, the magazine "Pionyerskaya pravda" (Russian: Пионерская правда, "Pioneer Truth") published his first known science fiction story, "The Mystery of the Milky Way".  Fomenko graduated from the Mechanics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow State University in 1967, and in 1969 began working in the department of differential geometry in said faculty. In 1970 he defended his thesis "Classification of totally geodesic manifolds realizing nontrivial cycles in Riemannian homogeneous spaces", and in 1972 defended his doctoral thesis, "The decision of the multidimensional Plateau problems on Riemannian manifolds." In December 1981 he became a professor of the department of higher geometry and topology, and in 1992 became the head of the department of differential geometry.  Fomenko has served as the editor of several Russian-language mathematics journals and is a member of many councils overseeing dissertations in his field. In 1996, he won the State Prize of the Russian Federation for excellence in mathematics.

Mathematical work.

Fomenko is a full member (Academician) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1994), the International Higher Education Academy of Sciences (1993) and Russian Academy of Technological Sciences (2009), as well as a doctor of physics and mathematics (1972), a professor (1980), and head of the Differential Geometry and Applications Department of the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics in Moscow State University (1992). Fomenko is the author of the theory of topological invariants of an integrable Hamiltonian system. He is the author of 180 scientific publications, 26 monographs and textbooks on mathematics, a specialist in geometry and topology, variational calculus, symplectic topology, Hamiltonian geometry and mechanics, and computational geometry. Fomenko is also the author of a number of books on the development of new empirico-statistical methods and their application to the analysis of historical chronicles as well as the chronology of antiquity and the Middle Ages.  Fomenko is the author of extensive writings in his original fields of mathematics, and is also known for his original drawings inspired by topological objects and structures.

Historical revisionism.

During the Soviet years, Fomenko was frequently involved in the state-sponsored studies, an open source analysis, the subject of which was contemporary Western media news, which were analysed and searched for misinterpretations of actual events by mixed teams consisting of various Soviet scholars, using interdisciplinary approach and statistical analysis of textual information in particular. They routinely received the latest translated issues of the "New York Times", "The Washington Post", BBC dispatches, etc., as well as wide array of various national and local newspapers, radio and television transcripts, and other open sources, searched them carefully for discrepancies and inconsistencies, preparing the consolidated reports for the official use only. Dealing professionally with biased information in the media, at some point Fomenko became obsessed with an idea that the entire history of mankind was skilfully falsified on purpose, and decided to apply the same methods he used during his contemporary studies to study ancient events. Thus, he simply ignores many written sources, as if they are biased media, and it is usual for the contemporary media to copy and reprint with minor copy editing some stories, originally published by the others, implying that if the original source is itself biased, then its renderings in other sources are no better, and multiplied by language barrier and broken telephone-effect they only add a confusion to already inaccurate picture. Based on that general idea, he proposed to use methods of exact sciences and natural science instead of just relying on a good faith of ancient chronologists and authors, that certain historical events could be traced and dated accurately by matching them to natural events of the time (such as eclipses, eruptions, etc.) cross-referenced in various eyewitness accounts. While some of his colleagues agree that indeed certain historical events require a very careful reexamination based on methods, which became available by today's cutting edge technology, Fomenko goes further and tries to re-examine the entire history.  Fomenko is a supporter of drastically revising historical chronology. He has created his own revision called New Chronology, based on statistical correlations, dating of zodiacs, and by examining the mathematics and astronomy involved in chronology. Fomenko claims that he has discovered that many historical events do not correspond mathematically with the dates they are supposed to have occurred on. He asserts from this that all of ancient history (including the history of Greece, Rome, and Egypt) is just a reflection of events that occurred in the Middle Ages and that all of Chinese and Arab history are fabrications of 17th and 18th century Jesuits.  He also claims that Jesus lived in the 12th century A.D. and was crucified on Joshua's Hill; that the Trojan War and the Crusades were the same historical event; and that Genghis Khan and the Mongols were actually Russians, that the lands west of the 13 colonies that now constitute the American West and Middle West were a far eastern part of "Siberian-American Empire" prior to its disintegration in 1775, and many other theories, that contradict the conventional historiography to say the least. As well as disputing written chronologies, Fomenko also disputes more objective dating techniques such as dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating (see here for an examination of the latter criticism). His books include "Empirico-statistical Analysis of Narrative Material and Its Applications" and "".  Most Russian scientists and worldwide historians consider Fomenko's historical works to be either pseudoscientific or antiscientific.

Artwork.

Fomenko is an accomplished painter and illustrator whose work often depicts objects from mathematics, many related to topology.

Anatoly Timofeevich Fomenko () (born 13 March 1945 in Stalino, USSR) is a Soviet and Russian mathematician, professor at Moscow State University, well known as a topologist, and a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He is the author of a pseudoscientific theory known as New Chronology, based on works of Russian-Soviet writer and freemason Nikolai Alexandrovich Morozov. He is also a member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (1991).

Anatoli Timofejewitsch Fomenko (, wiss. Transliteration ""; * 13. März 1945 in Donezk) ist ein russischer Mathematiker und Professor an der Lomonossow-Universität in Moskau, der mit seinem chronologiekritischen Projekt "Neue Chronologie" bekannt wurde, aber deswegen auch umstritten ist.


History.

Early history.

The town was the early capital of the Kingdom of Powys, known to the ancient Britons as Pengwern, signifying "the alder hill"; and in Old English as'(dative '), which may mean either "Scrobb's fort" or "the fortified place in the bushes" (or “shrubs”, the modern derivate). This name gradually evolved in three directions, into ', which became "Shropshire"; into ', which became'/'(an alternative name for both town and county), and

Medieval.

Shrewsbury's known history commences in the Early Middle Ages, having been founded c. 800 AD. It is believed that Anglo-Saxon Shrewsbury was most probably a settlement fortified through the use of earthworks comprising a ditch and rampart, which were then shored up with a wooden stockade. There is evidence to show that by the beginning of the 900s, Shrewsbury was home to a mint.  The Welsh besieged it in 1069, but were repelled by William the Conqueror. Roger de Montgomery was given the town as a gift from William, and built Shrewsbury Castle in 1074, taking the title of Earl. He founded Shrewsbury Abbey as a Benedictine monastery in 1083. The 3rd Earl, Robert of Bellême, was deposed in 1102 and the title forfeited, in consequence of rebelling against Henry I and joining the Duke of Normandy's

Early modern.

Shrewsbury's monastic gathering was disbanded with the Dissolution of the Monasteries and as such the Abbey was closed in 1540. However, it is believed that Henry VIII thereafter intended to make Shrewsbury a cathedral city after the formation of the Church of England, but the citizens of the town declined the offer. Despite this, Shrewsbury thrived throughout the 16th and 17th centuries; largely due to the town's fortuitous location, which allowed it to control the Welsh wool trade. As a result, a number of grand edifices, including the Ireland's Mansion (built 1575) and Draper's Hall (1658), were constructed. It was also in this period that Edward VI gave permission for the foundation of a free school, which was later to become Shrewsbury School. During the English Civil War, the town was a Royalist stronghold and only fell to Parliament forces after they were let in by a parliamentarian sympathiser at the St Mary's Water Gate (now also known as Traitor's Gate). After Thomas Mytton captured Shrewsbury in February 1645; in following with the ordnance

Late modern.

Shrewsbury has played a part in Western intellectual history, by being the town where the naturalist Charles Darwin was born and brought up. The town is home to the Ditherington Flax Mill, the world's first iron-framed building, which is commonly regarded as "the grandfather of the skyscraper". Its importance was officially recognised in the 1950s, resulting in it becoming a Grade I listed building. Shrewsbury in the Industrial Revolution was on the Shrewsbury Canal, which linked it with the Shropshire Canal and the rest of the canal network of Great Britain. Despite this, Shrewsbury escaped much

Geography.

Shrewsbury is about west of Telford, west of Birmingham and the West Midlands Conurbation, and about north-west of the capital, London. More locally, the town is to the east of Welshpool, with Bridgnorth and Kidderminster to the south-east. The border with Wales is to the west. The town centre is partially built on a hill whose elevation is, at its highest, above sea level. The longest river in the UK, the River Severn, flows through the town, forming a meander around its centre. The town is subject to flooding from the river.  The town is near Haughmond Hill, a site where Precambrian rocks, some of the oldest rocks in the county can be found, and the town itself is sited on an area of largely Carboniferous rocks. A fault, the Hodnet Fault, starts approximately at the town, and runs as far as Market Drayton.

Suburbs.

There are a number of suburbs and surrounding villages. The River Severn separates the western, southern and eastern suburbs from the town centre and northern suburbs. An example of a large neighbouring village that has effectively become part of the suburban area is Bayston Hill, which grew considerably in the latter half

Climate.

The climate of Shrewsbury is similar to that of the rest of Shropshire, generally moderate. Rainfall averages, influenced by being in the rainshadow of the Cambrian Mountains from warm, moist frontal systems of the Atlantic Ocean, which bring generally light precipitation in autumn and spring. The nearest weather station is at Shawbury, about north-west of Shrewsbury town centre. The local topography, being that of a low-lying plain surrounded by higher ground to the west, south and east gives the Shrewsbury area its own microclimate – the absolute

Government.

The Borough of Shrewsbury's first Charter was granted by King Henry I allowing the collection of rents. King Richard I granted another early charter in 1189 and from that time the town's regional importance and influence increased, as well as its autonomy from the county of Shropshire. Further charters were granted in 1199 (King John), 1495 (Henry VII), 1638 (Charles I) and 1685 (James II). In 1974 a charter from the Queen incorporated the Borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham, under the auspices of which the town remained until 2009.  Shrewsbury is the administrative centre for the new Shropshire Council, the unitary authority covering most of Shropshire (but excluding the Borough of Telford and Wrekin, a separate unitary authority area). Shropshire Council have their headquarters at the Shirehall, on Abbey Foregate.  Shrewsbury is in the Shrewsbury and Atcham constituency and is the only large settlement in the constituency. At the most recent general election, in 2017, Daniel Kawczynski of the Conservative Party was elected with a majority of 6,627. Previous MPs for Shrewsbury have included 19th century Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli.  Shrewsbury has been twinned with Zutphen, Netherlands since 1977. The Royal Navy submarine HMS Talent is affiliated with Shrewsbury and the town also served as the administrative headquarters of the British Army's regional 143 (West Midlands) Brigade whose administrative HQ was based at Copthorne Barracks, until 2014.

Town Council.

Shrewsbury was until 2009 an unparished area and had no town or parish council(s). Instead, the Mayor of Shrewsbury and Atcham was also the mayor of the town. However, as part of wider changes to local governance in Shropshire, the town was parished on 13 May 2008, with a single parish created covering the entire town and previously unparished area. Shrewsbury is the second most populous civil parish in England (only Weston-super-Mare has a greater population) with a population of approximately 72,000. The area of the parish is.  The town council, which is the parish council, first convened on 1 April 2009, and its chair is the Mayor of Shrewsbury. For the interim

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms of the former Shrewsbury Borough Council, and now the Town Council, depicts three loggerheads (leopards), with the motto "Floreat Salopia", a Latin phrase that can be translated to "May Shrewsbury Flourish". The coat of arms of the (now abolished) Shrewsbury and Atcham Borough Council was Shrewsbury's shield with the addition of Atcham Bridge running above the leopards. Shrewsbury Town F.C. historically used the leopard, but from 1986 till 1992 had a Celtic shrew and from 2007 to 2015 had a badge depicting a lion rather than a leopard. A new leopard badge embedded in a circular shape returned for 2015–16 season. (The local term for the leopards' heads used in the coat of arms is a "loggerhead" – thought to be derived from the carving of such faces on the ends of logs, including battering rams). The flag of Shropshire, and other county crests etc., also uses the three loggerheads.

Demography.

According to the United Kingdom Census 2001, the population of the town of Shrewsbury was 67,126. The same census put the population of the wider (and now abolished) borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham at 95,850. In 1981 the population of the town was 57,731 and in 1991 the population of the town was 64,219. Shrewsbury is Shropshire's second largest town, after Telford.  The 2001 census indicates that the population of the town consists of 51.1% females, and 48.9% males, which echoes the trend of Shrewsbury and Atcham borough, and that of Shropshire as a whole. According to the same census, the ethnic composition of the town is largely white, at 98.5% of the total population. The next largest ethnic group is mixed race, at 0.5% of the town's population. 0.4% of the population is Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi, and 0.1% of the population is South Asian or British Asian. A further 0.1% is Black, Caribbean or African.

Historical population.

The population figures below are for the borough of Shrewsbury and Atcham, which existed only between 1974 and 2009, and covered a

Economy.

Throughout the Medieval period, Shrewsbury was a centre for the wool trade, and used its position on the River Severn to transport goods across England via the canal system. Unlike many other towns in this period, Shrewsbury never became a centre for heavy industry. By the early 1900s, the town became focused on transport services and the general service and professional sector, owing to its position on the A5 road, part of the strategic route to North Wales.  The town is the location of the town and county councils, and a number of retail complexes, both in and out of the town centre, and these provide significant employment. Shrewsbury is well known for being home to a high number of independent businesses, including shops, cafes and restaurants. Wyle Cop in Shrewsbury is said to have the 'longest uninterrupted row of independent shops'. Four in five jobs in the town are in the service industry. Within this sector, the largest employers are the administration and distribution sectors, which includes retail, food and accommodation.  Shrewsbury is home to four shopping centres. The Darwin and Pride Hill shopping centres house many high street retailers such as Marks & Spencer, H&M, Topshop and Primark. Riverside provides further retail accommodation for stores including Wilko. A plan to redevelop Riverside and integrate a new development with the Darwin and Pride Hill centres was granted planning permission in April 2012. The project is dubbed "New Riverside". The Parade Shopping Centre is a fourth centre exclusively housing independent retailers. There are two retail warehouse clusters: at Meole Brace Retail Park to the south, and at Sundorne Retail Park to the north. Major supermarkets in the town are the Tesco Extra at Harlescott, Morrisons on

Architecture.

Landmarks.

The historic town centre still retains its medieval street pattern and many narrow passages. Some of the passages, especially those that pass through buildings from one street to the next, are called "shuts" (the word deriving from "to shoot through" from one street to another). Many specialist shops, traditional pubs and local restaurants can be found in the hidden corners, squares and lanes of Shrewsbury. Many of the street names have remained unchanged for centuries and there are some more unusual names, such as Longden Coleham, Dogpole, Mardol, Frankwell, Roushill, Grope Lane, Gullet

Bridges.

Shrewsbury, being almost entirely encircled by the River Severn, has nine bridges across the river and many that cross the Rea Brook. Working downstream from Frankwell Bridge, a modern pedestrian footbridge spans the River Severn between Frankwell and the town centre. Welsh Bridge was built in the 1790s to replace the ancient St George's Bridge. Further along from the Welsh Bridge is the Porthill Bridge, a pedestrian suspension bridge running between The Quarry and Porthill, built in

Religious sites.

There are many churches in Shrewsbury, including Shrewsbury Abbey, founded by Roger de Montgomery in 1083. Shrewsbury Greek Orthodox Church, a former Anglican church building, is off Sutton Road to the south. Shrewsbury is home to the Roman Catholic Shrewsbury Cathedral, by the Town Walls, as well as two other parishes in Harlescott and Monkmoor, within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. One of the, facing St Alkmund's Church, was the site of John Wesley's first preaching in Shrewsbury; a records the date as 16 March 1761. According to legend, the spire of St Alkmund's Church was damaged by the Devil in 1553, and climbed four times by a drunken steeplejack in 1621.  There are several Anglican churches in Shrewsbury. Methodists, Baptists and the United Reformed Church are also represented, alongside

Notable Salopians.

There have been a number of notable Salopians, and people otherwise associated with the town of Shrewsbury, including Charles Darwin, the biologist and evolutionary theorist. Darwin, who is one of the most important thinkers of the 19th century, who was born in Shrewsbury on 12 February 1809 at the Mount House, baptised at St Chad's Church and educated at Shrewsbury School. He spent his formative years in the town, the towns river and proximity to the countryside inspired his interest in the natural world and the abundance of ice-age boulders within the town sparked his interest in geology. When he was a teenager, he worked with his father at the Royal Shrewsbury Infirmary, which is now the Parade Shopping Centre. After leaving the town, Darwin frequently returned and stayed at the Lion Hotel on Wyle Cop.  Shrewsbury has been home to many contributors to literature. Before the First World War, the poet Wilfred Owen lived in the town, and there is a memorial to Owen at Shrewsbury Abbey. Classicist Mary Beard was educated in Shrewsbury and her father was a prominent Shrewsbury architect. In the early years of the 18th century, the Irish dramatist George Farquhar resided in the town while acting as a recruiting officer for the Army. He drew on this experience in writing the comedy "The Recruiting Officer". The romantic novelist Mary Webb lived in and around Shrewsbury and was buried there upon her death. Other actors with associations with the town include Nick Hancock, presenter of "They Think It's All Over", who, like Palin, was educated at Shrewsbury School. Actor Jason Bateman's mother was born in Shrewsbury. Comedian George Robey lived in the town, near Lord Hill's Column, before and during the Second World War.  People with political associations have connections with the town. Leo Blair, the father of former Prime Minister Tony Blair, was a resident of the town. Former residents have included Michael Heseltine, a Conservative politician who was educated at Shrewsbury School, and Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet, who was once Britain's richest man, and was MP for Shrewsbury. He lived

Culture.

Museums and entertainment.

Shrewsbury has a busy spring and summer events season, which includes music, art, food and sport.  The town is home to the 'longest running flower show in the world'. The annual Shrewsbury Flower Show is a two-day event, which takes place in mid-August, has been running for more than 125 years. The event attracts around 100,000 visitors each year and offers a multitude of events, exhibitions and gardens, with a fireworks display at the end of each day.  The Shrewsbury Folk Festival has been held in Shrewsbury since 2006. Held annually over the August bank holiday, the event is very popular, with people travelling from across the UK to attend.  Other events held in Shrewsbury's busy spring and summer of events include the Cartoon Festival, Shrewsbury Bookfest, Shrewsbury Regatta, Cycle Grand Prix, Shrewsbury Carnival, Food Festival, Dragon Boat Race and the Coracle World Championships. Since 2017, Shrewsbury International Comedy Festival has been held over the third weekend of July in multiple venues across town & featuring acts previewing material prior to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.  Shrewsbury celebrates the intrinsic links to Darwin with an annual Darwin Festival in February. The two and a half week

In the arts.

Famous literary figures who have lived in or visited the town include (in the 17th century) Daniel Defoe, Celia Fiennes, the Shrewsbury School-educated Arthur Mainwaring and Ambrose Phillips and playwright George Farquhar whose 1706 play 'The Recruiting Officer' was set in the town. The town appears in the "Brother Cadfael" novels by Ellis Peters (pen name of Edith Pargeter). The novels take Shrewsbury Abbey for their setting, with Shrewsbury and other places in Shropshire portrayed regularly, and have made Medieval Shrewsbury familiar to a wide worldwide readership.  Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the likes of John Wesley, Thomas de Quincey and Benjamin Disraeli the latter of which was MP for Shrewsbury 1841–47, would visit the town. Charles Dickens once visited to present a series of lectures at the Music Hall, staying at the Lion Hotel. However, in this period the town's most prolific literary figure and famous son was born – Charles Darwin. Darwin was educated at Shrewsbury School

Media.

Two newspapers are published for Shrewsbury – the local edition of the county's "Shropshire Star" and the more traditional "Shrewsbury Chronicle", which is one of the oldest weekly newspapers in the country, having produced its first edition in 1772. There are three radio stations that specifically serve

Food.

Shrewsbury is well known in culinary circles for being the namesake of a classic English dessert. Shrewsbury cakes (or biscuits) are typically crisp and brittle creations that may incorporate fruit. They can be small in size for serving several at a time, or large for serving as a dessert in their own right. Traditionally Shrewsbury cakes have a distinct hint of lemon.  The playwright William Congreve mentioned Shrewsbury cakes in his play "The Way of the World" in 1700 as a simile (Witwoud – "Why, brother Wilfull of Salop, you may be as short as a Shrewsbury cake, if you

Education.

Shrewsbury is home to Shrewsbury School, a public school, on a large site ("Kingsland") just south of the town centre overlooking the loop of the Severn. The school was once in the town centre, in the buildings that are now the main county library on Castle Street. Opposite it on the other side of the river is Shrewsbury High School, an independent girls' day school.  The long established Prestfelde School is an independent preparatory school, on London Road, close to the Lord Hill column. As part of the Woodard Schools group, it is affiliated to the largest group of Church of England schools in the country. Whilst originally a school for boys only it diversified and, in the late 1990s, started accepting girls between the ages of three and thirteen. The school is set in of grounds on the outskirts of the town. The town's other long-established boys' preparatory school, Kingsland Grange (on Old Roman Road in Kingsland), in 2007 merged with the junior department of Shrewsbury Girls' High School, sharing the two sites with some classes remaining all-boys or all-girls, but others switching to a co-ed format.  Adcote School is an independent day and boarding school for girls, northwest of Shrewsbury. The school was founded in 1907 and is set

Transport.

Shrewsbury is the county's public transport hub and has road and rail links to the rest of the county and country.  Five railway lines connect the town to most corners of Shropshire and the region, and the town is known as the "Gateway to Wales". Shrewsbury railway station is served by Transport for Wales Rail and West Midlands Trains with trains running north to Chester, Manchester, Crewe and Wrexham, south to Hereford and Cardiff, west to Aberystwyth, and east to Birmingham via Telford, Shifnal and Wolverhampton. Heart of Wales line trains also operate to Swansea.  In May 1998, Virgin Trains West Coast introduced a service from Shrewsbury to London Euston. It was withdrawn in 2000. On 28 April 2008, open access operator Wrexham & Shropshire commenced services from Wrexham General to London Marylebone, restoring the county's direct rail link to the capital; previously, Shropshire had been one of only two mainland English counties without a dedicated service to the capital, the other being Rutland. However, the service ceased on 28 January 2011. Virgin Trains reintroduced a service to London Euston in December 2014.  The main railway station building includes a clock tower, imitation Tudor chimneys and carved heads in the frames of every window. There is a small British Transport Police station within the building.  Bus services in the town are operated by Arriva Midlands and serve most parts of the town, congregating at the town's bus station adjacent to the Darwin Shopping Centre and a short stroll from the railway station. Arriva also operate county services both independent of and on behalf of Shropshire County Council. There are other bus companies operating around the Shrewsbury area, including Boulton's of Shropshire, Minsterley Motors and Tanat Valley Coaches with the last operating services crossing from over the Welsh border from nearby towns including Llanfyllin, Montgomery, Newtown and Welshpool.  Shrewsbury has a park & ride bus scheme in operation and three car parks on the edge of town are used by many who want to travel into the town centre. The three car parks are at Harlescott (to the north, colour-coded blue), Oxon (to the west, colour-coded pink) and Meole Brace (to the south, colour-coded green). It is proposed that a fourth one be built to the east of the town, at either Emstrey or Preston.  Shrewsbury has been an important centre for road traffic. In 1815, Thomas Telford designed a new coaching route from London to Holyhead in order to improve communications with Ireland. He routed the new road via Shrewsbury, which opened in 1830. The road is now the A5. The road connects the town northwest to Oswestry, and east towards Telford, where it joins the M54. The A5 once ran through the town centre, until a bypass was built in the 1930s. Subsequently, in 1992, a 17-mile (27 km) dual carriageway was completed at a cost of £79 million to the south of the town, and was made to form part of the A5 route. This dual carriageway was built further out of the town to act as a substantial link to Telford, as well as a bypass for the town.  The A49 also goes to Shrewsbury, joining the A5 at the south of the town, coming from Ludlow and Leominster. At this point the road merges with the A5 for, before separating again to the east of the town. From there it runs north, passing Sundorne, then Battlefield, before heading out towards Whitchurch. At Battlefield, the A53 route begins and heads northeast towards Shawbury and Market Drayton then onwards towards Newcastle-under-Lyme and Stoke-on-Trent.  The A458 (Welshpool-Bridgnorth) runs through the town centre, entering in the west and leaving to the southeast. The A528 begins in the town centre and heads north, heading for Ellesmere. The A488 begins just west of the town centre in Frankwell and heads out to Bishop's Castle, Clun and Knighton crossing the border in the southwest of Shropshire.  Major roads within the town include the A5112, A5191 and A5064. The A5191 goes north-south via the town centre, while the A5112 runs north-south to the east of the town centre. The A5064 is a short, one mile (1.6 km) stretch of road to the southeast of the town centre, called "London Road". Additionally, the A5124, the most recent bypass, was completed in 1998, and runs across the northern edge of the town at Battlefield (connecting the A49/A53 to the A528), though it did exist before as Harlescott Lane (which has since become unclassified).  Construction of a major new artery referred to as the North West Relief Road (NWRR) was granted central government funding in April 2019. Together with the existing A5 and A49 by-passes, the Battlefield Link Road (A5124) and the Oxon Link Road (construction expected to be completed by 2021), this will result in the completion of the ring road around the outskirts of the town. The NWRR will involve the construction of a new bridge over the River Severn, upstream from the town centre.

Sport.

Shrewsbury is home to a professional football club, Shrewsbury Town Football Club. The team currently competes in the third tier of English football, Football League One and since 2007 has played their home games at New Meadow – from 1910 to 2007 the club played at the Gay Meadow stadium. Shrewsbury Town's achievements include winning the Welsh Cup six times, a record for an English club, a 10-year run in the old Second Division now known as The Championship from 1979 until 1989, a Third Division Championship in 1979, a Division 3 Championship and victory in the Conference National Playoff Final 2004. The town is home to a semi-professional football club, Haughmond, who take their name from the nearby Haughmond Hill. The team currently compete in the Midland Football League and play their home games at Shrewsbury Sports Village, in the Sundorne area of the town.  There is a local rugby club, Shrewsbury Rugby Club.  The River

Twin town.

Shrewsbury has no twin towns. Until 2018 Shrewsbury was twinned with Zutphen, Netherlands, a move inspired by the fact Sir Philip Sidney, an alumnus of Shrewsbury School, was fatally wounded there in 1586. The association was ended in late 2018 when the municipal council of Zutphen chose to review all of its global twinning arrangements due to budgetary constraints.  At the end of the Second World War Shrewsbury's then Mayor, Harry Steward, who was made in 1946 an honorary citizen of Zutphen in return, launched an appeal for second-hand tools, clothes, bedding and other materials towards the town's post-war reconstruction after Nazi German occupation and war damage.  A potential twinning of Shrewsbury with Bayreuth, Germany, was under discussion in 2009.

Shrewsbury (, ) is a large market town and the county town of Shropshire, England. The town is on the River Severn, north-west of London, and the 2011 census recorded a population of 71,715.

Shrewsbury ( bzw. ) ist eine Stadt in den West Midlands in England, etwa 60 Kilometer westnordwestlich von Birmingham und 14 Kilometer östlich der Grenze zu Wales gelegen. Ihr mittelalterlicher Kern liegt in einer Schleife des Flusses Severn. Die Stadt ist historischer Verwaltungssitz der Grafschaft Shropshire und seit 2009 Verwaltungssitz des neugebildeten Shropshire Council. Die Stadt zählt rund 71.700 Einwohner (Stand: 2011).


Shoreline.

Several major cities are situated along Long Island Sound and more than 8 million people live within its watershed. Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include Stamford, Norwalk, Bridgeport, New Haven, and New London. Cities on the New York side of the Sound include Rye, Glen Cove, New Rochelle, Larchmont and portions of

Climate and geography.

The climate of Long Island Sound is warm temperate or Cfa in the Köppen climate classification. Summers are hot and humid often with convective showers and strong sunshine, while the cooler months feature cold temperatures and a mix of rain and occasional snow.

Glacial history.

About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, Long Island Sound, and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late Wisconsin Glacier. About 3,300 feet (1,000 m) thick in its interior and about thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of a series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years. Sea level at that time was about 330 feet (100 m) lower than today.  The continental ice sheet scraped off

Rivers.

Numerous rivers empty into the Sound,

Watershed demographics.

The whole watershed population is about 8.93 million as of the 2010 Census.  Due to the large chunk of New England being under

Fauna and flora.

Flora.

Seaweed.

Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on the sea floor. Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. "Monostroma", reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. "Grinnellia" appears in August and disappears four to six weeks later.  In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds, which are characterized by their brown tone, "Fucus" and "Ascophyllum", some species of which have air bladders that allow them to

Plants found in tidal marshes.

Tidal marshes are some of the most productive biological systems in the world. Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound.  Salt water cordgrass ("Spartina alterniflora") grows along ditches and on the seaside edges of marshes where high tides daily inundate it. Salt meadow cordgrass ("Spartina patens") and spikegrass ("Distichlis

Plants found on beaches and dunes.

Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore, the ones that do are located along the eastern portion of the coastline (east of the Connecticut River). Sea rocket and dune grass occur here, but not in abundance. Dune grass and plants that thrive on

Upland vegetation.

In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound's environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species. Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing the warmer environment provided by proximity to the Sound (which has a longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are less harsh). These include sweetgum (only found in Connecticut in the extreme southwestern area of the state), the American holly, post oak and persimmon, which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils, the Connecticut shore is the northern limit.  Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut

Fauna.

Fish.

The Sound is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration).  The most common marine fish in the Sound include porgy, butterfish, winter flounder, summer flounder, windowpane flounder, fourspot flounder, northern and striped sea robin, little skate, menhaden, Atlantic silversides, black seabass, blackfish (tautog), cunner, bluefish, and smooth dogfish. Frequently Atlantic bonito and false albacore, both members of the tuna family,

Mollusks.

Mollusks (gastropods and bivalves) that can be found include the rough periwinkle near the high-tide line, the European periwinkle, the northern yellow periwinkle, the blue mussel (a popular, edible species), the eastern oyster, the Atlantic slipper shell or

Crustacea.

Crustaceans include crabs, shrimp and lobsters. In the Sound there are the green crab (a non-native species first reported in Boston around 1900, but a common crab found on the shore, where it feeds on eastern oysters and soft-shell clams), blue crab, red crab, Jonah crab in deepwater areas, and the Atlantic rock crab, which settles

Mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of shrews, the masked shrew and the American short-tailed shrew, are common in salt marshes. The least shrew has been thought to exist in small numbers in the salt marshes of western Connecticut. Rodents include the white-footed mouse, the meadow vole (probably the most abundant coastal mammal) and the meadow jumping mouse. Muskrats are heavily trapped but remain abundant. Raccoons and red foxes who live in areas near the marshes will hunt in them. The long-tailed weasel and short-tailed weasel are both found near the Sound, occasionally living in the salt marshes. Harbor seals and gray seals can be found among the rocks off Stonington and Groton at the

Birds.

There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields. Some birds are summer residents or winter residents, while others are spring and fall transients. Year round residents include herring gull, greater black-backed gull, common tern and double-crested cormorant. Much of the terns habitat and nesting areas have been taken over by the over-abundant cormorant over the last several decades. The terns are now not commonly seen. Coastal migrants (also

Rare and endangered species.

Rare, endangered and extinct species of the Sound include the eastern spadefoot, a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn't been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is beige or off-white with a pattern of green markings. Small orange dots punctuate this pattern.  As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon, listed as 'endangered' by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River (CDEP 2003, Savoy 2004). Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam (Savoy and Shake 1992). While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along the Atlantic Coast, tagged individuals sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes.

History.

Long Island Sound was formed when the terminal moraine that dammed the waters of glacial Lake Connecticut failed, and sea water mixed with the lake's fresh waters. The first European to record the existence of

Uses.

Transportation.

Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably the Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry (between Port Jefferson and

Fishing.

Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing, including oysters, lobsters, scallops, blue crabs, tuna flounder, striped bass, and bluefish. However, in recent years the western part of the sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life. The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead

Further development.

Underwater cables transmit electricity under Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island, and an older one from Rye in Westchester County to Oyster Bay on Long Island. Scientists debate whether submarine power cables are safe for underwater lifeforms.  Broadwater Energy LLC, a joint venture between the Shell Oil Company and TransCanada Corporation, has proposed building a floating liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal from the Connecticut shore and from Long Island. The installation is estimated to save the region in excess of $600 million a year in energy costs. The terminal would regasify LNG offloaded from ships, and this gas would flow through pipelines under the sound to New York and Connecticut. Some politicians from both states,

Pollution.

The Long Island Sound ecosystem has historically been polluted by a number of different sources, including industry, agriculture and communities (untreated sewage and urban runoff). Pollutants entering the Sound include toxic substances such as heavy metals; a specific example includes mercury discharged by the hatting industry in Danbury, Connecticut. Other pollutants include pathogens, debris, and nutrients (which contain nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer runoff).  Hypoxia and eutrophication (low oxygen level resulting conditions) are direct environmental impacts on the Sound that are exacerbated by higher temperatures, stratified water columns (when the water is not well mixed vertically) and excess nutrients. Algal blooms result from the overgrowth of algae that dies in large numbers, sinks to the bottom, and decomposes by using available oxygen in the water and leaving little for other species, causing the system to suffer as a whole. To date the primary target for water remediation tactics in Long Island Sound have been nutrients entering from waste water treatment facilities and watersheds such as the Connecticut River watershed. The Connecticut River begins in Canada and extends though New England, carrying pollutants from all of the communities it passes into the Sound, at a rate of 18,400 cubic feet per second.  Long Island Sound sustains significant populations of fish and nurseries. This biological function has been threatened by both terrestrial and chemical alterations resulting from urbanization of the area. Specifically 25–35% of the tidal wetlands in the Sound have been dredged, filled, and developed over and hypoxia and eutrophication resulting from pollution have led to low dissolved oxygen levels (less that 4.8 mg of oxygen per liter) in the water. The low dissolved oxygen levels limit the fishes' ability to swim, feed, grow and reproduce and loss of habitat prevents success in fish larval growth. The impacts listed here are directly associated with these specific species in Long Island Sound: killifishes, silversides, bay anchovy, eels, menhaden, cunner, tautog, sticklebacks, winter flounder, weakfish, bluefish, tomcod and striped bass.  An example of impacts from nitrogen is a shift in the types of plankton that make up their community in Long Island Sound. Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected diatoms—microscopic, single-celled algae at the base of the food chain, which make shells ('frustules') of opaline silica. When diatoms are less productive, they are replaced by other phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or blue-green algae, which grow well in waters with high nitrogen levels, but do not need silica. Such changes in the base of the food chain leads to consequences such as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish.  Starting in the 1990s, Connecticut and federal United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officials defined no-dumping areas in which commercial or recreational boat users were prohibited from releasing untreated sewage into the Sound near the coastline. In 2007 state and federal officials announced the ban had extended to the entire Connecticut coast and applied to both treated and untreated sewage. New Hampshire and Maine have similar bans, but Massachusetts, Maine and New York do not (all are within the contributing watersheds). From the 1990s to 2007, the number of pumping stations for boat sewage tripled to 90 at marinas up and down the coast. Violators may be charged with a state misdemeanor and face $250 fines, or a federal civil penalty, with fines of up to $2,000.  To address the water quality problems, EPA created the Long Island Sound Study (LISS) to support development of a nitrogen total maximum daily load (TMDL) in 1992. The TMDL implements innovative strategies, including a nitrogen credit trading program for sewage treatment plants in Connecticut, and bubble permits for sewage treatment plants in New York. Results point to significant nitrogen reductions in Long Island Sound, and significant cost savings. By 1994, a plan to reduce nitrogen outputs of effluent into the Sound was agreed upon by the federal government and the states of New York and Connecticut. The goal was to reduce the amount of nitrogen entering the Sound by 58.5 percent as of 2014. New York City agreed with New York state and Connecticut to reduce nitrogen levels in 1998, but backed off its commitment and was sued by the state. In early 2006, the city agreed to lower nitrogen outputs and was given until 2017 to meet its reduction goals. By 2007, $617 million had been spent in upgrading sewage treatment plants, with 39 out of 104 retrofitted with devices to remove nitrogen.  According to the EPA National Estuary Program Coastal Protection Report for June 2007, the western part of the Sound was in the worst condition. The report gives a "fair" rating to water quality in the sound and poor marks to fish, bottom-feeders and sediment. High levels of PCBs were found in fish samples, and high concentrations of the pesticide DDT were found in sediment. Development resulting from population increases, past industrial pollution and stormwater runoff all contribute to the poor quality of the water, according to the report.  Nitrogen pollution in the Sound has been declining in the 21st century. At the end of 2014, wastewater treatment facilities reached 94 percent of their nitrogen reduction goal set by the TMDL. Achieving this goal has resulted in 108,000 fewer pounds of nitrogen were discharged into the Sound every day. In 2015 the Long Island Sound Study concluded that the Sound is cleaner and healthier than it has been, but still impaired from pollution and habitat loss. To continue improving the quality of Long Island Sound, both ongoing challenges and adapting to new conditions due to climate change need to be addressed.

Legal status.

In 1985, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Long Island Sound is a juridical bay. The case involved a jurisdictional dispute among New York State, Rhode Island, and The United States.  The classification of juridical bay means that the states, and not the federal government, have jurisdiction over the Long Island Sound waters. This also means that the legal coastline of the United States incorporates the southern shore of Long Island, but not the alternative that would have been to consider the coastline to follow additionally the southern shores of Connecticut, and the eastern shores of Westchester County, The Bronx, and Manhattan.

Long Island Sound is a tidal estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, lying predominantly between the U.S. state of Connecticut to the north, and Long Island in New York to the south. From west to east, the sound stretches 110 miles (177 km) from the East River in New York City, along the North Shore of Long Island, to Block Island Sound. A mix of freshwater from tributaries and saltwater from the ocean, Long Island Sound is 21 miles (34 km) at its widest point and varies in depth from.

Der Long Island Sound [] ist ein gezeitengeprägter Meeresarm (engl. ") des Nordwestatlantiks an der Ostküste von Nordamerika. Politisch ist das Küstengewässer Teil der Vereinigten Staaten, wobei – grob eingeteilt – seine Südhälfte zum Bundesstaat New York (überwiegend Long Island) und seine Nordhälfte zum Bundesstaat Connecticut gehört.


Etymology.

The ocean located between Gondwana and Laurentia in the Early Cambrian was named for Iapetus, in Greek mythology the father of Atlas, just as the Iapetus Ocean was the predecessor of the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean between Gondwana and Laurussia (Laurentia–Baltica–Avalonia) in the Late Cambrian-Early Ordovician was named the Rheic Ocean after Rhea, sister of Iapetus.

Geodynamic evolution.

At the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, about 540 million years ago, most of the continental mass on Earth was clustered around the south pole as the paleocontinent Gondwana. The exception was formed by a number of smaller continents, such as Laurentia and Baltica. The Paleozoic ocean between Gondwana, Laurentia and Baltica is called the Iapetus Ocean. The northern edge of Gondwana had been dominated by the Cadomian orogeny during the Ediacaran period. This orogeny formed a cordillera-type volcanic arc where oceanic crust subducted below Gondwana. When a mid-oceanic ridge subducted at an oblique angle, extensional basins developed along the northern margin of Gondwana. During the late Cambrian to Early Ordovician these extensional basins had evolved a rift running along the northern edge of Gondwana. The rift in its turn evolved into a mid-oceanic ridge that separated small continental fragments such as Avalonia and Carolina from the main Gondwanan land mass.  As Avalonia-Carolina drifted north from Gondwana, the Rheic Ocean grew and reached its maximum width () in the Silurian. In this process, the Iapetus Ocean closed as Avalonia-Carolina collided with Laurentia and the Appalachian orogeny formed.  The closure of the Rheic began in the Early Devonian and was completed in the Mississippian when Gondwana and Laurentia collided to form Pangaea. This closure resulted in the largest collisional orogen of the Palaeozoic: the Variscan and Alleghanian orogens between Gondwana's West African margin and southern Baltica and eastern Laurentia and the Ouachita orogeny between the Amazonian margin of Gondwana and southern Laurentia.

The Rheic Ocean was an ocean which separated two major palaeocontinents, Gondwana and Laurussia (Laurentia-Baltica-Avalonia). One of the principal oceans of the Palaeozoic, its sutures today stretch from Mexico to Turkey and its closure resulted in the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea and the formation of the Variscan–Alleghenian–Ouachita orogenies.

Der Rheische Ozean (selten und fälschlich auch Rhea-Ozean) war in der Erdgeschichte ein Ozean, der von Unterordovizium bis ins Unterdevon existierte. Er trennte damals die Kontinente Laurentia, Baltica und Avalonia bzw. den später aus diesen hervorgegangenen Großkontinent Laurussia im Norden vom Großkontinent Gondwana im Süden. Seine einstige maximale Breite ist nicht bekannt, dürfte jedoch weit über 1000 km betragen haben. Die Sutur, an der dieser Ozean später geschlossen wurde, verläuft heute quer durch Mitteleuropa. Durch die Schließung dieses Ozeans und durch die Verfaltung der Randbereiche entstand das Variszikum.