Etymology.

The city of Cúcuta was called San José de Guasimales from 1733 to 1793, the year in which the name changed to San José de Cúcuta—"San José" (Saint Joseph) is for the Virgin Mary's husband, and "Cúcuta" ironically means "The House of Goblins" in the language of the Barí indigenous group. In the city's seal, a legend states, "Muy Noble, Valerosa y Leal Villa de San José de Cúcuta" ("Very Noble, Valiant and Loyal Town of San José of Cúcuta"). The city has the nicknames "City Without Borders", "Gem of the North," and "City Forest.".

History.

Cúcuta was originally a pre-hispanic settlement. It was entrusted to Sebastian Lorenzo by Pedro de Ursua as an encomienda in 1550. Juana Rangel de Cuellar founded Cúcuta on June 17, 1733, and donated a further. The village, centred on a church, grew considerably due to its strategic commercial location, and eventually became a city.  Several important events that forged Colombia as an independent republic took place in the city: one of these events was the Congress of 1821, where the Constitution of Cúcuta was written and approved. This constitution created Greater Colombia, a country embracing the present-day territories of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. The city preserves places where these historical events took place: the Historical Church of Cúcuta, the House of Santander, and the Park of Greater Colombia.  As the site of the Battle of Cúcuta (February 28, 1813), the city was the beginning of the Admirable Campaign led by Simón Bolívar. This campaign resulted in the independence of Venezuela.

16th century: First European incursions.

The first European in the North Santander territories was the German conquistador Ambrosio Alfinger, who came from Santa Ana de Coro (Venezuela) in 1530 with a troop of adventurers, and invaded the unexplored eastern region of the newly created Governorate of Santa Marta.  Alfínger, in search of "El Dorado", arrived in an area of indigenous settlements called Tamalameque along the Magdalena River, fighting and defeating several tribes. Alfinger was eventually killed in the outskirts of present-day Chinácota in a battle with Chimila and Chitarero. With Alfínger dead, Fedro St. Martin took command of the troops and returned to Coro, passing through the territory of Cúcuta.  In 1541, Hernán Pérez de Quesada reached the territory of Chinácota, but had to turn back the same year due to resistance by the indigenous people. Shortly thereafter, Alfonso Perez de Tolosa left El Tocuyo (Venezuela) and went to Salazar de Las Palmas, through Cúcuta, but also had to turn back after losing many soldiers in clashes with the natives.  In 1549 Spanish troops, commanded by Pedro de Ursúa and Ortún Velasco, invaded North Santander and reached the valley of Pamplona. In tribute to the Spanish city of Pamplona, the Spaniards founded the city of Pamplona. The new town soon attracted numerous people because of its agreeable climate, and gold mines that were discovered in the region. Further expeditions left this town and completed the conquest of the current territory of North Santander.  An expedition commanded by Diego de Montes founded the town of Salazar, but it was soon destroyed by the "cacique" Cínera. In 1583, the town was rebuilt by Alonso Esteban Rangel (great-grandfather of the founder of Cúcuta), on a site more appropriate for its defense in the event of new attacks by the natives.  The second expedition, commanded by Captain Francisco Fernández de Contreras, reached the lands of the Hacaritamas indigenous group and, on July 26, 1572, founded the city of Ocaña, calling it "Santa Ana de Hacarí". Some of his colleagues named it New Madrid, and others Santa Ana of Ocaña. The next year, Antonio Orozco, a subaltern of Fernández, founded the town of Teorama, while the Augustinian Friars founded a convent in what is today the city of Chinácota.

17th century: Foundation.

In the early 17th century a great part of the valley of Cúcuta belonged to Captain Christopher de Araque Ponce de Leon. The land passed through inheritance to his son Fernando Araque Ponce de Leon, who was the owner of the entire territory from the Valley of Cúcuta to the village of San Jose, the jurisdiction of the city of San Faustino. These fields had been donated to the older Araque by the Governor of the Province of New Mérida on September 9, 1630.  The resistance of the Motilones indigenous group towards the whites who were taking over and controlling the valley with economic ambitions was the key factor in the request for the establishment of a Catholic parish with the name "San José." Juana Rangel de Cuéllar donated on June 17, 1733, for the construction of a church and land for Spanish families. Today this area is the neighborhood of San Luis.

19th century: Major events.

Battle of Cúcuta.

The Battle of Cúcuta was one of the most important events of the Spanish American wars of independence, due to its role in the independence of Colombia and Venezuela. This battle was the beginning of the Admirable Campaign of Simón Bolívar. On February 28, 1813, Bolivar captured the city after a battle that lasted from 9:00 a.m. until early afternoon. About 400 men led by Bolivar fought 800 troops led by the Spanish general Ramon Correa. Bolivar's forces reported losses of two killed and 14 injured, whilst the royalists are said to have suffered 20 killed and 40 injured. The victory freed the city of Cúcuta and led to the Admirable Campaign.  Colonel Simón Bolívar then launched a major offensive against the Spanish forces who were on the east bank of the Magdalena River and quickly achieved resounding victories. These led him to undertake a journey to liberate the Valley of Cúcuta held by the command of royalist Colonel Ramon Correa.

Congress of Cúcuta.

On August 30, 1821 the Congress of Cúcuta took place at the town of Villa del Rosario (today part of Cúcuta) in the church known today as the "Historic Temple of Cúcuta". The congress was established by Antonio Nariño and its participants included Francisco de Paula Santander, Simón Bolívar, and other leaders of Spanish America's struggle for independence from Spain.  The main objective of this congress was to unify the territories of New Granada (Colombia and Panama) and Venezuela and thus create a huge state to be known as the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia). Ecuador subsequently joined Gran Colombia.  At 11 am on October 3, 1821, Simón Bolívar entered the meeting room in the sacristy of the church. He took a seat next to the president of Congress and was sworn in as president of the fledgling Republic of Colombia.

Earthquake of Cúcuta.

On 18 May 1875, Cúcuta was largely destroyed by the earthquake of Cúcuta, also known as the "Earthquake of the Andes". The earthquake occurred at 11:15 a.m.; it destroyed Villa del Rosario, San Antonio del Tachira and Capacho, seriously damaged the Venezuelan settlements of San Cristóbal, La Mulata, Rubio, Michelena, La Grita and Colón (among others), and was felt in Bogotá and Caracas.

Industrial Revolution.

In the 19th century, the construction of a railroad set off an Industrial Revolution in the city. The railroad had four branches: North, East, South and West. The North branch was constructed from 1878 to 1888, and connected Cúcuta with Puerto Santander and Venezuela. Construction of the Eastern and Southern branches began in 1878; the South branch linked with Pamplona, Colombia, and ended in El Diamante. The West branch was not built owing to economic problems. The railroad company fell into bankruptcy and was closed in 1960.  Many of the city's historic buildings lie within the Park of Greater Colombia, including the House of Santander, the historic church, and the historic tamarind. All these are well preserved.

Geography, climate and lay-out.

Geography.

The city is in the eastern part of the Department of North Santander, in the Cordillera Oriental, close to the border with Venezuela. The city's area is and its elevation is above sea level.  Rivers in Cúcuta and Norte de Santander include the Pamplonita River, Guaramito River, San Miguel River and Zulia River.  The Pamplonita River crosses the Norte de Santander Department.

Climate.

Cúcuta has a tropical savanna climate. The mean temperature is 27.6 °C; high temperatures are around 38 °C. There is a sharp contrast between the wet season and the dry season. The driest months are December, January, February and March; the wettest are April, May, September, October and November. June and July usually have significant precipitation, whereas August is sunny and windy. The annual precipitation is around.

Layout.

Cúcuta's streets are organized in a grid layout adopted from Spain in colonial times. "Calles" (streets) run from east to west, perpendicular to the hills, and numbering increases to the north and to the south from Calle 1. "Avenidas" (avenues) run from south to north, parallel to the hills, and numbering increases both east to west, and west to east from a central avenida numbered 0 (Avenida Cero, one of the city's most important avenues). From west to east, avenues are numbered with an E added to their number, to denote East (este).  More than 300 neighborhoods form the urban network. Poorer neighborhoods are in the north, north-west and south-west, many of them squatter areas. The middle class lives mostly in the central and eastern areas.

Symbols.

Flag.

The red and black North Santander Department flag was exhibited for the first time in 1928, when the first National Olympics were held in Cali. However, the "flag of Cúcuta" was not legalized until Mayor Carlos A. Rangel issued Decree 106 on May 3, 1988.

Seal.

The shield of Cúcuta was adopted on February 3, 1958, by Decree 032, after a request by the History Academy of North Santander. The shield is a classic shape, and carries the title conferred on the city by Royal Decree of the Emperor Carlos IV: "Very noble, valiant and loyal town of San José of Cúcuta".  The upper part depicts the arms of the city's founder Juana Rangel of Cuéllar, who donated lands for the foundation of the city on June 17, 1733. They are five silver and red fleur-de-lis in the shape of reels, on a golden background.  The lower part of the shield displays the arms that the " National Congress" adopted for Colombia by the Law of October 6, 1821, at its meeting in the Villa del Rosario. In the center are a quiver of spears, marked with X's, and a set of bow and arrows, tied with tricolor tape. The spears represent attributes of the Roman consuls; the X is a symbol of the right of life or death; the bow and arrows are symbols of the Hispanic Indu race.

Anthem.

The "Anthem of Cúcuta" was legalized by means of Decree 039 of February 8, 1984, by Mayor Luis Vicente Mountain Forest. The lyrics were written by Father Manuel Grillo Martínez, and the music by the master Pablo Tarazona Prada. It was chosen as the Anthem of Cúcuta by a unanimous vote in a contest held in the Theater Zulima.

Demographics.

Population.

The metropolitan area, which includes the municipalities of Villa del Rosario, Los Patios, El Zulia, San Cayetano and Puerto Santander, has a combined population of more than 830,000 people. It is the largest metropolitan area in eastern Colombia and seventh in Colombia, behind Barranquilla, Bucaramanga and Cartagena.

People.

Many notable Colombians are from Cúcuta:

Government.

The current mayor of Cúcuta is Donamaris Ramírez-Paris Lobo, who was elected for the 2011-2015 period. He represented the Partido Verde and achieved approximately 43% of the votation or 98,588 votes.  The city is governed by the three branches of power: the executive power, represented by the Mayor and its departments; the legislative power, represented by the City Council; and the judicial power, which is formed by the tribunals and many other organisms of control. The Mayor is elected for a 4-year period and is in charge of electing each head of the administration departments. The city council is formed by 19 representatives elected by popular vote for four years. They approve or reject each decree issued by the Mayor and make or correct laws regarding the city.  As the capital of Norte de Santander Department, Cúcuta houses the Department Hall and the City Hall of the Metropolitan Area of Cúcuta, along with the Francisco de Paula Santander Justice Palace.  The city is divided into 10 localities ("comunas"). The Metropolitan Area of Cúcuta is formed by Cúcuta (as the main city), Villa del Rosario, Los Patios, San Cayetano, El Zulia and Puerto Santander.  Politics in Cúcuta are not defined by a single political movement. Past rivals included the Colombian Liberal Party and the Colombian Conservative Party. Today the political landscape is shared by many political parties, none commanding majority support.

Economy.

The city is notable for bilateral trade and manufacturing. Its location on the border between Colombia and Venezuela has made possible strong links with the Venezuelan city of San Cristóbal, Táchira.  Its Free Zone is the most active of all those in the country and one of the most active in all Latin America, largely due to Venezuela being Colombia's second largest trade partner.  The most developed industries are dairy, construction, textiles, shoes and leather. The city is a producer of cement of the first order and its clay and stoneware industry has the best reputation nationally for its high quality. The mining of coal also plays an important role in the local economy. The University Francisco de Paula Santander in Cucuta, the National University of Colombia in Bogotá, and the Pedagogical and Technological University of Colombia in Tunja are the only ones in the country that provide for the career of Mining Engineering.  The peso is the official and sole legal tender currency in the city. Owing to its proximity to Venezuela, the bolívar was accepted by the vast majority of commercial establishments until the rapid devaluation of the Venezuelan currency began after the 2013 recession.

US–Colombia Free Trade Agreement, implications for Cúcuta.

Colombia signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States against opposition by Venezuela. Despite this opposition, industries from Venezuela are constructing their infrastructure in Cúcuta to export their products to the United States, registering their products as if they were Colombian, a strategy that allows them to export without paying certain tariffs. For that reason, Cúcuta is expected to become an industrial city.  Colombian law provides tax exemptions for Venezuelan imports through the "Zona Franca", which, coupled with the motorway links between Cúcuta and Maracaibo, increases the possibility of exports from Maracaibo into Colombia.

Telecommunications.

The city's telecommunications services include payphones, WiMAX wireless networks, and mobile phone networks (GSM, CDMA and TDMA).  Telecom Colombia offers the services of local, national and international telephone and broadband ADSL Internet. There are three mobile telephone operators: Comcel, Movistar and Tigo.

Transport.

For travel outside the city, there is a bus station called "Terminal de Transportes" (to be replaced by a new one), the Camilo Daza International Airport (Colombia) and the San Antonio Airport (Venezuela). Eighty years ago the city had the "Railroad of Cúcuta", which connected with Venezuela.  The main forms of public transportation are the bus (or collective) and taxicabs. In addition, National Planning has a project to build a mass transit system, under the name "Metrobus" (Cucuta).  The highway to Bucaramanga (renovated in January 2007) connects Cúcuta with Bogotá, Medellín and Cali. The highway to Ocaña connects the city with Barranquilla, Cartagena and Santa Marta, and the highway to San Cristóbal connects it with Caracas.

Bridges.

The city has many bridges:  Six overpasses are under construction.

Health.

Law 100 of 1993 is the law governing Health in Colombia, which is regulated by the Ministry of Social Protection. In Cucuta and North Santander, health is administered by the Municipal Institute of Health (IMSALUD) and the local Department of Health, respectively. Entities such as the Colombian Red Cross, Colombian Civil Defense (for emergencies, calamities, and natural disasters) and the Colombian Family Welfare Institute (ICBF), are part of the social protection system.  The city has the following public health institutions (or State Social Enterprises, ESE): ESE Erasmus University Hospital Meoz, the ESE Francisco de Paula Santander (Clinical Social Security), the ESE CardioNeuroPulmonar Rehabilitation Center, the ESE Hospital of Los Patios, and ESE Hospital of Villa del Rosario. Private health centers include: San Jose Clinic, the North Clinic, Clinica Santa Ana, Lions Clinic, the Samaritan Clinic, and Profamilia (sexual and reproductive health).  The aforementioned entities are part of the network of institutions providing services to health attached to the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Municipal Health Department. The Erasmus Hospital Meoz holds fourth-level scale and specializes in performing highly complex surgeries, such as transplants and reimplantations. Additionally, it offers healthcare services distributed in the different districts of the city, which deal with varying degrees of complexity. The city has a large number of health-promoting entities (SPE's), such as Colsanitas, SaludCoop, Cafesalud, etc.

Education.

Basic education and high school education are in Colombian "Calendar A" for schools (from February to November).

Universities.

State Universities  Private Universities

Sports.

The sport that gather people the most is football, although basketball, volleyball, and Inline speed skating are also popular. The Cúcuta Deportivo -recently relegated to the First Division- is the main professional team of the city, and play their local matches at the General Santander stadium. The team won their first Championship in the 2006 season and had a well-remembered participation in the 2007 Copa Libertadores, when they reached the semifinal and lose to the multi-champion Boca Juniors; since that year, only one other Colombian team has reached the semifinal of the prestigious competition (Atletico Nacional from Medellin in 2016). Other professional teams located in the city are the Norte de Santander (Basketball team), and futsal team Cucuta Niza; Both squads play local at the Coliseo Toto Hernández.  The city hosted the XIX National Games of Colombia in 2012, which helped to modernize many of the sport venues like the Coliseo Toto Hernández. The Colombian Football Federation announced that Cúcuta will be one of the venue cities to host the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup, an event that is celebrated every four years.

Recent development.

The city has recently undergone development at an historically unprecedented rate. This has included construction of six overpasses, a convention center, a new bus terminal, a new Integrated Massive Transportation System called "Metrobus", modernization of state owned schools, renewal of downtown, and doubling the capacity of the General Santander Stadium.  New industries are expected to come from Venezuela, which will place their factories in Cúcuta to export through the Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement between Colombia and the United States.

Distances to other cities.

Cities of Colombia  Cities of Venezuela

Landscape.

Monuments.

The main monuments in the city are:

Parks.

The main parks in the city are:

Greenery.

Cúcuta has more green zones than many cities in Colombia. Some consider the city an "urban lung", due to its greenery and lack of pollution. Cucuteños, and the legion of foreigners who reconstructed the city after the 1875 earthquake, led by engineer Francisco de Paula Andrade Troconis, led to the development of greenery in the city. The first planted trees were clemones. Soon they were replaced by acacias, peracos and almond trees that adorned the parks and roadsides. An example of this city design is the Avenue of the Lights (based on oití, ficus and cují), that forms a natural tunnel admired in the rest of the country and by tourists.  Palm trees are common in places such as Santander Park, Great Colombian Park, the Bank of the Republic and the Department Hall of Norte de Santander.

Cúcuta (), officially San José de Cúcuta, is a Colombian city, capital of Norte de Santander department. It is located in the northeast of the country, in the eastern branch of the Colombian Andes, on the border with Venezuela. Cúcuta has a population of 711,715 people according to the 2018 census, making it the 6th largest city in the country. Due to its proximity with Venezuela, Cúcuta is an important commercial center, hosting many billion dollar companies. The international border in Cúcuta is said to be the most dynamic of South America. The city has a length of from north to south and from east to west. It is divided into 10 communes and it is the political, economic, administrative, industrial, cultural and tourism hub of the Norte de Santander department.

Cúcuta (offiziell San José de Cúcuta) ist die siebtgrößte Stadt Kolumbiens und Hauptstadt sowie eine Gemeinde "(municipio)" im Departamento Norte de Santander. Die Stadt liegt im Nordosten des Landes an der Grenze zu Venezuela. Cúcuta ist das Zentrum der Metropolregion Cúcuta.


Human rights.

According to Article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, men and women who have attained the age of majority have the right to marry "without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion". Although most of Article 16 is incorporated verbatim in Article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the references to religious and racial limitations is omitted. Article 17, clause two of the American Convention on Human Rights says that all men and women have the right to marry, subject to the conditions of domestic law "insofar as such conditions do not affect the principle of nondiscrimination established in this Convention."

By religion.

Judaism.

Interfaith marriage in Judaism was historically viewed with disfavor by Jewish leaders, and it remains controversial. The Talmud and "poskim" prohibit non-Jews to marry Jews, and discuss when the prohibition is from the Torah and when it is rabbinical. In 1236, Moses of Coucy encouraged Jewish men who had married Christian or Muslim women to divorce them. In 1844, the reform Rabbinical Conference of Brunswick permitted Jews to marry "any adherent of a monotheistic religion" if children of the marriage were raised Jewish. This conference was controversial; one of its resolutions called on members to abolish the "Kol Nidre" prayer, which opens the Yom Kippur service. One member of the conference later changed his opinion, becoming an opponent of intermarriage.  Traditional Judaism does not consider marriage between a Jew by birth and a convert as intermarriage; Biblical passages which apparently support intermarriage, such as that of Joseph to Asenath and Ruth to Boaz, were regarded by classical rabbis as having occurred after the non-Jewish spouse had converted. Some still considered Canaanites forbidden to marry even after conversion, although this did not necessarily apply to their children.  Orthodox Judaism refuses to accept intermarriage, and tries to avoid facilitating them. Conservative Judaism does not sanction intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the non-Jewish spouse by the family in the hope that such acceptance will lead to the spouse's conversion to Judaism. In December 2014 the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism's United Synagogue Youth controversially modified a binding rule that its leaders would not date non-Jews, replacing it with a "recogni[tion of] the importance of dating within the Jewish community."  Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism do not generally regard the authority of classical rabbis; many rabbis from these denominations are willing to officiate at interfaith marriages, although they try to persuade intermarried couples to raise their children as Jews. In 1870, some Reform Jews published the opinion that intermarriage is prohibited.  In 2015 the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College voted to accept rabbinical students in interfaith relationships, making Reconstructionist Judaism the first movement within Judaism to allow rabbis to have relationships with non-Jewish partners. Humanistic Judaism is a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life, defining Judaism as the cultural and historical experience of the Jewish people. The Society for Humanistic Judaism answers the question, "Is intermarriage contributing to the demise of Judaism?" on its website: "Intermarriage is the positive consequence of a free and open society. If the Jewish community is open, welcoming, embracing, and pluralistic, we will encourage more people to identify with the Jewish people rather than fewer. Intermarriage could contribute to the continuity of the Jewish people."  During the early 19th century, intermarriage was relatively rare; less than one-tenth of one percent of the Jews of Algeria, for example, practiced exogamy. Since the early 20th century, rates of Jewish intermarriage have increased. In the United States from 1996 to 2001, nearly half (47 percent) of marriages involving Jews were intermarriages with non-Jewish partners (a similar proportion—44 percent—as in the early 20th century in New South Wales).

Hinduism.

In Hinduism, spiritual texts like Vedas and Gita do not speak of caste and interfaith marriages. However, law books like Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, and Parashara speak of marriage rules among various kulas and gotras. Manusmriti versions are numerous as the original is not preserved and also represents one of the oldest attempts to formally regulate the secular society of India. It is not a religious text. According to the "varna" system, marriage is normally between two individuals of the same "varna". Ancient Hindu literature identified four "varnas": Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. In ancient India, this varna system was strictly professional division based on one's profession. With time, it became a birthright. According to Manusmriti, partners in an intra-gotra marriage should be shunned as it is an equivalent of a sibling marriage shunned. In rural parts of modern-day India, which is mainly conservative, follows this rule, while Hindus living in the cities and abroad often accept the inter-caste marriage.

Sikhism.

Some "gurdwaras" allow weddings between a Sikh and a non-Sikh, but others oppose it. In 2014, the Sikh Council in the UK developed a consistent approach towards marriages in Gurdwaras where one partner is not of Sikh origin, following a two-year consultation with Gurdwara Sahib Committees, Sikh Organisations, and individuals. The resulting guidelines were approved by the General Assembly of Sikh Council UK on 11 October 2014, and state that Gurdwaras are encouraged to ensure that both parties to an Anand Karaj wedding are Sikhs, but that where a couple chooses to undertake a civil marriage they should be offered the opportunity to hold an "Ardas", "Sukhmani Sahib Path", "Akhand Path", or other service to celebrate their marriage in the presence of family and friends. Some gurdwaras permit mixed marriages, which has led to controversy.

Zoroastrianism.

Some traditional Zoroastrians in India disapprove of and discourage interfaith marriages, and female adherents who marry outside the faith are often considered to be excommunicated. When a female adherent marries a partner from another religion, they go through the risk of not being able to enter the Agyaris and Atash Behrams. In the past, their partner and children were forbidden from entering Zoroastrian religious buildings; this is often still observed. A loophole was found to avoid such expulsion: the offspring (especially born out of wedlock) of a Parsi man and a non-Parsi woman were often "adopted" by the Parsi father and tacitly accepted into the religion. Alternatively in a few cases such as that of Suzanne RD Tata, the non-Zoroastrian spouse has been allowed to convert Zoroastrianism by undergoing the navjote ritual Interfaith marriages may skew Zoroastrian demographics, since the number of adherents is low.  According to Indian law (where most Parsis live), only the father of the child must be a Zoroastrian for the child (or children) to be accepted into the faith. This has been debated, since the religion promotes gender equality (which the law violates). Zoroastrians in North America and Europe defy the rule, and children of a non-Zoroastrian father are accepted as Zoroastrians.

Christianity.

Some Christian denominations forbid interfaith marriage, citing 2 Corinthians 6:14 (although 1 Corinthians 7:14 allows it depending on the interpretations) and Deuteronomy 7:3 (depending on interpretation). In the Catholic Church, canon law deals with mixed marriages (a marriage between a Catholic and a baptized person outside the Church) and marriages in disparity of cult (marriage between a Catholic and an unbaptized person). Distinction is made between inter-denominational and interfaith marriage, and some denominations extend their own rules and practices to other Christian denominations.

Islam.

A primary Islamic legal concern is that the offspring of an interfaith marriage between a Muslim a non-Muslim are to be Muslim offspring, and raised as such. Sharia, thus, has differing regulations on interfaith marriage, depending on, firstly, what is the gender of the prospective intermarrying Muslim, and secondly, what non-Muslim religion is adhered to by the person that a Muslim is seeking to intermarry with.  While Islamic Law permits a Muslim man to marry up to four women, the preference is that one or all of his wives be Muslim. If he intermarried with a non-Muslim, one or more of the four allowed wives may be non-Muslim women provided that they are from among the People of the Book (i.e. female Christians or female Jews). Additionally, they must have been chaste, and all children must be brought up Muslim. Beyond this exemption, a Muslim man may not intermarry with females who are not from among the People of the Book unless they convert to Islam (which is not required of Christian females and Jewish females). Thus, Muslim men are prohibited from intermarrying, for instance, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, etc., as well as pagans or atheists, unless the woman converts to Islam. If they did, however, convert, it would no longer be considered intermarriage, but a marriage between Muslims, and thus not prohibited.  According to traditional understandings of interfaith marriage in Islam, Muslim women are forbidden from intermarrying based on Islamic law. This is understood to be irrespective of whether or not she wishes to marry a male from among the People or the Book (i.e. a male Christian or Jew) or a male of any other religion. Based on this interpretation, this would not apply if the non-Muslim man converted to Islam, as the Muslim woman would no longer be considered to be intermarrying, but marrying a Muslim man. Additionally, she may only be married to one Muslim man at any one time (i.e. she may not have multiple husbands at the same time). However, there is no clear prohibition of Muslim women marrying non-Muslim People of the Book in the Qur'an because the Qur'an does not address the issue as explicitly as it does with Muslim men being permitted to marry People of the Book. Moreover, there are multiple cases throughout the Qur'an in which the text only refers to men but it is implied that the verse also applies to women. In fact, some religious scholars, such as Kecia Ali, would claim that to interpret the Qur'an as prohibiting women from interfaith marriage is itself a "significant interpretative leap, going beyond the verse itself."  Early jurists in the most-prominent schools of Islamic jurisprudence ruled in "fiqh" that the marriage of a Muslim man to a Christian or Jewish woman is "makruh" (disapproved) if they live in a non-Muslim country. Umar (634–644) denied interfaith marriage to Muslim men during his command of the "ummah". According to the Quran,  Today the good things are made lawful for you, and the food of the ones to whom the Book was brought is lawful to you, and your food is made lawful to them. And (so) are believing women in wedlock, and in wedlock women of (the ones) to whom the Book was brought even before you when you have brought them their rewards in wedlock, other than in fornication, neither taking them to yourselves as mates (i.e., girl-friends). And whoever disbelieves in belief, (i.e., the religion) then his deed has been frustrated and in the Hereafter, he is among the losers. (Surah 5:5)  Scholar Ahmad Kutty of Toronto has expressed disapproval of interfaith marriage, citing Umar. According to scholar Bilal Philips, the verse permitting Muslim men to marry non-Muslim women is no longer valid for several reasons (including its misinterpretation). Canadian Islamic scholar Shabir Ally has also said that it is "makruh" for a Muslim man to marry outside his religion. This prohibition preserves and expands Islam in patriarchal, multi-faith societies. It ensures that over a number of generations, Islam would gain in numbers relative to other religions.  If a non-Muslim woman married to non-Muslim converts to Islam, the marriage is suspended until her husband converts to Islam; she could theoretically leave the non-Muslim husband and marry a Muslim one, analogous to the Pauline privilege for Catholics. If the non-Muslim husband converts, a new marriage is not needed. According to the Quran, O ye who believe! When there come to you believing women refugees, examine (and test) them: Allah knows best as to their Faith: if ye ascertain that they are Believers, then send them not back to the Unbelievers. They are not lawful (wives) for the Unbelievers, nor are the (Unbelievers) lawful (husbands) for them. But pay the Unbelievers what they have spent (on their dower), and there will be no blame on you if ye marry them on payment of their dower to them. But hold not to the guardianship of unbelieving women: ask for what ye have spent on their dowers, and let the (Unbelievers) ask for what they have spent (on the dowers of women who come over to you). Such is the command of Allah. He judges (with justice) between you. And Allah is Full of Knowledge and Wisdom. (Surah 60:10)

Bahá'í Faith.

According to the Bahá'í Faith, all religions are inspired by God and interfaith marriage is permitted. A Bahá'í ceremony should be performed with the non-Bahá'í rite (or ceremony). If both ceremonies are performed, the non-Bahá'í ceremony should not invalidate the Bahá'í ceremony; the Bahá'í partner remains a Bahá'í, and is not adopting the religion of the other partner in the ceremony. The Bahá'í partner should also abstain from vows (or statements) committing them to a declaration of faith in another religion or that are contrary to the principles of the Bahá'í Faith. The two ceremonies should be performed on the same day; their order is not important. The Bahá'í ceremony may be performed in the place of worship of the other religion if it is afforded respect equal to the non-Bahá'í ceremony and is clearly distinct from the non-Bahá'í ceremony.

Serer religion.

In orthodox Serer religion (an ethnoreligious faith), interfaith and interracial marriages are forbidden. Banishment and disinheritance may be levied against a Serer who disobeys the law. The Serer-Noon (a sub-group of the Serer people) adhere strongly to this teaching.

Sacred music.

In modern times various composers have written sacred music for use during interfaith marriage ceremonies including:

Interfaith marriage, sometimes called a "mixed marriage", is marriage between spouses professing different religions. Although interfaith marriages are most often contracted as civil marriages, in some instances they may be contracted as a religious marriage. This depends on religious doctrine of the two party's religions; some of which prohibit interfaith marriage, but others allow it in limited circumstances.

Als interreligiöse Ehe bezeichnet man die Ehe zwischen Angehörigen verschiedener Religionen. Ehen zwischen religiösen und areligiösen Menschen sind ähnlich zu betrachten. Im Unterschied zur interkonfessionellen Ehe lassen sich über die Religionsgrenzen hinweg oft nur unter Schwierigkeiten konkrete gemeinsame Glaubensinhalte finden, die über moralische Werte hinausgehen.


Clubs.

Gueorgiou runs for two orienteering clubs, the French NO St-Etienne and the Finnish Kalevan Rasti. With Kalevan Rasti he has won the Jukola Relay five times (2004, 2005, 2007, 2013 and 2014).  Running for Fédération Française de Course d'Orientation, he made his senior international debut at WOC 1997 in Grimstad, Norway, at the age of 18.

World Orienteering Championships.

After his Debut in 1997, it took Gueorgiou 6 years to achieve his first medal. Gueorgiou has said that this was his hardest period in orienteering. in 2001 Gueorgiou came 19th in the Short distance after a near perfect run, which led him to make changes to his technique that would eventually lead him to multiple world championship victories.  His breakthrough season came in 2003, where he won his first gold medal in the Middle Distance. Gueorgiou has since won all 3 individual disciplines, winning the Sprint Distance for the first time in Kiev in 2007 and the Long Distance for the first time in 2011. Gueorgiou won his most recent Long Distance gold medal in 2015, winning the gold in the Long Distance at Glen Affric ahead of Daniel Hubmann and Olav Lundanes. Thierry has won 14 gold medals at world championships.  Gueorgiou announced his retirement from international competition after the 2017 World Orienteering Championships in Estonia, where he won his final gold medal in the Middle Distance.  Gueorgiou was a member of the French relay team at WOC 2008 in Olomouc, Czech Republic. While running in a clear lead on the third leg, he suffered a bee sting on the back of his tongue. He left the course to go directly to the finish, where he collapsed, barely able to breathe. He was transported by helicopter to a hospital.

Martin Johansson 2009 WOC injury.

At WOC 2009 in Miskolc, Hungary, during the last leg of the relay race Gueorgiou, Anders Nordberg (Norway), and Michal Smola (Czech Republic) were close behind the lead runner, Martin Johansson (Sweden), when Johansson suffered a 12 cm deep penetrating trauma from a stick in his right thigh. While Nordberg ran for help, Gueorgiou and Smola stayed with Johansson. Gueorgiou pulled out the stick, then applied compression to the wound using his own shirt and GPS tracking harness. Gueorgiou and Smola then carried Johansson to a road. Nordberg brought a physician there.

Style of Orienteering.

Gueorgiou has stated in interviews that his style is "Full speed, no mistakes". Gueorgiou is noted for his incredible map- reading, and is frequently named as "The King of Middle Distance" for his multiple victories at world championships. Alongside his victories in Classic foot orienteering, Gueorgiou was the 2006 European champion in trail orienteering.

Personal life.

Gueorgiou's nickname is Tero and he is commonly known as Tero Kettunen in Finland and Terje Gundersen in Norway. He was born in St. Étienne, and currently lives in Uppsala, Sweden with his partner elite orienteer Annika Billstam.

Thierry Gueorgiou (; born 30 March 1979) is a French orienteer who has won more than 20 gold medals in international competitions, including the World Orienteering Championships (WOC) middle distance event eight times: 2003–2005, 2007–2009, 2011 and 2017. In November 2016 it was announced he will become the Swedish national team head coach following the 2017 World Championships.

Thierry „Tero“ Gueorgiou (* 30. März 1979 in Saint-Étienne) ist ein französischer Orientierungsläufer. Mit bislang elf gewonnenen Weltmeistertiteln gehört er zu den erfolgreichsten Orientierungsläufern aller Zeiten.


Biography.

Becce was born in Lonigo/Vicenza, Italy. He showed his musical talents early and was named the director of the student musical orchestra at the Padua University when he studied geography. In 1906 he moved to Germany and studied musical composition with Arthur Nikisch and Ferruccio Busoni. In the 1913 silent movie "Richard Wagner", directed by Carl Froelich, Becce played the title role and wrote the accompanying music. He continued to write such music for a series of subsequent movies. A collection of these pieces, the so-called "" was published between 1919 and 1933 by the Verlag Schlesinger'sche Buchhandlung in Berlin.  From 1915 to 1923, Becce was the director of the little orchestra of the Berlin Mozartsaal cinema, located upstairs at the Neues Schauspielhaus in the Nollendorfplatz. After World War I, he was named to direct the music department of the Decla-Bioscop AG and chief director of its movie orchestra, later to become the Universum Film AG (UFA) orchestra. He also worked at major movie theatres as director of the orchestras, among them the Ufa-Pavillon am Nollendorfplatz in 1921, the Tauentzien-Palast from 1923, and the from 1926. In this position he worked with the famous directors of the German silent movie era, namely Fritz Lang, Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau, Georg Wilhelm Pabst, Ernst Lubitsch, Ludwig Berger, Joe May and Berthold Viertel; he arranged and composed music for their movies. In 1920 Becce published the magazine "Film-Ton-Kunst". In 1927 he published, together with Hans Erdmann and Ludwig Brav, the "Allgemeines Handbuch der Filmmusik"; it was based on his "Kinothek", amongst other items, and enabled the pianist of silent movies to accompany movies in the generalized style and motifs of renowned composers.  With the arrival of sound movies Becce worked on musical movies and movies covering opera or operetta themes. He worked with Leni Riefenstahl, Luis Trenker, and Harald Reinl whose mountain films he scored. Becce was very prolific providing music to movies for more than four decades; he commonly mixed his own compositions with creations of other composers.  Becce died in Berlin and is buried in the cemetery of Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Berliner Straße.

List of Kinothek works.

"(by reference number)"

Giuseppe Becce (February 3, 1877 – October 5, 1973) was an Italian-born film score composer who enriched the German cinema.

Giuseppe Becce, Pseudonym "Peter Becker", (* 3. Februar 1877 in Lonigo, Provinz Vicenza, Italien; † 5. Oktober 1973 in Berlin) war ein italienischer Filmkomponist und Schauspieler.


Motivation.

This reaction is a considerable subject area of research with implications for fuel cell design. Its main utility lies in the removal of carbon monoxide (CO) from the fuel cell's feed gas. CO poisons the catalyst of most low-temperature fuel cells.  Carbon monoxide is often produced as a by-product from steam reforming of hydrocarbons, which produces hydrogen and CO. It is possible to consume most of the CO by reacting it with steam in the water-gas shift reaction:  The water-gas shift reaction can reduce CO to 1% of the feed, with the added benefit of producing more hydrogen, but not eliminate it completely. To be used in a fuel cell, feed gas must have CO below 10 ppm.

Description.

The PROX process allows for the reaction of CO with oxygen, reducing CO concentration from approximately 0.5–1.5% in the feed gas to less than 10 ppm.  Due to the prevalent presence of hydrogen in the feed gas, the competing, undesired combustion of hydrogen will also occur to some degree:  The selectivity of the process is a measure of the quality of the reactor, and is defined as the ratio of consumed carbon monoxide to the total of consumed hydrogen and carbon monoxide.  The disadvantage of this technology is its very strong exothermic nature, coupled with a very narrow optimal operation temperature window, and is best operated between 353 and 450 K, yielding a hydrogen loss of around one percent. Effective cooling is therefore required. In order to minimize steam generation, excessive dilution with nitrogen is used. Additionally the reaction is interrupted with an intermediary cooler before proceeding to a second stage.  In the first reaction an excess of oxygen is provided, at around a factor of two, and about 90% of the CO is transformed. In the second step a substantially higher oxygen excess is used, at approximately a factor of 4, which is then processed with the remaining CO, in order to reduce the CO concentration to less than 10 ppm. To also avoid excess CO-fraction loading, the transient operation of a CO adsorber may be important.  The instrumentation and process control complexity requirements are relatively high. The advantage of this technique over selective methanation is the higher space velocity, which reduces the required reactor size. For the case of strong temperature rises, the feed of air can simply be broken.  The technical origins for CO-PROX lies in the synthesis of ammonia (Haber process). Ammonia synthesis also has a strict requirement of CO-free hydrogen, as CO is a strong catalyst poison for the usual catalysts used in this process.

PROX is an acronym for PReferential OXidation, and refers to the preferential oxidation of a carbon monoxide in a gas mixture by a catalyst. It is intended to remove trace amounts of CO from H/CO/CO mixtures produced by steam reforming and water-gas shift. An ideal PROX catalyst preferentially oxidizes carbon monoxide (CO) using a heterogeneous catalyst placed upon a ceramic support. Catalysts include metals such as platinum, platinum/iron, platinum/ruthenium, gold nanoparticles as well as novel copper oxide/ceramic conglomerate catalysts.

PROX ist ein Fachbegriff aus der Brennstoffzellentechnik. Das Akronym steht für preferential oxidation, das heißt eine bevorzugte Oxidation eines meist gasförmigen Stoffes an einem Katalysator.


Early life.

Born in 1815 in Newark, Ohio, Roye was a descendant of the Igbo people of present-day Nigeria.

Emigration to Liberia.

In 1846, attracted by the American Colonization Society's promotion of the relocation of African Americans to the colony of Liberia in West Africa, Roye emigrated to the colony with his family at the age of 31. There he set up business as a merchant. The next year, the colony gained independence. Within three years of his arrival, Roye became active in Liberian politics, serving as a representative and speaker (1849-1850) of the Liberian House of Representatives, and as chief justice of the Supreme Court of Liberia.

Presidency (1870-71).

Roye was inaugurated as President of Liberia on January 3, 1870. In the decades after 1868, escalating economic difficulties weakened the state's dominance over the coastal indigenous tribal peoples. Conditions worsened, the cost of imports was far greater than the income generated by exports of its commodity crops of coffee, rice, palm oil, sugarcane, and timber. Liberia tried desperately to modernize its largely agricultural economy.

Financial problems.

In 1871, Roye tasked the speaker of the House of Representatives, William Spencer Anderson, with negotiating a new loan from British financiers. Anderson secured $500,000 under strict terms from the British consul-general, David Chinery, but was heavily criticised and eventually arrested. Anderson was apparently tried the following year for his part in securing the loan. He was found not guilty, but he was shot to death while leaving the courthouse.

End of presidency.

Roye was removed from the presidency on October 26, 1871, in what some allies called a coup d'état. The circumstances surrounding his removal from office, however, remain murky and highly partisan. What is known is that he was jailed for several months following his ouster and soon died under equally mysterious circumstances. His unpopular loans with Britain as well as fears from the Republican Party that he was planning to cancel the upcoming presidential election were among the reasons for his forced removal.

Death.

No specific historical record is available about the date and circumstances of Roye's death. Varying accounts indicate that he was killed on February 11 or February 12, 1872. Another account suggests that he drowned on February 12, 1872, while trying to reach a British ship in Monrovia harbor.  The portrait of President Roye in the gallery of the Presidential Mansion in Monrovia notes his date of death as February 11, 1872.

Edward James Roye (February 3, 1815 – February 11, 1872) served as the fifth President of Liberia from 1870 to his overthrow in 1871 and subsequent violent death. He had previously served as the 4th Chief Justice of Liberia from 1865 until 1868. He was the first member of Liberia's True Whig Party to serve as president.

Edward James Roye (* 3. Februar 1815 in Newark, Ohio; † 12. Februar 1872 in Monrovia, Liberia) war ein amerikanisch-liberianischer Politiker und von 1870 bis 1871 der fünfte Präsident von Liberia.


Generic types.

Lines on ruled paper provide a guide to help users keep their writing or drawing consistent with a predetermined set of rules. The ruling layout is not determined by the paper size but by the purpose, style of handwriting or the language used. Many different line layouts support handwriting, calligraphy, plotting data on graphs, musical notation or help teach students to write in a particular language or script. The following are common examples:

Regional standards.

Regional standards exist for ruling layouts, particularly for academic or government clerical purposes.

China.

Elementary students use (田字格) Tianzigezhi ruled paper.

France.

In order to foster handwriting discipline, a type of ruling known as "Seyès ruling" is used on paper in schools. Heavy vertical lines are spaced 8 mm (appx. 5/16 in) apart, beginning 16 mm (appx. 5/8 in) from the left-hand edge of the page. Three lighter lines are spaced 2 mm (appx. 5/64 in) apart between each pair of heavy lines. These sheets of paper are generally known as "grands carreaux" (large tiles) as opposed to the "petits carreaux" (small tiles) which are 5x5mm. Seyès ruled paper is available in single sheets ("copies simples") or joined double sheets ("copies doubles") which are sometimes preferred for exams, being easier to handle.

Germany.

DIN 16552:1977-04 (“Lines for handwriting”) specifies the types of ruled paper to be used by school pupils.

Japan.

Among others, genkō yōshi (原稿用紙, "manuscript paper") is a kind of paper mainly used for kanji script writing, formed vertically with individual boxes for each Chinese character. There is a thin column to the right of the boxes, for transcribing kana pronunciation. The sizes can vary for ability levels. It is used across the East Asian cultural sphere, for example in Korea for writing proverbs.<br> It is also the main form of rule used by Taiwanese students writing in Mandarin, where it is called 原稿紙 (). In Taiwan, students use the thin vertical column to transcribe Bopomofo pronunciation.

New Zealand.

New Zealand standard for school stationery, 1984 specifies standards for ruled and unruled paper.

Russia.

Formats for exercise notebooks are standardised.. School exercise books must use 8 mm spacing between the lines, other ruled paper may use 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm and 9 mm spacing. The paper for cursive writing uses pairs of lines 4 mm apart, with 8 mm between the pairs. They may also have angled lines at 65 degrees to vertical to provide additional guidance. The lines can have gray, blue, green or purple color. The vertical margin line must have red or orange color.

United States.

Ruled paper is available in a variety of semi-standardized formats:

United Kingdom.

There appears to be no British Standard however the line spacing for adult ruled paper is most commonly 8 mm and squared math paper is 5 mm2.
 There is specialist handwriting paper available for primary schools ("Education standard Learn to Write Exercise books") and a British Standard BS4448 ("Specification for school exercise books and papers"). You can find ruled paper at 15 mm spacing and squared math paper at 10 mm2 spacing.
 Anything above primary school tends to use adult ruling.

Ruled paper (or lined paper) is writing paper printed with lines as a guide for handwriting. The lines often are printed with fine width and in light colour and such paper is sometimes called "feint-ruled paper". Additional vertical lines may provide margins or act as tab stops or create a grid for plotting data; for example, graph paper ("squared paper" or "grid paper") is divided into squares by horizontal and vertical lines.

Mit dem Begriff Lineatur ist im Allgemeinen die Linienvorgabe zum Beispiel in Schreibheften gemeint, um Schülern das Erlernen der grundsätzlichen Schriftform einer Schriftart zu erleichtern. Die Linienvorgabe bewegt sich dabei meist in einem Vierliniensystem, wobei Oberlänge, Mittellänge und Unterlänge in einem bestimmten Verhältnis zueinander stehen.


History.

The Reed Institute (the legal name of the college) was founded in 1908, and held its first classes in 1911. Reed is named for Oregon pioneers Simeon Gannett Reed (1830–1895) and Amanda Reed (died 1904). Simeon was an entrepreneur involved in several enterprises, including trade on the Willamette and Columbia Rivers with his close friend and associate, former Portland Mayor William S. Ladd (for whom Ladd's Addition is named). Unitarian minister Thomas Lamb Eliot, who knew the Reeds from the church choir, is credited with convincing Reed of the need for "a lasting legacy, a 'Reed Institute of Lectures,' and joked it would 'need a mine to run it.'" Reed's will suggested his wife could "devote some portion of my estate to benevolent objects, or to the cultivation, illustration, or development of the fine arts in the city of Portland, or to some other suitable purpose, which shall be of permanent value and contribute to the beauty

Distinguishing features.

According to sociologist Burton Clark, Reed is one of the most unusual institutions of higher learning in the United States, featuring a traditional liberal arts and natural sciences curriculum. It requires freshmen to take Humanities 110, an intensive introduction to multidisciplinary inquiry, covering ancient Greece and Rome, the Hebrew Bible and ancient Jewish history, and as of 2019 Tenochtitlan/Mexico City and the Harlem Renaissance. Its program in the sciences is likewise unusual with its TRIGA research reactor making it the only school in the United States to have a nuclear reactor operated primarily by undergraduates. Reed also requires all students to complete a thesis (a two-semester-long research project conducted under the guidance of professors) during the senior year as a prerequisite of graduation with successful completion of a junior qualifying exam at the end of the junior year a prerequisite to beginning the thesis. Upon completion of the senior thesis, students must also pass an oral exam that may encompass questions not only about the thesis but also about any course previously taken.  Reed maintains a 9:1 student-to-faculty ratio, and its small classes emphasize a "conference" style where the teacher often acts as a mediator for discussion rather than a lecturer. While large lecture-style classes exist, Reed emphasizes its smaller lab and conference sections. Although letter grades are given to students, grades are de-emphasized at Reed and focus is placed on a narrative evaluation. According to the school, "A conventional letter grade for each course is recorded for

Academics.

Reed categorizes its academic program into five Divisions and the Humanities program. Overall, Reed offers five Humanities courses, twenty-six department majors, twelve interdisciplinary majors, six dual-degree programs with other colleges and universities, and programs for pre-medical and pre-veterinary students.

Humanities program.

Reed President Richard Scholz in 1922 called the educational program as a whole "an honest effort to disregard old historic rivalries and hostilities between the sciences and the arts, between professional and cultural subjects, and,... the formal chronological cleavage between the graduate and the undergraduate attitude of mind". The Humanities program, which came into being in 1943 (as the union of two year-long courses, one in "world" literature, the other in "world" history) is one

Interdisciplinary and dual-degree programs.

Reed also offers interdisciplinary programs in American studies, Environmental Studies, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Chemistry-Physics, Classics-Religion, Dance/Theatre, History-Literature, International and Comparative Policy Studies (ICPS), Literature-Theatre, Mathematics-Economics,

Admissions.

Admissions.

For Fall 2016, the freshman class had 357 students. 10% were valedictorians of their high school classes and another 2% were salutatorians. 32% ranked in the top 5% of their class. The median scores on their SAT tests were 680

Tuition and finances.

The total direct cost for the 2018–19 academic year, including tuition, fees and room-and-board, is $70,550. Indirect costs (books, supplies, transportation, personal expenses) can tack on another $3,950. For the 2017–18 academic year, the average financial aid package – including grants, loans, and work opportunities – was approximately $45,325". In 2017–18 about half of students

Rankings.

In 1995, Reed College refused to participate in the "U.S. News & World Report" "best colleges" rankings, making it the first educational institution in the United States to refuse to participate in college rankings. According to Reed's Office of Admissions the school's refusal to participate is based in 1994 disclosures by the "Wall Street Journal" about institutions flagrantly manipulating data in order to move up in the rankings in "U.S. News" and other popular college guides. "U.S. News" maintains that their rankings are "a very legitimate tool for getting at a certain level of knowledge about colleges." In 2019, a team of statistics students recreated the formula used by "U.S. News" and

Academic honors.

Reed has produced the second-highest number of Rhodes scholars for any liberal arts college—32—as well as over fifty Fulbright Scholars, over sixty Watson Fellows, and two MacArthur ("Genius") Award winners. A very high proportion of Reed graduates go on to earn PhDs, particularly in the sciences, history, political science, and philosophy. Reed is third in percentage of its graduates who go on to earn PhDs in all disciplines, after only Caltech and Harvey Mudd. In 1961, "Scientific American" declared that second only to Caltech, "This small college in Oregon has been far and away more productive of future scientists than any other institution in

Drug use.

Since the 1960s, Reed has had a reputation for tolerating open drug use among its students. "The Insider's Guide to the Colleges", written by the staff of "Yale Daily News", notes an impression among students of institutional permissiveness: "According to students, the school does not bust students for drug or alcohol use unless they cause harm or embarrassment to another student."  In April 2008, student Alex Lluch died of a heroin overdose in his on-campus dorm room. His death prompted revelations of several previous incidents, including the near-death heroin overdose of another student only months earlier. College President Colin Diver said "I don't honestly know" whether the drug death was an isolated incident or part of a larger problem. "When you say Reed," Diver said, "two words often come to mind. One is brains. One is drugs." Local reporter James Pitkin of the newspaper "Willamette Week" editorialized that "Reed College, a

Political and social activism.

Reed has a reputation for being politically liberal.  During the McCarthy era of the 1950s, then-President Duncan Ballantine fired Marxist philosopher Stanley Moore, a tenured professor, for his failure to cooperate with the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigation. According to an article in the college's alumni magazine, "because of the decisive support expressed by Reed's faculty, students, and alumni for the three besieged teachers and for the principle of academic freedom, Reed College's experience with McCarthyism stands apart from that of most other American colleges and universities. Elsewhere in the academic world both tenured and nontenured professors with alleged or admitted communist party ties were fired with relatively little fuss or protest. At Reed, however, opposition to the political interrogations of the teachers was so strong that some believed the campus was in danger of closure." A statement of "regret" by the Reed administration and Board of Trustees was published in 1981, formally revising the judgment of the 1954 trustees. In 1993, then-President Steve Koblik invited Moore to visit the College, and in 1995 the last surviving member of the Board that fired Moore expressed his regret and apologized to him.

Reedies Against Racism.

On September 26, 2016, students organized a boycott of all college operations in participation with the National Day of Boycott, a national day of protest which was proposed by actor Isaiah Washington on Twitter in response to the issue of police brutality against African-Americans. Following the boycott, students created an activist group called Reedies Against Racism (RAR) and presented a list of demands for the college purportedly on behalf of students from marginalized backgrounds. The primary demand concerned Reed's mandatory freshman Humanities course, proposing that the course either be changed to be more inclusive of world literature and classics or to be made not mandatory. One element of the class deemed racist by the protestors was the use of the 1978 Steve Martin song "King Tut" in a discussion about cultural appropriation. Students began a protest campaign against the curriculum by sitting in during lectures with signs with quotations from various African-American and non-white academics. Other protests separate from the Humanities course also included efforts to shout down

Campus.

The Reed College campus was established on a tract of land in southeast Portland known in 1910 as Crystal Springs Farm, a part of the Ladd Estate, formed in the 1870s from original land claims. The college's grounds include of contiguous land, including a wooded wetland known as Reed Canyon.  Portland architect A. E. Doyle developed a plan, never implemented in full, modeled on the University of Oxford's St. John's College. The original campus buildings (including the Library, the Old Dorm Block, and what is now the primary administration building, Eliot Hall) are brick Tudor Gothic buildings in a style similar to Ivy League campuses. In contrast, the science section of campus, including the physics, biology, and psychology (originally chemistry) buildings, were designed in the Modernist style. The Psychology Building, completed in 1949, was designed by Modernist architect Pietro Belluschi at the same time as his celebrated Equitable Building in downtown Portland.  The campus and buildings have undergone several phases of growth, and there are now 21 academic and administrative buildings and 18 residence halls. Since 2004, Reed's campus has expanded to include adjacent properties beyond its historic boundaries, such as the Birchwood Apartments complex and former medical administrative offices on either side of SE 28th Avenue, and the Parker House, across SE Woodstock from Prexy. At the same time the Willard House (donated to Reed in 1964), across from the college's main entrance at SE Woodstock and SE Reed College Place, was converted from faculty housing to administrative use. Reed announced on July 13, 2007, that it had purchased the Rivelli farm, a tract of land south of the Garden House and west of Botsford Drive. Reed's "immediate plans for the acquired property include housing a small number of students in the former Rivelli home during the 2007–08 academic year. Longer term, the college anticipates that it may seek to develop the northern portion of the property for additional student housing".

Residence halls.

Reed houses 946 students in 18 residence halls on campus and several college-owned houses and apartment buildings on or adjacent to campus. Residence halls on campus range from the traditional (i.e., Gothic Old Dorm Block, referred to as "ODB") to the eclectic (e.g., Anna Mann, a Tudor-style cottage built in the 1920s by Reed's founding architect A. E. Doyle, originally used as a women's hall), language houses (Spanish, Russian, French, German, and Chinese), "temporary" housing, built in the 1960s (Cross Canyon – Chittick, Woodbridge, McKinley, Griffin), to more recently built dorms (Bragdon, Naito, Sullivan). There are also theme residence halls including everything from substance-free living to Japanese culture to music to a dorm for students interested in outdoors activities (hiking, climbing, bicycling, kayaking, skiing, etc.). The college's least-loved complex (as measured by applications to the College's housing lottery), MacNaughton and Foster-Scholz, is known on campus as "Asylum Block" because of its post-World War II modernist architecture and interior spaces dominated by long, straight corridors lined with identical doors,

Reed Canyon.

The Reed College Canyon, a natural area and national wildlife preserve, bisects the campus, separating the academic buildings from many of the residence halls (the so-called "cross-canyon halls"). The canyon is filled by Crystal Creek Springs, a natural spring that drains into Johnson Creek.  Canyon Day, a tradition dating back to 1915, is held twice a year. On Canyon Day students and Reed neighbors join canyon crew workers to spend a day helping with restoration efforts.  A landmark

Douglas F. Cooley Gallery.

Reed's Cooley Gallery is an internationally recognized contemporary art space located at the entrance to the Eric V. Hauser Memorial Library. It was established in 1988 as the result of a gift from Susan and Edward Cooley in honor of their late son. The Cooley Gallery has exhibited international artists

Food services.

The cafeteria, known simply as "Commons," has a reputation for ecologically sustainable food services. The commons dining hall is operated by Bon Appétit, and food is purchased on an item-by-item basis. Suiting the student body, vegan and vegetarian dishes feature heavily on the menu. It is currently the only cafeteria on the small campus, with the exception of Caffe Circo (formerly Caffe Paradiso), a small cafe on the other side of campus which also operated by board points. Scrounging is a long tradition at Reed College allowing students to offer unfinished Commons' food to students without board points from their trays as they are returned to be washed.  The Reed College Co-ops are a theme community that reside in the Farm and Garden Houses, after many years on the first floor of MacNaughton Hall.

Icons and student life.

Griffin.

The official mascot of Reed is the griffin. In mythology, the griffin often pulled the chariot of the sun; in canto 32

School color.

The official school color of Reed is Richmond Rose. Over the years, institutional memory of this fact has faded and the color

School song.

The school song, "Fair Reed," is sung to the tune of the 1912 popular song "Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms." It may be imitative of the Harvard anthem "Fair Harvard," which is also sung to

Students' nicknames.

Reed students and alumni referred to themselves as "Reedites" in the early years of the

Unofficial mottos and folklore.

An unofficial motto of Reed is "Communism, Atheism, Free Love," and can be found in the Reed College Bookstore on sweaters, T-shirts, etc. It was a label that the Reed community claimed from critics during the 1920s as a "tongue-in-cheek slogan" in reference to Reed's nonconformism. Reed's founding president William T. Foster's outspoken opposition against the entrance of the United States into World War I, as well as the college's support for feminism, its adherence to academic freedom (i.e., inviting a leader of the Socialist Party of America to speak on campus about the Russian Revolution’s potential effect on militarism, emancipation of women, and ending the persecution of Jews), and its nonsectarian status made the college a natural target for

Paideia.

Each January, before the beginning of second-semester classes, the campus holds an interim period called Paideia (drawn from the Greek, meaning 'education'). Originally conceived and approved by the faculty in 1968 for unstructured independent study or "UIS," Paideia ran for the full month of January from 1969–1981, supervised by a committee of faculty, staff and students. This festival of learning takes the form of classes and seminars put on by anyone who wishes to teach, including students, professors, staff members, and outside educators invited on-campus by members of the Reed Community. The classes are intended to be informal, yet intellectual activities free of the usual academic pressure endemic to Reed. Many

Renn Fayre.

Renn Fayre is an annual three-day celebration with a different theme each year. Born in the 1960s as an actual renaissance fair, it has long

Reed Arts Week.

Reed Arts Week is a week-long celebration of the

Student organizations.

According to Reed's website, each semester, a $130 student body fee "is collected from each full-time student by the business office, acting as agent for the student senate. The fee underwrites publication of the student newspaper and extracurricular activities, and partially supports the student union and ski cabin." Student body funds (totaling roughly $370,000 annually) are distributed each semester to groups that place among the top 40 organizations in the semester's funding poll. The funding poll uses a voting system in which each organization provides a description that is ranked by each member of the student body with either 'top six,' 'approve,' 'no opinion,' 'disapprove.' A former 'deep six' was eliminated from the system in 2019. These ranks are then tabulated by assigning numbers to each rank and summing across all voters. Afterwards, the top forty organizations present their budgets to the student body senate during Funding Circus. The following day the senate makes decisions about each budget in a

Crime.

According to a "Washington Post" analysis of federal campus safety data from 2014, Reed College had 12.9 reports of rape per 1,000 students, the "highest total of reports of rape" per 1,000 students of any college in the nation on its main campus.  In 2012, Reed College had the third highest reported sexual assault rate among U.S. colleges and universities. It is unclear

Notable people.

Notable Reed alumni include Tektronix co-founder Howard Vollum (1936), businessman John Sperling (1948), Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Gary Snyder (1951), fantasy author David Eddings (1954), distance learning pioneer John Bear (1959), socialist and feminist activist and author Barbara Ehrenreich (1963), radio personality Dr. Demento (1963), programmer, software publisher, author, and philanthropist Peter Norton (1965), former U.S. Secretary of the Navy Richard Danzig (1965), alpinist and biophysical chemist Arlene Blum (1966), chemist Mary Jo Ondrechen (1974), computer engineer Daniel Kottke (1976), and Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger (1991).  Among those who attended but did not graduate from Reed are Academy Award-nominated actress Hope Lange, chef James Beard, and Apple co-founder and CEO Steve Jobs.  Notable Reed faculty of the past and present include former U.S. Senator from Illinois Paul Douglas, and physicists Richard Crandall and David Griffiths.

Reed College is a private liberal arts college in Portland, Oregon. Founded in 1908, Reed is a residential college with a campus in the Eastmoreland neighborhood, with Tudor-Gothic style architecture, and a forested canyon nature preserve at its center.

Das Reed College ist ein privates Liberal-Arts-College in Portland im US-Bundesstaat Oregon. Es wurde 1908 gegründet und unterrichtet heute über 1.400 Studenten. Das College ist das einzige Undergraduate-College in den USA mit einem eigenen Atomreaktor. Dieser wird von Studenten der Einrichtung betrieben.


Joint replacement.

While bone resorption is commonly associated with many diseases or joint problems, the term "osteolysis" generally refers to a problem common to artificial joint replacements such as total hip replacements, total knee replacements and total shoulder replacements. Osteolysis can also be associated with the radiographic changes seen in those with bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw.  There are several biological mechanisms which may lead to osteolysis. In total hip replacement, the generally accepted explanation for osteolysis involves wear particles (worn off the contact surface of the artificial ball and socket joint). As the body attempts to clean up these wear particles (typically consisting of plastic or metal), it triggers an autoimmune reaction which causes resorption of living bone tissue. Osteolysis has been reported to occur as early as 12 months after implantation and is usually progressive. This may require a revision surgery (replacement of the prosthesis).  Although osteolysis itself is clinically asymptomatic, it can lead to implant loosening or bone breakage, which in turn causes serious medical problems.

Distal clavicular osteolysis.

Distal clavicular osteolysis (DCO) is often associated with problems weightlifters have with their acromioclavicular joints due to high stresses put on the clavicle as it meets with the acromion. This condition is often referred to as "weight lifter's shoulder". Medical ultrasonography readily depicts resorption of the distal clavicle as irregular cortical erosions, whereas the acromion remains intact. Associated findings may include distended joint capsule, soft-tissue swelling, and joint instability.  A common surgery to treat recalcitrant DCO is re-sectioning of the distal clavicle, removing a few millimetres of bone from the very end of the bone.

Osteolysis is an active resorption of bone matrix by osteoclasts and can be interpreted as the reverse of ossification. Although osteoclasts are active during the natural formation of healthy bone the term "osteolysis" specifically refers to a pathological process. Osteolysis often occurs in the proximity of a prosthesis that causes either an immunological response or changes in the bone's structural load. Osteolysis may also be caused by pathologies like bone tumors, cysts, or chronic inflammation.

Die Osteolyse ( und ‚Auflösung‘) bezeichnet allgemein einen Knochenabbau. Damit kann einerseits der Knochenabbau auf zellulärer Ebene bezeichnet werden, wie er im Rahmen des physiologischen Knochenumbaus beständig im Knochenstoffwechsel erfolgt, andererseits ein überschießender Knochenabbau im Rahmen eines pathologischen Knochenumbaus bezeichnet werden. Zum anderen bezeichnet besonders in der Radiologie und Onkologie eine umschriebene Osteolyse einen lokalen Knochendefekt mit komplettem Verlust der Knochensubstanz innerhalb des Defektes.


Early life.

He was born at Kalentzi, in the Achaea region of the northern Peloponnese. He was the son of Father (papa) Andreas Stavropoulos, an Orthodox archpriest (protopresvyteros). He studied law in Athens and political science in Berlin. His political philosophy was heavily influenced by German social democracy. As a result, he was adamantly opposed to the monarchy and supported generous social policies, but he was also extremely anti-communist (and specifically against the KKE's policies in Greece). As a young man, he became involved in politics as a supporter of the Liberal leader Eleftherios Venizelos, who made him governor of Chios after the Balkan Wars. One of his brothers, Nikos, was killed in the Battle of Kilkis-Lachanas.  He married twice. His first wife was Sofia Mineyko, a Polish national, daughter of Zygmunt Mineyko and paternal granddaughter of Stanislaw Mineyko (1802 - 1857). Their son Andreas Papandreou was born in Chios in 1919. His second wife was the actress Cybele Andrianou and their son was named George Papandreou.

Political career.

During the political crisis surrounding Greece's entry into World War I, Papandreou was one of Venizelos's closest supporters against the pro-German King Constantine I. When Venizelos was forced to flee Athens, Papandreou accompanied him to Crete, and then went to Lesbos, where he mobilised anti-monarchist supporters in the islands and rallied support for Venizelos's insurgent pro-Allied government in Thessaloniki.  In the 1920 general election, Papandreou unsuccessfully ran as an independent liberal in the Lesbos constituency. In 1921 as a lawyer he defended Alexandros Papanastasiou, during a trial for his critic against King Constantine. Because of an article calling Constantine to resign, he was imprisoned by the royalist regime and later he narrowly escaped assassination from royalist extremists in Lesbos.  From January to October 1923, he served as interior minister in the cabinet of Stylianos Gonatas. In the December 1923 elections, he was elected as a Venizelist Liberal Party member of parliament for Lesvos, and served as finance minister for just 11 days in June 1925, education minister in 1930–1932 and transport minister in 1933. As minister of education he reformed the Greek school system and built many schools for the children of refugees of the Greco-Turkish War. During the dictatorship of Pangalos he was again imprisoned.  In 1935, he set up the Democratic Socialist Party of Greece. The same year, a royalist coup by Georgios Kondylis took place for the reestablishment of monarchy and he was placed in internal exile. A lifelong opponent of the Greek monarchy, he was again exiled in 1938 by the Greek royalist dictator Ioannis Metaxas.  Following the Axis occupation of Greece in World War II, he was imprisoned by the Italian authorities. He later left to the Middle East and joined the predominantly Venizelist government-in-exile based in Egypt. With British support, King George II appointed him as PM and under his premiership took place the Lebanon conference (May 1944) and later the Caserta Agreement (September 1944), in an attempt to stop the crisis in Greece and the conflicts between EAM and non-EAM forces (a prelude of the civil war) and establish a national unity government.

Liberation of Greece and the "Dekemvrianá" events.

After the evacuation of Greece from the Axis powers, he entered Athens (October 1944) as Prime Minister of the Greek government-in-exile with some units of the Greek army and the allied British. During the same month, he became prime minister in the, which had succeed the Greek government-in-exile. He tried to normalize the highly polarized situation between the EAM and non-EAM forces, collaborating mainly with the General Ronald Scobie, who was after the Caserta agreement responsible for all the Allied forces.  Although he resigned in 1945, after the "Dekemvriana" events, he continued to hold high office. From 1946–1952 he served as labor minister, supplies minister, education minister, finance minister and public order minister. In 1950–1952, he was also deputy prime minister.  The 1952–1961 period was a very difficult one for Papandreou. The liberal political forces in Greece were gravely weakened by internal disputes and suffered electoral defeat from the conservatives. Papandreou continuously accused Sofoklis Venizelos for these maladies, considering his leadership dour and uninspiring.

Founder of the Center Union and later confrontation with the Palace.

In 1961, Papandreou revived Greek liberalism by founding the Center Union Party, a confederation of old liberal Venizelists, social democrats and dissatisfied conservatives. After the elections of "violence and fraud" of 1961, Papandreou declared a "Relentless Struggle" against the right-wing ERE and the "parakrátos" (deep state) of the right.  Finally, his party won the elections of November 1963 and those of 1964, the second with a landslide majority. His progressive policies as premier aroused much opposition in conservative circles, as did the prominent role played by his son Andreas Papandreou, whose policies were seen as being considerably left of center. Andreas disagreed with his father on many important issues, and developed a network of political organizations, the Democratic Leagues ("Dimokratikoi Syndesmoi") to lobby for more progressive policies. He also managed to take control of the Center Union's youth organization, EDIN.  Papandreou had opposed the Zürich and London Agreement, which led to the foundation of the Republic of Cyprus. Following clashes between the Greek and Turkish communities, his government sent a Greek army division to the island.  King Constantine II openly opposed Papandreou's government, and there were frequent ultra-rightist plots in the Army, which destabilised the government. Finally the King engineered a split in the Centre Union and in July 1965, in a crisis known as the "Apostasia" or "Iouliana," he dismissed the government following a dispute over control of the Ministry of Defence.  After the April 1967 military coup by the Colonels' junta led by George Papadopoulos, Papandreou was arrested. Papandreou died under house arrest in November 1968. His funeral became the occasion for a massive anti-dictatorship demonstration. He is interred at the First Cemetery of Athens, alongside his son Andreas.

Legacy.

Papandreou was regarded as one of the best orators in the Greek political scene and a persistent fighter for Democracy. During the Junta and after his death he was often referred to affectionately as "ο Γέρος της Δημοκρατίας" ("o Géros tis Dimokratías, the old man of Democracy"). Since his grandson George A. Papandreou entered politics, most Greek writers use Γεώργιος ("Geórgios") to refer to the grandfather and the less formal Γιώργος ("Giórgos") to refer to the grandson.

Decorations and awards.

In 1965, the University of Belgrade awarded him an honorary doctorate.

Georgios Papandreou ( "Geórgios Papandréou"; 13 February 1888 – 1 November 1968) was a Greek politician, the founder of the Papandreou political dynasty. He served three terms as prime minister of Greece (1944–1945, 1963, 1964–1965). He was also deputy prime minister from 1950–1952, in the governments of Nikolaos Plastiras and Sofoklis Venizelos and served numerous times as a cabinet minister, starting in 1923, in a political career that spanned more than five decades.

Georgios Papandreou (; * 13. Februar 1888 in Kalentzi in Achaia; † 1. November 1968 unter Hausarrest in Athen) war ein griechischer Politiker und Ministerpräsident von Griechenland 1944 bis 1945 und 1964 bis 1965. Georgios Papandreou ist Vater von Andreas Papandreou und Großvater von Giorgos Andrea Papandreou.


Life and career.

Arnold H. S. Landor was born to Charles Savage Landor in Florence, Italy, where he spent his childhood. The writer Walter Savage Landor was his grandfather.  He left for Paris at age fifteen to study at the Académie Julian directed by Gustave Boulanger and Jules Lefebvre. He then traveled the world, including America, Japan, and Korea, painting many landscapes and portraits. Upon his return to England, he was invited to Balmoral by Queen Victoria to recount his adventures and show his drawings. He later traveled to Nepal and Tibet, telling of his experiences in two books: "In the Forbidden Land" (1898) and "Tibet and Nepal" (1905).  When he learned about the Boxer Rebellion in China he went to Peking (now spelled Beijing) to join the victory parade, afterward writing "China and the Allies" (1901). In 1901 he traveled from Russia to India, riding on horseback through Persia, publishing the account of that journey in the book "Across Coveted Lands" (1902). A journey to the Philippine Islands resulted in another book: "The Gems of the East" (1904).  During the 1900s he visited Abyssinia and painted a portrait of the king Menelik II. Landor's book "Across Widest Africa" was published in 1906. During 1911 and 1912 he made an eventful expedition to the Mato Grosso in Brazil and in 1913 published "Across Unknown South America".  He had an active role in World War 1, designing tanks and airships. Eventually, he retired to write his autobiography in Florence, where he died in 1924.  He is buried in the English Cemetery, Florence.

Arnold Henry Savage Landor (2 June 1865 – 26 December 1924) was an English painter, explorer, writer, and anthropologist. Landor wrote in an often witty style.

Arnold Henry Savage Landor (* 2. Juni 1867 in Florenz; † 26. Dezember 1924 ebenda) war ein Maler, Reiseschriftsteller und Forscher. Sein Vater war Charles Savage Landor. Der Dichter Walter Savage Landor war sein Großvater.


Life.

Ludwig Winder was born in 1889 in Šafov in Moravia, Austria-Hungary, the son of a Jewish family, but grew up in nearby Holešov, where he was brought up in a strictly religious atmosphere. In 1906 he published his first poetry book at his own expense. After moving to Vienna in 1907 he worked for the liberal newspaper "Die Zeit" after completing his matriculation examination before joining the editorial staff of the nationalist "Deutsche Zeitung Bohemia" in Prague. He belonged to the so-called "Prague Circle" of writers which included Franz Kafka and was a close friend of the journalist and philosopher Felix Weltsch and the writers Oskar Baum, Max Brod, Johannes Urzidil and Ilse Aichinger.  He worked for various newspapers as an editor, literary critic, local journalist, theatre lecturer, etc. Between 1915 and 1938 he wrote over 2,500 feature articles for the newspaper "Deutsche Zeitung Bohemia" in Prague. In 1917 Winder published his first novel, "Die rasende Rotationsmaschine" which examined the difficulties faced by Jews from religious eastern communities in integrating themselves into modern western society. His semi-autobiographical novels "Die juedische Orgel" (1922) and "Hugo: Tragoedie eines Knaben" (1924) concern the battle of young eastern Jews for a secular existence. His play "The Woman Without Qualities" was used by Robert Musil as a model for his opus magnum "Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften". In 1934 he was awarded the State Prize of the Czechoslovak Republic for German-language literature.  His later novels were concerned with the history and downfall of the Habsburg Monarchy: these included "Die Nachgeholten Freuden" (1927) and "Der Kammerdiener" (1945), while his 1937 novel "Der Thronfolger" ("The Heir to the Throne") was critical of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and was banned shortly after its publication.  Particularly noteworthy is his novel "The Jewish Organ" (1922), which appeared in a new edition in 2001. The story of the Jew Albert, who grows up in the Jewish ghetto of a small town in Moravia takes up the classical themes of romanticism such as the fight against the father and self-realization through detachment from the family.  After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia Ludwig Winder fled on June 29 1939 with his wife Hedwig (1891-1987) and their older daughter Marianne Winder through Poland and Scandinavia to England. The younger daughter Eva, born in 1920, chose to remain in Prague. She died in 1945 in the concentration camp at Bergen-Belsen. Six weeks after their arrival in England the Winders were evacuated to Reigate, where they lived in a refugee hostel for Czechs and where Marianne Winder was registered as a student aged 18. When the hostel was closed in 1941, the family moved to Baldock, then a small village in Hertfordshire.  In England Winder also worked in newspapers and continued to write novels under the two pseudonyms Herbert Moldau and G. A. List, under the latter name writing "One Man's Answer" and published by George G. Harrap in 1944. Other novels from this period include "Die November-wolke" (1942), a story about emigrants during a night-bombing raid in London, and "Die Pflicht" (1943 but only fully published in 1988) was probably commissioned by the Czechoslovak government-in-exile and dealt with the themes of domination, power and oppression faced by Czech resistance against their German invaders.  In the summer of 1941 Ludwig Winder was diagnosed with coronary thrombosis and he succumbed to his heart disease in Baldock on 16 June 1946 aged 57. His ashes were buried in London.

Ludwig Winder (7 February 1889 – 16 June 1946) was an Austrian and Czechoslovak German-language writer, journalist and literary critic who escaped Nazi persecution at the start of World War II when he and his family moved to the UK where he spent his last years.

Ludwig Winder (* 7. Februar 1889 in Schaffa, Österreich-Ungarn; † 16. Juni 1946 in Baldock, Großbritannien) war ein österreichischer und tschechoslowakischer deutschsprachiger Schriftsteller, Journalist und Literaturkritiker.


Early life.

Adams was born in Newport, Vermont on October 18, 1876 to Frank and Elizabeth (Benoit) Adams. His family struggled financially and at a young age Adams took a job as a chore boy at a corner grocery store to help subsidize the family's income. As a teenager Adams purchased logs for his father's sawmill.

Grocery career.

After graduating from Jenney Business College in Enosburgh, Vermont, Adams moved to Springfield, Vermont where he worked for his uncle Oscar Adams' wholesale grocery business. After working for a time as a traveling grocer and tobacco salesman, Adams moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, where he became treasurer of the New England Maple Syrup Company. He later worked for the Fitzgerald, Hubbard & Company banking and brokerage firm.  Adams left Fitzgerald, Hubbard & Company to work for the John T. Connor Company, which later became the First National Store Finast chain.

Sports.

Boston Bruins.

Adams was an avid hockey fan, watching amateur hockey in Boston and traveling to Montreal to watch professional hockey. After a scandal involving Boston amateur hockey players resulted in many Boston fans becoming disenchanted with amateur hockey, Adams decided to try to bring professional hockey to the United States. On November 1, 1924, Adams was awarded the Bruins franchise for $15,000.  In 1926 Adams bought the entire Western Canada Hockey League from Frank Patrick and Lester Patrick for $300,000. This gave the Bruins the rights to Eddie Shore, Harry Oliver, Duke Keats, and Frank Boucher. To ensure the team had a fitting arena to play in, Adams guaranteed $500,000 toward the construction of the Boston Garden.  Under his leadership the Bruins won their first Stanley Cup in 1929.  In 1936 he transferred his stock to his son Weston Adams and minority owners Art Ross and Ralph Burkard.

Boston Braves.

On May 15, 1927, Charles Adams bought out the shares of Albert H. Powell to become a minority owner and vice-president of the Boston Braves. In 1935, after Emil Fuchs' attempt to revive interest in the team by signing Babe Ruth failed, Adams demanded that Fuchs either step down as President or buy out his shares. On July 31, 1935, Emil Fuchs forfeited his shares to Charles F. Adams, who planned to sell the team as soon as possible. On November 26, the National League took over control of the Braves due to the club's failure to fulfill its contractual obligations. The club was awarded to Bob Quinn on December 10. Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis did not allow Adams to be part of the new ownership group due to his stake in Suffolk Downs.

Suffolk Downs.

Adams was the head of Eastern Racing Association, the syndicate that founded Suffolk Downs. He remained involved with the race track until 1945, when he sold his shares for $4 million.

Death and legacy.

Adams died in Boston on October 2, 1947, 16 days before his 71st birthday, after a long illness.  He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1960.  The NHL's Adams Division was formed in 1974 as part of the Prince of Wales Conference. The division existed for 19 seasons until 1993. It was named in honor of Adams. The Bruins were a member of the Adams Division for the entirety of its existence, winning nine division titles and appearing in four Stanley Cup Finals in that time. It was succeeded by the Northeast Division, which was dissolved with the league's 2013 realignment, and can be considered the fore-runner of the NHL's current Atlantic Division.  Adams was inducted into the Vermont Sports Hall of Fame in 2013.

Charles Francis Adams (October 18, 1876 – October 2, 1947) was an American businessman and sports promoter who was the owner of the Boston Bruins, Boston Braves, Suffolk Downs, and The First National grocery store chain.

Charles Francis Adams (* 18. Oktober 1876 in Newport, Vermont; † 2. Oktober 1947 in Boston, Massachusetts) war ein US-amerikanischer Unternehmer, der erste Eigentümer der Boston Bruins, einer US-amerikanischen Eishockeyfranchise und Besitzer von "First National Stores", einer der größten Lebensmittelmärkte in den Vereinigten Staaten.