History.

In the mid-1860s, Benjamin Eaton first developed water sources from the Arroyo Seco and Eaton Canyon to irrigate his vineyard near the edge of Eaton Canyon. This made possible the development of Altadena, Pasadena, and South Pasadena. He did the construction for B. D. Wilson and Dr. John Griffin, who jointly owned the Mexican land grant of Rancho San Pascual, about, that was the future sites of these three communities. They hoped to develop and sell this land in a real estate plan called the San Pasqual Plantation. Their efforts failed by 1870, despite Eaton's irrigation ditch that drew water from the site of present-day Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Arroyo Seco. They had failed because the land was relatively inaccessible and few believed crops could thrive that close to the mountains.  Eaton tried to sell the land for the partners, and in late 1873 he helped broker a deal with Daniel Berry, who represented a group of investors from Indiana, to buy of the rancho. This included the land of present-day Altadena, but they developed a section further south as Pasadena. In 1881, the land that would later become Altadena was sold to John and Fred Woodbury, brothers who launched the subdivision of Altadena in 1887. The land remained primarily agricultural, though several eastern millionaires built mansions along Mariposa Street, and a small community developed through the 1890s and into the next century.  In 1880, Capt. Frederick Woodbury, and his brother, John Woodbury of Marshalltown, Iowa, purchased known as the Woodbury Ranch. John Woodbury established the Pasadena Improvement Company in 1887, with a plot plan of residential development referred to as the Woodbury Subdivision. They contacted Byron O. Clark, who established a nursery in the foothills in 1875, and had since moved away. He called his nursery "Altadena Nursery", a name he coined from the Spanish "alta" meaning "upper", and "dena" from Pasadena. Woodbury asked if he could use the name "Altadena" for his subdivision and Clark agreed.  The newly sprouted community of Altadena immediately began to attract millionaires from the East. In 1887 Andrew McNally, the printing magnate from Chicago, and his good friend Col. G. G. Green, had built mansions on what was to become Millionaire's Row; Mariposa Street near Santa Rosa Avenue. Newspaper moguls William Armiger Scripps and William Kellogg built homes side by side just east of Fair Oaks Avenue. A bit farther east, Zane Grey bought a home from Arthur Herbert Woodward, and added a second-floor study. The famous Benziger Publishing Company built a mansion on the corner of Santa Rosa Avenue (Christmas Tree Lane) and Mariposa. Mariposa was taken from the Spanish name for a butterfly. The grandson of Andrew McNally, Wallace Neff, became a famous Southern California architect. He started his career in Altadena with the design and construction of St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church (parish est.1918, which was dedicated in October 1926.  Redlining policies prevented African Americans from acquiring land or purchasing property in much of California. One of the areas exempt from these policies was Altadena Meadows which thrived and became one of first middle-class African American neighborhoods in the area.  Over the years Altadena has been subject to attempted annexation by Pasadena. Annexation was stopped in 1956 by community campaigns, though it has been resurrected several times since by Pasadena without success. Had the annexation succeeded, Pasadena would be the 108th largest city in the United States.  While Altadena long refused wholesale annexation by neighboring Pasadena, the larger community nibbled at its edges in several small annexations of neighborhoods through the 1940s. With early 1960s redevelopment in Pasadena, the routing of extensions of 134 and 210 freeways, and lawsuits over the desegregation of Pasadena Unified School District, there was white flight and convulsive racial change in Altadena. In 1960, its black population was under four percent; over the next 15 years, half the White population left, and was replaced by people of color, many of whom settled on the west side of town after being displaced by Pasadena's redevelopment and freeway projects.  The name Altadena derives from the Spanish "alta", meaning "upper", and "dena" from Pasadena; the area is adjacent to, but at a higher elevation than, Pasadena.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, over 99% of it land.

Climate.

Altadena experiences hot and dry summers that are followed by warm and windy falls. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Altadena has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csa" on climate maps.  The wettest calendar year was 1983 with and the driest 1947 with. The most rainfall in one month was in February 1980. The most rainfall in 24 hours was on March 2, 1938. Altadena averages of rain a year, over more than nearby Los Angeles due to the orographic effect created by the San Gabriel Mountains. Because of the slope on which the city is built, sewer lines in the city's northern section have been known to overflow significantly.

Demographics.

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Altadena had a population of 42,777. The population density was 4,900.4 people per square mile (1,892.1/km2). The racial makeup of Altadena was 22,569 (52.8%) White (40.3% Non-Hispanic White), 10,136 (23.7%) African American, 300 (0.7%) Native American, 2,307 (5.4%) Asian, 71 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 4,852 (11.3%) from other races, and 2,542 (5.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11,502 persons (26.9%).  The Census reported that 42,276 people (98.8% of the population) lived in households, 234 (0.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 267 (0.6%) were institutionalized.  There were 15,212 households, out of which 5,170 (34.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,684 (50.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 2,210 (14.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 814 (5.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 661 (4.3%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 271 (1.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,489 households (22.9%) were made up of individuals and 1,318 (8.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78. There were 10,708 families (70.4% of all households); the average family size was 3.26.  The age distribution of the city's population was as follows: 9,507 people (22.2%) were under the age of 18, 3,286 people (7.7%) aged 18 to 24, 10,622 people (24.8%) aged 25 to 44, 13,298 people (31.1%) aged 45 to 64, and 6,064 people (14.2%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.2 males.  There were 15,947 housing units at an average density of 1,826.8 per square mile (705.4/km2), of which 10,889 (71.6%) were owner-occupied, and 4,323 (28.4%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.9%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.9%. 30,319 people (70.9% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 11,957 people (28.0%) lived in rental housing units.  According to the 2010 United States Census, Altadena had a median household income of $82,895, with 10.7% of the population living below the federal poverty line.

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 42,610 people, 14,780 households, and 10,671 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 4,898.9 people per square mile (1,891.0/km2). There were 15,250 housing units at an average density of 1,753.3 per square mile (676.8/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 47.30% White, 31.42% Black or African American, 0.58% Native American, 4.24% Asian, 0.13% Pacific Islander, 10.19% from other races, and 6.14% from two or more races. 20.39% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 14,780 households out of which 34.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.3% were married couples living together, 15.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.8% were non-families. 21.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.29.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 26.6% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.6 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $60,549, and the median income for a family was $66,800 (these figures had risen to $77,020 and $86,778 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $49,098 versus $38,054 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $27,604. About 7.4% of families and 10.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.1% of those under age 18 and 8.3% of those age 65 or over.

Arts and culture.

Points of interest.

Christmas Tree Lane is a stretch of Santa Rosa Avenue from Woodbury Road to Mariposa Street. It has been a holiday attraction since 1920, and it is the oldest large-scale outdoor Christmas lighting venue in the world. Each December, members of the Christmas Tree Lane Association festoon the 110 still standing giant deodars that line the street with thousands of Christmas lights. Christmas Tree Lane was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990, and is a California Historical Landmark.  Among Altadena's Christmas lighting attractions was the Balian Mansion, which drew people worldwide for tours of its Christmas lighting display. The Balian Mansion display was lit during the holiday season from 1955 to 2016, and is arguably the pioneer of home holiday lighting. The Balian home is located just east of Allen Avenue, at the 3-point junction of Mendocino Street, Mendocino Lane, and Glenview Terrace.  The historic Mount Lowe Railway was a scenic railway that once carried passengers to any of four resort hotels high in the San Gabriel Mountains above Altadena and Pasadena. Although the mountains and the remains of the railway are not strictly in Altadena, the most direct trail to the sites, the Sam Merrill Trail, starts in Altadena at the top of Lake Avenue, and leads to Mount Echo, about. Chaney Trail, just west of the intersection at Fair Oaks Avenue and Loma Alta Street, is a forestry service road leading to the old right of way. The Mount Lowe Railway site was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.  Altadena has a number of hiking trails, including the trail to the Dawn Mine, which can be reached via Chaney Trail to Sunset Ridge Trail. Arrows painted on large boulders direct hikers along the way.  The Cobb Estate at the top of Lake Avenue is now a free botanical garden, operated by the United States Forest Service. It is guarded by its historic gates, which are easily bypassed to allow visitors and hikers to ascend its long and winding paved driveway to the site of what was once one of Altadena's premier mansions. This site is also found alongside the Sam Merrill Trail, which accesses Las Flores Canyon on the way to Echo Mountain.  Farnsworth Park located on Lake Avenue is a large county park that offers picnic grounds, play areas, and a club house and amphitheater. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997.  Crudely Hewn Tombstone is the final resting place of abolitionist and survivor of the attack of Harpers Ferry, Owen Brown. The Tombstone which is the only known memorial for Owen Brown reads "Owen Brown, son of John Brown, the Liberator, died Jan. 9, 1889, aged 64 years.” and is located on Round Top Hill near Brown mountain in an isolated part Angeles National Forest.

Infrastructure.

The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department (LASD) operates the Altadena Station in Altadena.  The California Highway Patrol operates the Altadena Area Office on Windsor Dr. in Altadena.  Altadena is a shared jurisdiction where L.A. County Sheriff's Dept. handles crime-related calls and CHP handles traffic-related calls.  The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Monrovia Health Center in Monrovia, serving Altadena.

Altadena is an unincorporated area and census-designated place in Los Angeles County, California, United States, approximately 14 miles (23 km) from the downtown Los Angeles Civic Center, and directly north of the city of Pasadena, California. The population was 42,777 at the 2010 census, up from 42,610 at the 2000 census.

Altadena ist ein Teilgebiet von Los Angeles County im US-Bundesstaat Kalifornien. Es ist keine selbständige Verwaltungseinheit und wird von Los Angeles County verwaltet. Altadena hat etwa 44.400 Einwohner (Stand 2004) auf einer Fläche von 22,5 km2. Es liegt bei den geographischen Koordinaten 34,19° Nord, 118,13° West und grenzt im Süden an die Stadt Pasadena an.


Geography.

Location.

The municipality lies in the Palatinate and the Rhine-Neckar urban agglomeration. It belongs to the "Verbandsgemeinde" of Leiningerland, whose seat is in Grünstadt, although that town is itself not in the "Verbandsgemeinde". Bockenheim lies at the north end of the 85 km-long German Wine Route, and has even adopted an epithet referring to its location there: "an der Weinstraße" means “on the Wine Route” in German. The Route runs concurrently here with "Bundesstraße" 271.

History.

Bockenheim is made up of two smaller centres called Großbockenheim and Kleinbockenheim ("groß" means “great” and "klein" “little”), which were merged in 1956. The two places arose from small settlements that themselves had grown out of Frankish estates after the Franks took the land about 500. In 770, Bockenheim had its first documentary mention in the Lorsch codex.  In April 1525, in the Palatine Peasants’ War – part of the German Peasants' War – the "Bockenheimer Haufen" (“Bockenheim Cohort”) was formed, a rabble of peasants who joined the uprising.  Until 1969, Bockenheim belonged to the now abolished district of Frankenthal ("Landkreis Frankenthal"). Since then it has been in what was then the newly formed district of Bad Dürkheim ("Landkreis Bad Dürkheim"). In 2018, it was grouped into the newly formed "Verbandsgemeinde" of Leiningerland.

Politics.

Municipal council.

The council is made up of 16 council members, who were elected at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.  The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:

Coat of arms.

The municipality's arms might be described thus: Per fess azure Saint Martin of Tours nimbed Or and vested argent cutting his mantle gules with a sword of the third, and riding a horse passant of the third, and argent on a mount vert a goat clymant sable attired of the second.  Martin of Tours is the local church's patron saint, also bearing his name ("Martinskirche", or Saint Martin's Church). The billygoat ("Ziegenbock" in German) is a canting charge for the municipality's name. Bockenheim's arms are based on the two constituent communities’ coat of arms. The Saint Martin charge came from Kleinbockenheim's old arms, and the goat from Großbockenheim's.  The arms have been borne since 1959.  blog : http://grandvilliers-bockenheim.blog4ever.com/

Culture and sightseeing.

Buildings.

The village's appearance is characterized by many old homesteads, of which ever more are being restored.  From the 11th century comes the tower at the Romanesque Saint Martin's Church ("Martinskirche"), which once stood next to the Emichsburg, a castle belonging to the Counts of Leiningen, after which today's community centre is named. The castle, after being destroyed many times, was eventually converted into a residential castle, which itself was also destroyed. Its remnants have been incorporated into a winery, which bears the name "Schlossgut" (“Castle Estate”) in memory of the now mostly vanished complex.  In 1995, to offer a counterpart to the “German Wine Gate” ("Deutsches Weintor") at the other end of the German Wine Route in Schweigen, which since 1936 had been marking the route's far (from Bockenheim's point of view) end, the "Haus der Deutschen Weinstraße" (“House of the German Wine Route”) was built between Großbockenheim and Kleinbockenheim. Built in the style of a Roman castrum, the House spans the road like a bridge and affords room not only for a 120-place restaurant with a lakeside terrace, but also for various event venues. In the "Turmzimmer" (“Tower Room”) with its view of the surrounding vineyards, the Upper Rhine Plain and even the Odenwald, those wishing to be wed may have a "Weinstraßenhochzeit" (“Wine Route Wedding”).

Local speech.

Since 1953, the Palatine Dialectal Poetry Contest ("Pfälzischer Mundartdichterwettstreit") has been being held each October, at which participants who speak and write in the Palatine Dialect meet. The jury chooses the best ten poems from among their entries.  At the "Bockenheimer Mundarttagen" (“Bockenheim Dialect Days”), held each year on a weekend in May, dialectologists give lectures in public about dialects and discuss them, too – traditionally in dialect – at the podium.

Economy and infrastructure.

Bockenheim is an old winegrowing centre in which the craft has been practised for more than 1,200 years. Even today, it is still the village's most important industry. Bockenheim's vineyards stretch for more than 400 ha. Nevertheless, tourism is also growing in importance.

Transport.

Along "Bundesstraße" 271, which still runs as a narrow and winding road through the middle of the village, is an interchange on the Autobahn A 6 (Mannheim–Saarbrücken) that runs by 6 km to the south. For years, there have been efforts to have a village bypass built.  The Pfälzische Nordbahn between Monsheim and Grünstadt runs by at the village's eastern edge. The halt "Bockenheim-Kindenheim" is served by Regionalbahn trains running on “Rhineland-Palatinate timing”. The public transport is integrated into the "Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Neckar" (VRN), whose fares therefore apply.

Bockenheim an der Weinstraße (or "Bockenheim an der Weinstrasse") is an "Ortsgemeinde" – a municipality belonging to a "Verbandsgemeinde", a kind of collective municipality – in the Bad Dürkheim district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

Bockenheim an der Weinstraße (pfälzisch "Bockrem"/"Bockrum" []) ist die am weitesten nördlich gelegene Ortsgemeinde im Landkreis Bad Dürkheim (Rheinland-Pfalz). 1956 entstand sie durch Zusammenlegung der Gemeinden Großbockenheim und Kleinbockenheim. Sie gehört der Verbandsgemeinde Leiningerland an und ist, gemessen an der Einwohnerzahl, mit rund 2170 Einwohnern deren fünftgrößte Ortsgemeinde.


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2), all of it land. San Lorenzo Creek runs partly through the town.

Climate.

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Cherryland has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.

Demographics.

2010.

The racial makeup of the CDP in 2010 was 20.9% non-Hispanic White, 10.8% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 9.2% Asian, 1.9% Pacific Islander, 0.2% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. 54.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The census reported that 14,272 people (96.9% of the population) lived in households, 277 (1.9%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 179 (1.2%) were institutionalized.  There were 4,643 households, 1,963 (42.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,850 (39.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 844 (18.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 391 (8.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 447 (9.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 50 (1.1%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,131 households (24.4%) were one person and 324 (7.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.07. There were 3,085 families (66.4% of households); the average family size was 3.64.  The age distribution was 3,956 people (26.9%) under the age of 18, 1,457 people (9.9%) aged 18 to 24, 4,728 people (32.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,339 people (22.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,248 people (8.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 32.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.0 males.  There were 4,975 housing units at an average density of 4,155.5 per square mile (1,604.4/km2),of which 4,643 were occupied, 1,458 (31.4%) by the owners and 3,185 (68.6%) by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.5%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.4%. 4,439 people (30.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 9,833 people (66.8%) lived in rental housing units.

2000.

At the 2000 census there were 13,837 people, 4,658 households, and 3,018 families living in the CDP. The population density was 11,859.2 people per square mile (4,566.2/km2). There were 4,823 housing units at an average density of 4,133.6 per square mile (1,591.6/km2). Of the 4,658 households 37.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.0% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% were non-families. 25.9% of households were one person and 7.6% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.87 and the average family size was 3.46.  The age distribution was 27.0% under the age of 18, 10.4% from 18 to 24, 35.6% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.5% 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.0 males.  The median household income was $42,880 and the median family income was $44,319. Males had a median income of $34,830 versus $29,724 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $16,929. About 9.0% of families and 12.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.9% of those under age 18 and 12.1% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Cherryland is in an unincorporated part of Alameda County thus is overseen by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors.  While there are a number of volunteer community organizations, these community organizations are not sponsored or governed by a local elected government thus do not fall under the transparency rules of The Brown Act.  The area is policed by the Alameda County Sheriff's Office and the California Highway Patrol. Fire & EMT services provided by Alameda County Fire Department.  Water supply is provided by the East Bay Municipal Utility District and sanitation services (trash and sewer) by the Oro Loma Santiary District Most other utility services are provided by private companies.

History.

Cherryland comprises largely the residential subdivision of the vast orchards () of San Lorenzo pioneer William Meek, often called the "first farmer" of Alameda County. "Cherryland" was the name of one huge subdivision of this farm initiated by third generation heirs in 1911. Meek Mansion is located on Hampton Road in the Northern part of Cherryland. The mansion is maintained by the Hayward Area Recreation and Park District, in conjunction with the Hayward Area Historical Society.

Cherryland (formerly, Hayward North) is a census-designated place (CDP) in Alameda County, California, United States. The unincorporated community is located between Ashland to the north and Hayward to the south. The population was 14,728 at the 2010 census.

Cherryland ist eine US-amerikanische Stadt im Alameda County im US-Bundesstaat Kalifornien. Sie hat etwa 12.700 Einwohner (Stand: 2004). Die Stadt befindet sich bei den geographischen Koordinaten 37,68° Nord, 122,10° West. Das Stadtgebiet hat eine Größe von 3,0 km2.


History.

Etymology.

The city's name is derived from Cathedral Canyon located to the south of the city in the foothills of the Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument. The canyon is said to have received its name because certain rock formations in the canyon were reminiscent of a cathedral. A flood in August 1946 significantly altered the cathedral-like features of the canyon.  In the United Kingdom a Cathedral city is a town that has achieved "city" status and is typically the location of a cathedral. This prompted Robert Ripley to include the town of Cathedral City in his December 9, 1939, "Believe It Or Not" column stating, "Believe it or not... there is no church in Cathedral City, Calif. It is named after a canyon".

Early History: before 1860.

Cathedral City sits at the northwestern end of the Coachella Valley between the San Bernardino Mountains to the north, and the San Jacinto Mountains to the south, with the San Gorgonio Pass to the West. The earliest established inhabitants of this region were the Cahuilla Indians. They arrived in the area around 3,000 BCE. The Cahuilla were organized into bands of about 600 to 800 people, and it was the Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians who inhabited the lands that included what would become Cathedral City, California.  The land was claimed by Spain in 1768 when Spain established Las Californias, a province of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, and then by Mexico in 1821 when Mexico and Spain signed the Treaty of Cordoba. At that time the province had already been renamed and expanded into the larger Alta California province. After the Mexican-American War, and with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, possession of the land was formally transferred to the United States, and it officially became part of the State of California when the state was formed in 1850. In 1852 US Army Colonel Henry Washington, a nephew of George Washington, the first President of the United States, was contracted by the government to survey Southern California. On November 7 of that year he established the initial point, in the San Bernardino Mountains, from which all future surveys in Southern California would be based. In 1855 he was contracted to continue his work and survey the Coachella Valley. It was then that he found and named Cathedral Canyon for which Cathedral City would be named.  Besides Colonel Henry Washington, there were occasional explorers, colonizers and soldiers that made their way through the area during the Spanish, Mexican, and early American eras, but none established any permanent structures or residences. The Cahuilla remained the only people known to be living in the area.

Stage and Freight Lines 1860 – 1880.

Prior to the 1860s the only regularly traveled routes through the Coachella Valley were trading paths used by the Cahuilla and other Native American tribes. One of these paths, on the southwestern side of the valley, followed the base of the San Jacinto and Santa Rosa mountains somewhere near the Whitewater River, and would have passed through the area that would become Cathedral City. Early non-native explorers, surveyors, and military, such as Colonel Washington, made use of these routes, but regular transportation services were not established until 1862. The Colorado River Gold Rush, which started in the spring of 1862, prompted William D. Bradshaw, a frontiersman, to seek a quicker route from Los Angeles to the Colorado River. Later that year he hired a guide, and with the help of the Cahuilla and Maricopa Indians, mapped a route from San Bernardino, California, through the San Gorgonio Pass and Coachella Valley, past the northern shore of the Salton Sink, through the passes between the Chuckwalla and Chocolate Mountains, and up to the Colorado River across from La Paz in the New Mexico Territory, (now the state of Arizona). Much of the route is thought to have followed the original southwestern trading path used by the Cahuilla.  Shortly after Bradshaw defined the trail from San Bernardino to La Paz, various stagecoach and freight companies began using the route. The stage and freight lines brought miners, supplies, and mail between San Bernardino and La Paz, and the route became known as the Bradshaw Trail or “Gold Road”. The Bradshaw trail, like the original Cahuillian trail, passed through the future Cathedral City, but the nearest scheduled stops were Agua Caliente (now Palms Springs), and Indian Wells (now Indio). The stage and freight lines were eventually supplanted by the railroads, but the trail would later become the basis for Palm Canyon Drive and Highway 111 that run through the city today.

Depression era nightclubs.

In 1931, Al and Lou Wertheimer of the reputed Detroit "Purple Gang" opened the Dunes Club just outside Palm Springs' city limits. This was followed in 1939 by Earl T. Sausser's 139 Club and the Cove Club in 1941, built by Jake Katelman and Frank Portnoy.

Cathedral City today.

Cathedral City began a downtown revitalization program in the late 1990s, which was substantially completed by 2005. A new city hall was built, as well as the IMAX/Mary Pickford movie theater complex, along with a total of of new or remodeled stores and restaurant space.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Cathedral City has a total area of, of which of it is land and of it (1.18%) is water.

Demographics.

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Cathedral City had a population of 51,200. The population density was 2,353.3 people per square mile (908.6/km). The racial makeup of Cathedral City was 32,537 (63.5%) White (32.3% Non-Hispanic White), 1,344 (2.6%) African American, 540 (1.1%) Native American, 2,562 (5.0%) Asian, 55 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 12,008 (23.5%) from other races, and 2,154 (4.2%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 30,085 persons (58.8%).  The Census reported that 50,905 people (99.4% of the population) lived in households, 263 (0.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 32 (0.1%) were institutionalized.  There were 17,047 households, out of which 6,574 (38.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 7,589 (44.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 2,291 (13.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,176 (6.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,054 (6.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 779 (4.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 4,292 households (25.2%) were made up of individuals, and 2,259 (13.3%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.99. There were 11,056 families (64.9% of all households); the average family size was 3.67.  The population was spread out, with 13,856 people (27.1%) under the age of 18, 4,906 people (9.6%) aged 18 to 24, 12,948 people (25.3%) aged 25 to 44, 12,127 people (23.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 7,363 people (14.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 107.2 males.  There were 20,995 housing units at an average density of 965.0 per square mile (372.6/km), of which 10,769 (63.2%) were owner-occupied, and 6,278 (36.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 4.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 11.0%. 30,236 people (59.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 20,669 people (40.4%) lived in rental housing units.  During 2009–2013, Cathedral City had a median household income of $44,406, with 20.5% of the population living below the federal poverty line.

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 42,647 people, 14,027 households, and 9,622 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,224.0 people per square mile (858.5/km). There were 17,893 housing units at an average density of 933.1 per square mile (360.2/km). The racial makeup of the city was 65.3% White, about half (50%) of the population is Hispanic or Latino. 2.7% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 3.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 23.1% from other races, and 4.1% from two or more races.  According to the 2000 Census, Cathedral City had a total of 14,027 households, 39.3% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% of which were married couples living together, 11.9% of which had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.4% of which were non-families. Approximately 23% of all households were made up of individuals with 11.0% of them consisting of single individuals 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.03 people and the average family size was roughly three and a half people (3.63), which puts Cathedral City above both the California and U.S. averages in those categories.  As reported in the most recent census, the city's population was distributed across all age groups, with 31.1% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.0 males. Cathedral City has many senior citizen communities and mobile home parks.  The median income for a household in the city was $38,887, and the median income for a family was $42,461. Men had a median income of $29,598, and the median income for women was $25,289. The per capita income for the city was $16,215. About 10.2% of families and 13.6% of the total population had incomes below the poverty line, including 16.3% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over (senior citizens).

Economy.

Cathedral City has an automotive mega-dealership known as the Palm Springs Auto Mall based on the city limits with Palm Springs.  Cathedral City hosts an annual Mexican Independence Day festival on every third weekend of September. To commemorate the event, an "el Grito de Dolores" is held at the city hall/movie theater complex.  One of the world's most technologically advanced cannabis greenhouses is being developed in Cathedral City by the company Sunniva. Once completed, this facility will be approximately 489,000 square feet.

Parks and recreation.

Date Palm Country Club and golf course, designed in 1967 and opened in 1971, has an 18-hole "executive style" facility designed by Ted Robinson, ASCCA. It features of golf from the longest tees for a par of 58. The course rating is 54.9/57.2 and it has a slope rating of 90/93. It is landscaped in Bermuda Greens and includes lakes and sand traps. The most memorable tee is the 175 yard 8th hole, which has an accurate tee shot over a lake. The Phil Harris Golf Classic was held there for many years from the 1940s to Phil Harris' death in 1994. Though built on part of the Agua Caliente Indian Reservation, an exclusive retirement community of manufactured homes lines the greens.  The Big League Dreams Sports Park softball complex is on the corner of Date Palm and Dinah Shore drives, made up of four softball fields designed as replicas of four major league ballparks. The Pepsi All-Star Softball Game has been held there since 1998. The Cathedral City Soccer Park, next to James Workman Middle School, is where the So Cal Coyotes minor league football team play their games (and also in the Rancho Mirage High School stadium). In 2018–19, the So Cal Coyotes changed leagues and now play in Indio, California in the Shadow Hills High School football stadium.  The nine parks in Cathedral City are:  An additional park is proposed at Corta Road and Landau Boulevard.

Golf.

Several local golf resorts are in Cathedral City. These include Lawrence Welk's Desert Oasis Hotel/resort located in the Cathedral Canyon Country Club, the Date Palm Country Club, Outdoor Resort – Palm Springs, Cimarron Golf Resort, and the Doral Desert Princess Resort and Golf Club.

Government.

In the California State Legislature, Cathedral City is in, and in.  In the United States House of Representatives, Cathedral City is in.

Education.

Cathedral City High School, opened in 1991, is a major educational and recreational center to the city. The varsity football, basketball and soccer teams had earned CIF-southern California championship runs in the late 1990s and 2000s. Cathedral City is also home to Mayfield College, a private college that offers career training in health care, HVAC, technology, and business.

Notable people.

Timothy Bradley, the former WBO welterweight champion, is from Cathedral City and graduated from Cathedral City High School.  The city was a winter residence for actors Robert Duvall and Martin Landau in the 1960s, and TV show host Monty Hall in the 1990s.  Chicano folk musician Lalo Guerrero lived in Cathedral City in his final years.  "Dirty John" Meehan lived in a trailer, on his sister Donna Meehan Stewart's RV lot in Cathedral City, before marrying Debra Newell.  Simon Oakland died in the town on August 29, 1983, a day after the actor's 68th birthday.  The city was the teenage home of actress Suzanne Somers' (she still maintains a second home in nearby Palm Springs).  Frank Sinatra's grave is located in Desert Memorial Park cemetery, as are those of several other prominent figures, including actor William Powell, singer-songwriter Sonny Bono, former mayor of Palm Springs, and actress Jane Wyman.

Cathedral City, colloquially known as "Cat City", is a desert resort city in Riverside County, California, United States, within the Colorado Desert's Coachella Valley. Situated between Palm Springs and Rancho Mirage, the city has the second largest population, after Indio, of the nine cities in the Coachella Valley. Its population was 51,200 at the 2010 census.

Cathedral City ist eine Stadt im Riverside County im US-Bundesstaat Kalifornien mit rund 51.200 Einwohnern (Stand 2010). Das Stadtgebiet hat eine Größe von 61,233 Quadratkilometern und liegt durchschnittlich 100 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel.


Types of ASD.

Sympathetic (also known as 'fight or flight' response).

Sympathetic Acute Stress Disorder is caused by the release of excessive adrenaline and norepinephrine into the nervous system. These hormones may speed up a person's pulse and respiratory rate, dilate pupils, or temporarily mask pain. This type of ASD developed as an evolutionary advantage to help humans survive dangerous situations. The 'fight or flight' response may allow for temporarily-enhanced physical output, even in the face of severe injury. However, other physical illnesses become more difficult to diagnose, as ASD masks the pain and other vital signs that would otherwise be symptomatic.

Parasympathetic.

Parasympathetic Acute Stress Disorder is characterised by feeling faint and nauseous. This response is fairly often triggered by the sight of blood. In this stress response, the body releases acetylcholine. In many ways, this reaction is the opposite of the sympathetic response, in that it slows the heart rate and can cause the patient to either regurgitate or temporarily lose consciousness. The evolutionary value of this is unclear, although it may have allowed for prey to appear dead to avoid being eaten.

Signs and symptoms.

The "DSM-IV" specifies that Acute Stress Disorder must be accompanied by the presence of dissociative symptoms, which largely differentiates it from PTSD.  Dissociative symptoms include a sense of numbing or detachment from emotional reactions, a sense of physical detachment - such as seeing oneself from another perspective, decreased awareness of one's surroundings, the perception that one's environment is unreal or dreamlike, and the inability to recall critical aspects of the traumatic event (dissociative amnesia).  In addition to these characteristics, ASD can be present in the following four distinct symptom clusters;  Recurring and distressing dreams, flashbacks, and/or memories related to the traumatic event.  Intense/prolonged psychological distress or somatic reactions to internal or external traumatic cues.  A persistent inability to experience positive emotions such as happiness, loving feelings, or satisfaction.  The avoidance of distressing memories, thoughts, feelings (or external reminders of them) that are closely associated with the traumatic event. Sleep disturbances, hyper-vigilance, difficulties with concentration, easily startled, and irritability/anger/aggression.

Causes.

There are several theoretical perspectives on trauma response, including cognitive, biological, and psycho-biological. While PTSD-specific, these theories are still useful in understanding Acute Stress Disorder, as the two disorders share many symptoms. A recent study found that even a single stressful event may have long-term consequences on cognitive function. This result calls the traditional distinction between the effects of acute and chronic stress into question.

Pathophysiology.

Stress is characterised by specific physiological responses to adverse or noxious stimuli.  Hans Selye was the first to coin the term “general adaptation syndrome” to suggest that stress-induced physiological responses proceed through the stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.  The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system gives rise to a specific set of physiological responses to physical or psychological stress. The body's response to stress is also termed a 'fight or flight' response, and it is characterised by an increase in blood flow to the skeletal muscles, heart, and brain, a rise in heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, and an increase in the amount of glucose released by the liver.  The onset of an acute stress response is associated with specific physiological actions in the sympathetic nervous system, both directly and indirectly through the release of adrenaline and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal glands. These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions by triggering increases in heart rate and breathing, constricting blood vessels. An abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviours often related to combat or escape.  Normally, when a person is in a serene, non-stimulated state, the 'firing' of neurons in the locus ceruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus, once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the thalamus to the brain stem. That route of signalling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes more alert and attentive to their environment.  If a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of norepinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centres, and other sites. The ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. The other major player in the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Stress activates this axis and produces neuro-biological changes. These chemical changes increase the chances of survival by bringing the physiological system back to homeostasis.  The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aid the response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the 'fight or flight' response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness. This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. The epinephrine and norepinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart, which feeds the heart's sympathetic nerve fibres to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction; as a result, more blood gets circulated, increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. Simultaneously, the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system to optimise blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. This plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The parasympathetic response is colloquially known as the'rest and digest' response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and, more obviously, by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. To do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system to optimise blood flow to the digestive tract, causing low heart and respiratory rates. The parasympathetic nervous system plays no role in acute stress response.  Studies have shown that patients with Acute Stress Disorder have overactive right amygdalae and prefrontal cortices; both structures are involved in the fear-processing pathway.

Diagnosis.

According to the "DSM-V", symptom presentation must last for three consecutive days to be classified as Acute Stress Disorder. If symptoms persist past one month, the diagnosis of PTSD is explored. There must be a clear temporal connection between the impact of an exceptional stressor and the onset of symptoms; onset is usually within a few minutes or days but may occur up to one month after the stressor. Also, the symptoms show a mixed and rapidly changing picture; although 'daze' depression, anxiety, anger, despair, hyper-activity, and withdrawal may all be seen, no one symptom dominates for long. The symptoms usually resolve rapidly where removal from the stressful environment is possible. In cases where the stress continues, the symptoms usually begin to diminish after 24–48 hours and are usually minimal after about three days.  The "DSM-V" specifies that there is a higher prevalence rate of ASD among females compared to males due to higher risk of experiencing traumatic events and neurobiological gender differences in stress response.

Treatment.

This disorder may resolve itself with time or may develop into a more severe disorder, such as PTSD. However, results of Creamer, O'Donnell, and Pattison's (2004) study of 363 patients suggests that a diagnosis of Acute Stress Disorder had only limited predictive validity for PTSD. Creamer et al. found that re-experiences of the traumatic event and arousal were better predictors of PTSD. Early pharmacotherapy may prevent the development of post-traumatic symptoms. Additionally, early Trauma-Focused, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (TFCBT) for those with a diagnosis of ASD can protect an individual from developing chronic PTSD.  Studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of counselling and psychotherapy for people with Acute Stress Disorder. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, which includes exposure and cognitive restructuring, was found to be effective in preventing PTSD in patients diagnosed with Acute Stress Disorder with clinically significant results at six-month follow-up appointments. A combination of relaxation, cognitive restructuring, imaginal exposure, and in-vivo exposure was superior to supportive counselling. Mindfulness-based stress reduction programmes also appear to be effective for stress management.  In a wilderness context where counselling, psychotherapy, and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is unlikely to be available, the treatment for acute stress reaction is very similar to the treatment of cardiogenic shock, vascular shock, and hypovolemic shock; that is, allowing the patient to lie down, providing reassurance, and removing the stimulus that prompted the reaction. In traditional shock cases, this generally means relieving injury pain or stopping blood loss. In an acute stress reaction, this may mean pulling a rescuer away from the emergency to calm down or blocking the sight of an injured friend from a patient.

History.

The term Acute Stress Disorder was first used to describe the symptoms of soldiers during World War I and II, and it was therefore also termed Combat Stress Reaction (CSR). Approximately 20% of U.S. troops displayed symptoms of CSR during WWII. It was assumed to be a temporary response of healthy individuals to witnessing or experiencing traumatic events. Symptoms include depression, anxiety, withdrawal, confusion, paranoia, and sympathetic hyperactivity.  The APA officially included the term ASD in the "DSM-IV" in 1994. Before that, symptomatic individuals within the first month of trauma were diagnosed with adjustment disorder. According to the "DSM-IV", Acute Stress Reaction refers to the symptoms experienced immediately to 48-hours after exposure to a traumatic event. In contrast, Acute Stress Disorder is defined by symptoms experienced 48-hours to one-month following the event. Symptoms experienced for longer than one month are consistent with a diagnosis of PTSD.  Initially, being able to describe different ASRs was one of the goals of introducing ASD. Some criticisms surrounding ASD's focal point include issues with ASD recognising other distressing emotional reactions, like depression and shame. Emotional reactions similar to these may then be diagnosed as adjustment disorder under the current system of trying to diagnose ASD.

Acute stress disorder (ASD, also known as acute stress reaction, psychological shock, mental shock, or simply shock) is a psychological response to a terrifying, traumatic, or surprising experience. Acute stress disorder is not fatal, but it may bring about delayed stress reactions (better known as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder or PTSD) if not correctly addressed.

Die akute Belastungsreaktion (Abkürzung ABR, genauer: "Reaktion auf akute Belastung";, "") ist eine Reaktion der menschlichen Psyche auf ein außergewöhnliches Belastungsereignis. Hierbei mangelt es der Psyche vorübergehend an einer Bewältigungsstrategie, demzufolge alle Verarbeitungsmechanismen zusammenbrechen.


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of of which 0.03% is water.

Demographics.

2010.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Dublin had a population of 46,036, which grew over 57,000 as of 2016, and nearly 65,000 in 2018. It has been one of the fastest-growing cities in California, with its population nearly doubling during the past decade. Once the building of homes is finished in East Dublin, the city will have a capacity for over 75,000 citizens. The population density in 2010 was 3,087.1 people per square mile (1,192.0/km). The racial makeup of Dublin was 23,634 (51.3%) White, 4,347 (9.4%) African American, 246 (0.5%) Native American, 12,321 (26.8%) Asian, 287 (0.6%) Pacific Islander, 2,458 (5.3%) from other races, and 2,743 (6.0%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6,663 persons (14.5%).  The Census reported that 40,262 people (87.5% of the population) lived in households, 92 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 5,682 (12.3%) were institutionalized.  There were 14,913 households, out of which 5,897 (39.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 8,615 (57.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,383 (9.3%) had a female householder with no husband present, 615 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 775 (5.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 142 (1.0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,201 households (21.5%) were made up of individuals, and 578 (3.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70. There were 10,613 families (71.2% of all households); the average family size was 3.19.  The population was spread out, with 10,297 people (22.4%) under the age of 18, 3,703 people (8.0%) aged 18 to 24, 17,587 people (38.2%) aged 25 to 44, 11,092 people (24.1%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,357 people (7.3%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 108.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.4 males.  There were 15,782 housing units at an average density of 1,058.3 per square mile (408.6/km), of which 14,913 were occupied, of which 9,425 (63.2%) were owner-occupied, and 5,488 (36.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.5%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.0%. 26,954 people (58.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 13,308 people (28.9%) lived in rental housing units.  The median income for a household in the city was $114,699, and the median income for a family was $128,737. The per capita income for the city was $44,679.

2000.

In 2000, there were 9,325 households and 6,508 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,232.9 people per square mile (1,412.1/km). There are about 9,872 housing units at an average density of 784.3 per square mile (302.7/km).  There were 9,325 households, out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.9% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.2% were non-families. 21.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.13.  In the city, the population was 21.0% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 44.1% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 4.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112.4 males. The average income for a household in the city is $101,550. Males had a median income of $77,605 versus $48,116 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,451. About 1.9% of families and 2.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.2% of those under age 18 and 3.2% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Local.

The City of Dublin is a general law city operating under a City Council / City Manager form of local government. This form of government combines an elected mayor and council and an appointed local government administrator. The City Council elections are nonpartisan. The Mayor serves a two-year term, and Council members serve four-year terms.  The Mayor and City Council, as a collegial body, are responsible for setting policy, setting / prioritizing goals and objectives, and approving the budget. The Mayor, with confirmation by the City Council, makes appointments to the City's advisory commissions and committees.  The Council appoints the City Manager, who is responsible for the day-to-day administrative operation of the City, including:  Additionally, Dublin has introduced the Youth Committee, where teens aged 13–18 can apply for a committee position and meet with the rest of the board.

State and Federal.

In the House of Representatives, Dublin is part of California's 15th congressional district, represented by Democrat Eric Swalwell. In the State Assembly, it is represented by Democrat Rebecca Bauer-Kahan, and in the State Senate by Democrat Steve Glazer.  Dublin has 28,798 registered voters with 12,071 (41.9%) registered as Democrats, 5,044 (17.5%) registered as Republicans, and 10,505 (36.5%) decline to state voters.

Economy.

Top employers.

According to the City's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:

History.

In 1835, José María Amador was granted 16,500 acres for his service as a Mexican soldier and in Mission San Jose where he was an administrator in the valley which was named Amador Valley after him. In 1850, Irish settlers bought land from Amador and founded a town.  Several historical sites are preserved and located where Dublin Boulevard is crossed by Donlan Way, itself formerly the northernmost segment of the main road to Sunol and Niles Canyon (present-day Foothill Road):  Dublin Boulevard, a generally east-west road running just north of Interstate 580, was a part of the Lincoln Highway and later U.S. Route 50. The street formerly curved southward near today's Hansen Drive to follow present-day Dublin Canyon Road toward Hayward.  In 1960, the first housing tracts were built in West Dublin, transforming the formerly rural community into a suburb. It grew steadily from the early 1960s onward as both a residential and retail center. The City became incorporated in February 1982.  Although a post office operated from 1860 to 1908 in Dougherty, which broke off from Dublin, Dublin's first post office was opened in 1963, and is still in operation today.  The popular Discovery Channel program "MythBusters" has filmed over 50 episodes in Dublin at the Alameda County Sheriff's Office bomb disposal range. On December 6, 2011, a cannonball fired during a "MythBusters" episode being filmed at the bomb range went off target and damaged two homes and a minivan in a nearby neighborhood. The incident received coverage internationally.

MythBusters cannonball incident.

On December 6, 2011, shooting was in progress for the popular Discovery Channel program MythBusters, when a cannonball went skyward and zoomed through a residence near Camp Parks, where the filming was taking place, also damaging a car, which was the final resting place of the cannonball. Many residents were shaken and the community was shocked, but nobody was injured. Mythbusters Adam Savage and Kari Byron hosted a student engineering event at Dublin High School, a move to express gratitude to the community of Dublin for the access to Camp Parks as a shooting location. The Dublin Film Commission declared December 6 "Victory in the battle for Dublin", poking at the rogue cannonball incident, and plans to host a film festival every December 6 to honor Dublin's fallen cannonball. On December 6, 2012, Tri-Valley Film Coalition President Morgan Finley King hosted a film festival at the Dublin Library, in which winners of each category were awarded a "Golden Cannonball Award".

Building and development in Dublin.

Dublin has two dog parks: Dougherty Hills Dog Park, which comprises an area for large dogs and another area for small dogs and a dog run at Bray Commons.  Whole Foods Market, Nordstrom Rack, Dick's Sporting Goods, HomeGoods, and a second Target location, have all opened for business in the Eastern side of the city, along with restaurant chains BJ's Restaurant & Brewhouse, and Lazy Dog Restaurant & Bar.  Dublin also opened Fallon Sports Park in East Dublin in 2010. The first phase of the Fallon Sports Park includes two adult softball fields, two little league baseball fields, two synthetic turf soccer fields, four lighted basketball courts, four lighted tennis courts, and a rough grade BMX bike facility. Currently, the City is constructing the second phase of the park, which includes a 90-foot baseball diamond and two additional turf soccer fields, among other amenities.  Wallis Ranch is a subdivision developed by Trumark Communities with approximately 816 units which opened its first phase in September 2016. Trumark divided the project into eight neighborhoods, selling seven of them to other homebuilders including Warmington Residential, PulteGroup, Taylor Morrison, KB Home and D.R. Horton. Architects KTGY Architecture + Planning, Dahlin Group and Gates & Associates were the master plan architects. Teichert Construction built the infrastructure.  Tassajara Hills is another subdivision built by Toll Brothers, approximately 370 detached homes. Transit-oriented development around the City's two BART stations continues with the Aster and Valor Crossing developments. Valor Crossing is an affordable housing project specifically designed for veterans and their families. Avalon Dublin Station is another recently completed luxury rental development by AvalonBay Communities.  Dublin has also undergone significant remodeling and expansion, with almost every shopping center in Dublin being remodeled while new shopping centers continued to be built. Dublin Place and Dublin Retail Center were followed by Hacienda Crossings, The Shops at Waterford, The Shops at Tralee Village, Grafton Station, Fallon Gateway, and Persimmon Place.  Emerald Glen Park is the largest community park in Dublin. On Memorial Day weekend 2017, the City opened The Wave at Emerald Glen Park, a 31,000-square foot facility which is anchored by an indoor pool for year-round swimming lessons, exercise programs, and recreational use.  A new BART station in West Dublin began construction in 2007. The project cost $80 million and opened in March 2011. The West Dublin/Pleasanton station includes a hotel, restaurant, 210 apartments, and. of office space across the Interstate 580 freeway in Pleasanton, California.  There is a plan for a new high school in eastern Dublin, which is scheduled to open in 2022.

Measure M.

In 2000, following a conflict with Mayor Guy Houston and developers of the West Dublin Hills, Morgan King and David Bewley began a ballot initiative known as Measure M. The objective of the measure was to prevent the Dublin Hills from becoming overwhelmed with housing that had been promised to voters and that the housing would not be built on preserved open space. Measure M won in every precinct in Dublin and on the absentee ballots.

Education.

Dublin Unified School District operates the public schools, including seven elementary schools (Amador, Dougherty, Dublin, Frederiksen, John Green, Kolb, and Murray), two k-8 schools (Cottonwood and Fallon), one middle school (Wells), one alternative high school (Valley), and the one following comprehensive high school.  Dublin is also home to the following private schools:

Transportation.

Dublin is situated at the intersection of Interstate 580 and Interstate 680. It is served by BART with two rail stations, Dublin/Pleasanton and West Dublin/Pleasanton, and local bus service is provided by WHEELS.

Camp Parks.

The Parks Reserve Forces Training Area (PRFTA), historically known as Camp Parks, is located in Dublin.  A sub-installation of Fort Hunter Liggett, Camp Parks is the only training facility within a short drive for the 11,000-plus reservists in the San Francisco Bay Area. Firing ranges and a wide variety of training facilities are available. The post is home to the Regional Training Site-Intelligence, Regional Training Site-Medical and the 91st DIV Battle Projection Center. Growth is on the horizon as new facilities have been built and more are programmed for construction in the near future.

Law enforcement.

There are full-time 911 emergency services. Police services are contracted to and provided by the Alameda County Sheriff's Office. Fire services and emergency medical services are provided by the city.  The California Highway Patrol (CHP) Dublin Office is located off of Gleason Drive. The CHP provides safety, service, and security to the public on freeways/unincorporated highways and on state property.

County Jail.

Dublin is the site of Santa Rita Jail, the principal jail for Alameda County. The third largest jail in California and the fifth largest in the United States, Santa Rita Jail is considered a "mega-jail", specified to hold 4,000 prisoners at any one time, making it as large as, or larger than, many of California's state prisons. It was completed at a cost of $172 million in 1983.

Federal prison.

Dublin also hosts the Federal Correctional Institution, Dublin, one of only three federal prisons for women in the United States. Designed to house 250 inmates, FCI Dublin currently houses 1,077 as at April 11, 2013. As many as three women are held in spaces built for one.

Saint Patrick's Day Celebration.

The annual Saint Patrick's Day celebration includes a 5K Fun Run and Walk, a pancake breakfast, a two-day festival, and a parade. The parade is popular with residents and visitors from outside Dublin alike and has been growing in popularity each year. It is sponsored by the Dublin Host Lions Club and features bands and colorful floats. The Dublin firefighters sponsor the pancake breakfast, and tours of the firehouse are popular with children. The festival continues all weekend and features food, games, kiddie rides, arts & crafts, and information about local organizations. The festival had been held near the end of the parade route in Shamrock Village on Amador Valley Blvd. but was relocated to the Civic Center on Dublin Blvd., in 2007, moving it closer to the growing population in the eastern part of Dublin.

Twin city.

Dublin is twinned with Bray, County Wicklow in Ireland.

Dublin (formerly, Amador and Dougherty's Station) is a suburban city of the East (San Francisco) Bay and Tri-Valley regions of Alameda County, California, United States. It is located along the north side of Interstate 580 at the intersection with Interstate 680, roughly east of downtown San Francisco, east of downtown Oakland, and north of downtown San Jose.

Dublin ist eine Stadt mit dem Status einer City im Alameda County im US-Bundesstaat Kalifornien. Die Einwohnerzahl beträgt rund 63.445 (Stand 2018). Dublin ist außerdem ist Sitz der County-Verwaltung.


History.

Eureka's Pacific coastal location on Humboldt Bay, adjacent to abundant redwood forests, provided the reason for settlement of this 19th-century seaport town. Before the arrival of Euro-American settlers, including farmers, miners, fishermen, and loggers, the area was occupied by indigenous peoples.

Native Americans.

The Wiyot people lived in Jaroujiji (Wiyot: "where you sit and rest"), now known as Eureka, for thousands of years before European arrival. They are the farthest-southwest people whose language has Algic roots. Their traditional coastal homeland ranged from the

Founding on Humboldt Bay.

For nearly 300 years after 1579, European exploration of the coast of what would become northern California repeatedly missed definitively locating Humboldt Bay because of a combination of geographic features and weather conditions which concealed the narrow bay entrance from view. Despite a

Gold Rush era.

After the primary California Gold Rush in the Sierras, Humboldt Bay was settled with the intent of providing a convenient alternative to the long overland route from Sacramento to supply miners on the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers where gold had been discovered. Though the ideal location on Humboldt Bay adjacent to naturally deeper

Wiyot Massacre.

The first Europeans venturing into Humboldt Bay encountered the indigenous Wiyot. After 1850, Europeans ultimately overwhelmed the Wiyot, whose maximum population before the Europeans was in the hundreds in the area of what would become the county's primary city. But in almost every case, settlers ultimately cut off access to ancestral sources of food in addition to the outright theft of land, despite efforts of some U.S. Government and military officials

Lumber industry.

Eureka's first post office opened in 1853 just as the town began to carve its grid plan into the edge of a forest it would ultimately consume to feed the building of San Francisco and beyond. Many of the first immigrants who arrived as prospectors were also lumbermen, and the vast potential for industry on the bay was soon realized, especially as many hopeful gold miners realized the difficulty and infrequency of striking it rich in the mines. By 1854, after only four years since the founding, seven of nine mills processing timber into marketable lumber on Humboldt Bay were within Eureka. A year later 140 lumber schooners operated in and out of Humboldt Bay moving lumber from the mills to booming cities along the

Commercial center.

A bustling commercial district and ornate Victorians rose in proximity to the waterfront, reflecting the great prosperity experienced during this era. Hundreds of these Victorian homes remain today, of which many are totally restored and a few have always remained in their original elegance and splendor. The representation of these homes in Eureka grouped with those in nearby Arcata and the Victorian village of Ferndale are of considerable importance to the overall development of Victorian architecture built in the nation. The magnificent Carson Mansion on 2nd and M Streets, is perhaps the most spectacular Victorian in the nation. The home was built between 1884

Fishing, shipping, and boating.

Eureka's founding and livelihood was and remains linked to Humboldt Bay, the Pacific Ocean, and related industries, especially fishing. Salmon fisheries sprang up along the Eel River as early as 1851, and within seven years 2,000 barrels of cured fish and of smoked salmon were processed and shipped out of Humboldt Bay annually from processing plants on Eureka's wharf. In 1858 the first of many ships built in Eureka was

Chinese expulsion.

Rising emigration from China in the late 19th century sparked conflict between white settlers and immigrants, which ultimately led to the Chinese Exclusion Act. Economic downturns resulting in competition for jobs led to violent actions against Chinese immigrants, especially on the Pacific coast. In February 1885, the racial tension in Eureka

Queen City of the Ultimate West.

Completion of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad in 1914 provided the local lumber industry with an alternative to ships for transport of its millions of board feet of lumber to reach markets in San Francisco and beyond. It also provided the first safe land route between San Francisco and Eureka for people to venture to the Redwood Empire. As a result, Eureka's population of 7,300 swelled to 15,000 within ten years. By 1922 the Redwood Highway was completed,

Post-World War II.

The timber economy of Eureka is part of the Pacific Northwest timber economy which rises and falls with boom and bust economic times. In Eureka, both the timber industry and commercial fishing declined after the Second World War.  The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 downed trees and caused a surplus in the domestic timber market, which caused increased shipping to foreign markets. The log trade with Japan and other Pacific Rim nations increased. Despite many rumors to the contrary, little of this wood returned to U.S. markets. In 1989, the U.S. changed log export laws permitting lower cost timber from public lands to be exported as raw logs overseas to help balance the federal budget.  After 1990, the global log market declined, and exports fell at the same time as Pacific Northwest log prices increased; leading buyers to seek less expensive logs from Canada and the southern United States. However, debate continues between four stakeholders: timber owners, domestic processors, consumers and communities on the impact of log export

Significant earthquakes.

The area regularly experiences large earthquakes as it is situated on the southern end the Cascadia subduction zone and near the San Andreas Fault, which interface around the Mendocino Triple Junction. On January 9, 2010, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake occurred about off shore from Eureka. After two seconds, it became a violent "jumper", making objects fly; the mostly vertical shocks from the ground led to broken windows in shops, overturned shelving in homes and stores, and damage

Geography.

Eureka is located at (40.790022, −124.162752).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and or 35.07% is water.  Eureka is situated within California's Redwood Empire region which includes Pacific Ocean coast, Humboldt Bay, and several rivers in addition to Redwood National and State Parks and Humboldt Redwoods State Park. The location of Eureka on U.S. 101 is north of San Francisco and ) northwest of Sacramento.  The city marina is on one of three islands at a narrow point on the bay and increases in elevation slightly as it spreads north, south, and especially to the east. The city gently encroaches at least two miles () eastward into primarily Redwood and Douglas-fir second growth forests. The city has a traditional grid that generally radiates toward the points of the compass. Most post-1970 houses were built in formerly clear cut forested areas.  The transition between the official city limits and smaller unincorporated areas is mostly not discernible. Eastern areas including secluded developments on a golf course among or in close proximity to extensive second-growth forest have more recently developed. These new houses were built as a result of the Eureka Community Plan of 1995 in attempt to bring locals close to centers of recreation and encourage community interaction. The city then gives way to hills and mountains of the rugged coast range, which quickly exceed in elevation.

Climate.

Eureka enjoys a mild, temperate cool-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csb"). Due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean, its temperatures are cooler than those of a typical Mediterranean climate. Eureka's average summer temperatures are similar to that of Sitka and the Alexander Archipelago in Alaska, the Atlantic region (consisting of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile and León) in Spain, Ushuaia in Argentina, the Aysen Region in Chile, and much of Tierra del Fuego in southern South America. Winters are mild and rainy, and summers mild, cool, and dry. The average

Demographics.

The population of the city was 27,191 at the 2010 census, up from 26,128 at the 2000 census, representing a 4.1% increase, and the population of Greater Eureka was 45,034 at the 2010 Census, up from 43,452 at the 2000 census, representing a 3.6% increase.  According to a report by the City of Eureka, the Greater Eureka area minimally includes the unincorporated adjacent or nearby neighborhoods and Census Defined Populated Areas of Bayview, Cutten, Elk River, Freshwater, Humboldt Hill, Indianola, Myrtletown, Pine Hill, Ridgewood Heights, and Rosewood, all of which have Eureka addresses, postal zip codes and Eureka-specific telephone numbers. The Greater Eureka area makes up the largest urban settlement on the Pacific Coast between San Francisco and Portland. This area is similar to what the U.S. Census officially defines as the Eureka UC (urban cluster), which is a "densely settled core of census tracts and/or census blocks that meet minimum population density requirements, along with adjacent territory containing non-residential urban land uses as well as territory with low population density included to link outlying densely settled territory with the densely settled core" of up to 50,000 in population. The bayside communities of Manila, Samoa, and Fairhaven (all on the Samoa Peninsula), and King Salmon and Fields Landing (both located south of the city), and communities listed above, with the exception of Elk River and Freshwater, are shown to be part of the Eureka Urban Cluster. A 2011 community study performed by the St. Joseph Health System, projects increased growth of 20,000 to occur in the unincorporated communities (outskirts) located adjacent to Eureka. If that forecast is realized, Greater Eureka could achieve a population of at least 65,000, barring any increase within the city limits. Eureka is the largest city of the Eureka-Arcata-Fortuna Micropolitan Area, a construct of the U.S. Census Bureau, which is synonymous with the County of Humboldt.

2000 Census data.

As of the census of 2000, there were 26,128 people. The population density was 2,764.5 people per square mile (1,067.5/km2). There were 11,637 housing units at an average density of 1,231.3 per square mile (475.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 88.5% White, 1.2% Black or African American, 4.2% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 5.10% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 10.8% of the population.  There were 10,957 households out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.8% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.3%

2010 Census data.

The 2010 United States Census reported that Eureka had a population of 27,191. The population density was 1,881.3 people per square mile (726.4/km2). The racial makeup of Eureka was 21,565 (79.3%) White, 514 (1.9%) African American, 1,011 (3.7%) Native American, 1,153 (4.2%) Asian, 176 (0.6%) Pacific Islander, 1,181 (4.3%) from other races, and 1,591 (5.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 3,143 persons (11.6%).  The census reported that 25,308 people (93.1% of the population) lived in households, 1,434 (5.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 449 (1.7%) were institutionalized.  There were 11,150 households, out of which 2,891 (25.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 3,554 (31.9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,449 (13.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 710

Economy.

The economic base of the city was founded on timber and fishing and supplying gold mining efforts inland. Gold mining diminished quickly in the early years, and activities of timber and fishing have also diminished, especially in the

Government.

Local government.

The City of Eureka has a mayor-council system of governance. Primary power lies with the five council members, divided up into five wards. The mayor has the power to appoint, as well as ceremonial duties, though the

State and federal government.

Eureka is in,

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Land.

U.S. Route 101 is the major north and south highway, which connects Eureka to the rest of the North Coast region. The highway connects to Oregon, located approximately to the north, and San Francisco, over to the south. The highway follows city streets through the city, with flow and

Air.

Eureka's full service airport is the Arcata-Eureka Airport, located north in McKinleyville. This airport has one airline, United Airlines, and connects to San Francisco and Los Angeles, CA. Murray Field and

Water.

The Humboldt Bay Harbor Recreation & Conservation District manages the resources of Humboldt Bay and its environs, including the deep water port. The port is located directly west of

Bus service.

Public bus transportation services within Eureka are provided by the Eureka Transit Service. The Redwood Transit System provides bus transportation through Eureka and connects to major towns and places outside the city, including educational institutions. Dial-A-Ride service is available through an application process.  Amtrak provides Thruway Bus service to Eureka at its unstaffed bus stop. The bus service connects passengers from the northernmost coastal train station in Martinez, California, and continues to southern Oregon.  Greyhound provides bus service to San Francisco from Eureka. Tickets may be purchased online or at the nearest full service station in Arcata.

Utilities.

Electricity and natural gas.

Eureka residents are served by Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Some reserves of natural gas are located south of the city. These

Water.

The City of Eureka is the largest of the local water districts supplied by the Humboldt Bay Municipal Water District. The entire region is one of the few places in California that has historically enjoyed a significant surplus of water. The reduction in major forest products manufacturing in recent decades has left the area with a 45 MGD surplus of industrial water.

Healthcare.

Eureka is the regional center for healthcare. The city is served by St. Joseph Hospital, which is the largest medical acute care hospital north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California Coast. The hospital was the first opened in 1920 and was operated by the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Orange until 2016. The facility is composed of two parts: a main campus contains the acute care facility and a nearby second site, the former General Hospital Campus, which contains a rehabilitation facility and a skilled nursing site.  In November 2012, the hospital completed required earthquake safety standards upgrades.

Education.

Institutions of higher learning include the College of the Redwoods and Humboldt State University in Arcata. College of the Redwoods manages a downtown satellite campus as well.  Eureka City Schools, the largest school district in the region, administers the public schools of the city. Eureka High School receives all students from

Shopping.

The North Coast's primary shopping facility, the Bayshore Mall, is the largest north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California coast. The mall

Arts and culture.

Eureka is one of California's historic landmarks. The California State Historical marker, #477, designating Eureka, is located in Old Town, one of the nation's best preserved original Victorian era commercial districts. The city was voted as the No. 1 best small art town in John Villani's book "The 100 Best Small Art Towns in America." Eureka hosts the region's largest monthly cultural and arts event, "Arts' Alive!" on the first Saturday of each month. More than 80 Eureka business and local galleries open their doors to the public. Often local cuisine and beverages accompany live performances by acclaimed regional bands and other types of performance art. The downtown Eureka area is also decorated with many murals.  Theater offerings include year-round productions from several various theater groups including the North Coast Repertory Theater, the Redwood Curtain Theatre, and the Eureka Theater. Various events occur throughout the year at the Redwood Acres Fairgrounds. Museums include the Clarke Historical Museum, the Humboldt Bay Maritime Museum, the Morris Graves Museum of Art, HSU First Street Gallery, Discovery Museum for Children, the Fort Humboldt State Historic Park and the Blue Ox Millworks and Historic Park.

Museums and galleries.

Architecture.

Because of northern isolation and unfavorable economic conditions in the latter part of the twentieth century, much of the post-war redevelopment and urban renewal that other cities experienced did not occur in Eureka. As a result, Eureka has hundreds of examples of 19th- and early 20th-century architecture and historic districts.  The original Queen Anne-style Murphy home in San Francisco was completely destroyed by the fire resulting from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Mark Carter found the blueprints for the home in an antique store and rebuilt the structure, but in Eureka; it is now the

Parks and recreation.

Sequoia Park Zoo, situated on more than of mature second-growth Redwood forest, includes Eureka's largest public playground and a duck pond, in addition to meticulously kept gardens and examples of the area's many varieties of rhododendron bushes. The City of Eureka Recreation Department manages

Media.

Though Eureka has been the base for two major daily newspapers at different times in its 150 years, only the "Times-Standard", owned by the Colorado-based Media News Group, survives. Media News Group also owns a weekly classified advertiser, the "Tri-City Weekly". "The Eureka Reporter", founded in 2003, became a daily in 2006, began publishing five days per week at the end of 2007, and permanently closed in November 2008. The "Times-Standard" printing nearly 20,000 papers per day as of 2004, as of 2018 Its distribution was 13,000 and it published online-only on Mondays. The LostCoast Outpost is another web based news source  The "North Coast Journal", a regional weekly, moved from Arcata to Eureka in 2009. Eureka is also home to several alternative weekly publications. "Senior News" is a 24-page monthly newspaper distributed along a 150-mile stretch of the Northwest California coast, published by the Humboldt Senior Resource Center since 1981. The small staff is augmented by community volunteer writers and by senior volunteers who distribute 5,000 free newspapers to more than 100 locations from Crescent City to Garberville.  Many of Humboldt County's commercial radio stations are based in Eureka: KINS-FM, KWSW-AM, and KEKA-FM, owned and operated by Eureka Broadcasting Co. Inc. KFMI, KRED, KJNY and KATA. Lost Coast Communications owns and operates several stations broadcasting to Eureka: KSLG-FM, KHUM, KLGE, and KWPT. Eureka also hosts KMUE, the local repeater for Redway-based community radio station KMUD. On August 26, 2006 the Blue Ox Millworks launched KKDS-LP, a low power FM station focused on youth and community issues. On November 3, 2008, a low-power part 15 AM radio station, Old Glory Radio 1650 AM, based in the Myrtletown neighborhood of Eureka went on the air; it offers the area's only daily live local call-in program in the morning. KHSU, the region's local public radio station, is broadcast from Humboldt State University in Arcata.

Eureka (Hupa: "do'-wi-lotl-ding", Karuk: "uuth") is the principal city and county seat of Humboldt County in the Redwood Empire region of California. The city is located on U.S. Route 101 on the shores of Humboldt Bay, north of San Francisco and south of the Oregon border. At the 2010 census, the population of the city was 27,191, and the population of Greater Eureka was 45,034.

Eureka (nach griechisch "ηὕρηκα, ich habe gefunden", Perfekt von "εὑρίσκω, ich finde") ist eine Stadt mit 27.191 Einwohnern (Stand: 2010). Sie liegt im Humboldt County, im Norden des US-Bundesstaates Kalifornien. Das Stadtgebiet hat eine Größe von 37,4 km2.


Indications.

Spinal anaesthesia is a commonly used technique, either on its own or in combination with sedation or general anaesthesia. It is most commonly used for surgeries below the umbilicus, however recently its uses have extended to some surgeries above the umbilicus as well as for postoperative analgesia. Procedures which use spinal anesthesia include:  Spinal anaesthesia is the technique of choice for Caesarean section as it avoids a general anaesthetic and the risk of failed intubation (which is probably a lot lower than the widely quoted 1 in 250 in pregnant women). It also means the mother is conscious and the partner is able to be present at the birth of the child. The post operative analgesia from intrathecal opioids in addition to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is also good.  Spinal anesthesia is a favorable alternative, when the surgical site is amenable to spinal blockade, for patients with severe respiratory disease such as COPD as it avoids potential respiratory consequences of intubation and ventilation. It may also be useful, when the surgical site is amenable to spinal blockade, in patients where anatomical abnormalities may make tracheal intubation very difficult.  In pediatric patients, spinal anesthesia is particularly useful in children with difficult airways and those who have are poor candidates for endotracheal anesthesia such as increased respiratory risks or presence of full stomach.  This can also be used to effectively treat and prevent pain following surgery, particularly thoracic, abdominal pelvic, and lower extremity orthopedic procedures.

Contraindications.

Prior to receiving spinal anesthesia, it is important to provide a thorough medical evaluation to ensure there are no absolute contraindications and to minimize risks and complications. Although contraindications are rare, below are some of them:

Risks and complications.

Complications of spinal anesthesia can result from the physiologic effects on the nervous system and can also be related to placement technique. Most of the common side effects are minor and are self-resolving or easily treatable while major complications can result in more serious and permanent neurological damage and rarely death. These symptoms can occur immediately after administration of the anesthetic or arise up to 48 hours after surgery.  Common and minor complications include:  Serious and permanent complications are rare but are usually related to physiologic effects on the cardiovascular system and neurological system or when the injection has been unintentionally at the wrong site. The following are some major complications:

Technique.

Regardless of the anaesthetic agent (drug) used, the desired effect is to block the transmission of afferent nerve signals from peripheral nociceptors. Sensory signals from the site are blocked, thereby eliminating pain. The degree of neuronal blockade depends on the amount and concentration of local anaesthetic used and the properties of the axon. Thin unmyelinated C-fibres associated with pain are blocked first, while thick, heavily myelinated A-alpha motor neurons are blocked moderately. Heavily myelinated, small preganglionic sympathetic fibers are blocked last. The desired result is total numbness of the area. A pressure sensation is permissible and often occurs due to incomplete blockade of the thicker A-beta mechanoreceptors. This allows surgical procedures to be performed with no painful sensation to the person undergoing the procedure.  Some sedation is sometimes provided to help the patient relax and pass the time during the procedure, but with a successful spinal anaesthetic the surgery can be performed with the patient wide awake.

Anatomy.

In spinal anesthesia, the needle is placed past the dura mater in subarachnoid space and between lumbar vertebrae. In order to reach this space, the needle must pierce through several layers of tissue and ligaments which include the supraspinous ligament, interspinous ligament, and ligamentum flavum. Because the spinal cord (conus medullaris) is typically at the L1 or L2 level of the spine, the needle should be inserted below this between L3 and L4 space or L4 and L5 space in order to avoid injury to the spinal cord.

Positioning.

Patient positioning is essential to the success of the procedure and can affect how the anesthetic spreads following administration. There are 3 different positions which are used: sitting, lateral decubitus, and prone. The sitting and lateral decubitus positions are the most common.  Sitting- The patient sits upright at the edge of the exam table with their back facing the provider and their legs hanging off the end of the table and feet resting on a stool. Patients should roll their shoulders and upper back forward.  Lateral decubitus- In this position, the patient lays on their side with their back at the edge of the bed and facing the provider. The patient should curl their shoulder and legs and arch out their lower back.  Prone- The patient is positioned face down and their back facing upwards in a jackknife position.

Limitations.

Spinal anaesthetics are typically limited to procedures involving most structures below the upper abdomen. To administer a spinal anaesthetic to higher levels may affect the ability to breathe by paralysing the intercostal respiratory muscles, or even the diaphragm in extreme cases (called a "high spinal", or a "total spinal", with which consciousness is lost), as well as the body's ability to control the heart rate via the cardiac accelerator fibres. Also, injection of spinal anaesthesia higher than the level of L1 can cause damage to the spinal cord, and is therefore usually not done.

Difference from epidural anesthesia.

Epidural anesthesia is a technique whereby a local anesthetic drug is injected through a catheter placed into the epidural space. This technique is similar to spinal anesthesia as both are neuraxial, and the two techniques may be easily confused with each other. Differences include:

Injected substances.

Bupivacaine (Marcaine) is the local anaesthetic most commonly used, although lidocaine (lignocaine), tetracaine, procaine, ropivacaine, levobupivicaine, prilocaine, or cinchocaine may also be used. Commonly opioids are added to improve the block and provide post-operative pain relief, examples include morphine, fentanyl, diamorphine, and buprenorphine. Non-opioids like clonidine or epinephrine may also be added to prolong the duration of analgesia (although Clonidine may cause hypotension). In the United Kingdom, since 2004 the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommends that spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section is supplemented with intrathecal diamorphine and this combination is now the modal form of anaesthesia for this indication in that country. In the United States Morphine is used for cesareans for the same purpose since diamorphine (heroin) is not used in clinical practice in the US.  Baricity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of human cerebrospinal fluid. Baricity is used in anaesthesia to determine the manner in which a particular drug will spread in the intrathecal space. Usually, the hyperbaric, (for example, hyperbaric bupivacaine) is chosen, as its spread can be effectively and predictably controlled by the Anaesthesiologist, by tilting the patient. Hyperbaric solutions are made more dense by adding glucose to the mixture.  Baricity is one factor that determines the spread of a spinal anaesthetic but the effect of adding a solute to a solvent, i.e. solvation or dissolution, also has an effect on the spread of the spinal anaesthetic. In tetracaine spinal anaesthesia, it was discovered that the rate of onset of analgesia was faster and the maximum level of analgesia was higher with a 10% glucose solution than with a 5% glucose spinal anaesthetic solution. Also, the amount of ephedrine required was less in the patients who received the 5% glucose solution. In another study this time with 0.5% bupivacaine the mean maximum extent of sensory block was significantly higher with 8% glucose (T3.6) than with 0.83% glucose (T7.2) or 0.33% glucose (T9.5). Also the rate of onset of sensory block to T12 was fastest with solutions containing 8% glucose.

History.

The first spinal analgesia was administered in 1885 by James Leonard Corning (1855–1923), a neurologist in New York. He was experimenting with cocaine on the spinal nerves of a dog when he accidentally pierced the dura mater.  The first planned spinal anaesthesia for surgery in man was administered by August Bier (1861–1949) on 16 August 1898, in Kiel, when he injected 3 ml of 0.5% cocaine solution into a 34-year-old labourer. After using it on 6 patients, he and his assistant each injected cocaine into the other's spine. They recommended it for surgeries of legs, but gave it up due to the toxicity of cocaine.

Spinal anaesthesia (or spinal anesthesia), also called spinal block, subarachnoid block, intradural block and intrathecal block, is a form of neuraxial regional anaesthesia involving the injection of a local anaesthetic or opioid into the subarachnoid space, generally through a fine needle, usually long. It is a safe and effective form of anesthesia performed by nurse anesthetists and anesthesiologists which can be used as an alternative to general anesthesia commonly in surgeries involving the lower extremities and surgeries below the umbilicus. The local anesthetic or opioid injected into the cerebrospinal fluid provides anesthesia, analgesia, and motor and sensory blockade. The tip of the spinal needle has a point or small bevel. Recently, pencil point needles have been made available (Whitacre, Sprotte, Gertie Marx and others).

Eine Spinalanästhesie (von lateinisch "spinalis", zu Wirbelsäule/Rückenmark gehörig, und "Anästhesie") oder Lumbalanästhesie (von lateinisch "lumbalis", zu Lende gehörig) ist eine rückenmarknahe Form der Regionalanästhesie. Durch die Injektion eines Lokalanästhetikums (und gegebenenfalls weiterer Medikamente) in den Hirnwasserraum (Subarachnoidalraum) in Höhe der Lendenwirbelsäule wird die Signalübermittlung in den vom Rückenmark ausgehenden Nerven gehemmt. Dadurch wird eine zeitweilige, umkehrbare Blockade des sympathischen Nervensystems, der Sensibilität und der Motorik der unteren Körperhälfte erreicht. Mögliche Nebenwirkungen sind Kreislaufschwankungen, Übelkeit sowie Rücken- und postpunktionelle Kopfschmerzen, die in den Tagen nach dem Verfahren auftreten können. Schwerwiegende Komplikationen (rückenmarksnahe Blutergüsse oder Infektionen, Nervenschäden) sind selten.