Description.

Darwin's bark spider ("Caerostris darwini") is an orb-weaver spider – a member of the family Araneidae. Like other spiders of the genus, they display extreme sexual dimorphism, with large females and small males. Females vary in total body length from about, males being around one third or less of this length, at about. In a captive bred population, females were 14 (1.3–195) times heavier and 2.3 (1–4) times larger than males.  Females are largely black in colour, with white hairs on the cephalothorax (prosoma), abdomen and appendages. The upper surface of the cephalothorax has two sets of "humps", one at the sides and one towards the back. The first leg is about long. Unlike other "Caerostris" species from the region, "C. darwini" has clearly separated epigynal chambers with a pair of hooks on the posterior (rather than anterior or medial) part of the epigynal plate. The spermathecae and the ducts leading to them are strongly sclerotized (hardened). Males are redder and lighter brown in colour, again with white hairs on the cephalothorax, abdomen and parts of the appendages further from the body. The femora of the legs are red and hairless. The first leg is about long. The palpal bulb has a large conductor with a straight tip, and a longer embolus with a spoon-shaped end than other species from the region.

Taxonomy.

"Caerostris darwini" was first described by Matjaž Kuntner and Ingi Agnarsson in a 2010 publication. The species name honours the naturalist Charles Darwin, with the description being prepared precisely 150 years after the publication of "The Origin of Species", on 24 November 2009. Prior to the description of "C. darwini", only 11 species of "Caerostris" were recognized; Kuntner and Agnarsson regarded this as an serious underestimate, with perhaps up to seven species cohabiting in the region of Madagascar where "C. darwini" was found. Six more species, four of these from Madagascar, were described in 2015. A molecular phylogenetic study of 12 of the species of "Caerostris", including "C. darwini", produced the phylogenetic tree shown below.

Behavior.

Webs.

The spider's silk is the toughest biological material ever studied, over ten times tougher than a similarly-sized piece of Kevlar. The average toughness of the fibres is 350 MJ/m, and some are up to 520 MJ/m, making the silk twice as tough as any other spider silk known.  The web of Darwin's bark spider is remarkable in that it is not only the longest spanning web ever observed, but is the largest orb web ever seen, at an area of up to. "Nephila komaci", discovered in 2009, and some other "Nephila" species also make webs that can exceed across.  The spider's web occupies a unique biological niche: "They build their web with the orb suspended directly above a river or the water body of a lake, a habitat that no other spider can use". This position allows the spiders to catch prey flying over the water, with webs observed containing up to 32 mayflies at a time.  The strong silk and large web are thought to have coevolved at the same time, as the spider adapted to the habitat. "Caerostris darwini" uses a unique set of behaviors, some unknown in other spiders, to construct its enormous webs. First, the spiders release unusually large amounts of bridging silk into the air, which is then carried downwind, across the water body, establishing bridge lines. Second, the spiders perform almost no web site exploration. Third, they construct the orb capture area below the initial bridge line. In contrast to all known orb-weavers, the web hub is therefore not part of the initial bridge line but is instead built "de novo "("from the beginning"). Fourth, the orb contains two types of radial threads, with those in the upper half of the web doubled. These unique behaviors result in a giant, yet rather simplified web. There is building evidence for the coevolution of behavioral (web building), ecological (web microhabitat) and biomaterial (silk biomechanics) traits that combined allow "C. darwini" to occupy a unique niche among spiders."

Sexual behavior.

The Darwin's bark spider exhibits a rich repertoire of sexual behaviors, most attributed to other spider taxa with extreme sexual dimorphism in size. These behaviors include sexual cannibalism, male preference for teneral females, binding the mate with silk, genital mutilation, plugging of female genitalia by the male, and self-emasculation. Non-typically, "C. darwini" males engage in oral sexual encounters, rarely reported outside mammals. Irrespective of female’s age or mating status males salivate onto female genitalia pre-, during, and post-copulation. While the adaptive significance of sexual oral contact in spiders is elusive, it is hypothesized to signal male quality or reduce sperm competition.

Interspecies interactions.

The spider was described along with a previously undescribed species of fly, which appeared to have a kleptoparasitic relationship with it. The flies often feed on the spider's catches before the spider wraps them. Occasionally, spiders have been observed to chase away the flies when they land on something that the spider is eating.

Darwin's bark spider (scientific name Caerostris darwini) is an orb-weaver spider that produces the largest known orb webs, ranging from, with bridge lines spanning up to. The spider was discovered in Madagascar in the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park in 2009. Its silk is the toughest biological material ever studied, over ten times tougher than a similarly-sized piece of Kevlar. The species was named in honour of the naturalist Charles Darwin, with the description being prepared precisely 150 years after the publication of "The Origin of Species", on 24 November 2009.

Caerostris darwini, im Englischen als "Darwin’s bark spider" („Darwins Rindenspinne“) bezeichnet, ist eine Webspinne aus der Familie der Echten Radnetzspinnen (Araneidae). Sie produziert eines der größten bekannten Radnetze, dessen Ankerfäden Längen bis zu 25 Metern erreichen können. Die Spinne wurde in Madagaskar im Andasibe-Mantadia-Nationalpark entdeckt und erhielt zu Ehren des Naturforschers Charles Darwin das Artepitheton "darwini"; die Artbeschreibung erschien exakt 150 Jahre nach der Veröffentlichung von Darwins Werk "The Origin of Species" am 24. November 2009.


Function.

PXR is a nuclear receptor whose primary function is to sense the presence of foreign toxic substances and in response up regulate the expression of proteins involved in the detoxification and clearance of these substances from the body. PXR belongs to the nuclear receptor superfamily, members of which are transcription factors characterized by a ligand-binding domain and a DNA-binding domain. PXR is a transcriptional regulator of the cytochrome P450 gene CYP3A4, binding to the response element of the CYP3A4 promoter as a heterodimer with the 9-cis retinoic acid receptor RXR. It is activated by a range of compounds that induce CYP3A4, including dexamethasone and rifampicin.

Ligands.

Agonists.

PXR is activated by a large number of endogenous and exogenous chemicals including steroids (e.g., progesterone, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, 17α-hydroxypregnenolone, 5α-dihydroprogesterone, 5β-dihydroprogesterone, allopregnanolone, corticosterone, cyproterone acetate, spironolactone, dexamethasone, mifepristone), antibiotics (e.g., rifampicin, rifaximin), antimycotics, bile acids, hyperforin (a constituent of the herbal antidepressant St. John's Wort), and many herbal and other compounds (e.g. meclizine, paclitaxel). Cafestol found in coffee is also an agonist.  Forskolin is another case example of a PXR agonist.

Antagonists.

Ketoconazole is an example of one of the relatively few-known antagonists of the PXR. SPA70 (also known as LC-1) was recently identified and characterized as a potent and selective PXR antagonist.

Mechanism.

Like other type II nuclear receptors, when activated, it forms a heterodimer with the retinoid X receptor, and binds to hormone response elements on DNA which elicits expression of gene products.  One of the primary targets of PXR activation is the induction of CYP3A4, an important phase I oxidative enzyme that is responsible for the metabolism of many drugs. In addition, PXR up regulates the expression of phase II conjugating enzymes such as glutathione S-transferase and phase III transport uptake and efflux proteins such as OATP2 and MDR1.

In the field of molecular biology, the pregnane X receptor (PXR), also known as the steroid and xenobiotic sensing nuclear receptor (SXR) or nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 2 (NR1I2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "NR1I2" (nuclear Receptor subfamily 1, group I, member 2) gene.

Der Pregnan-X-Rezeptor ("Abk.": PXR, NR1I2; ) ist ein Kernrezeptor mit der Hauptaufgabe, toxische körperfremde Stoffe zu detektieren und die Expression von Proteinen, die für Entgiftung und Clearance verantwortlich sind, zu aktivieren.


Early life.

Born in Belleville, Illinois on July 7, 1927, Dixon attended Illinois public schools and later earned his bachelor's degree from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and his J.D. from Washington University in St. Louis. While attending the University of Illinois, he joined the Delta Upsilon fraternity. During World War II, Dixon served in the United States Navy.

State political career.

General Assembly.

Dixon served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from 1951 to 1963 and as a member of the Illinois State Senate from 1963 to 1971, serving as Minority Whip for part of that time.

Karl Rove and the Dixon campaign incident.

In the fall of 1970, Karl Rove, a future White House Deputy Chief of Staff in the George W. Bush Administration, used a false identity to enter the office of Dixon's campaign for Illinois Treasurer and stole 1000 sheets of paper with campaign letterhead. Rove then printed fake campaign rally fliers promising "free beer, free food, girls and a good time for nothing", and distributed them at rock concerts and homeless shelters, with the effect of disrupting Dixon's rally. Dixon eventually won the election. Rove's role would not become publicly known until August 1973. Rove told the "Dallas Morning News" in 1999, "It was a youthful prank at the age of 19 and I regret it."

1976 elections.

In 1976, Dixon was elected Illinois Secretary of State. The 1976 Illinois State election was turbulent for the Democratic Party. Outgoing Governor Dan Walker had lost the support of the Party and was defeated in the primary election. Dixon's election as Secretary of State left two years on his term as State Treasurer. To prevent Walker from appointing himself or anyone else to the position, Dixon proposed to incoming Republican Governor James R. Thompson that he would resign after Thompson was inaugurated if Thompson agreed to Dixon's choice for State Treasurer. Dixon's choice was Donald R. Smith, a Republican who was the ranking Civil Service employee in the State Treasurer's office and who had agreed not to run for re-election.  Dixon served as Secretary of State until 1981, when he took office as a United States Senator from Illinois.

United States Senate.

Dixon was generally considered a moderate and was less visible nationally than either of his Illinois colleagues, Charles Percy and Paul Simon, both of whom sought the presidency. In 1992, Dixon lost in the Democratic primary for U.S. Senate to Carol Moseley Braun. This defeat shocked observers; at the time no Senator had been defeated in a primary in over a decade and Dixon had a long record of electoral success. His vote to confirm Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court contributed to his defeat. Dixon was sharply criticized during the campaign by Braun for supporting Clarence Thomas' nomination despite allegations of Thomas sexually harassing Anita Hill.  Braun, a black woman, had the complete support of black voters, and as a known reformist liberal got a large share of liberal voters, and also attracted many women voters in what was termed "The Year of the Woman".  Another factor was the third candidate in the race, multi-millionaire attorney Al Hofeld. Hofeld drew away some of the moderate and conservative Democrats who normally supported Dixon. He also spent a large amount of money running advertisements attacking Dixon, weakening his support.  The "Chicago Tribune" ran a piece in which Eric Zorn claimed that Dixon voting to confirm Clarence Thomas in 1991 set off a chain of events that led to Barack Obama's election as president in 2008.  Since his departure in early 1993, no one has managed to serve two full terms from this seat.

Later life and death.

Dixon chaired the Defense Base Realignment and Closure Commission in 1994 and 1995.  After his term in the Senate, Dixon resumed practicing law with the Bryan Cave law firm in St. Louis and lived in Fairview Heights, Illinois, where he died on July 6, 2014 from natural causes just 1 day shy of his 87th birthday.  His autobiography, "The Gentleman from Illinois: Stories from Forty Years of Elective Public Service", was published in 2013 by Southern Illinois University Press.

Awards.

Alan J. Dixon was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the State’s highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in 1994 in the area of Government.

Alan John Dixon (July 7, 1927 – July 6, 2014) was an American politician and member of the Democratic Party who served in the Illinois General Assembly from 1951 to 1971, as the Illinois Treasurer from 1971 to 1977, as the Illinois Secretary of State from 1977 to 1981 and as a U.S. Senator from 1981 until 1993.

Alan John Dixon (* 7. Juli 1927 in Belleville, Illinois; † 6. Juli 2014 in Fairview Heights, Illinois) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker der Demokratischen Partei und Senator für den Bundesstaat Illinois.


PCHL 1928-1931.

The first incarnation of the PCHL had four teams and lasted three seasons. Brothers Frank Patrick and Lester Patrick, financed by their wealthy lumberman father Joseph Patrick founded it and operated franchises in Vancouver and Victoria, with Frank, one of the founders of the earlier Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) as president. The Victoria Cubs' Arena was destroyed by fire in 1929, after which the club continued for the season and disbanded. A replacement team was formed in Tacoma, Washington.

PCHL 1936-1941.

From 1931 to 1936, no league called the PCHL existed, although teams from the first PCHL joined the Western Canada Hockey League or the North West Hockey League. In 1936, the Portland, Seattle, and Vancouver franchises of the North West Hockey League joined with an Oakland team to re-form the Pacific Coast Hockey League. The Oakland team relocated to Spokane in its first year. The Spokane team disbanded for the 1939-40 season, but reappeared the next year as the Spokane Bombers.  The league disbanded after the 1941 season, primarily as a result of World War II.

Champions.

1937: Portland Buckaroos
 1938: Seattle Seahawks
 1939: Portland Buckaroos
 1940: Vancouver Lions
 1941: Vancouver Lions

PCHL 1944-1952.

The final incarnation of the league was managed by Hockey Hall of Fame member Al Leader, and grew out of combining teams from the Southern California Hockey League and the Northwest International Hockey League. The PCHL was founded as an amateur loop, partly because the National Hockey League recognized Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA) founder Lester Patrick as the territorial rights holder for professional hockey in Vancouver, Portland and Seattle. In 1948, however, the ten team league voted to turn pro, and was recognized as such by the NHL.  Before the start of the 1951-1952 season, the PCHL had dwindled to a six team league. The neighbouring Western Canada Senior Hockey League (WCSHL), which played minor senior hockey on the Canadian prairies, had also dwindled, to just three franchises. The three WCSHL franchises turned professional and joined the PCHL for 1951-1952. One year later, the PCHL renamed itself the Western Hockey League before the start of the 1952-1953 season.  The PCHL championship trophy was the President's Cup.

Champions.

1945: Seattle Ironmen
 1946: Vancouver Canucks
 1947: Los Angeles Monarchs
 1948: Vancouver Canucks
 1949: San Diego Skyhawks
 1950: New Westminster Royals
 1951: Victoria Cougars
 1952: Saskatoon Quakers

The Pacific Coast Hockey League was an ice hockey minor league with teams in the western United States and western Canada that existed in several incarnations: from 1928 to 1931, from 1936 to 1941, and from 1944 to 1952.

Die Pacific Coast Hockey League (PCHL) war eine professionelle Eishockey-Minor League, in der Teams aus Westkanada und dem westlichen Teil der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika spielten. Die Liga existierte in mehreren Phasen: von 1928 bis 1931, von 1936 bis 1941 und schließlich von 1944 bis 1952. 1952 wurde die Liga in die Western Canada Senior Hockey League integriert.


Synopsis.

Overview.

"Underbelly" is a fictionalised account of the events behind the Melbourne gangland war that lasted from 1995 until 2004. In the first episode, the Carlton Crew crime syndicate is introduced, comprising stand-over man Alphonse Gangitano (Vince Colosimo), Domenic "Mick" Gatto (Simon Westaway), loanshark Mario Condello (Martin Sacks), retired bank robber Graham Kinniburgh (Gerard Kennedy) and drug-dealing siblings Jason and Mark Moran (Les Hill and Callan Mulvey) and their father Lewis (Kevin Harrington). Jason Moran's seemingly harmless and half-witted driver Carl Williams (Gyton Grantley) is also introduced, along with two police characters; Steve Owen (Rodger Corser) and Jacqui James (Caroline Craig), the most prominent members of Task Force

Episodes.

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Inaccuracies.

While the series retells the real events of the gangland war, several inaccuracies have been pointed out and some deliberate fictionalizations have been made. The Purana Taskforce, as presented in this series, is not a portrayal of the real taskforce, as laws in Victoria do not allow real police officers, including those who previously served and were not sacked, to be portrayed by actors in the media. As a result, the characters presented are entirely fictional characters vaguely based on the real officers, leading

Cast and characters.

"Underbelly" features four regular cast members, with 27 actors

Production.

Development.

"Underbelly" is based on the book "Leadbelly: Inside Australia's Underworld", by "Age" journalists John Silvester and Andrew Rule. As the Nine Network was interested in creating local and world-class television, they decided to invest in a drama series that told the story of the Melbourne gangland killings. Jo Horsburgh, Nine Network Head of Drama, stated that the network was "100 percent committed to bringing "Underbelly" to the small screen". Des Monaghan, executive producer for Screentime, called the series "one of the most exciting and challenging drama projects ever shot in [Australia]". The script took 12 months to write, beginning in June 2006, with the

Marketing.

The Nine Network spent more than fifteen million dollars producing and promoting "Underbelly". The lead-up resulted in a heavy marketing campaign which covered radio, print, billboards and an increased online presence, including the use of social networking tools. When the CEO of the Nine Network, David Gyngell noted the need to up its online presence, and embrace social networking as a valuable marketing tool, the official website was launched. The original website was launched on 15 January 2008, with only a 3-minute trailer; while the full site, with all its features, launched on 1 February 2008. It was announced that the full first episode would be available for download on the site on 10 February, three

Franchise.

The series' first prequel, "", revolves around the organised crime groups that stemmed from the Griffith-based dope trade. The series follows the lives of two late infamous drug lords, "Aussie Bob" Trimbole and Terry "Mr Asia" Clark, portrayed by Roy Billing and Matthew Newton respectively. Filming took place in both Sydney and Melbourne until March 2009. Sydney locations Richmond, Bondi Beach and Warwick Farm were used to portray Griffith in the 1970s. Writers Peter Gawler and Greg Haddrick admitted that there was more nudity and sex than the original. The prequel premiered on 9 February 2009

Impact.

Critical reception.

The first episode of the series was screened privately to media on 17 January 2008, prior the media had been treated with extracts and trailers promoting the series. On 3 January 2008, "The Sydney Morning Herald's" critic Michael Idato declared the series ""The Blue Murder of its time"", referring to the critically acclaimed 1995 ABC TV drama "Blue Murder", considered by many to be the finest crime drama ever produced in Australia. In a review on his blog on 17 January 2008, David Knox, stated that "Underbelly" ""is our own Sopranos"", and awarded it 4.5 out of 5. He also commented "If there are any criticisms to be found with "Underbelly",

Australian Family Association's reaction.

On 11 February 2008 the Australian Family Association (AFA), was publicly outraged that "Underbelly" would be screening at 8:30 pm, well within reach of children, after clips of the series were leaked onto the internet. The clips highlighted the use of extreme profanities, and scenes that show a violent bashing, a cold-blooded murder, and a sexual encounter.

Ratings.

The opening double episodes, which aired on 13 February, attracted an average of 1,320,000 viewers nationally, minus Victoria, making it the third most-watched show of the night. In Victoria alone, the series was expected to attract 800,000 to 1 million viewers, which would have put "Underbelly" figures over the 2 million mark. The replacement movie for "Underbelly" in Victoria, "The

Awards.

"Underbelly" was nominated for eight awards at the 2008 AFI Awards, winning six. The awards won were: Best Drama Series; Best Director (Peter Andrikidis, for episode 7); Best Lead Actor (Gyton Grantley); Best Lead Actress (Kat Stewart); Best Guest or Supporting Actor (Damian Walshe-Howling, for episode 7); and Best Guest or Supporting Actress (Madeleine West, for episode 7). The series was also nominated for Best Screenplay (Peter Gawler); and Best Guest or

Legal issues.

Supreme Court writ threat.

George Defteros, a high-profile lawyer, against whom criminal charges were dropped because the prosecution did not have enough evidence, disrupted the lead-up to the series' launch, when he threatened the Nine Network with a Supreme Court writ on 26 January 2008. Defteros, said to be portrayed by George Kapiniaris, engaged

Supreme Court suppression.

The screening of "Underbelly" in Victoria was put into jeopardy after last-minute legal proceedings were instituted by the Director of Public Prosecutions, Jeremy Rapke, QC. Rapke secured an urgent viewing of the series, after which he decided to seek an injunction stopping its broadcast in Victoria. A Supreme Court judge called prosecutors and defence lawyers together after serious concerns were raised about whether the show could prejudice the jury in the trial of Evangelos Goussis, who had pleaded not guilty to the 2004 gangland killing of Lewis Moran. Although Goussis was not named in the series, there were concerns the show could hurt his chance of a fair trial.  The Supreme Court hearing took place on 11 February 2008 – only two days before the series was due to premiere. The Nine Network

Underbelly: Uncut (2011 Victorian Broadcast Version).

The suppression order was partially lifted after Mokbel's trial in April 2011, after which the series was broadcast in Victoria. A 9:30pm timeslot allowed the airing of the 'Uncut' edition, based on the episodes as they appeared in the DVD/Blu-ray release, and a few further alterations were made to update the show's significantly outdated summary of current events. The final voice over of the series, in the episode "Purana", was rerecorded(during production of Underbelly: Razor) to include events that occurred up to, and including, 2011(such as Carl Williams' murder and Tony Mokbel's arrest). It is almost a minute longer than the original voice over summary. Other episodes contained less significant changes to the original voice

Sequel.

"Fat Tony & Co." was confirmed on 3 August 2013, with series production beginning on 5 August 2013. It was not branded as "Underbelly" due to changes in funding with Screen Australia, but chronologically acts as a direct sequel

Distribution.

International distribution.

"Underbelly" began airing in New Zealand on TV3 on Sunday at 9:30pm, but the network put the series on hiatus after three episodes because it was "not performing as expected in the time slot". Due to a public outcry, TV3 reversed their decision 48 hours later, saying it was "bowing to the pressure of angry fans". TV3 reinstated the series in its old timeslot, but rescheduled it to 11:15pm on Tuesday evenings just weeks later. TV3 senior publicist Nicole Wood said the show had failed to win new viewers in the Sunday slot, and even though they were "inundated with fans" when they took it off air, it "still didn't rate" on its second showing.

Illegal distribution.

Despite the ban on broadcasting the series in Victoria, Victorians were still able to access episodes via illegal online distribution. The first episode was made available on torrent sites within 20 minutes of it concluding in New South Wales. The Nine Network reportedly obtained the IP address of the first person to upload the show, and network lawyers were considering legal action. The Australian Federation Against Copyright Theft (AFACT) was investigating the matter, and was expected to make a list of recommendations to Victoria Police. Fears of inside leaks were aroused when advance screener versions of the first eight episodes were posted online.  Every episode of the 13-part series was soon available for download on a range of sites. It was reported that on mininova.org more than 3,000 users were attempting to download episode seven late on

Merchandise.

The legal "Underbelly" DVD was released 8 May 2008 by Roadshow Entertainment, a day after the final episode was aired on television. In accordance with the legal suppression, the release was not distributed through any retail or rental outlets in Victoria or on the internet. Roadshow Entertainment has confirmed that all box sets and point of sale displays will carry a sticker or stamp reminding buyers the series is not for sale, distribution or exhibition in Victoria.

Underbelly, the first series of Australian crime television drama series Underbelly. The thirteen-part series originally aired from 13 February 2008 to 7 May 2008 on the Nine Network and is loosely based on the real events of the 1995–2004 gangland war in Melbourne. It depicts the key players in Melbourne's criminal underworld, including the Carlton Crew and their rival, Carl Williams. The series is based on the book "Leadbelly: Inside Australia's Underworld", by journalists John Silvester and Andrew Rule, and borrows its name from the successful "Underbelly" true crime anthology book series also authored by Silvester and Rule. An alternative and significantly updated tie-in novel, "Underbelly: The Gangland War", was released as their 13th book in the series. The series is produced by the Australian Film Finance Corporation, in association with Film Victoria. The executive producers are Des Monaghan and Jo Horsburgh.

Underbelly – Krieg der Unterwelt (Originaltitel: "Underbelly") ist eine dreizehnteilige australische Miniserie, die die realen Ereignisse des von 1995 bis 2004 währenden Bandenkrieges in Melbourne nacherzählt. Sie zeigt die Hauptakteure in der kriminellen Unterwelt von Melbourne, einschließlich der Carlton Crew und deren Rivale, Carl Williams. Die Serie basiert auf dem Buch "Leadbelly: Inside Australia’s Underworld" der beiden The-Age-Journalisten John Silvester und Andrew Rule.


Biography.

A Hardal Israeli, he was born in kibbutz Ein Gev, and received a secular education. When he was old enough, Eitam joined the Israeli Defense Forces. Eitam has M.A. in Political Science and in International Relations. He is also a former student of the Mercaz HaRav yeshiva, and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. He is married, has eight children, and lives in the Israeli settlement of Nov in the Golan Heights.

Military career.

Eitam was drafted into the IDF in 1971, and volunteered for the Shayetet 13 naval commando force, but was dismissed after a year, and did his military service in the Golani Brigade. He was sent to Officer Candidate School and in 1973 was commissioned as an infantry officer and return to the Golani Brigade. During the Yom Kippur War He served as a platoon leader in the Brigade's 12 battalion and fought with his sergeant to stop Syrian tanks from penetrating the Golan Heights's Nafah base, using 3 Bazooka bombs and a heavy machine gun, and later rescued the wounded from Nafah. For his heroism, he has earned Israel's Medal of Distinguished Service. Later on Eitam led the Brigade's Reconnaissance company during Operation Entebbe. Afterwards, he commanded Golani Brigade's 12 battalion in counter-guerrilla operations in South Lebanon and during the 1982 Lebanon War he led an officers' school battalion and a brigade. During the first Intifada, he commanded the Givati Brigade. In 1988, Israeli Defense Minister Yitzhak Rabin ordered the Israeli Army to beat Palestinian rioters. Eitam was heard over a radio telling his troops to beat and break the bones of a 21-year-old Palestinian prisoner named Ayyad Aqel. They beat him to death. An IDF court-martial convicted four of his soldiers, who testified against him. The Military Advocate General severely reprimanded Eitam, and recommended that he never be promoted. Despite that, the IDF's Chief of General Staff, Ehud Barak, decided to promote him to the rank of Brigadier General. During the years 1997-1999, he commanded the 91st Division in counter-guerrilla operations in South Lebanon. He quit the Army in December 2000.

Political career.

After his retirement from military service, Eitam entered politics, joining the National Religious Party. Despite not being a member of the Knesset, he was appointed a Minister without Portfolio on 8 April 2002, serving until 18 September that year, when he became Minister of National Infrastructure.  In 2002, Eitam called for Yasser Arafat to be killed. Of Palestinian leader Marwan Barghouti, then being investigated by Israel, he said, "Take him out to an orchard and shoot him in the head." He was first elected to the Knesset in January 2003, and was appointed Minister of Housing and Construction in March 2003.

Disengagement plan and NRP split.

On 10 June 2004, Eitam and Yitzhak Levy quit the government to protest the disengagement plan. However, the National Religious Party refused to leave the coalition. Eventually, Eitam and Levi left the NRP, too, and formed the Renewed Religious National Zionist Party, later renamed Ahi, which would later join the National Union - a Knesset list of right-wing parties.  In a harsh speech delivered on 11 January 2005, Eitam called Prime Minister Ariel Sharon "refuser of democracy" ("סרבן דמוקרטיה"), and attacked him for refusing to conduct a national poll on the plan. Eitam claimed Sharon was promoting the disengagement plan by threatening and firing objectors, and by making corrupt deals. Eitam also claimed that the left was running an incitement campaign against the settlers, which include provocations and calls to spill their blood, in order to delegitimize that right-wing campaign against the disengagement plan. Despite the harsh criticism, Eitam denounced military refusal and violence. He concluded that in the end of struggle, "If you don't listen to the call to bring back the decision to the healthy and strong people, we shall send you home, and it will be painful and shameful, that will erase the achievements of your manhood."  In March 2005, after the Israeli Southern Command issued a decree forbidding relocation to the Gaza Strip, Eitam announced his intention to go and live in Gush Katif in order to reinforce the settlers and help prevent their eviction. Eventually, over Passover, Eitam moved to Netzer Hazani. Left-wing members of the Knesset denounced Eitam's move, but the speaker of the house, Reuven Rivlin, said that the move fell under the immunity members of the Knesset have. After the evacuation of Netzer Hazani, Eitam moved to Netzarim, and accompanied them during their evacuation.  Because of his objection to military refusal and violence, Eitam was a negotiator between the opposers to the plan and Israeli security forces. He arranged a massive weapons recall in all the settlement due to be removed, in order to prevent any chance of bullets being fired by accident or the heat of the moment. He declared that the settlers would not use violence against Israeli security officers. Eitam also insisted that the removal forces would be unarmed. He explained his actions:  "It is about the expulsion of thousands of people from their homes. It is important to reach negotiation and discussion, it is important to shape the rules of the struggle in such a way that it will be conducted with determination, and on the other hand won't pull Israel to the abyss from which there is no return. It is not about acceptance with the disengagement [plan], but on the contrary, it is a struggle of multitude of people who will struggle with responsibility."  In July 2005, Eitam initiated a "struggle treaty", and got members of the Knesset and rabbis to sign it. The treaty set the rules of struggle against the disengagement [plan] and the red lines. The treaty declared a rejection of any kind of violence:  In addition, it was decided that the protest will be done unarmed, in order to prevent blood spilling or use of firearms. The treaty was distributed in thousands of copies to the ten of thousands participants of the "joining march" to Kfar Maimon.  On 25 August 2005, Eitam was quoted as explaining that the reason there was no violence was not the security forces, but the settlers' own restraint and decision not to use violence. Eitam rebuked those who said that the settlers didn't use violence because they were afraid from the multitude of officers, and said: "We were not afraid from the multitude of cops and horses, it is ridiculous to think that our people, with swift boys, war-though men and its wives and men are scorned by mortar shells, explosive charges and graves, will be afraid of physical confrontation with the cops. This shallow and evil claim miss the main thing, and therefore so dangerous.  Prior to the 2009 elections, Ahi merged into Likud allowing Eitam to pass his election financing to the party. Eitam decided to not run in this election.

Amona.

On 2 February 2006, Eitam was injured when Israeli police tried to disperse a protest of thousands of Israeli settlers who were blocking the demolition of nine homes in the Israeli settlement of Amona in the West Bank. The protest became violent, and Eitam, who was one of three Israeli nationalist MKs amongst the crowds, was knocked down. Eitam was hospitalized with minor injuries.

Advocacy of expulsion of Israeli Arabs in 2006.

After being re-elected on the joint National Union-National Religious Party list, Eitam caused controversy during a memorial ceremony for a fallen Israeli soldier on 10 September 2006, saying, "We'll have to expel the overwhelming majority of West Bank Arabs from here and remove Israeli Arabs from political system", and, "We have raised a fifth column, a group of traitors". Attorney-General Menachem Mazuz warned Eitam at the time that criminal charges could be brought against him, if he repeated the statements.

Ideology.

Eitam has called Israeli Arabs a "cancer": "[T]he Israeli Arabs are in large measure the ticking bomb beneath the whole democratic Israeli order inside the [1967] Green Line. Even today, in the Galilee and the Negev, a de facto autonomy of theirs is being created, which could in practice turn Israel into the bubble of Metropolitan Tel Aviv.... Therefore, I say that the State of Israel today faces an existential threat that is characterized by being an elusive threat, and elusive threats by their nature resemble cancer. Cancer is a type of illness in which most of the people who die from it die because they were diagnosed too late. By the time you grasp the size of the threat, it is already too late to deal with it.". Commenting on this, the veteran Israeli journalist, Akiva Eldar, wrote in Haaretz, "The fact that the Nazis were especially fond of this [cancer] metaphor is probably not lost on the general [public]."  In 2004, Eitam called the Palestinians "dark forces", and said: "We will have to kill them all... I don’t mean all the Palestinians, but the ones with evil in their heads." In 2002, the Israeli Army used Nidal Abu Muihsein as a human shield, causing his death; Eitam called this “very moral”. In October 2005, Eitam opposed a Supreme Court of Israel ruling that banned the IDF from using Palestinians as human shields, stating that, "Supreme court judges demonstrated today that their pity for the cruel will prove cruel to the merciful and will expose Israeli soldiers to more danger". In November 2006, he called for an expulsion of most Palestinians from the West Bank: "Expel most of the Judea and Samaria Arabs from here. We cannot be with all these Arabs, and we cannot give up the land." In March 2008, he called for the expulsion of Israeli Arab members of the Knesset: "One day, we will expel you to Gaza from this house and from the national home of the Jewish people."  Eitam has called on the U.S. to attack Iran and destroy its suspected nuclear weapons program, adding that Israel was well-prepared to take such action alone, as "a nuclear Iran is not an option for Israel". In February 2007, he stated that in three to four years, Iran would "have a [nuclear] bomb and the missile to deliver it”.  In December 2008, Eitam and his Ahi political party merged with Likud. In 2009-2010, he visited a series of US campuses as Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's "Special Emissary" to the "Caravan for Democracy" program of the Jewish National Fund.

Efraim "Effi" (Fine) Eitam (, born 25 July 1952) is an Israeli politician and former military commander. A former leader of the National Religious Party, he later led a breakaway faction, Ahi, which merged into Likud in 2009. He served as a member of the Knesset between 2003 and 2009.

Ephraim „Effi“ Eitam (; * 25. Juli 1952 in En Gev) ist ein israelischer Politiker. Anfänglich Führer der Nationalreligiösen Partei leitete er später eine Splittergruppe (Ahi), die 2009 ihrerseits wiederum in der Likud-Partei aufging. Er war zwischen 2003 und 2009 Abgeordneter der Knesset.


Early years.

Mach joined the Slovak People's Party at an early age and came to prominence within that movement as an aide to Vojtech Tuka. Under Tuka's tutelage Mach served as editor of the party organs "Slovak" and "Slovenska Pravda" and was appointed to the party's political committee in 1924. He belonged to the non-clerical wing of the Slovak People's Party, which has been portrayed as the more pro-Nazi of the party's two factions. He also served as chief executive of the Rodobrana during that group's mid-1920s heyday. An influential figure on party policy, an editorial he wrote in 1938 calling for the establishment of a paramilitary arm to the party led directly to the formation of the Hlinka Guard. Mach would succeed Karol Sidor as commander of this group in March 1939 with Karol Murgaš serving as his chief of staff.

Slovak Republic.

Mach came to the fore in 1938 after the Munich Agreement and subsequent upsurge in Slovak nationalism as a close associate of Vojtech Tuka and Ferdinand Ďurčanský. Known for his rabble-rousing, Mach played a leading role in orchestrating the violence that followed the collapse of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 in his role as head of the Slovak Office of Propaganda. He served initially as Propaganda Minister in the first Slovak Republic before holding the position of Interior Minister in the government of Tuka from 29 July 1940 until the state's collapse in 1944.  Like Tuka, whom Mach often deputised for during the Prime Minister's regular spells of illness, he supported a pro-Nazi policy and the speedy establishment of a fascist state, something which led to frequent clashes with the less ideologically minded President Jozef Tiso. Tiso managed to briefly deprive Mach of his position in the Hlinka Guard in May 1940 although Mach's pro-German stance meant the Nazis backed him for high office consistently. In 1941 Mach even drew up plans to establish concentration camps in Slovakia for the Germans although the plan was abandoned when they decided to concentrate on Poland and the east as the location for such initiative.

Later life.

A staunch supporter of Nazi Germany, Mach fled Slovakia after the collapse of its puppet government in 1944 and relocated to Vienna, where he was declared Minister of Home Affairs in a pro-Nazi government-in-exile. Arrested by the Czechoslovakian authorities after the end of the Second World War he was tried before a People's Court and sentenced to thirty years imprisonment for his role in collaboration. He was released from prison in 1968 and settled in Bratislava, living on a state pension until his death in 1980.

Alexander Mach (11 October 1902 in Slovenský Meder (today Palárikovo) – 15 October 1980 in Bratislava) was a Slovak nationalist politician. Mach was associated with the far right wing of Slovak nationalism and became noted for his strong support of Nazism and Germany.

Alexander Mach, Rufname Šaňo (deutsch auch "Schanjo Mach", * 11. Oktober 1902 in Tótmegyer; † 15. Oktober 1980 in Bratislava) war ein slowakischer Journalist und Politiker der Ludaken. Während der Existenz des Slowakischen Staates war er Oberbefehlshaber der Hlinka-Garde (1939–40, 1940–44) sowie Innenminister und Vize-Ministerpräsident (1940–45).


Background.

The 2010 Haiti earthquake was a catastrophic magnitude 7.0 M earthquake, with an epicenter near the town of Léogâne, approximately west of Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital. The earthquake occurred at 16:53 local time (21:53 UTC) on Tuesday, 12 January 2010. By 24 January, at least 52 aftershocks measuring 4.5 or greater had been recorded. An estimated three million people were affected by the quake; the Haitian government reported that an estimated 316,000 people had died, 300,000 had been injured and 1,000,000 made homeless. The government of Haiti also estimated that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged. The earthquake caused major damage in Port-au-Prince, Jacmel and other settlements in the region. Many notable landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed, including the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building, the Port-au-Prince Cathedral, and the main jail. Among those killed were Archbishop of Port-au-Prince Joseph Serge Miot, and opposition leader Micha Gaillard. The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), located in the capital, collapsed, killing many, including the Mission's Chief, Hédi Annabi.  Many countries responded to appeals for humanitarian aid, pledging funds and dispatching rescue and medical teams, engineers and support personnel. Communication systems, air, land, and sea transport facilities, hospitals, and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake, which hampered rescue and aid efforts; confusion over who was in charge, air traffic congestion, and problems with prioritisation of flights further complicated early relief work. Port-au-Prince's morgues were overwhelmed with tens of thousands of bodies. These had to be buried in mass graves. As rescues tailed off, supplies, medical care and sanitation became priorities. Delays in aid distribution led to angry appeals from aid workers and survivors, and looting and sporadic violence were observed. On 22 January the United Nations noted that the emergency phase of the relief operation was drawing to a close, and on the following day the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors.

Writing and recording.

The genesis of the song came with Jay-Z collaborator Swizz Beatz sending simultaneous text messages to Jay-Z and Bono. They agreed to collaborate on a single, and Bono wrote the hook for "Stranded" while on the phone with Beatz. The latter said, "The idea of the song is 'We're not gonna leave you stranded' and that's what the chorus is. So me and Bono started going back and forth with ideas, and he was like, 'You know this word stranded keeps standing out to me' and I asked him to sing it, and he put me on hold 'cause he's recording the ideas on a Dictaphone — so he did it there and then on the phone." Bono and The Edge then did further writing work on it together.  The recording was done over diverse geographic locations and melded together, with The Edge helping out with extra production work. Beatz then added Rihanna into the effort, later saying, "I knew that Jay would be able to tell a story, and that Bono would be able to sing and bring it home. The last component that I added was Rihanna, and she's kinda like the angel that's on the track, softening it up and giving it that caring feeling, because this hook is so powerful." The final recording was produced by Beatz and Declan Gaffney. In the song, Jay-Z narrates the tale, invoking questions of religion and government while urging action and resolve. Bono and Rihanna sing the vocal hook, with Rihanna taking the lead.

Promotion and release.

"Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)" was debuted and first performed live in London on 22 January 2010, and was shown hours later as part of the telethon. The performance also featured The Edge on guitar and was one of the more upbeat ones of the event.  "Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)" was released to the UK iTunes Store on 23 January 2010. All profits from the sales will go towards the Hope For Haiti Now campaign. It is Rihanna's second charity single for the Haiti campaign (a take on "Redemption Song" being the first). Also, an album "Hope for Haiti Now", including the live performance and the studio version, was released to iTunes on the same date.

Critical reception.

"The New York Times" felt that the artists behind "Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)" deserved credit for creating an original song for the occasion but that the results were of mixed quality: "The sound was muddy, and the concept undercooked, but it was an implicit acknowledgment that a situation this dire demanded something more than squeezing meaning out of a pre-existing song that lacks it." Ann Powers of the "Los Angeles Times" said the song's performance was the most newsworthy of the event, and described its musical flavoring as partly derived from the 1995 U2 side project Passengers and partly derived from modern rap. "The Hartford Courant" described it as the most high-powered combination of the telethon, but said that Bono did not seem fully integrated into the performance.

Chart performance.

On 27 January 2010, the song debuted on the Norwegian Singles Chart at number six. It also debuted at number 16 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, and number six on the Canadian Hot 100. On 28 January 2010, 'Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)' debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number three. The following day, the song made yet another appearance, this time on the Swedish Singles Chart same at number three. On 31 January 2010, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 41 and UK Indie Chart at number three. It has also made appearances on the Belgian Singles Charts, Danish Singles Chart, Finnish Singles Chart and Spanish Singles Chart with all of the positions currently peaking within the top 40.

"Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour)" is a song recorded by Jay-Z, Bono, The Edge and Rihanna for "Hope for Haiti Now", a live album by various artists to benefit the to alleviate the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The song was written by Jay-Z, The Edge and Bono and produced by Swizz Beatz.

Stranded (Haiti Mon Amour) ist ein Lied von Jay-Z, Bono, The Edge und Rihanna. Es ist eine Benefiz-Single, der Hope for Haiti Now Kampagne und wurde am 23. Januar 2010, eine Woche nach dem Erdbeben in Haiti, veröffentlicht.


Club career.

Helsingborgs.

Born in Rydebäck, Sweden, Nilsson played for his hometown club, Rydebäcks IF, before joining Helsingborgs in 2003 at thirteen. After progressing through the ranks at Helsingborgs, Nilsson was called up to the first team and was involved in the first team pre-season matches. It wasn't until on 1 May 2007 when Nilsson was given a first team chance by then Manager Stuart Baxter, where he made his first start and played 70 minutes despite losing 1–0 against Elfsborg. With two appearance in the 2007 season, Nilsson signed a contract with the club in September 2007.  The 2008 season saw Nilsson struggling to make a breakthrough in the first team, with the likes of Joel Ekstrand, Andreas Granqvist and Samir Beloufa established himself in the central defense position. Following the departure of Granqvist and the arrival of Hannu Patronen, Nilsson then made his first appearance of the season on 7 July 2008, where he made his first start in a year, in a 1–1 draw against Göteborg. From July to October, Nilsson had a handful of first team appearances and formed a central defense partnership with youngsters, Ekstrand. Despite a good performance against Kalmar FF on 24 September 2008, Nilsson, however, was demoted to the substitute bench for the rest of the season.  In 2009 season, Nilsson established himself in the first team, along with Ekstrand, in the defense and made a good start in the opening game of the season when he helped the club win against Göteborg 1–0, as well as, clean sheet. This was followed up by two wins against GAIS and Hammarby. His performance resulted him and Ekstrand signing a contract extension, keeping him until 2012. Nilsson was an ever starting player in the first team this season until he was absent on two occasions in July. Despite this, Nilsson returned to the first team and continued to be a first team regular until he suffered an injury that kept him out for the rest of the season. Nevertheless, Nilson finished the season, making twenty-eight appearances in all competitions.  In the 2010 season, Nilsson continued to be in the first team and started the season when he kept three clean sheets to the first three matches against IF Brommapojkarna, Djurgården and Göteborg, which he scored his first goal for the club. It wasn't until on 20 April 2010 when he scored again, with a 2–1 win over Malmö. Unfortunately, as the season progressed, Nilsson was suspended on two occasions: one, he received a red card after a second bookable, in a 3–1 win over Gefle on 10 May 2010 and another was on 26 July 2010 when he was suspended for picking up five yellow cards this season. Despite this, Nilsson remained in the first team throughout the season at the club and made thirty-three appearances and scoring two times in all competitions.  In the 2011 season, Nilsson started the season well when he scored the opener in a 2–1 win over Malmö to win the Svenska Supercupen. Nilsson once again became a first team regular and started the season with a good start, with four straight wins, including three clean sheets against Mjällby, Elfsborg and Syrianska. After being suspended for two matches for picking up three yellow cards this season., Nilsson scored on his return from suspension in the last-16 of the Swedish Cup, in a 2–1 win over Trelleborgs FF. His performance attracted interests from clubs around Europe, including Danish side Copenhagen, who were interested in signing him and at one point, involved Peter Larsson as part of the exchange. Amid to the transfer speculation, Helsingborgs' supporters reacted positive towards Nilsson's transfer and welcomed his return in the near future when he played against Djurgårdens on 11 July 2011. His last appearance for the club in a wake of his transfer move came on 18 July 2011 against Kalmar, in a 2–1 win, which Nilsson was in tears as a result.

Utrecht.

Eventually, Nilsson opted to move abroad when he signed for Utrecht, signing a four-year contract on 12 July 2011. The transfer fee was reportedly between 10 and 15 million Krone.  Nilsson made his Utrecht debut in the opening game of the season, where he made his first start and played a whole game, in a 0–0 draw against VVV-Venlo, keeping a clean sheet. However, in a 2–1 loss against Vitesse on 20 August 2011, Nilsson received a straight red card in the 86th minutes. As a result, Nilsson served a two match suspension. Despite making a return against Heracles Almelo on 18 September 2011, Nilsson was sent-off for the second time this season on 15 October 2011, in a 1–0 loss against PSV Eindhoven. In a match against Feyenoord on 11 December 2011, Nilsson suffered a knee injury during the match and was substituted early in the match. It wasn't until February when he had a surgery and it was successful, but was out of action for the rest of the season. Despite making sixteen appearances in all competitions, Nilsson, however, was named as the league's worst signing of the season by Voetbal International.  The 2012–13 season saw Nilsson recovered from a knee injury in the pre-season and made his first appearance of the season on 18 August 2012, making his first start and played 90 minutes, in a 3–1 win over VVV-Venlo. Nilsson made two more appearance this season before being demoted to the substitute bench, played in the reserve and his own injury concerns that kept him out throughout the season. The whole 2013 saw Nilsson continued to rehabilitate his back injury.

Kalmar FF.

On 31 January 2014, Nilsson returned to Sweden where he joined Kalmar on loan until 31 July 2014. The move was later confirmed the next day. Nilsson acknowledged his move to Kalmar, where he cited first team opportunities as a factor to the move.  Nilsson made his Kalmar FF debut, in the opening game of the season, where he made his first start and played the whole game, in a 2–1 win over Brommapojkarna. This was followed up in the next match against Åtvidabergs when he set up one of the goals, in a 2–2 draw. In the summer transfer window, Nilsson joined the club on a permanent basis, where he signed a contract until the end of the season. Nilsson then scored his first goal for the club, as well as, setting up one of the goal, in a 2–0 win over Mjällby on 27 October 2014. Nilsson finished his first season at the club, making twenty-six appearance and scoring once in all competitions.  Ahead of the 2015 season, Nilsson signed a contract extension with the club, ending the transfer rumours that he could leave the club. Nilsson then established himself in the first team at Kalmar as a centre-back position. In a match against his former club Helsingborgs IF on 31 July 2015, Nilsson was involved in an incident with the opposition's supporters, resulting an apology from the player. Despite suffering setbacks of suspension and injuries, Nilsson finished the season, making twenty-three appearances in all competitions.  At the end of the season, Nilsson was linked with a move away from Kalmar. Nilsson later revealed to the club's management that he would be leaving the club, just before Christmas.

Fleetwood Town.

On 3 February 2016, Nilsson signed for Fleetwood Town on a deal until the end of the 2015–16 season.  Nilsson made his Fleetwood Town debut four days later after signing for the club on 7 February 2016, where he came on as a substitute in the second half, in a 0–0 draw against Shrewsbury Town. Since making his debut, Nilsson became a first team regular at the club, making a handful of first team appearances. On 5 March 2016, Nilsson scored his first Fleetwood Town goal, in a 2–2 draw against Sheffield United. Although he lost his first team place later in the season, due to fallen out of favour under the management of Steven Pressley.  At the end of the season, the club opted to take up their option of a contract extension, keeping Nilsson under contract until summer 2017. However, less than a month later, Nilsson was expected to leave the club, with Scandinavian clubs keen on signing him.

Stabæk.

On 20 July 2016, Nilsson joined Norwegian Tippeligaen side Stabæk. The move was reported to be an undisclosed fee by the club's website.  Nilsson then made his Stabæk debut on 24 July 2016, where he made his first start and played the whole game, in a 2–2 draw against Tromsø. Since making his debut, Nilsson established himself in the first team at Stabæk throughout the whole season. Despite missing out one game, due to injury, Nilsson went on to make thirteen appearance for the club. The club narrowly escaped relegation.  At the end of the season, Nilsson left the club on 1 January 2017.

Pohang Steelers.

Only weeks after leaving Stabæk, Nilsson joined K League Classic side Pohang Steelers on 25 January 2017, with the contract length were not disclosed. On 2 June 2017, Nilsson's contract was officially terminated by mutual consent.

International career.

After featuring for the Sweden U17 and Sweden U19, Nilsson was called up by Sweden U21 in March 2009. Nilsson made his Sweden U21 debut on 31 March 2009, in a 2–1 win over Belgium U21, having previously been on the bench in the previous game. Then, Nilsson scored his first goal on 12 August 2009, he scored his first goal for Sweden U21, in a 4–2 win over Denmark U21.  In December 2010, Nilsson was called up by Sweden for the first time. The following month, on 22 January 2011, Nilsson made his (and only appearance) debut for the national side, coming in a 1–1 draw with South Africa.

Personal life.

Nilsson is in a relationship with his girlfriend, Elin, who is from Austria. In addition of speaking his native language, Swedish, Nilsson is learning Dutch language.

Marcus Åke Jens-Erik Nilsson (born 26 February 1988) is a Swedish football manager and former player who played as a centre-back.

Marcus Nilsson (* 26. Februar 1988) ist ein schwedischer Fußballspieler. Der Abwehrspieler, der 2011 in der schwedischen Nationalmannschaft debütierte, gewann 2010 mit Helsingborgs IF den Landespokal.


Features.

Chaelundi National Park is north-west of Dorrigo and Grafton, approximately by road north of Sydney.  Comprising of old-growth forest and of declared wilderness, the park creates a habitat for 187 (indigenous and non-indigenous) species according to the Atlas of NSW Wildlife.  The park was proclaimed in January 1997, on land formerly designated as a State-owned production forest.

Litigation.

A series of cases were brought in the NSW Land and Environment Court between 1989 and 1991 by members of the North East Forest Alliance in order to protect the forest located near Dorrigo from continued logging. One key case concerned the interpretation of s.99 of the, which stated that it was an offence to "take or kill any endangered fauna". Such were the habitat values of the forest that in "Corkill v Forestry Commission", Justice Paul Stein referred to the old growth forest as a "veritable forest dependent zoo". The ruling was that "take" included indirect taking by means of the habitat modification/destruction associated with logging:"Corkill v Forestry Commission of New South Wales" (1991) 73 LGRA 126. That decision went on appeal to the Court of Appeal, and the interpretation was upheld: "Forestry Commission v Corkill" (1991) 73 LGRA 247.  These legal cases were combined with an on-site blockade of logging work, the blockade being undertaken by experienced and inexperienced green activists and locals many of whom camped in the forest; using techniques such as chaining protesters inside concrete pipes and up tripods.

Chaelundi National Park, a national park comprising, is located in the Northern Tablelands district of New South Wales, Australia.

Der Chaelundi-Nationalpark ist ein Nationalpark im Nordosten des australischen Bundesstaates New South Wales, 455 km nördlich von Sydney, etwa 50 km nordwestlich von "Dorrigo" und rund 50 km südwestlich von Grafton.


Playing career.

Ratushny was selected 25th overall in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft by the Winnipeg Jets following his freshman season at Cornell University. He spent two more seasons at Cornell and was named All-America and ECAC first-team all-star in both 1990 and 1991. He would also represent Canada at the 1990 IIHF World U20 Championship, winning a gold medal.  Ratushny left college hockey after his junior year to join the Canadian National Team with the goal of participating at the 1992 Olympics (at the time, the national team was stocked with amateur players, as professional participation at the Olympics was prohibited). He spent the conclusion of the 1990–91 and the entire 1991–92 seasons with the national team, winning a silver medal at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France.  Ratushny finished the 1991–92 season in Switzerland with EHC Olten before signing with the IHL Fort Wayne Komets for the 1992-93 season. He was dealt to the Vancouver Canucks at the NHL trade deadline in 1993, but only played one game for the Canucks.  From 1993 until 1999, Ratushny played in the AHL and IHL before continuing his career abroad in Japan, Finland, the United Kingdom and Sweden.  Dan made a brief appearance in an episode of the Scottish sit-com Still Game.

Education and legal work.

Daniel received his B.Sc. in Economics from Cornell in 1997. He earned his M.B.A. from Strathclyde Business School in 2003 and his LL.B. from the University of Ottawa Faculty of Law in 2006.  From 2006 until 2009, Ratushny worked as a lawyer in the corporate department of the international law firm Stikeman Elliott.  In 2015 he earned his Executive Master in International Sports Law from ISDE in Madrid, Spain and is currently a sports arbitrator.

Coaching career.

He served as assistant coach at the University of Ottawa in 2004-05.  From 2009 until 2011, Ratushny was the head coach of the Swiss National League B team EHC Olten. In 2011, he became head coach of the Straubing Tigers of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) for three seasons. In the 2011-12 season, he led the Tigers to the DEL playoff-semifinals and was named DEL Coach of the Year.  He signed with EC Red Bull Salzburg of the Austrian Hockey League (EBEL) in 2014 and was named head coach of the Austrian national team. Ratushny guided Salzburg to the championship his first year, repeating this success the following season (2015–16).  In April 2016, he was named head coach of Lausanne HC of the Swiss top-flight National League A (NLA). In May 2016, he stepped down from his position as head coach of the Austrian national team to focus on his job in Lausanne. He guided the team to a fourth-place finish in the 2016-17 regular season, while being named NLA Regular Season Coach of the Year. Ratushny was sacked on October 11, 2017 after LHC had garnered twelve points from the first ten games of the 2017-18 season.

Daniel Paul Ratushny (born October 29, 1970) is a Canadian professional ice hockey coach, lawyer and sports arbitrator. A former professional ice hockey defenceman, he last served as head coach of Lausanne HC of the Swiss top-flight National League A (NLA).

Daniel Paul Ratushny (* 29. Oktober 1970 in Nepean, Ontario) ist ein ehemaliger kanadischer Eishockeyspieler und derzeitiger -trainer. Bis Oktober 2017 war er Cheftrainer beim Lausanne HC in der Schweizer National League A (NLA).


Design and description.

The "Charlemagne"-class ships were smaller versions of the preceding, albeit with an improved armament. They were long overall and had a beam of. At deep load, the ships had a draught of forward and aft. They displaced normally, and at deep load. When serving as flagships, their crew numbered 750 men, but had 32 officers and 660 ratings as private ships. The ships were powered by three vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers. These boilers were coal-burning with auxiliary oil sprayers and were designed to produce to give the "Charlemagne" class a speed of. During her sea trials, "Gaulois" reached a top speed of from. The ships carried enough coal to give them a range of at a speed of.  The "Charlemagne"s carried their main battery of four Canon de Modèle 1893 guns in two twin-gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament consisted of ten Canon de Modèle 1893 guns, eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships. They also carried eight Canon de Modèle 1893 guns in open mounts on the superstructure. The ships' anti-torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty Canon de Modèle 1885 and two Maxim guns, fitted in platforms on both masts, on the superstructure, and in casemates in the hull. The ships mounted four torpedo tubes, two on each broadside, one submerged and the other above water. As was common with ships of their generation, they were built with a plough-shaped ram.  The "Charlemagne"-class ships had a complete waterline belt of nickel-steel armour that ranged in thickness from and was thickest amidships. The gun turrets were protected by of Harvey armour and their barbettes had plates of the same type of armour. The main armoured deck was thick and there was a thick splinter deck below it. The conning tower had a thick face and sides.

Construction and career.

"Gaulois", named after the tribes that inhabited France during Roman times, was ordered on 22 January 1895 from the Arsenal de Brest. Her sister ship was being built in the slipway intended for "Gaulois" so the latter ship's construction was delayed until the former was launched. "Gaulois" was laid down on 6 January 1896 and launched on 6 October of the same year. She was commissioned () on 15 January 1899. The ship was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron (), but was then assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Squadron on 30 September, together with "Charlemagne".  The sisters remained based in Brest until they departed for Toulon on 18 January 1900. The following month, while exercising in the harbour at Hyères, "Gaulois" accidentally rammed the destroyer, gouging a hole in the smaller ship. "Hallebarde" reached Toulon where she was repaired, while the battleship was barely damaged. On 18 July, after combined manoeuvres with the Northern Squadron, the ship participated in a naval review conducted by the President of France, Émile Loubet, at Cherbourg. The following year, "Gaulois" and the Mediterranean Squadron participated in an international naval review by Loubet in Toulon with ships from Spain, Italy and Russia.  In October 1901, the 1st Battleship Division, under the command of Rear-Admiral () Leonce Caillard, was ordered to proceed to the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, then owned by the Ottoman Empire. After landing two companies of marines that occupied the major ports of the island on 7 November, Sultan Abdul Hamid II agreed to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks. The 1st Division departed Lesbos in early December and returned to Toulon. In May 1902, the ship became the flagship of Vice-Admiral () François Fournier who led a small delegation to celebrate the unveiling of the statue of Comte de Rochambeau in Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C. On 23 May President Theodore Roosevelt was received aboard and the ship visited New York City and Boston before heading back to France. She made another port visit to Lisbon, Portugal, before arriving back at Toulon on 14 June.  During exercises off Golfe-Juan on 31 January 1903, "Gaulois" accidentally rammed "Bouvet". The latter was barely damaged, but "Gaulois" lost two armour plates from her bow; both captains were relieved of their commands. Captain () Pierre Le Bris assumed command of "Gaulois" on 20 March. In April 1904, she was one of the ships that escorted Loubet during his state visit to Italy. Later that year, the ship made port visits in Thessaloniki and Athens, Greece, with the rest of the Mediterranean Squadron. A wireless telegraph was installed aboard "Gaulois" in December 1905. Together with the battleships and "Bouvet", the ship aided survivors of the April 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Naples, Italy. On 16 September she participated in an international naval review in Marseilles, together with British, Spanish and Italian ships. For the rest of the decade, she participated in exercises with the Mediterranean Squadron and made several port visits in France and its dependencies. In January 1907, the ships was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Division and then to the 4th Battleship Division in July 1908 with her sisters. By 5 January 1909, the 4th Division had been reassigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron (). "Gaulois" sank the target ship on 18 March after she had been fired upon by four other battleships. By 5 January 1910 the divisions of the battle squadrons had been renumbered and the 4th Division was now the 1st Division of the 2nd Battle Squadron. The squadron was transferred to Brest where it replaced the former Northern Squadron on 27 February. Shortly afterwards, one of "Gaulois"s torpedoes moderately damaged the bow of the destroyer while training. On 1 August 1911 the 2nd Battle Squadron was renumbered as the 3rd Battle Squadron and "Gaulois" participated in a large naval review by President Armand Fallières off Cap Brun on 4 September. The ship was reassigned to the Mediterranean Squadron on 16 October 1912 and she participated in a naval review by President Raymond Poincaré on 10 June 1913. The 3rd Battle Squadron was dissolved on 11 November 1913 and the ship was assigned to the Complementary Division () together with "Bouvet" and her sister. In June 1914, the Navy planned to assign "Gaulois" to the Training Division of the Squadron as of October, but this was cancelled upon the outbreak of war in August.

World War I.

Together with the older French pre-dreadnoughts, the ship's first mission in the war was to escort troop convoys from North Africa to France. Later in September, her main turrets required repairs in Bizerte, French Tunisia, as the forward turret was having difficulty traversing. "Gaulois" was ordered to Tenedos Island, not far from the Ottoman Gallipoli Peninsula, in November to guard against a sortie by the ex-German battlecruiser "Yavuz Sultan Selim", relieving the battleship which needed a refit in Toulon. "Gaulois" became the flagship of Rear-Admiral Émile Guépratte upon her arrival on 15 November. He transferred his flag back to "Suffren" when she returned on 10 January 1915.  On 19 February, "Gaulois" supported "Suffren" as the latter ship bombarded Ottoman forts covering the mouth of the Dardanelles. Late in the day, "Gaulois" bombarded the fort at Orhaniye Tepe on the Asian side of the strait. During the subsequent bombardment on 25 February, the ship anchored some from the Asiatic shore and engaged the forts at Kum Kale and Cape Helles. Their return fire was heavy enough to force "Gaulois" to up anchor before she could suppress their guns. Later in the day, she closed to within of the forts and engaged them with her secondary armament. During the day's action, the ship was hit twice, but these did little damage.  On 2 March, the French squadron bombarded targets in the Gulf of Saros, at the base of the Gallipoli Peninsula. Five days later, the French squadron attempted to suppress the Ottoman guns defending the Dardanelles while British battleships bombarded the fortifications. "Gaulois" was hit by a shell during this attack that caused little damage as it failed to detonate. Guépratte and his squadron returned to the Gulf of Saros on 11 March where they again bombarded Ottoman fortifications. They returned to the Dardanelles to assist in the major attack on the fortifications planned for 18 March. British ships made the initial entry into the strait, but the French ships passed through them to engage the forts at closer range. "Gaulois" was hit twice during this bombardment; the first shell struck the quarterdeck, but caused little damage other than deforming the deck. The second shell hit just above the waterline on the starboard bow and appeared to do little damage, but it had pushed in the armour plates below the waterline and opened up a hole by through which water flooded. Little could be done to staunch the inflow and Captain André-Casimir Biard decided to head for the Rabbit Islands, north of Tenedos, where he could beach his ship for temporary repairs. He ordered the non-essential crewmen off the ship in case she foundered en route, but managed to reach the islands, escorted by "Charlemagne".  "Gaulois" was refloated on 22 March and departed for Toulon via Malta three days later, escorted by "Suffren". They encountered a storm on 27 March off Cape Matapan and the ship began taking on water as the repairs began to leak under the pressure of the storm. She radioed for assistance later that night and the armoured cruiser and three torpedo boats arrived several hours later. The ship arrived in the Bay of Navarin the following morning and more repairs were made with the assistance of the crew of the hulked old battleship. "Gaulois" arrived without further incident at Toulon on 16 April and entered drydock the following day. The Navy took the opportunity to increase her stability by lightening her masts, removing some armour from the superstructure and conning tower as well as dismounting two 100 mm and six 47 mm guns. The ship was also fitted with anti-torpedo bulges () amidships to increase her beam and thus her stability.  Her repairs were completed by early June and "Gaulois" departed for the Dardanelles on 8 June. She reached Lemnos on 17 June and relieved "Saint Louis" on 27 July. The ship anchored off the shore on 11 August to bombard an Ottoman artillery battery at Achi Baba. Splinters from return fire detonated a 100 mm shell and started a small fire, but it was put out without much trouble. On her voyage home, "Gaulois" ran aground at the harbour entrance and had to unload most of her ammunition before she could be refloated on 21 August. Together with the pre-dreadnought, the ship covered the Allied evacuation from Gallipoli in January 1916. Badly in need of a refit, she sailed for Brest on 20 July where her captain argued that the range of her main armament needed to be increased by if she was to be considered fit for the battleline. Some thought was given to disarming her and converting her into a barracks ship, but nothing was done before the ship was ordered back to the Eastern Mediterranean on 25 November.

Fate.

By 27 December, "Gaulois" had reached the Sea of Crete and was off the southern coast of Greece when she was torpedoed by the at 08:03 despite being escorted by the torpedo boat and two armed trawlers. The single torpedo hit slightly abaft the mainmast and started uncontrollable flooding below the waterline. It killed two crewmen and another pair drowned as they attempted to abandon ship; the rest of the crew was successfully rescued. The ship capsized at 09:03 and sank eight minutes later off Cape Maleas at in of water.

Gaulois was one of three "Charlemagne"-class pre-dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy () in the mid-1890s. Completed in 1899, she spent most of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron (). The ship accidentally rammed two other French warships early in her career, although neither was seriously damaged, nor was "Gaulois".

Das Linienschiff Gaulois der französischen Marine, das im Oktober 1896 vom Stapel lief, bildete mit seinen Schwesterschiffen "Charlemagne" und "St. Louis" die Charlemagne-Klasse, die 1899 und 1900 in Dienst kam. Von 1900 bis 1913 gehörte die "Gaulois" zum Mittelmeergeschwader.


Taxonomy.

Carl Linnaeus designated "Mammillaria" as a type genus for cactus in 1753. In 1838, James Forbes, gardener of the Duke of Bedford, listed and described a species he called "Echinocactus spinosissimas" from a group of cacti he had acquired in Europe three years earlier. Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose believe that Forbes was given that name by Ludwig Karl Georg Pfeiffer, but the plant was actually "Mammillaria spinosissima".  Pfeiffer had published the first infrageneric division of "Mammillaria" in 1837, dividing the genus into two groups based on distinct spine characteristics. In 1845, Joseph zu Salm-Reifferscheidt-Dyck – based on work by Frederick Scheer – expanded the classification into eight groups. With at least 145 recognized species, it is one of the largest and most morphologically variable genera in the cactus family. Others estimate there are as many as two hundred species of "Mammillaria", including sixty-two cultivated species from India. Though larger, the genus "Opuntia" is less popular with gardeners and landscapers. "Mammillaria" was previously thought to be monophyletic, but phylogenic analysis indicates that "Mammilloydia" is "embedded within a 'core' group of "Mammillaria" species." A specimen of "Mammillaria spinosissima" was collected by Botanist David Hunt in September 1971, when he located one in Mexico, near the Morelos Cautla-Cuernavaca toll road in Sierra de Tepoztlan, at an altitude of.

Similar species, subspecies and synonyms.

Species similar to "Mammillaria spinosissima" include "Mammillaria backebergiana" and "Mammillaria meyranii". Subspecies include "M. spinosissima pilcayensis", synonym: "Bravo" (D. R. Hunt), "M. spinosissima tepoxtlana" (D. R. Hunt), and "M. spinosissima spinosissima" (Lem.). Synonyms of "M. spinosissima" include "Mammillaria centraliplumosa" (Fittkau), "Mammillaria haasii" (J. Meyrán), and "Mammillaria virginis" (Fittkau and Kladiwa).

Description.

"Mammillaria spinosissima", also known as spiny pincushion cactus, are cylindrical plants that grow up to tall and wide. They reach full height after five to ten years. The spines are red-brown or white, with cream-colored radials and pink, funnel-shaped flowers that grow in a ring around the apex of the stem to approximately long. The relatively small cacti are globular or elongated, and the flowers produce generally bright red berries that are club-shaped, smooth, and juicy.  "Mammillaria" species tend to grow low to the ground in solitary or grouped in clusters. The genus is marked by its dimorphic areoles: the spine bearing, or vegetative, areoles are located on the apex of the tubercle, and flowering areoles are located inside the axils of the tubercles. The stem is woolly and covered with bristles.

Native habitat.

The genus "Mammillaria" native habitat ranges from Colombia and Venezuela to the Southwestern United States. Its diversity is greatest in Mexico. Species have also been documented in the West Indies. "M. spinosissima" is endemic to central Mexico and concentrated in the states of Guerrero and Morelos, where they grow at elevations of approximately ; they prefer dry, tropical forests and xerophilous scrub. The subspecies "pilcayensis" is named for its occurrence in the Barranca de Pilcaya, in Guerrero.

Cultivation.

Britton and Rose believe that "M. spinosissima" has been in cultivation since at least 1835. The species thrives in well-drained soils that are sandy or loam, with a pH that is acidic, alkaline, or neutral. They prefer low humidity, and grow well under glass, with full, filtered sun from the south, north, and east. Plants are typically watered once every couple of weeks, and kept nearly dry during the winter months. Propagation is facilitated by offsets of seeds sown in early spring in weather. They require no pruning and make good patio and container plants. They are disease resistant, but are susceptible to pests such as mealybugs. This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Mammillaria spinosissima (), also known as the spiny pincushion cactus, is a species of flowering plant in the cactus family Cactaceae, endemic to the central Mexican states of Guerrero and Morelos, where they grow at elevations of approximately. The species was described in 1838 by James Forbes, gardener of the Duke of Bedford. Botanist David Hunt collected a specimen in 1971, when he located one near Sierra de Tepoztlan, Mexico.

Mammillaria spinosissima ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung "Mammillaria" in der Familie der Kakteengewächse (Cactaceae). Das Artepitheton "spinosissima" bedeutet ‚sehr dornig‘.


The Americas.

North America.

Until the late 18th century, indentured servitude was very common in British North America. It was often a way for poor Europeans to immigrate to the American colonies: they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. After their indenture expired, the immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer. It has been argued by at least one economist that indentured servitude occurred largely as "an institutional response to a capital market imperfection".  In some cases, the indenture was made with a ship's master, who sold the indenture to an employer in the colonies. Most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen.  The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out and returned to their employer.  Between one-half and two-thirds of white immigrants to the American colonies between the 1630s and American Revolution came under indentures. However, while almost half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies were indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired, and thus free wage labor was the more prevalent for Europeans in the colonies. Indentured people were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured. About 75% of these were under the age of 25. The age of adulthood for men was 24 years (not 21); those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years. Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America."  Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded, such as that of Peter Williamson (1730–1799). As historian Richard Hofstadter pointed out, "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in the eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the white colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits [recruiting agents]." One "spirit" named William Thiene was known to have spirited away 840 people from Britain to the colonies in a single year. Historian Lerone Bennett, Jr. notes that "Masters given to flogging often did not care whether their victims were black or white."  Indentured servitude was also used by various English and British governments as a punishment for defeated foes in rebellions and civil wars. Oliver Cromwell sent into enforced indentured service thousands of prisoners captured in the 1648 Battle of Preston and the 1651 Battle of Worcester. King James II acted similarly after the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685, and use of such measures continued also in the 18th Century.  Indentured servants could not marry without the permission of their master, were sometimes subject to physical punishment and did not receive legal favor from the courts. Female indentured servants in particular might be raped and/or sexually abused by their masters. If children were produced the labour would be extended by 2 years. Cases of successful prosecution for these crimes were very uncommon, as indentured servants were unlikely to have access to a magistrate, and social pressure to avoid such brutality could vary by geography and cultural norm. The situation was particularly difficult for indentured women, because in both low social class and gender, they were believed to be particularly prone to vice, making legal redress unusual.  The American Revolution severely limited immigration to the United States, but economic historians dispute its long-term impact. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long-term labor contracts unattractive. His analysis of Philadelphia's population shows how the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17% to 6.4% over the course of the war. William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating that "the Revolution...wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting". David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that the numbers of British indentured servants never recovered, and that Europeans from other nationalities replaced them.  The American and British governments passed several laws that helped foster the decline of indentures. The UK Parliament's Passenger Vessels Act 1803 regulated travel conditions aboard ships to make transportation more expensive, so as to hinder landlords' tenants seeking a better life. An American law passed in 1833 abolished imprisonment of debtors, which made prosecuting runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture contract purchases. The 13th Amendment, passed in the wake of the American Civil War, made indentured servitude illegal in the United States.

Contracts.

Through its introduction, the details regarding indentured labor varied across import and export regions and most overseas contracts were made before the voyage with the understanding that prospective migrants were competent enough to make overseas contracts on their own account and that they preferred to have a contract before the voyage.  Most labor contracts made were in increments of five years, with the opportunity to extend another five years. Many contracts also provided free passage home after the dictated labor was completed. However, there were generally no policies regulating employers once the labor hours were completed, which led to frequent ill-treatment.

Caribbean.

In 1838, with the abolition of slavery at its onset, the British were in the process of transporting a million Indians out of India and into the Caribbean to take the place of the African slaves (freed in 1833) in indentureship. Women, looking for what they believed would be a better life in the colonies, were specifically sought after and recruited at a much higher rate than men due to the high population of men already in the colonies. However, women had to prove their status as single and eligible to emigrate, as married women could not leave without their husbands. Many women seeking escape from abusive relationships were willing to take that chance. The Indian Immigration Act of 1883 prevented women from exiting India as widowed or single in order to escape. Arrival in the colonies brought unexpected conditions of poverty, homelessness, and little to no food as the high numbers of emigrants overwhelmed the small villages and flooded the labor market. Many were forced into signing labor contracts that exposed them to the hard field labor on the plantation. Additionally, on arrival to the plantation, single women were 'assigned' a man as they were not allowed to live alone. The subtle difference between slavery and indenture-ship is best seen here as women were still subjected to the control of the plantation owners as well as their newly assigned 'partner'.  A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to the Caribbean (primarily the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean) before 1840.  In 1643, the white population of Barbados was 37,200 (86% of the population). During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, at least 10,000 Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were transported as indentured laborers to the colonies.  There were also reports of kidnappings of Europeans to work as servants. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, children from England and France were kidnapped and sold into indentured labor in the Caribbean.

Indian indenture system.

The Indian indenture system was a system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.  The British wanted Indians to work in Natal as workers. But the Indians refused, and as a result, the British introduced the indenture system. On 18 January 1826, the Government of the French Indian Ocean island of Réunion laid down terms for the introduction of Indian labourers to the colony. Each man was required to appear before a magistrate and declare that he was going voluntarily. The contract was for five years with pay of ₹8 (12¢ US) per month and rations provided labourers had been transported from Pondicherry and Karaikal. The first attempt at importing Indian labour into Mauritius, in 1829, ended in failure, but by 1834, with abolition throughout most of the British Empire, transportation of Indian labour to the island gained pace. By 1838, 25,000 Indian labourers had been shipped to Mauritius.  After the end of slavery, the West Indian sugar colonies tried the use of emancipated slaves, families from Ireland, Germany and Malta and Portuguese from Madeira. All these efforts failed to satisfy the labour needs of the colonies due to high mortality of the new arrivals and their reluctance to continue working at the end of their indenture. On 16 November 1844, the British Indian Government legalised emigration to Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara (Guyana). The first ship, the Whitby, sailed from Port Calcutta for British Guiana on 13 January 1838, and arrived in Berbice on 5 May 1838. Transportation to the Caribbean stopped in 1848 due to problems in the sugar industry and resumed in Demerara and Trinidad in 1851 and Jamaica in 1860.  The Indian indenture system was finally banned in 1917. According to "The Economist", "When the Indian Legislative Council finally ended indenture...it did so because of pressure from Indian nationalists and declining profitability, rather than from humanitarian concerns."

Oceania.

Convicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of indentured labor. Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales. The Van Diemen's Land Company used skilled indentured labor for periods of seven years or less. A similar scheme for the Swan River area of Western Australia existed between 1829 and 1832.  During the 1860s planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encouraged a trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.  Over a period of 40 years, from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar-cane fields of Queensland, Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000 South Sea Islanders. The workers came mainly from Melanesia – mainly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu – with a small number from Polynesian and Micronesian areas such as Samoa, the Gilbert Islands (subsequently known as Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (subsequently known as Tuvalu). They became collectively known as "Kanakas".  It remains unknown how many Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped. Whether the system legally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship to Queensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from the period often conflict with the oral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to the first 10–15 years of the trade.  Australia deported many of these Islanders back to their places of origin in the period 1906–1908 under the provisions of the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901.  Australia's own colonies of Papua and New Guinea (joined after the Second World War to form Papua New Guinea) were the last jurisdictions in the world to use indentured servitude.

Africa.

A significant number of construction projects, principally British, in East Africa and South Africa, required vast quantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Coolies from India were imported, frequently under indenture, for such projects as the Uganda Railway, as farm labor, and as miners. They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not without engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin's expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo-Africans.  The majority of the population of Mauritius are descendants of Indian indentured labourers brought in between 1834 and 1921. Initially brought to work the sugar estates following the abolition of slavery in the British Empire an estimated half a million indentured laborers were present on the island during this period. Aapravasi Ghat, in the bay at Port Louis and now a UNESCO site, was the first British colony to serve as a major reception centre for slaves and indentured servants for British plantation labour.

Legal status.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948) declares in Article 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms". More specifically, It is dealt with by article 1(a) of the United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery.  However, only national legislation can establish the unlawfulness of indentured labor in a specific jurisdiction. In the United States, the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (VTVPA) of 2000 extended servitude to cover peonage as well as Involuntary Servitude.

An indentured servant or indentured laborer is an employee (indenturee) within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or forced contract (indenture) to work without pay for the owner of the indenture for a period of time. The contract often lets the employer sell the labor of an indenturee to a third party. Indenturees usually enter into an indenture for a specific payment or other benefit (such as transportation to a new place), or to meet a legal obligation, such as debt bondage. On completion of the contract, indentured servants were given their freedom, and occasionally plots of land. Indentured servitude was often brutal, with a high percentage of servants dying prior to the expiration of their indentures. In many countries, systems of indentured labor have now been outlawed, and are banned by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a form of slavery.

Indentur (engl. "indenture", frz. "engagisme") ist eine vor allem im englischen Rechtssystem des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts vorkommende Form der "Vertragsknechtschaft". Der "indentured servant" (wörtlich „gezahnter“ Knecht; Bedeutung: "Knecht mit gezahntem Zeitvertrag" oder "Vertragsknecht auf Zeit") war ein unter Vertrag stehender Arbeiter, der für eine bestimmte Zeit für eine andere Person oder ein anderes Unternehmen arbeitete, oft ohne dafür Lohn zu erhalten. Im Gegenzug erhielt er dafür Unterkunft, Lebensmittel, Ausbildung oder Transport in ein anderes Land (z. B. in die Kolonien). Nachdem der Arbeiter die im Vertrag bestimmte Zeit – traditionell sieben Jahre – gearbeitet hatte, stand es ihm frei, selbst eine Farm zu gründen oder sein eigenes Gewerbe auszuüben. Viele mittellose Kolonisten aus Europa schlossen solche Verträge ab, um die teure Passage von Europa in die Neue Welt finanziert zu bekommen.