நீர்ப்பாசனம்

thumb|பாத்திக்கு நீர்பாய்ச்சும் நீர்ப்பாசனத் தெளிப்பி
thumb|துருக்கி ஓசுமேனியாவில் உள்ள நீர்ப்பாசனக் கால்வாய்
thumb|300px|நீர் தெளிக்கும் தலைப்பகுதிக் கருவி, தெளிப்பு நீர்ப் பாசனம்
நீர்ப்பாசனம் (Irrigation) என்பது வேளாண்மையில், ஒழுங்கான இடைவெளிகளில் பயிர் களுக்குக் கட்டுபடுத்திய அளவு நீரை வழங்கும் முறையாகும். நீர்ப்பாசனம் வேளாண்பயிர் வளர்க்கவும் நிலக்கட்டமைப்பைப் பேணவும் மழை பொய்த்த காலத்தில் உலர்பகுதிகளின் மண்வளம் பேணவும், மீள்பசுமையூட்டவும் பயன்படுகிறது. மேலும் பயிரிடும்போது பயிர்களைப் பனிப்படர்வில் இருந்து காக்கவும் இது பயனாகிறது. மேலும் களைகளின் வளர்ச்சியை மட்டுப்படுத்தவும்,  மண் கடினமாதலைத் தடுத்தல் போன்ற செயல்களுக்கும் உதவுகிறது. நீர்ப்பாசன அமைப்புகள் தூசை அடக்கவும், கழிவு வெளியேற்றவும், சுரங்கத்தில் கனிமக் கரைந்தூற வைக்கவும் பயன்படுகின்றன.

மாறாக, நேரடி மழையை நம்பி விளையும் பயிர் மானாவாரிப் பயிரிடல் அல்லது மானாவாரி வேளாண்மை அல்லது கொல்லை வேளாண்மை எனப்படுகிறது. நீர்ப்பாசனம் வடிகாலுடன் இணைந்தே ஆய்வு செய்யப்படுகிறது. இந்த வடிகால் குறிப்பிட்ட பரப்பில் இயற்கையானதாகவோ அல்லது செயற்கையானதாகவோ, அதேவேளை மேற்பரப்புநீரை வடிப்பதாகவோ அல்லது கீழ்நீரை வடிப்பதாகவோ அமையலாம்.

நீர்ப்பாசனம் 5000 ஆண்டுகளாக வேளாண்மையில் அடிப்படை ஏந்தாக நிலவி வருகிறது. இது பல பண்டைய பண்பாடுகளின் விளைவாகும். வரலாற்றியலாக, நம்புவியின் பொருளியலுக்கும், சமூகங்களுக்கும் ஆசியா முதல் வட அமெரிக்காவின் தென்மேற்குப் பகுதி வரை வாழ்க்கை வளமாகியது.

வரலாறு
thumb|upright|விலங்கு பூட்டிய நீர்ப்பாசனம்,  எகிப்து, கி.பி. 1846
thumb|சிங்கியாங்கின் தர்ப்பானில் அமைந்த கரேழ் எனும் சுருங்கை நீர்ப்பாசனம்
thumb|இந்தியாவில் தமிழ்நாட்டின் நீர்ப்பாசனம்
thumb|கலிபோர்னியாவின் இரியோ விசுட்டா அருகே உள்ள பயிர்த்தெளிப்பான்
thumb|அமெரிக்க ஒன்றிய நாட்டின் அரிசோனாவில் உள்ள போனிக்சு பகுதி வீட்டு வெள்ள நீர்ப்பாசனம்.
மழை சார்ந்த வேளாண்மையில் போதுமான நீர் கிடைக்காதபோது நீர்ப்பாசனப் பயன்பாடு நிலவியமை தொல்லியல் அகழாய்வுகளில் இருந்து தெரிய வந்துள்ளது.

தொடர் நீர்ப்பாசனம் மெசபடோமியச் சமவெளியில் பயிர்களின் வளர்பருவத்தில் ஒழுங்காக வயல்களில் கட்டப்பட்ட பாத்திகளூடாக நடைமுறையில் இருந்துள்ளது.Hill, Donald: A History of Engineering பண்டைய எகிப்திய மக்கள் நைல் ஆற்றின் வெள்ளநீரைப் பயன்படுத்தி வடிநில நீர்ப்பாசன முறையால் வயல்களுக்கு நீரைப் பாய்ச்சியுள்ளனர். இந்த வயல்களைச் சுற்றிலும் தடுப்பணைகள் கட்டப்பட்டிருந்தன. வெள்ளநீர் வயல்களில் செழிப்பான வண்டல் படியும் வரை நிறுத்திப், பின்னர் ஆற்றுக்கு வடிய விடப்பட்டுள்ளது.p19 Hill பண்டைய எகிப்திய பன்னிரண்டாம் பேரரசின் பரோவா ஆகிய மூன்றாம் அமனமெது (கி.மு 1800 ) பையூம் பாலைவனச்சோலையில் இருந்த இயற்கை ஏரியைப் பயன்படுத்தி மிகநீர்வரத்தைத் தேக்கி வறண்ட காலங்களில் வேளாண்மைக்குப் பயன்படுத்தியுள்ளமைக்கன சான்றுகள் உள்ளன. வெள்ளக் காலங்களில் இந்தத் தேக்கம் நைல்நதியின் நீர்ப்பெருக்கால் கரைபுரண்டுள்ளது.
பண்டைய நியோபியர்கள் சாகியா நீராழியைப் பயன்படுத்தி கி.மு மூன்றாம், இரண்டாம் ஆயிரங்களில் நீர்ப்பாசனத்தை மேற்கொண்டுள்ளனர். இப்போது சூடானில் உள்ள ஆறுகளோடு நைல்நதியின் வெள்ளப் பெருக்கைப் பெரும்பாலும் இந்தவகை நீர்ப்பாசனம் பயன்கொண்டுள்ளது.

ஆப்பிரிக்காவில் உள்ள சகாரா உட்பகுதியில் நைகர் ஆற்றங்கரைப் பண்பாடுகளில் கி.மு இரண்டாம், முதலாம் ஆயிரங்களில் பருவமுறை வெள்ளத்தைப் பயன்படுத்தி நீர்ப்பாசனம் நடைபெற்றுள்ளது.

மேட்டு அடுக்குநிலைப் பாசனம் முன்பு கொலம்பியா, அமெரிக்காவிலும், இந்தியாவிலும் சீனாவிலும் நடப்பில் இருந்தமைக்கான சான்றுகள் கிடைத்துள்ளன. பெருவில் அமைந்த ஆந்தெசு மலைத் தொடர்களில் உள்ள சானா பள்ளத்தாக்கில், தொல்லியலாளர்கள் மூன்று நீர்ப்பாசனக் கால்வாய்களைக் கண்டுபிடித்துள்ளனர். இவை கதிரியக்கக் கரிமக் காலக்கணிப்பின்படி, கி.மு நான்காம், கி.மு மூன்றாம், கி.பி ஒன்பதாம் நூற்றாண்டகளைச் சார்ந்தவையாகும். புத்துலகப் பகுதியில் கிடைத்த மிகப்பழைய பாசனக் கால்வாய்களாகும். மேலும் கி.மு நான்காம் நூற்றாண்டுக் கால்வாய்க்கடியில் கி.மு ஐந்தாம் நூற்றாண்டுக் கால்வாய்க்கான சுவடுகளும் கிடைத்துள்ளன. இப்போதைய பாக்கித்தானிலும் வட இந்தியாவிலும் அமைந்திருந்த சிந்துவெளி நாகரிகம் நுட்பம் வாய்ந்த நீர்த்தேக்க அமைப்புகளையும் பாசன முறைகளையும் வளர்த்தெடுத்துள்ளது. இதில் கி.மு 3000 அளவில் கிர்னாரில் அமைதிருந்த அணைகளும், கி.மு 2600 இல் உருவாக்கபட்ட பாசனக் கால்வாய் அமைப்புகளும் உள்ளடங்கும்.Rodda, J. C. and Ubertini, Lucio (2004). The Basis of நாகரிகம் – Water Science? pg 161. International Association of Hydrological Sciences (International Association of Hydrological Sciences Press 2004). இங்கு பேரளவு வேளான்மைக்கான பாசனக் கால்வாய் வலையமைப்புகள் வழியாக நீர்ப்பாசனம் நடைபெற்றுள்ளது.

பண்டைய பாரசீகத்தில் (இன்றைய ஈரானில்) கி.மு 6000 ஆண்டுகளிலேயே பார்லி அரிசி இயற்கையான மழையளவு குறைவாக இருந்தபோதும் பயிரிடப்பட்டுள்ளது. பண்டைய பாரசீகத்தில் கி.மு 800 இல் உருவாக்கப்பட்ட குவானாத் பாசனமுறைகள் மிகப்பழைய பாசனமுறைகளாக அமைதலோடு இன்றளவும் அவை நடைமுறையில் நிலவி வருகின்றன. இம்முறைகள் இன்றும் ஆசியாவிலும் நடுவண் கிழக்கிலும் வட ஆப்பிரிக்காவிலும் பயன்பாட்டில் உள்ளன. இந்த அமைப்பில் செங்குத்தான மலைகளில் செங்குத்தான சுவர்களும் அவற்றில் இருந்து மலைச் சாரலின் முகப்புவரை சாய்வாக இறங்கும் கால்வாய்கள் அமைந்த சுருங்கைகளும் நிலத்தடி நீரை மடுத்து பயன்படுத்திப் பாசனத்தை மேற்கொண்டன. இதே கால அளவில் வட ஆப்பிரிக்காவில் குடியேறிய உரோமானியர்களால்  உருவாக்கப்பட்ட விளிம்பில் களிமட்பானைகள் பூட்டப்பட்ட நோரியா எனும் நீராழி ஆற்று நீரில் நீரோட்டத் திறனாலும் தேங்கிய நீரில் விலங்குகளின் ஆற்றலாலும் இயங்கியுள்ளது. கி.மு 150 அளவில், இந்தப் பானைகள், நீரில் வேகமாக இறங்கும்போது, நீரை மெதுவாக முகக்க,  அவற்றில் கவாடங்கள் பூட்டப்பட்டுள்ளன.Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911 and 1989 editions

பண்டைய இலங்கையில் கிமு 300 அளவில் பாண்டுகப்பாயா ஆட்சியில் வளர்த்தெடுக்கப்பட்ட பாசனப் பணிகள் அமைவு, பண்டைய உலகின் மிகச்சிக்கலான பாசனமுறைகளில் ஒன்றாக விளங்குகின்றது. இவர்கள் நிலத்தடிக் கால்வாய்களை உருவாக்கிக் கட்டியமைத்ததோடு பெருமளவு நீரைத் தேக்கிடவல்ல அணைகளையும் கட்டியெழுப்பினர். இந்த அவர்களது திறமைக்காக அவர்கள் பாசன வல்லுனர்கள் எனவும் போற்றப்பட்டனர்.<!—இந்த மேற்கோள் சிறிலங்காவின் சிங்கள ஆசிரியரால் எழுதப்பட்டது– இது சிங்களத் தேசியப் பரப்புரை போல அமைகிறதே தவிர வரலாறாகத் தோன்றவில்லை --> பெரும்பாலான இந்தப் பாசன அமைப்புகள் அனுராதபுரத்திலும் பொலனருவையிலும் அவற்றின் முன்னேறிய பொறியியல் வல்லமையாலும் துல்லியமான நடைமுறையாலும் இன்றும் அழிவின்றி நிலவுகின்றன. இந்தப் பாசன அமைப்புபராக்கிரம பாகு எனும் அரசர் காலத்தில் (கி,பி 1153–1186 ) மீட்டு மேலும் விரிவாக்கப்பட்டன.

 இன்றைய நீர்ப்பாசனப் பரவலும் அளவும்
thumb|left|சுட்டிராபெரி முகட்டுச் சாலைக்குச் சற்றே தொலைவில் அமைந்தபென்னிசில்வேனியாவின் மாண்டவர் கவுண்ட்யில் இருந்த பாசனக் கால்வாய்

இருபதாம் நூற்றாண்டின் இடைப்பகுதியில் பெருகிய டீசல்-எக்கி அணிகளும் மின்னோடி-எக்கி அணிகளும்  நிலத்தடி நீரை வேகமாகப் பாசனத்துக்காக இறைப்பதால், மிகப்பெரிய நீரகங்களும் அவை மழைவடிகால்களால் நிறையும் வேகத்தை விட வேகமாக வற்றிவருகின்றன. இதனால் நீரகத் தேக்களவு நிலையாக குறைக்கவும் நீரின் தரத்தைக் குறைக்கவும் நிலப்பரப்பு குலையவும் வேறுபிறச் சிக்கல்கள் உருவாகவும் வாய்ப்புகள் ஏற்பட்டுள்ளன. இந்நிகழ்வால் வடசீனச் சமவெளி, பஞ்சாப் சமவெளி, அமெரிக்க ஒன்றிய நாடுகளின் பெருஞ்சமவெளிகளின் உணவு விளைச்சல் அச்சுறுத்தலுக்கு உள்ளாகியுள்ளது.

2000 ஆம் ஆண்டளவில், புவிக்கோள முழுவதிலும், 2,788,000 km² (689 மில்லியன் ஏக்கர்கள்) அளவுக்குச் செழிப்பான நிலப் பரப்பு பாசன அமைப்புகளைப் பெற்றுள்ளன. இதில் 68%  பரப்பு ஆசியாவிலும், 17% பரப்பு அமெரிக்காவிலும் 9% பரப்பு ஐரோப்பாவிலும் 5% பரப்பு ஆப்பிரிக்காவிலும் 1% பரப்பு ஓசியானாவிலும் அமைந்துள்லது. உலகின் உயர்பாசனச் செறிவுள்ல பகுதிகள் கீழ்வருமாறு:

 கங்கை, சிந்து ஆற்ருச் சமவெளிகளில் அமைந்த பாக்கித்தான் வட இந்தியப் பகுதிகள்
 சினாவின் கை கே, குவாங் கே, யாங்ட்சே வடிநிலங்கள் (படுகைகள்)
 எகிபது, சூடானில் உள்ள நைல் ஆற்றங்கரைச் சமவெளி
மிசிசிப்பி-மிசிசோரி ஆற்ருச் சமவெளி, கலிபோர்னியாவின் சில பகுதிகள்

சிறுசிறு பாசனப் பகுதிகள் மக்கள் வாழும் உலகின் அனைத்து பகுதிகளிலும் பரவியுள்ளன.
எட்டு ஆண்டுகளுக்குப் பிறகு. 2008 இல் பாசன நிலப் பரப்பளவு 3,245,566 km² அளவுக்கு உயர்ந்துள்ளதாக மதிப்பிடப்பட்டுள்ளது. (802 million acres)இது இந்தியாவின் பரப்பளவுக்குச் சமமாகும்.

எட்டு ஆண்டுகளுக்குப் பிறகு. 2008 இல் பாசன நிலப் பரப்பளவு 3,245,566 km² அளவுக்கு உயர்ந்துள்ளதாக மதிப்பிடப்பட்டுள்ளது. (802 million acres)இது இந்தியாவின் பரப்பளவுக்குச் சமமாகும்.

 நீர்ப்பாசன வகைகள்
thumb|கோதுமைக்கான வடிநில வெள்ள நீர்ப்பாசனம்
thumb|பாக்கித்தானப் பஞ்சாபில் உள்ள நீர்ப்பாசனம்

நீர் உரிய வாயில்களில் இருந்து வயலுக்கு எவ்வாறு பரவச்செய்யப்படுகிறது என்பதைப் பொறுத்து பல்வேறு நீர்ப்பாசனம் நுட்பங்கள் வேறுபடுகின்றன. பொதுவாக, பாசனத்தின் இலக்கு வயலுக்கு சீராக நீரைப் பாய்ச்சுவதாகும். நீரளவு போதுமானதாக கூடவோ குறையவோ அமையாமல் இருத்தல் வேண்டும்.

மேற்கோள்கள்

 மேலும் படிக்க
 Elvin, Mark. The retreat of the elephants: an environmental history of China (Yale University Press, 2004)
 Hallows, Peter J., and Donald G. Thompson. History of irrigation in Australia ANCID, 1995.
 Howell, Terry. "Drops of life in the history of irrigation." Irrigation journal 3 (2000): 26-33. the history of sprinker systems online
 Hassan, John. A history of water in modern England and Wales (Manchester University Press, 1998)
 Vaidyanathan, A. Water resource management: institutions and irrigation development in India (Oxford University Press, 1999)

 வெளி இணைப்புகள்

 Royal Engineers Museum : 19th century Irrigation in India

 International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
 When2Water.com  Tutorial and online calculators related to agricultural irrigation
 Irrigation  at the Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture
 AQUASTAT: FAO's global information system on water and agriculture
 Irrigation Supplies: Principles of Water Irrigation Systems
 Irrigation & Gardening: Future Of Irrigation Needs
 "Lamp Wick Solves Problem of Citrus Irrigation" Popular Mechanics, November 1930
 World Bank report on Agricultural water management Irrigation is discussed in chps. 1&4.

It is in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water.

Speak, and use the spell.

National Geographic Magazine
Meet fantastic beasts created by ‘painting’ with light
Meet fantastic beasts created by ‘painting’ with lightA photographer uses slow shutter speeds and rapid strokes of illumination to depict the menagerie in his mind's eye.See Photos
Explore
Behind the Cover
How two photographers got inside the minds of animals
Jasper Doest and Paolo Verzone were among the photographers who captured the rich inner lives of animals for National Geographic’s October cover story.
Latest Issues
Watch This
More than 50 years after redlining was banned by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, its lingering effects leave many low-income and often communities of color with fewer trees to keep their neighborhoods cool.
Go Further
Animals
- How animals hybrids happen, from ligers to zorses
- Why these seabirds stage a rowdy springtime love-inWhy these seabirds stage a rowdy springtime love-in
- Tuberculosis is killing this zoo's lemurs—but it hasn't closedTuberculosis is killing this zoo's lemurs—but it hasn't closed
- Mystery dolphin deaths plague casino on the Las Vegas stripMystery dolphin deaths plague casino on the Las Vegas strip
- The quest to save the world’s rarest canine
- Chicago museum disrupted an at-risk bird's habitatChicago museum disrupted an at-risk bird's habitat
Environment
- Is building more dams the way to save rivers?Is building more dams the way to save rivers?
- 4 easy ways to make your holidays more eco-friendly4 easy ways to make your holidays more eco-friendly
- Melting mountain peaks could kill thousands. Can science help?Melting mountain peaks could kill thousands. Can science help?
- Protecting Canada’s wetland wonders, Video Story
Protecting Canada’s wetland wonders
- Paid Content
- Why this German bunker is full of blood and urineWhy this German bunker is full of blood and urine
- Oysters are making a comeback on menus and in the water—for nowOysters are making a comeback on menus and in the water—for now
- Five technologies and innovations helping to protect the Okavango, Video Story
Five technologies and innovations helping to protect the Okavango
- Paid Content
- This hot pepper is surviving Italy's extreme heat waveThis hot pepper is surviving Italy's extreme heat wave
- Marine heat waves are rising. What are these blobs of hot water?Marine heat waves are rising. What are these blobs of hot water?
- The Alps' magical ice caves risk vanishing
- Can Portuguese sardines make a comeback?Can Portuguese sardines make a comeback?
- History helps uncover old methane-leaking oil wellsHistory helps uncover old methane-leaking oil wells
History & Culture
- These families lead double lives across the U.S.-Mexico borderThese families lead double lives across the U.S.-Mexico border
- The Tower of London has terrified people for nearly 1,000 yearsThe Tower of London has terrified people for nearly 1,000 years
- The Fisk Jubilee Singers’ amazing story, from slavery to stardomThe Fisk Jubilee Singers’ amazing story, from slavery to stardom
- Landmines took their limbs. Soccer brought them glory.Landmines took their limbs. Soccer brought them glory.
- After Alexander the Great's death, this Indian empire roseAfter Alexander the Great's death, this Indian empire rose
- Why Yom Kippur is the holiest day of the Jewish yearWhy Yom Kippur is the holiest day of the Jewish year
Science
- Speakers of rare languages struggled to navigate COVID careSpeakers of rare languages struggled to navigate COVID care
- How Fido evolved to have those irresistible puppy-dog eyesHow Fido evolved to have those irresistible puppy-dog eyes
- 230-million-year-old mystery fossil hints at pterosaurs’ origins
- This Hawaiian geneticist works to empower Indigenous peoples
- Spectacular fossil fish reveal a critical period of evolution
- What comes after Omicron? New variants are emerging.What comes after Omicron? New variants are emerging.

பாத்திக்கு நீர்பாய்ச்சும் நீர்ப்பாசனத் தெளிப்பி துருக்கி ஓசுமேனியாவில் உள்ள நீர்ப்பாசனக் கால்வாய் நீர் தெளிக்கும் தலைப்பகுதிக் கருவி, தெளிப்பு நீர்ப் பாசனம் நீர்ப்பாசனம் (Irrigation) என்பது வேளாண்மையில், ஒழுங்கான இடைவெளிகளில் பயிர் களுக்குக் கட்டுபடுத்திய அளவு நீரை வழங்கும் முறையாகும். நீர்ப்பாசனம் வேளாண்பயிர் வளர்க்கவும் நிலக்கட்டமைப்பைப் பேணவும் மழை பொய்த்த காலத்தில் உலர்பகுதிகளின் மண்வளம் பேணவும், மீள்பசுமையூட்டவும் பயன்படுகிறது.

நீர்ப்பாசனம் வேளாண்பயிர் வளர்க்கவும் நிலக்கட்டமைப்பைப் பேணவும் மழை பொய்த்த காலத்தில் உலர்பகுதிகளின் மண்வளம்

பேணவும், மீள்பசுமையூட்டவும் பயன்படுகிறது.

Thus, in the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light of the light. It is in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water. Speak, and use the spell.

It is in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water, and in the water.

Speak, and use the spell.

The series is derived from the practice of the patterns built in the ages, combined with the growth of users in the Massachusetts city.Hill, Donald: A History of Engineering Department's patterns of people used the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns of the patterns.

Amenemhet III
Amenemhet III, granite statue from Bubastis; in the British Museum
Reproduced by courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum
king of Egypt (reigned 18181770 BC) of the 12th dynasty, who brought Middle Kingdom Egypt (comprising also the 11th and 13th dynasties) to a peak of economic prosperity by completing a system to regulate the inflow of water into Lake Moeris, in the Al-Fayyum depression southwest of Cairo. The resulting stabilization of the water level also drained some of the marshes that had surrounded the old lake. As part of this great work, the labyrinth described by the Greek historian Herodotus was probably built nearby. It was probably a multifunctional buildingpalace, temple, town, and administrative centre; ruins of the structure exist south of Amenemhet's pyramid at Hawara, in Al-Fayyum. To celebrate the reclamation of 153,600 acres (62,200 hectares) of land for agricultural use, Amenemhet erected two colossuses of himself nearby, later described by Herodotus.
Amenemhet also worked the turquoise mines at Sinai with unprecedented intensity. Permanent quarters were erected for the miners, with wells nearby and fortifications to repel Bedouin raiders. A temple to the goddess Hathor was also built. Quarries throughout Egypt and Nubia, to the south, likewise were the site of much activity to support the king's building enterprises. Except for minor punitive raids, his reign was peaceful.
In Nubia Amenemhet retained the empire won by his predecessors. Artifacts of his reign have been found from as far south as the Third Cataract of the Nile to as far northeast as Byblos, an important seaport in Lebanon, an indication of Egypt's primacy as a commercial power. His was the last long and successful reign of the 12th dynasty.

Richard W. Bulliet (PhD, Harvard University) is Professor of Middle Eastern History at Columbia University. He has written scholarly works on a number of topics: the social and economic history of medieval Iran (THE PATRICIANS OF NISHAPUR and COTTON, CLIMATE, AND CAMELS IN EARLY ISLAMIC IRAN), the history of human-animal relations (THE CAMEL AND THE WHEEL and HUNTERS, HERDERS, AND HAMBURGERS), the process of conversion to Islam (CONVERSION TO ISLAM IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD), and the overall course of Islamic social history (ISLAM: THE VIEW FROM THE EDGE and THE CASE FOR ISLAMO-CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION). He is the editor of the COLUMBIA HISTORY OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. He has published four novels, coedited THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST, and hosted an educational television series on the Middle East. He was awarded a fellowship by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and was named a Carnegie Corporation Scholar.
Pamela Kyle Crossley received her Ph.D. in Modern Chinese History from Yale University. She is currently the Robert and Barbara Black Professor of History at Dartmouth College. Her books include THE WOBBLING PIVOT: AN INTERPRETIVE HISTORY OF CHINA SINCE 1800; WHAT IS GLOBAL HISTORY?; A TRANSLUCENT MIRROR: HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN QING IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY; THE MANCHUS; ORPHAN WARRIORS: THREE MANCHU GENERATIONS AND THE END OF THE QING WORLD; and (with Lynn Hollen Lees and John W. Servos) GLOBAL SOCIETY: THE WORLD SINCE 1900.
Daniel R. Headrick received his Ph.D. in History from Princeton University. Professor of History and Social Science, Emeritus, at Roosevelt University in Chicago, he is the author of several books on the history of technology, imperialism, and international relations, including THE TOOLS OF EMPIRE: TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; THE TENTACLES OF PROGRESS: TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM; THE INVISIBLE WEAPON: TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS; TECHNOLOGY: A WORLD HISTORY; POWER OVER PEOPLES: TECHNOLOGY, ENVIRONMENTS AND WESTERN IMPERIALISM, 1400 TO THE PRESENT; and WHEN INFORMATION CAME OF AGE: TECHNOLOGIES OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE AGE OF REASON AND REVOLUTION, 1700-1850. His articles have appeared in the JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY and the JOURNAL OF MODERN HISTORY, and he has been awarded fellowships by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
Professor of History at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Lyman L. Johnson earned his Ph.D. in Latin American History from the University of Connecticut. A two-time Senior Fulbright-Hays Lecturer, he also has received fellowships from the Tinker Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the American Philosophical Society. His recent books include DEATH, DISMEMBERMENT, AND MEMORY; THE FACES OF HONOR (with Sonya Lipsett-Rivera); THE PROBLEM OF ORDER IN CHANGING SOCIETIES; ESSAYS ON THE PRICE HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY LATIN AMERICA (with Enrique Tandeter); and COLONIAL LATIN AMERICA (with Mark A. Burkholder). He also has published in journals, including the HISPANIC AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW, the JOURNAL OF LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES, the INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF SOCIAL HISTORY, SOCIAL HISTORY, and DESARROLLO ECONOMICO. He recently served as president of the Conference on Latin American History.
Steven W. Hirsch holds a Ph.D. in Classics from Stanford University and is currently Associate Professor of Classics and History at Tufts University. He has received grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Massachusetts Foundation for Humanities and Public Policy. His research and publications include THE FRIENDSHIP OF THE BARBARIANS: XENOPHON AND THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, as well as articles and reviews in the CLASSICAL JOURNAL, the AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHILOLOGY, and the JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY HISTORY. He is currently working on a comparative study of ancient Mediterranean and Chinese civilizations.

There are two kinds of people in the world who are in the midst of the earth, and there are two kinds of people who are in the midst of the earth, and there are two kinds of people who are in the midst of the earth.

"ஆப்பிரிக்காவில்

உட்பகுதியில்

பண்பாடுகளில்

நீர்ப்பாசனம்

நடைபெற்றுள்ளது

Some technologies are referred to as `traditional' because farmers have used them for many years, in some cases for centuries. Underhill (1984) first suggested a classification of traditional technologies, which is used here with some modifications, Table 1.
Classification
Description
Some examples
Water harvesting
Involves making better use of natural run-off. Many approaches. Collecting run-off from a catchment and concentrating water in a smaller cultivated area. Large schemes, several hectares of catchment, small schemes may involve individual plants. Success depends on having right ratio of catchment to cropped area.
Ancient agricultural areas, Negev Desert, Israel. Pasture improvement by flood water retention, Niger.
Micro-catchments for fruit trees, Botswana rice cultivation, Gambia.
Swamp irrigation
Fresh water swamps protected from saline seawater by bunds/dykes. Used for growing rice. Also tidal swamps planted after rains leach soil.
Gambia River, Gambia.
Inland valley swamps - small valleys (1-100 ha) where season/perennial streams can be used/controlled for paddy rice cultivation.
Sierra Leone, Burundi
Bolilands and dambos - depressions in swamp grasslands.
Rokel River, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Malawi and Zambia.
Lake swamps - large areas of flat plain flooded as lake level rises.
Lake Victoria, Tanzania
Spate irrigation
Water spreading - spreading floodwater in rivers and wadis across cultivated land in a controlled manner.
Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia, food and fodder crops
River flood plain irrigation
- Wet season
Flooded lands. Usually rice grown in floodwaters. Many techniques.
Controlled irrigation - controlling the rise in floodwater using dykes, canals and sluice gates. Used for both deep water and paddy rice.
Niger and Bani Rivers, Mali.
- Dry season
Recessional irrigation. Impounding receding floodwaters with earth bunds.
Rice cultivation along most large rivers in West Africa.
Residual moisture. Similar to recessional, water is stored in soil rather than on the surface.
Dry season cultivation of dambos or vleis in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Pumped irrigation. Large areas of flood plain where surface water storage and shallow ground water can be exploited using lifting devices, often for vegetables.
Increasingly common in Nigeria also along most large river flood plains. River Omo, Ethiopia
Shadufs - traditional technique of lifting small quantities of water using the `lever principle'. Usually low lift 1-2 m.
Most large river flood plains in West Africa, Niger, Bani Senegal, common along Nile. Tana River, Kenya.
Hill irrigation
Land irrigated some distance from water source, supplied by canal or pipe. Source may be a stream, small dam storage, gravity or pumped.
Traditional cultivation by the Chagga tribe on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, Malawi, Ethiopia
Groundwater irrigation
Involves exploitation of groundwater down to 15 m.
Exploited for small gardens, e.g. Burkina Faso,
Brown et al. (1995) attempted to show how these technologies where linked to farmer control, i.e. the level of control that a farmer would have over the design and investment decisions and over water management, Figure 1.
Water harvesting is a method that has been around for centuries but is not widely exploited in sub-Saharan Africa. It is ideally suited to arid and semi-arid areas where rain-fed crops cannot be grown with any certainty because the rainfall is both unreliable and highly variable (FAO 1994). The rainy season is often short with no assurance of when it will start and finish and there may be frequent long dry spells. Rainfall is collected from surrounding areas and channelled as run-off onto farms to add to the rain that falls directly onto the crops. Interestingly, no one doubts the critical importance of rainfall. Although few policy-makers recognize the importance of run-off, which is the inevitable product of excessive rain. It is a curious paradox that farmers recognize and exploit the natural concentration of rainwater in valley bottoms and local depressions, yet the overriding perception driving policy is that run-off is a hazard. This view is fuelled by the prominence given to the concerns about soil erosion, which is one product of run-off and has been the focus of research and extension efforts to curb it since the 1930s. Water harvesting recognizes the potential value of run-off as a resource and aims to control the process in order to mitigate the hazard.
Run-off is collected from a large catchment area and channelled to increase the water available in a smaller growing area. There are micro-catchment systems, which are modest in size, where water is collected from land adjacent to the farm and channelled directly onto the fields. On an even smaller scale micro-catchments can be constructed around individual plants (often trees). There are macro-catchment systems that have large water collecting areas; often a considerable distance from the farming areas and can serve many farms. Substantial quantities of water can be collected from barren and fallow land and channelled into the cropped fields.
Water harvesting in Tanzania
In Tanzania water harvesting is used successfully on a large scale for growing rice (Hatibu 1999). Indian migrants are believed to have introduced the so-called majaluba rainfed rice system in the 1920s. It is used in the lowlands of Tanzania where seasonal rainfall can be as much as 600-900 mm and runoff naturally collects in the valley bottoms making it ideal for paddy rice. Its adoption was not led by external change agents and was not fostered by external subsidies, but nevertheless it has spread steadily since the 1930s. Official data now show that the majaluba systems contribute 35 percent of total rice production in Tanzania. Recent research has been carried out to try and introduce micro systems in the drier areas for maize production. The idea is that micro systems would give smallholders more control over their farms. However, when they were invited to evaluate the micro-catchment trials, farmers understood the benefits of rainwater harvesting but were reluctant to adopt the system. They were more interested in the greater potential of using macro-catchment systems and argued in favour of more ambitious attempts to harvest runoff on a larger scale. So far the limited trials with macro systems for maize are mixed. Proper control over distribution of harvested runoff within the cropped area is more problematic for deficit-irrigated crops than is the case with majaluba rice systems. There is also clear evidence that failure to provide proper control over the distribution of runoff can lead to serious erosion. Too much water can be as big a problem as too little. The need for cooperative group action can also give rise to disputes over water sharing. So whether farmers will continue to prefer macro-systems to micro-systems as they acquire more experience in using them for maize production remains to be seen.
However, one significant outcome of the research is that government sees runoff as a benefit rather than just a hazard and the cause of soil erosion. Development of rainwater harvesting is to be included in the Tanzania National Water Resources Management Policy.
In sub-Saharan Africa, although there are examples of water harvesting, it occupies a neglected middle ground between soil and water conservation and irrigated agriculture. Both these extremes have received far greater attention.
Swamps have been traditionally used for irrigation throughout the region. In mangroves and coastal swamps earth banks or bunds are built to exclude seawater and allow fresh water from inland to enter the cropped area, which is then planted with rice. The main areas for mangrove and coastal swamp irrigation stretch from The Gambia round to Liberia.
Inland valley swamps are naturally occurring swampy valley bottoms (up to 100 ha) used to grow rice. Small weirs and channels are constructed to divert natural drainage water around a swamp. The area is then divided into paddy fields, sluices are used to control the flow of water into the fields and a central drain allows excess water to escape back into the natural drainage (FAO 1984). This is very common in the humid parts of West Africa such as Sierra Leone and Liberia and in Burundi.
In the wet season many of the African lakes flood large areas of flat plains and these are used for rice cultivation. Examples of this type of irrigation exist in Tanzania beside Lake Victoria and Lake Malawi, in Malawi by Lake Chilwa and in the countries bordering Lake Chad. Also important are the traditional irrigation practices found in bolilands and dambos. These are low, saucer shaped depressions in swamp grasslands such as those associated with the Rokel River in Sierra Leone. There are similar areas in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Malawi and Zambia.
This is a method of water spreading usually from flash floods in wadis (FAO 1987), which is a common practice in some arid countries such as Saudi Arabia and Yemen. It is not commonly practised in sub-Saharan Africa, although there are instances of its use in the Lower Omo Valley in Ethiopia for both food and fodder crops. The technology requirements need not be great though considerable skill is required to successfully divert and spread the water.
Flood plains are principally used for growing rice during the wet season. There are a variety of techniques involving different amounts of water control that overlap to a greater or lesser degree. Some of the more distinct types of wet season irrigation include:
In the dry season, shallow groundwater or open water left after the floods is used through a variety of gravity and water lifting techniques for:
The shallow depth aquifers that are scattered over more than 100 000 ha of Niger as well as northern Nigeria, Mali, and other Sahelian countries, also provide possibilities for successful smallholder schemes. The aquifers must be rechargeable (as they are in Niger and Nigeria). An obvious limitation to the expansion of irrigation on this basis is the limited area where such aquifers exist, and the possibility of overtaxing the recharging capacity of these areas. A wide variety of water lifting methods are used covering a range of traditional types such as archimedian screws and the shaduf to the modern petrol and diesel driven pumps. There has been a growing interest in treadle pumps throughout sub-Saharan Africa since their introduction from Bangladesh and India (Kay and Brabben 2000). Generally motorized pumps are most common in the richer countries that have ready access to spare parts and fuel, e.g. Nigeria. In water scarce areas there is also a growing interest in the use of modern distribution
Individual pump schemes in Nigeria
Farmers in northern Nigeria lost their traditional use of the fadamas along the rivers following the construction of dams to control the river floods for urban water supply and irrigation. As an alternative they turned to small-scale irrigation using shallow groundwater recharged by the river and lifting it by shadouf or calabash in the dry season to grow vegetables for local and city markets. In the early 1970s a few farmers, with help from relatives, bought small pumps from private traders. In 1982-83 an agricultural development programme based in Kano sold over 2 000 pumps for cash to individuals or small farmer groups. Engineers introduced low-cost well technologies from India, which reduced well construction by two thirds with a commensurate increased return on tubewell investment.
This has been one of the most successful irrigation developments in Nigeria with many thousands of pumps being used by private farmers. Maintenance is well established and so farmers have confidence in the technology. However, external monitoring was necessary to avoid depletion of the aquifer.
Interestingly in the 1980s some farmers started to grow wheat on the fadamas in response to the high wheat prices in the country. A useful example of the way in which private farmers can and will respond to the market if the price is right.
equipment such as trickle and sprinkle irrigation for cash cropping.
There are many small, irrigated areas that are situated some distance from their water source and supplied by mainly open channels and low-pressure pipe systems. The water source may be a stream or a small dam supplying water by gravity or use of some type of simple lifting equipment. An individual farmer or a group of farmers working together to share the water resource can practise this type of irrigation. Such systems are common in the hilly areas of central Ethiopia, Tanzania and Malawi.
Medium to deep aquifers (>30 m) can be exploited all year and usually require more sophisticated pumping than is commonly found in traditionally irrigated areas. Usually submersible pumps driven by electric motors or diesel engines are needed. There are numerous examples of this type of water lifting and the agriculture based upon it throughout Africa and other parts of the world, notably Bangladesh, Pakistan and India. This type of irrigation is only feasible for cash cropping because of the high cost of well construction and pumping or when it is subsidised in some way.
All the methods described above can be practised by individual farmers on their own or by several farmers working together and sharing a common water supply. Once farmers group together the management of the supply system needs to be re-examined. If the scheme is small enough, the farmers may choose to operate it themselves. As the size increases a manager may need to be hired full time to undertake management of the irrigation scheme. Either way there is a significant shift in the management of the irrigation from an individual who can irrigate as and when they please to a group who must work to an agreed schedule of sharing in terms of quantity and timing.
This communal approach is most favoured by aid agencies and national governments because it is seen as a way to help many farmers at the same time. Agencies often step in, with the best of intentions, to satisfy a need or to act as a catalyst for development. In so doing the aid agency or government brings its own set of rules, which may not be compatible with what is required on the ground. Agencies need to disperse funds in line with their targets and are often constrained by time. The temptation to speed the process of development is always present and, as a result, so is the risk of killing the very thing that the agency is trying to foster by pouring in too much support too quickly. If the community cannot absorb the funds fast enough and do not have the institutional framework, farmers may quickly lose any sense of ownership of the project as they rely on a culture of handouts and support from outside. In such situations the project has a high risk of failure. The challenge is to provide the correct amount of support over the right time period to foster successful development. Underhill (private communication) once said that if you `interfere' in a privately initiated irrigation development by injecting more than 10 percent of the total cost then you are in danger of killing it off. This is not an accurate figure but it does give some order of magnitude of what can be done.
There are many examples of communal schemes in sub-Saharan Africa ranging from the very large (e.g. schemes in Nigeria, Kenya) to the more modest (e.g. Senegal, Zimbabwe, Tanzania). Most have run into serious problems, although there are some successes. They tend to be top-down in approach and the technologies used are not always conducive to simple water management practices and often add to the problems of sharing available water resources rather than helping to solve them.
For example, open channels are the most common system of supply and these are usually fitted with upstream control structures. This is one of the most complicated systems of water management available and so it is little wonder that farmers and scheme managers find it difficult to distribute water properly. There is no easy way of knowing if too little or too much water has been put into the canals without some sophisticated water indenting procedures and flow measuring devices. The hydraulic structures can favour those at the top end of the canals and there is usually a constant need to adjust the control gates. In contrast, pipe supply systems are much less common but are much simpler to operate and respond rapidly to changes in water demand. They can be less wasteful of water because it is easier to turn off a pipe supply when it is not needed. It is not possible to turn off a canal without draining it down.
Communal irrigation in Senegal
Although communal schemes present a higher risk than individual schemes there are examples where they work well. In Senegal small village schemes of 20 ha or less have been constructed along the Senegal River. These usually comprise 40-80 plots of equal size supplied by an open channel system fed by 15 kW (20hp) engine pumps from the river.
It was important for farmers to find a way to stabilise rice production in areas where they no longer had easy access to the flood recession fields along the riverside. In most cases farmers all lived in the same village and worked together on the common objective of solving the rice problem with irrigation. The farmers, who invested labour in clearing bush and digging canals, constructed the schemes in part. They usually requested assistance from the local government irrigation agency and this usually resulted in the provision of a pump-set, pipes, site survey and equipment for construction using funds from aid donors. There was resistance to this farmer-initiated idea at first because of government plans for large-scale schemes in the area. A Presidential decree recognized the benefits of technical assistance for irrigation and the importance of meeting farmer demands rather than imposing a solution. Over the past 15 years at least 700 schemes have been built.
Production has remained predominantly subsistence oriented even though attempts were made to extend irrigation to cash crops. Increasing farmer holdings did not encourage farmers to grow cash crops and they continued to grow rice in the rainy season and maize for cattle food in the dry season.
All infrastructure on the schemes is co-owned by farmers. Rotation of water supplies is a recognized way of sharing out the available supply. Repair and maintenance is handled in the same way as construction. The elements that make these schemes work well include:
When looking to the future it is vitally important to review past experience of similar developments to see what lessons can be learned about what and what not to do. Several comprehensive reviews of the Sahel region have been made in recent years (e.g. Moris 1984 and 1987, Brown and Nooter 1992). The two types of development are recognized in the reviews: those in which farmers have funded irrigation themselves using their own resources and those that have received external support from an agency, either in the form of direct aid or through a special loan arrangement. The former are usually based on the farmers' perceptions of family needs and those of the local markets. Investment is likely to be made with great care to minimize the risk of failure. The latter have a much higher risk of failure for a range of reasons, and the fact that they are for smallholders (as opposed to large-scale irrigation) is no guarantee of success.
Both Moris and Brown and Nooter's studies concentrated on the Sahel region. The authors found that there were some strikingly successful privately operated smallholder schemes in Mali, Mauritania, Niger and northern Nigeria as well as in Burkina Faso, Chad and Senegal. In some cases, these developments were entirely spontaneous, and in others, they were supported by NGOs or with minimal government assistance. Some farmers took advantage of earlier investment and used the infrastructure from earlier, failed large-scale projects. In some cases, expansion was facilitated by the use of new low-cost construction techniques that reduced the cost of installing tubewells and hence the costs of irrigation.
The reasons for success varied from country to country and depended on a range of technical and socio-economic circumstances. For example, in Niger private sector development had expanded well and responded to market forces. In Nigeria there was a similar story but it had been helped along by subsidised prices for equipment and farm inputs. Improved rural roads enabled farmers to market their surplus production and gain access to traders and decentralized food-processing plants. Mali demonstrated the extremes of success and failure. Where there is success in the private smallholder sector and failure in public sector large-scale irrigation. The Office du Niger, a parastatal corporation, concentrated to such an extent on `public services' that it eventually had two staff members for every three farmers and for every 11 ha of irrigation. Only 20 percent of farmers' fees went for actual inputs. Chad, although suffering from civil strife for more than a decade, has seen success built on simple low-cost techniques funded by non-governmental organizations.
Senegal exemplified the changing focus of irrigation. This shifted from large, publicly managed irrigation systems with the farmer as labourer, to unsuccessful attempts to make parastatal irrigation agencies more efficient, to government assisted smallholder irrigation, to experimenting with non-public sector irrigation. The early phases of this experience suffered from the inappropriate construction of irrigation perimeters and from selecting crops that were not economically viable. Project design, operations and reform attempts by both the Government and donors were carried out from the top-down, ensuring a low level of farmer enthusiasm. An attempt by the Government to stimulate smallholder irrigation failed when the plot size determined by the Government was too small to encourage farmer participation.
Successful projects in Burkina Faso have been the result of a relatively encouraging macro-economic framework. Farmers have often been able to use the irrigation infrastructure from "failed" projects and the migration of men looking for work made irrigation a profitable and necessary channel of agricultural development for women.
Cameroon has been an exception. Large-scale irrigation has been successful but mainly because of strong expatriate management using farmers as labourers rather than decision-maker. Farmers have accepted this situation because of the high financial returns and because of the lack of other opportunities.
From their comprehensive review, Brown and Nooter (1992) suggested several characteristics that are common to successful schemes:
The authors found the perception of `success' was different for irrigation technicians, donors, governments and farmers. Their view was that success could only be assessed in terms of the farmer's definition.
The most effective arrangements for schemes that were larger than individual ownership were found to be (in decreasing order of success): extended family groups; private voluntary groups; water users' associations and then cooperatives. They concluded that project design should be based on the following concepts:
A wide range of established and well-documented traditional technologies is available for use by smallholders. These clearly play a significant role in the region and will continue to do so. There is still considerable room to adapt traditional technologies to different circumstances, which because of their low cost and simplicity can be used and maintained by smallholders with little or no external support. They are particularly suited to subsistence farming and equally have an important role to play in the transition to cash cropping. For this reason they have attracted much interest from aid donors and governments wishing to support subsistence farming. Many lessons learned, about what needs to be done, have been concerned more with the ways in which such technologies can be introduced into farming systems rather than the technologies per se. However, there are still concerns about the technology and the ability of people to design and construct good engineering works that will provide lasting service. There is also a danger that `low-cost' solutions, which may be attractive to aid donors, may become a euphemism for poor engineering.

Question: how many kinds of people are in the midst of the earth

how many kinds of people are in the midst of the earth

Question: where are there two kinds of people in the world

where are there two kinds of people in the world

Question: where are two kinds of people in the world

பண்பாடுகளில் கி.மு இரண்டாம் , முதலாம் ஆயிரங்களில் பருவமுறை வெள்ளத்தைப் பயன்படுத்தி நீர்ப்பாசனம் நடைபெற்றுள்ளது .

where are two kinds of people in the world

There are two kinds of people in the world who are in the midst of the earth , and there are two kinds of people who are in the midst of the earth , and there are two kinds of people who are in the midst of the earth .

And in the midst of the covenant,

Thro<unk> the six hundred thousand years, there has been a small amount of water.

|
|
Other systems and sites - Asia
Qanat Irrigation Systems and Homegardens (Iran)
Outstanding Features
Qanat (karez or foggara) irrigation systems are ancient (ca. 800 BC) and consist of underground tunnels constructed into a cliff, scarp or base of a mountainous area, following an aquifer, or from rivers, to bring water out to the surface. The tunnels are straight and horizontal with a slope to allow the water to drain out into an oasis or irrigation system. Qanats are important in arid zones where water is scarce and minimize evaporation loss; they provide 80% of the water around the central plateau of Iran (e.g. Husseinieh, Isfahan).
The volume of water produced depends on the type and extent of the aquifer, and its recharge rate. When tunnelling horizontally, air shafts 50-180 ft deep are constructed every 50-150 ft to remove the mined soil, clean the tunnels of silt, and aerate the tunnels. One of these shafts is a mother well (‘madaarchah'). While the men and boys construct and clean the qanats, a suitable female (e.g. widow, older woman, virgin) volunteers to be the bride of the qanat to ensure adequate water supply, and has to be faithful to the qanat for a season (or a year) by bathing ritually in the qanat during the warmer months. Farmers donate part of their crop (usually 1 bushel of wheat) to the bride after harvest. Qanats are owned communally, and their water is distributed on a rotational basis (‘madaar') over a period (10-14 days) to community members. Qanats irrigate cereal crops (barley, wheat) in autumn and other crops (e.g. sugar beet, tobacco, melons, turnips, onions, pomegranates) in spring, with land being left fallow every third year.
Goods and Services Provided
Qanats provide ecosystem goods and services such as water, staples, fruits and vegetable; and promote social cohesion through participation and cultural rituals.
Threats and Challenges
Qanat irrigated agriculture is threatened by silt sedimentation in canals, moving sand dunes, urban migration of youth, and decline of experts for managing such systems. There is a need to find approaches to maintaining these systems including their agro-biodiversity on a sustainable basis.
Policy and Development Relevance
There is a need to assess the policy, institutional and economic dimensions of qanat irrigation with reference to agro-biodiversity maintenance in the dry zones.
Global Importance
Qanats are a relic form of underground irrigation important for dryland agriculture, and have been introduced in many parts of the world. They occur in Sinkiang, Western China (e.g. Turfan oasis), South-western Afghanistan, South-western Turkmenistan, the Arab world, Libya (e.g. Zella), Tunisia, Algeria (e.g. Germa), and Morocco; and were introduced by the Romans into Egypt and Syria, and into Southern Spain by the Moors.
See also:
Project proposal
top

பண்டைய பாரசீகத்தில் (இன்றைய ஈரானில்) கி.மு

6000 ஆண்டுகளிலேயே பார்லி அரிசி இயற்கையான மழையளவு குறைவாக இருந்தபோதும் பயிரிடப்பட்டுள்ளது.

And in the midst of the covenant, Thro<unk> the six hundred thousand years, there has been a small amount of water. There are several different types of clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes that can be found in clothes. In this way, it will be possible to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place where you will be able to find a place.

Thro<unk> the six hundred thousand years, there has been a small amount of water.

Although the development of fisheries in reservoirs is a very recent phenomenon, major irrigation schemes, as evident from the earliest written records in the Mahawansa, date back to the fourth century B.C. (Brohier, 1934; Parker, 1981). It is relevant to consider here briefly the historical aspects of the development of irrigation schemes in Sri Lanka.
Details of the historical aspects of the ancient irrigation works of Sri Lanka are dealt with by Brohier (1934, 1937), Fernando, A.D.N. (1979), Parker (1981) and Perera (1984). Arumugam (1969) provides constructional details of each major irrigation scheme. In this present- ation the author will attempt to highlight some of the important historical aspects.
The purpose and determination in the construction of the irrigation systems are depicted by the words of Parakrama Bahu the Great, 1153–1186 AD: Let not even a drop of rain water go to the sea without benefiting man. The final achievements were highlighted by Sir Henry Ward, Governor of Sri Lanka In: Collected Minutes of Brohier (1934): It is possible, that in no other part of the world are there to be found within the same space, the remains of so many works of irrigation, which are, at the same time, of such great antiquity, and of such vast magnitude as Ceylon. Probably no other country can exhibit works so numerous, and at the same time so ancient and extensive, within the same limited area, as this Island.
* Reservoirs are also referred to as tanks in English and as Wewa in Sinhalese. The word wewa may be incorporated in to the name of the reservoir when it is not followed by either reservoir or tank. As such there are inconsistencies in the ways of referring to different reservoirs.
According to Parker (1981) two irrigation systems were adopted from ancient times: the first was impoundment in reservoirs and the second was the diversion of rivers through excavated canals which conveyed the water into distant lands or reservoirs, supposedly a method of irrigation practised in northwestern and central India and also probably in southern India. However, Parker concluded that the formation of all reservoirs of a class with embankments much higher than those of simple village tanks was originally due to the constructive genius of the Sinhalese themselves.
The works at Panduwewa, according to Parker (1981), is the first great reservoir ever constructed, if the great lakes of Egypt, which are merely immense natural hollows into which streams were turned, are not considered. This reservoir is thought to have been built by King Dappula II (807–812 AD). The earliest constructive work which can be identified with certainity in the Island is the Abhayawewa in Anuradhapura, built by King Pandukabhaya in about 300 BC; this reservoir is now known as the Basawakkulamawewa.
Perera (1984) also surmised that water conservation and utilization by means of a tank (=reservoir) was mainly a Sinhala development. Perera (1984) traced six stages in the development of the irrigation systems;
(i) First Stage: collection of rain water in a pond or valley, lift irrigation using primitive implements to irrigate the surrounding paddies.
(ii) Second Stage: development of low artificial embankments or weirs built across the valleys of small ephemeral rivulets, such a tank would have a depth of 2.5 m, tank followed downstream by yet another tank and paddy fields.
(iii) Third Stage: improvement of the former type, the bunds strengthened; extent of irrigable land improved, but still not part of a complex network of tanks.
(iv) Fourth Stage: damming of the bed of comparatively large non-perennial rivers, e.g. Kala Oya (Dhatusena,459 AD), water distribution capabilities increased, special channels constructed to transmit water, catchments linked.
(v) Fifth Stage: construction of reservoirs on large, ephemeral rivers and tributaries, and linking these to anicuts built on rivers having catchment areas of perennial water supply in the wet zone e.g. anicut at Elahera across the Amban Ganga (tributary of Mahaweli Ganga; see De Silva, 1985 for details), built by Vasaba (65–109 AD), later enlarged and diversified by Mahasena (276–303 AD), feeds the Minneriyawewa. This stage was also characterised by building of spills and sluices.
(vi) Sixth Stage: trans-basin transfer of water from a perennial catchment to an ephemeral catchment based reservoir, e.g. Amban Ganga catchment linked with Kala-Oya catchment, highest complexity by 8th century AD.
All historical evidence indicates that the systems reached their highest complexity well over 1000 years ago, and it will be seen later that modern engineering has had little effect on the planning and layout of the old systems. The ancient irrigation systems in three districts, viz. Polonnaruwa, Anuradahapura and Ruhuna, are thought to have acted as the focal points of the civilization in these areas. Fernando, A.D.N. (1979) recognized 44 ancient, major irrigation reservoirs approximating 39000 ha of surface area. Almost all the major ancient irrigation works have now been rehabilitated, except perhaps for a reservoir or two which may have gone into disrepair and are covered by thick jungle. It is likely that most of the ancient works have been unearthed and their origins understood.
The ingenuity of the Sinhala irrigation engineers is best exemplified by the invention of the “biso-kotuwa” (which literally means queen - enclosure), later termed by Parker (1909, in 1981) “bisi-kotuwa”, the enclosure where the water level lowers. The “bisikotuwa” is the equivalent of the valve-pit, which functions in the regulation of the outward flow of water and is therefore essentially an invention made by the Sinhala irrigation engineers more than 2200 years ago. It has remained essentially unchanged since then (Brohier, 1934; Needham, 1971; Parker, 1981). “It was this (=biso-kotuwa) invention alone which permitted the Sinhalese to proceed boldly with the construction of reservoirs that still rank among the finest and greatest work of its kind in the world” (Parker, 1909, in Parker, 1981).
It is also recorded that in the design of dams built across rivers the early Sinhala engineers showed ingenuity. The dams were built at an oblique angle, exposing the masonry to a lesser degree of violent shocks caused by impact of large floating tree trunks and other debris.
No historical account on the reservoir systems in the island will be complete without reference to the works of King Parakrama Bahu (1153–1186 AD). This ruler is reputed to have been responsible for the construction or the restoration of 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major tanks (=reservoirs) and 2376 minor tanks, all in a reign of 33 years, perhaps reaching the zenith of development in irrigation and agriculture of the Sinhala race during its 2500 year history.
The recent developments in the irrigation systems of the island are:
- the rehabilitation stage of the ancient irrigation systems which took place mostly during the British rule in the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth century. Aspects of those rehabilitation works are aptly described by Brohier (1934, 1937);
- the commencement of new irrigation works since independence in 1948. The modern major irrigation schemes are the Gal Oya Scheme, the Walawe Ganga Scheme, the Mahaweli Ganga Development Scheme, and the Kirindi Oya Development Scheme;
- the construction of hill-country hydroelectric schemes and associated reservoirs.
Plans have also been made for the development of the Kalu Ganga, the river which has the highest annual discharge.
This scheme involved the restoration of a number of old medium scale reservoirs, construction of the biggest reservoir in the island, the Senanayake Samudra, a number of other smaller reservoirs and anicuts. The details of these reservoirs are given in
This scheme, completed in 1965, involved the construction of three major reservoirs, the Udawalawe Reservoir (3415 ha), the Chandrika Wewa (448 ha) and the Ridiyagama Reservoir (888 ha). It also involved restoration and construction of minor irrigation reservoirs, anicuts and channels.
The Mahaweli Ganga development, which includes two other river basins, i.e. the Maduru Oya and Kala Oya
basins, is a multi-purpose development scheme which not only incorporates some existing reservoirs into the system but also involves the construction of a number of major reservoirs for the generation of hydro-electricity and/or for irrigation. The details of this scheme have been given by De Silva (1985).
|Reservoir||Catchment km2||Area ha||Storage ac.ft.||Restoration/ New||Remarks|
|Senanayake Samudra||983||7680||770,000||New 1952|
|Namal Oya Tank||51||650||37,000||New 1962||Impounds the flow of Namal Oya|
|Aligalge Tank||13||110||2,150||New 1952||LB, conveyance tank|
|Himidurawa Tanka||13||112||3,500||New 1952||LB, conveyance tank|
|Kondavattavan Tankb||45||358||9,130||Restored, 1912||Supplied by a|
|Amparai Tank||14||366||7,250||Restored, 1873/1912||supplied by b|
|Valathippiddy Tank||31||154||2,070 1912||Restored,||supplied by b|
|Veeragoda Tankc||18||106||1,300 1889||Restored,||LB, channel|
|Chadayantalawa Tank||27||244||3,200 1873||Restored,||supplied by c|
|Pallang Oya Tank||93||1016||93,000||New 1960||Impounds the Pallang Oya|
|Ekgal Aru Tank||35||406||21,500||New 1952||Impounds the Ekgal Aru|
|Alahena Tank||29||102||1,770||New 1959||RB-conveyance tank|
|Malayadi Tank||13||236||7,300||New 1960||RB-conveyance tank|
|Irakhamam Tank||20||825||15,700||Restored, 1891||Anicut incorpora- ted into 6.0. scheme|
|Andella Oya Tank||84||108||2,140||New||LB conveyance tank|
|Balagalla Tank||26||203||6,200||New||-do-|
|Navakiri Aru Reserv.||179||1097||42,500||New 1954||LB channel supply|
Some of the characteristics of the newly created reservoirs under this development scheme are summarized in Table 6. The intricacy of the reservoir system and the associated channels which form a web of water conservation and distribution systems is shown schematically in Fig.5. One other interesting factor which further proved the irrigational engineering capabilities of the ancient Sinhalese was the discovery of remnants of a dam site and two sluices almost exactly at the locations determined for the new reservoir. These remnants were dated back 1500 years and the government decided to move the new dam site in order to preserve these valuable archeological findings
|Reservoir||Catchment km2||Area ha||Storage 106m3||FSL m||Impounded year||Remarks|
|Maduru Oya||433||6390||473||96||1984||IR/6;2GWH|
|Victoria||1870||1300||728||438||1985||HEG; 780GWH|
|Kotmale Oya||544||520||175||703||1985||HEG; 455GWH|
|Randenigala||2333||2350||860||232||1986||HEG; 49 MW|
|Rantembe||3118||21||152||180 GWH|
|Moragahakanda||782||4050||686||199||HEG;26 MW|
|Ulhitiya/Rathkinda||280||2020||76/22||106||1984||145 GWH|
Kirindi Oya was one of the two pre-Christian masonry dams in Sri Lanka. This dam permitted the development of the reservoir system in the ancient ‘Ruhuna’ civilization, in the southeast region of the island.
The modern development of the Kirindi Oya Scheme constitutes the construction of a major reservoir, the Lunugamwehera reservoir (impounded in 1986). Details of the development scheme are given in Table 7.
With the increasing accent on the development of irrigation and hydroelectric reservoirs it is appropriate to consider a few general features associated with such developments. The new development schemes may affect the water regimes in the existing reservoirs. For example the Mahaweli Ganga (= River) Development Scheme is bound to affect the water regime of a number of existing ancient major reservoirs. The details of such influence through expected minimization of water level fluctuations, shorter retention time and consequent effects on the fisheries have been given by De Silva (1985). These changes could affect the existing fishery directly via the habitat limitation for nest-building by the dominant species O.mossambicus, or indirectly by reducing the nutrient availability in the system.
Fig. 5. Schematic diagrame of the water flow in the Mahaweli Ganga Development Scheme (adapted from Mahaweli Ganga Projects and Programmes, (1983).
|Reservoir||Catchment km2||Area ha||FSL m||Capacity ac.ft.||Remarks|
|Lunugamwehera||904||3023||191|
170,000
|New/1986|
|Deberawewa||56||60||4|
450
|Restored 1889|
|LB channel|
|Tissawewa||38||234|
2,900
|Restored 1879|
|1939|
|Yodawewa||46||488||4|
7,900
|Restored 1982|
|LB channel|
|Wirawila tank||82||570||6|
10,000
|RB channel|
The new developments have rarely considered the potential contribution of the fisheries sector in the cost-benefit analyses at planning stages and the likely socio-economic importance and impact on the population (e.g. the Mahaweli Ganga Development, De Silva, 1985). Future projects should consider at least the most critical needs for sound fishery development.
The question of the reservoir bed preparation, particularly whether a certain proportion of the wood should be left intact, has been reviewed by Ploskey (1985). He discusses the pros and cons for the fish populations of leaving a proportion of the vegetation uncleared in reservoirs in Canada and in the United States. It is suggested that a proportion of the terrestrial vegetation should be left intact, provided that there are no irrigational, hydrological or civil engineering requirements for its clearing. However, submerged vegetation hinders fishing activity. In Sri Lanka the retention of vegetation is known to enhance fish production in Parakrama Samudra reservoir (Amarasinghe and Pitcher, 1986). But all reservoirs constructed in the last five years had the beds cleared and mostly even the scrub was burnt. In such reservoirs the initial phase of high fish production, typical of newly impounded reservoirs (Bhukaswan, 1980; Balon and Coche, 1974), may not take place. A policy on reservoir bed preparation addressing the future reservoir fisheries needs is still to be formulated.
The number of reservoirs in Sri Lanka is not a accurately known. This concerns in particular the small reservoirs known as village tanks and/or seasonal tanks, which are very common in most parts of the dry zone (Fig.6). Abeywickrema (1955) cited the total number of reservoirs in the island to be over 10,000. Mendis (1977), from available irrigational statistics, deduced it to be around 3,500, while Udawattage (1985) suggested over 20,000 micro-catchments, across which earthern dams were built to form minor reservoirs. It is possible that the high estimates by Abeysinghe (1982) and Udawattage (1985) resulted from the inclusion of anicuts. Thayaparan (1982) put the number of functional minor reservoirs in the country at 3,279. Recent estimates suggest that nearly 7,000 seasonal tanks are operational (Anon., 1986). The present reservoir surface area on the island and their distribution, district wise, are shown in Fig.7.
What is more relevant from a fisheries point of view is the surface area of different types of reservoirs. The classifications adopted from a fisheries development view thereof and the surface of each type are summarised in Table 8. The above classification of the reservoirs is essentially an extrapolation of the irrigation classification, which can be applied to fisheries development as well.
(i) Major and medium scale irrigation reservoirs are perennial in nature and are mostly built by damming a river, stream, or a streamlet; the reservoirs generally exceed 200 ha. These reservoirs come under the jurisdiction of the Department of Irrigation and/or an equivalent body such as the Mahaweli Authority, constituted for management of a particular development scheme;
(ii) Minor irrigation reservoirs are also termed seasonal and/or village tanks. These reservoirs are built across micro-catchments, and are typically located in village centres. The most characteristic features of these reservoirs are: they dry up almost completely for 3–4 months of the year, and their surface area is generally less than 20 ha. These reservoirs come under the jurisdiction of the Department of Agrarian Services.
(iii) Hill country reservoirs are built almost exclusively for generation of hydroelectric power. They are located in the upper catchments of the major rivers at altitudes above 1000 m. Most of these come under the jurisdiction of the Ceylon Electricity Board.
Fig. 6A. Distribution of seasonal tanks (from Cook, 1931).
6B A group of seasonal tanks and the associated paddy fields indicating the intricacy of the systems.
It is also important to note that the reservoirs in the first two categories are predominantly confined to the dry zone of the island, and to elevations below 200 m and that the soil in such areas is primarily of the reddish-brown type. As a consequence it is likely that the vegetation types of their catchments would also show considerable similarities. However, in spite of the above similarities, the surface areas of the different reservoirs, their carrying capacities, and flushing rates
Fig. 7 The reservoir surface area (in ha) and the number in each administrative district of the island. Also shown are those reservoirs exceeding 2500 ha surface area (after Fernando and De Silva, 1984).
are likely to have a determining influence on the hydrobiology of the individual reservoirs, a fact which will become apparent later.
|Surface area||(ha)|
|Reservoir types||Mendis (1977)||Fernando (1977)||Sreenivasan & Thayaparan (1983)||Estimated|
|Major irrigation reservoirs|
70,850 (73)
|-|
+22670 (Mahaweli)
+32560 (+5)
|Medium scale irrigation reservoirs|
17,004 (160)
|-|
+2000 (+3)
|Minor irrigation reservoirs|
39,271 (3279)
|-|
|Hill country reservoirs|
8,097 (07)
|-|
+5990 (+3)
|Sub Total|
135,222
125,000
161,940
|Flood plain lakes|
4,049
20,000
|-|
175774
From a fisheries point of view the reservoir features, i.e. morphological, hydrological and hydrobiological will be restricted to perennial, i.e. major and medium scale irrigation reservoirs, and to village reservoirs (=seasonal tanks) as these are the ones of importance from the fisheries point of view.
Perennial Reservoirs:
Their morphometry is very variable. However, certain common features can be recognized. The ancient reservoirs, in general, are shallow with an even, small gradient (Fig.8). The mean depth of these reservoirs at full supply level does not exceed 15 m and in most cases the mean depth is 5–10 m. On the other hand, the newly constructed reservoirs are deep and in most cases have a deep gradient. The mean depth at full supply level may reach 40 m, such as in the Muruthawela reservoir. The hill country reservoirs, and in particular the new hydro- electric reservoirs, have a precipitous slope and are very deep.
Even within a reservoir the morphometry may differ from area to area or from basin to basin. For example, the Parakrama Samudra (=the Sea of Parakrama), built in the 12th century, is a reservoir of 2262 ha at full supply level. It consists of three basins, the morphometry and the hypsography of which differ from one another significantly (Fig.9).
Fig. 8. The morphometry of some selected reservoirs (adapted from De Silva, 1987).
Seasonal Tanks:
The seasonal tanks created by earth dams across the torrents of micro-catchments cover an area of 4 to 50 ha each but most are less than 12 ha. They are very shallow, ranging in depth from 1 to 4 m at full supply level. The basins are shallow with a gradual slope. Little is known of their morphometry (Udawattage, 1985). A typical hypsographic curve for a seasonal tank is shown in Fig.9.
The most important hydrological factor in the reservoirs is the change in the water level. The changes in the water-level are linked to the rainfall pattern, when the reservoirs tend to fill up. During this period the demand for water for agricultural purposes is also minimal. With the onset of the dry period, when the inflow is minimal to nil and with the consequent demand for cultivation, the water level begins to decline.
The effect of water level fluctuations on fish production is beginning to be understood (Welcomme, 1970; Martin et al., 1981; Beam, 1983; Miranda et al., 1984; Henderson, 1985; De Silva, 1985b, 1986). Bernacsek (1984) and Hall (1985) recognised that research on water level manipulation and its effects on fish populations was a priority in reservoir fishery management.
Perennial Reservoirs:
The annual water level fluctuations in perennial reservoirs are extensive (Fig.10). The fluctuations in the water level tend to expose the littoral areas to varying degrees in the different reservoirs. The extent of the area thus exposed varies from reservoir to reservoir (Plate I) and may have an effect on the recruitment pattern to the fishery. In general, in Sri Lankan reservoirs even small fluctuations in the water level brings about a significant change in their capacity.
As the name implies the perennial reservoirs retain water throughout the year. However, in exceptionally dry years some of the smaller, and some ancient major reservoirs in particular, may dry up completely, such as for example the Tissawewa (234 ha) and Yodawewa (488 ha) in the southeastern part of the island. In these two reservoirs, in August-September 1984 only small pools in the centre remained. The effects of such drying of reservoirs on the flora and fauna and on the fish yield are little understood.
Fig. 9. Detailed morphometry of the Parakrama Samudra and hypsographic curves of its three basins (after Schiemer, 1983); hypsographic curves of the seasonal tank Dalukanwewa (after Fernando & Ellepola, 1969), and of the perenial reservoir Ridiyagama.
Fig. 10 Mean monthly water level of four perennial reservoirs depicting the extent of fluctuations through the year. The vertical lines indicate the minimum and maximum (data from the Department of Irrigation).
Seasonal Tanks:
These reservoirs tend to dry up towards the latter part of the drought period, namely in July to September. Unfortunately, the water level fluctuations of these reservoirs are not monitored regularly, because of their large numbers and because such monitoring appears to be of little use in their hydrological management.
Plate I. Aerial photographs of two Sri Lankan perennial reservoirs indicating the high and low water lines.
There exists a number of limnological studies of Sri Lankan reservoirs with the most comprehensive one being that of the Parakrama Samudra (Schiemer, 1983). Some of the more important studies were summarised by Fernando and De Silva (1984). The present paper deals only with those aspects, which are thought to directly or indirectly influence fish production in reservoirs.
The nutrient availability in a reservoir depends on (i) the autochthonous input from the soil of its basin, degradation of detritus and, when present, the leaching of the submerged vegetation; and on (ii) the allochthonous inputs from the land run-off from its catchment. Nutrients may be added to the system by human activity, roosting and feeding bird fauna and cattle. The impact of the latter factors are little known, difficult to quantify and in most reservoirs may be of little significance.
From the point of view of development of fisheries, those limnological characteristics which have been recognized as being important are the total dissolved solids (Ryder, 1965; Oglesby, 1977), the PO43- and NO3- contents (Oglesby, 1977; Cochrane and Robarts 1986), primary productivity (Melack, 1976), the pH and total alkalinity. The latter two criteria are known to affect fish growth through effects on metabolism. Briefly, waters of acidic pH<4.0, induce the gills to secrete mucus which hinders oxgen uptake and stresses the animal. High HCO3- alkalinity in the water may cause Ca2+ and Mg2+ precipitation, making these ions unavailable. Consequently, the non- availability of Ca2+ and Mg2+ as well as residual Na+ may hinder bone formation and growth, and limit primary production and thereby the fish yield.
Perennial Reservoirs:
Continuous or relatively long-term monitoring of any of the physico-chemical and/or other limnological parameters such as the chlorophyll content or the primary production has been carried out only in a few perennial reservoirs in Sri Lanka (Table 9).
>(i) Physico-chemical characteristics
On the basis of long-term studies certain generalizations are possible:
|Reservoir||Parameter monitored||Authority|
|Parakrama Samudra||PO43- soluble, total, TDS||Gunatilaka (1983),|
|-do-||pH, chlorophyll, primary prod.||Dokulil et al. (1983)|
|-do-||zooplankton||Fernando & Rajapakse|
|(1983)|
|Kalawewa/Balaluwewa||Total alkalinity, Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+||Gunawardene & Adikari (1981)|
|Ridiyagama, Yodawewa, Tissawewa, Badagiriya, Lunugamwehera, Muruthawela,||TDS, pH, chlorophyll||De Silva & Sirisena (1987)|
|Huruluwewa, Kalawewa||pH, TDS, total alkalinity,||Amarasinghe et al.|
|Mahakanadarawa wewa, Maha wilachchiya, Nachchaduwa wewa, Nuwara wewa, Ranganawewa,||primary prod.||(1983)|
|20 reservoirs||pH, TDS||for details see De Silva (1985a)|
- Total dissolved solids (TDS), measured in terms of the conductivity in μS-1 at 25°c, shows monthly variability; Except for one or two reservoirs (such as Huruluwewa, Muruthawela) the overall yearly conductivity of the water almost always exceeded 250 μS and in some reservoirs such as Badagiriya Wewa it averaged 700 μS.
- All investigations have indicated that the pH of perennial reservoirs is either neutral or slightly alkaline, and remains so throughout the year.
- Studies by Gunawardene and Adikari (1981) have indicated that the HCO3- alkalinity in some of the Mahaweli reservoirs is not so excessive as to bring about high residual sodium carbonate. Studies of this type are needed for other reservoir systems to clarify the significance of the HCO3- alkalinity for reservoir fisheries.
- The Parakrama Samudra study of Gunatilaka (1983) indicates that the algal population could be phosphorous-limited at certain times of the day, whilst the nitrogen concentration was well above the limiting value. This study also indicates that strong stratification in the lake could have brought about the phosphate limitation by creating a barrier against mixing. Gunatilaka and Senaratne (1981) observed that though the algal productivity was high in the Parakrama Samudra, the overall nutrient availability was low. This observation caused them to hypothesize the dependency of the algal biomass on internal recycling of nutrients.
- Bauer (1983), on the basis of his work on the Parakrama Samudra reservoir, suggested that in tropical shallow reservoirs water heating and cooling are the dominant factors governing the daily water mixing and the recycling of particles and nutrients.
(ii) Phytoplankton
Information available on the phyto- and zooplankton is still scanty. Generally, blue-greens (Cyanophyceae) are known to predominate the phytoplankton biomass in shallow tropical reservoirs (Sreenivasan, 1970; Uhlman et al., 1982). In Parakrama Samudra, the dominant group by number of taxa were the Chlorophyceae (30 species), followed by Cyanophyceae (22 species), Zygnemaphyceae (11 species), Euglenophyceae (6 species), Dinophyceae and Xanthophyceae (5 species each), Diatomophyceae (3 species) and Cryptophyceae (2 species) (Rott, 1983). The phytoplankton numbers were reported to increase after the rains and during the dry periods the numbers declined markedly (Apstein, 1907, 1910; Holsinger, 1955). More recently Amarasinghe et al. (1983) in their studies on seven lowland reservoirs reported an increase in dissolved oxygen content in conjunction with phytoplankton increase.
The chlorophyll content and the rate of primary production in the perennial reservoirs are variable (Table 10); such differences could be even spatial within a reservoir (Dokulil et al., (1983). In spite of such differences, Dokulil et al. (1983) found that the chlorophyll ‘a’ (Bchl) content was significantly correlated to the fresh phytoplankton biomass (BFw) and the relationship was expressed as:
the biomass being expressed in mg 1-1.
The above relationship is thought to be characteristic of blue-green algae dominated freshwaters. Seasonal variations in phytoplankton biomass and shift in dominance through the year between major taxa were reported for all the seven reservoirs studied by Amarasinghe et al. (1983).
|Reservoir/ Authority||Period (months)||pH||Cond. (μS)||Alkalinity (meq 1-1)||PO43-||NO3-1 (micro g per litre)||Chlorophyll||Primary prod. (g Cm-2day-1|
|BADAGIRIYA|
|Amarasinghe &|
|Wijeyaratne (1984)||-||-||324||-||-||-||-||-|
|De Silva & Sirisena||85/86||-||775||-||-||-||35.4||-|
|(1987)||(08)||(460–1100)||(17.7–84.0)|
|P.O.||82/87||-||847||-||-||-||44.0||-|
|(10)||(460–1100)||-|
|CHANDRIKAWEWA|
|P.O.||82/87||7.4||183||1.5||-||-||7.7||-|
|(04)||(170–196)||(6.4–25.8)|
|GIRITALE|
|P.O.||79/83||7.8||243||2.34||-||-||18.8||-|
|(08)||(140–420)|
|KALAWEWA|
|Amerasinghe et al.(1983)||80/81||8.2||318||-||-||-||-||1.42–4.16|
|(12)||(82–400)|
|Gunawardene & Adikari||78/79||-||-||2.1||115||-||-||-|
|(1981)||(12)||(49–168)|
|KANDALAMA|
|P.O.||83||7.8||650||2.3||-||-||-||-|
|(03)||(490–670)|
|KAUDULLA|
|P.O.||80/83||7.9||279||2.47||-||-||58.5||-|
|(08)||(200–380)|
|KIRIIBBANARA|
|P.O.||82/86||7.4||284||-||-||-||20.0||-|
|(09)||(202–380)|
|LUNUGAMWEHERA|
|P.O.||86/87||7.2||378||-||-||-||20.0||-|
|(04)||(333–412)|
|MAHAKANADARAWA|
|P.O.||79/80||7.5||501||-||-||-||-||-|
|(03)|
|Amarasinghe et al. (1984)||81/82||8.1||651||127*||-||-||-||1.42–4.16|
|(12)||(420–910)||(107–189)|
|MAHAWILACHCHIYA|
|Amarasinghe et al.(1984)||81/82||8.1||628||136*||-||-||-||1.98–4.20|
|(12)||(400–800)||(81.0–176)|
|MINNERIYA|
|P.O.||80/83||8.2||276||2.74||-||-||12.5||-|
|(06)||(155–620)|
|Wijeyaratne &|
|Amarasinghe (1984)||-||-||240||-||-||-||-||-|
|MURUTHAWELA|
|De Silva & Sirisena||85/86||7.8||93||-||-||-||7.7||-|
|(1987)||(06)||(75–220)|
|NACHCHADUWA|
|Amarasinghe et al. (1983)||80/81||8.1||461||87*||-||-||-||1.73–3.67|
|(12)||(350–570)||(45–140)|
|PARAKRAMA SAMUDRA|
|Gunatilake(1983)-Table||80||8.4||235||2.42||73.6||0.69||16.7||-|
|(02)||(155–354)||(1.76–3.18)||(47–108)||(35–1.08)|
|Dokulil et al.(1983)||79/80||(from Table 10 of Dokulil et al.)||-||-||31.0||1.34**|
|(10.0–56.6)||(0.45–28.0)|
|Wijeyaratne &||-||-||221||-||-||-||-||-|
|Amarasinghe (1984)|
|PIMBURETTEWA|
|P.O.||82/83||8.4||310||5.5||-||-||58.5||-|
|Amarasinghe (pers.comm.)||(04)||(285–485)|
|RAJANGANA|
|P.O.||82/83||7.5||460||-||-||-||-||-|
|(04)||(382–515)|
|Amarasinghe et al. (1984)||80/81||8.1||593||-||-||-||-||-|
|(12)||(455–650)|
|RIDIYAGAMA|
|De Silva & Sirisena||85/86||-||403||-||-||-||11.4||-|
|(08)||(240–1050)|
|P.O.||82/87||7.7||541||4.4||-||-||28.0||-|
|TISSAWEWA|
|Amarasinghe &|
|Wijeyaratne(1984)||-||-||371||-||-||-||-||-|
|De Silva & Sirisena||85/86||517||-||-||-||30.7||-|
|(1987)||(08)||(360–830)|
|P.O.||79/86||8.3||647||-||-||-||44.0||-|
|(16)||(314–830)|
|UDAWALAWE|
|P.O.||80/87||7.4||174||1.4||-||-||12.0||-|
|(09)||(155–195)|
|WEERAWILA|
|P.O.||84/86||8.2||670||-||-||-||-||-|
|(06)||(540–870)|
|YODAWEWA|
|De Silva & Sirisena||85/86||8.1||548||-||-||-||13.7||-|
|(06)||(400–1050)|
|P.O.||82/86||8.2||683||-||-||-||33.0||-|
|(08)||(453–1050)|
(iii) Zooplankton
In comparison to our weak knowledge of the phytoplankton of the perennial reservoirs, zooplankton is better known, even though there is an apparent 6paucity of quantitative studies. As in the case of most parameters, the zooplankton of Parakrama Samudra is the best documented; some long-term trends and seasonal changes were documented by Fernando and Rajapakse (1983), the composition, density and distribution by Duncan (1983) and aspects of the dynamics of groups of selected zooplankters by Duncan (1983), Duncan and Gulati (1983) and by Newrkla and Duncan(1984).
The main conclusions arrived from these studies were:
- under typical water regimes the reservoir zooplankton assemblage resembled that of a large lake;
- the water level - especially marked low water levels brings about significant changes in the zooplankton composition, favouring rotifers and reducing the more limmetic crustacean species (Fernando and Rajapakse, 1983);
- that size-selective predation on the rotifer community, notably Brachionus sp., by the clupeid Ehirava fluviatilis, is considerable; and
- the crustacean assemblage was notably poor in biomass and diversity and may be affected to a greater extent by the flushing rate (Duncan, 1984).
|Ridiyagama||Muruthawela||Tissawewa||Yodawewa|
|CLADOCERA|
|Diaphanosoma excisum + D.m.||8.2||1.8||2.0||10.5|
|Moina micrura||3.7||3.3||1.5||25.3|
|Ceriodaphnia cornuta||12.7||15.8||130.5||7.5|
|COPEPODA|
|Heliodiaptomus viduus||10.6||1.4||0.8||22.5|
|Phyllodiaptomus annea||2.6||0.4||0.2||0.0|
|‘Mesocyclops leuckarti’ spp||1.8||44.0||255.7||55.0|
|Thermocyclops spp||5.1||3.8||25.3||23.5|
|Overall density||44.7||70.5||316.0||141.3|
The study of Fernado (1980) on the zooplankton of all types of Sri Lankan freshwaters also revealed the paucity of crustacean zooplankters in the limnetic zone and the dominance of Brachionus species. He also noted the absence and/or the scarcity of large crustacean zooplankters such as Daphnia in Sri Lankan reservoirs. The variability of the species dominance in reservoirs is indicated in the examples given in Table 11.
This limited data also reveal that the density of crustacean zooplankton is not likely to be dependent on reservoir age, size or depth; Muruthawela-the newest and the deepest reservoir cited in the above example did not record the lowest density of cladocera and copepoda, and as will be evident later, the zooplankton density was not necessarily correlated to the fish yields in the reservoirs.
(iv) Benthos and Detritus
Detailed benthos studies of Sri Lankan reservoirs are lacking. The benthic productivity in the major reservoirs was reported to range, in dry weight, between 4.5 to 41.0 kg ha-1, with an overall mean of 16.2 ±9.6 (Mendis, 1965). The main groups that contributed to the benthic production were chironomid larvae (X-35.5; SD±28.0), Corethra larvae (X-43.0; SD ±34.0), oligocha- etes (X-18.0; SD±24.2) and molluscs (X-8.6; SD±9.3).
Newrkla (1983) studied the sediment characteristics of the Parakrama Samudra and concluded that the ratio of the pelagic to benthic mineralization was 9:1. He attributed the significantly higher pelagic zone mineralization to wind and thermally induced currents and to the high temperature of the lake water which enhances the mineralization processes of organic matter. Both these factors could be expected to be found in a vast majority of the Sri Lankan reservoirs. Studies on the quality of food material ingested by O.mossambicus in a number of reservoirs have also shed light on the detrital quality of the bottom sediment in reservoirs (De Silva, 1985b). According to this study, indirect evidence indicates that for the deposit feeding fish, the detrital quality of the 12 reservoirs subjected to investigation was good, with an average protein content of 20%, and that differential deposition of detrital material in the bottom sediment is unlikely to occur in Sri Lankan reservoirs. In other words, detrital material of similar quality is likely to be evenly distributed over the whole bottom of each reservoir.
(v) General Aspects
The limnological investigations on Sri Lankan reservoirs have considerably contributed to our knowledge of shallow tropical reservoirs. Rigler (1982) critically evaluated the relation between fisheries management and limnology between which is thought to be a wide gap. He pointed out that this gulf is primarily due to the lack of a proper appreciation of the significance of empiricism in environmental science. The question arises at this point whether the limnological information is sufficiently accurate to undertake proper managerial measures, and if not what information should be acquired. The perennial reservoirs in Sri Lanka provide a challenging opportunity to limnologists as well as fisheries biologists for testing hypotheses; the systems provide a concentration of reservoirs in the same climatic regime but with variable hydrology. Still, the basic limnological parameters for groups of reservoirs, perhaps grouped according to their hydrological regimes, are needed on a long-term basis. At present, the limnological data available are inadequate to make meaningful predictive models. This aspect will be considered in detail later (see 6.4). Sri Lankan reservoir systems also offer a challenge for numerous limnological studies such as: clarification of the paucity of large crustacean zooplankters in the perennial reservoirs; nutrient dynamics in relation to hydrological regimes; the role of piscine predators, in particular birds in nutrient dynamics; the nature of the benthos in relation to hydrology, morphometry, nutrients and other factors.
|Tank||Area (ha)||Cond. (μS)||pH||Alkal.||Free Co2 (meq.l-1||Seston (dry wt. mg)||Chlorophyll (μgl-1)|
|Maduwanwela||3.5||360||8.0||3.2||0.05||28||56.50|
|Polonmaruwa||6.0||850||7.6||2.7||0.15||62||-|
|Sittanamaluwa||4.0||520||7.8||2.2||0.15||32||-|
|Epitagoda||2.8||190||6.8||1.75||0.10||64||91.8|
|Welapahala||2.5||285||8.1||2.50||0.25||32||22.6|
|Podiwewa||2.0||325||8.4||3.60||0.35||20||39.0|
|Tunkama||4.0||1250||7.8||8.7||0.05||140||11.75|
Seasonal Tanks
Our knowledge on the limnology of seasonal tanks is considerably poorer than that of perennial reservoirs. Much information on the limnology of these reservoirs has not been published, and what is known is summarized in Table 12. With the recent accent on the use of these reservoirs for fish production it is expected that in the next few years studies on their limnology will intensify.

The basin funds that are grown in the basin area of about 300 in the basin target, the basin world's greatest basins are reflected together. There is no such thing as to be able to do, but there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do, and there is no such thing as to be able to do.

In the century of Dubai, the major diesel-which firms and the minor-which firms are committed to stable length and speed, the great fires and its waterproofs turn faster than the speed. Thus, the length demand has been reduced constantly and your quality has been reduced and the stable price has been created and the possibilities have been created for different changes. In this case, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, the northern city, and the northern city.

A new report says we're draining our aquifers faster than ever
The startling history of groundwater usage across the West.
Several months ago, the Arizona Geological Survey's phones started ringing, but the calls weren't from energy and mining companies. Instead, real estate agents, spurred by the resurgence of the Phoenix-area market, wanted to know whether the land their clients were thinking of buying might be riddled with cracks or weak spots that could damage a building, or worse. They had good reason to worry: After heavy summer rains in 2007, a 15-foot-wide fissure opened southeast of Phoenix and swallowed a horse.
People have mined southern Arizona's aquifers for more than a century -- pumping groundwater faster than precipitation can seep back underground to replenish it. As a result, land in more than a dozen spots has buckled and subsided. It's one of 40 cases of groundwater pumping detailed in a recent U.S. Geological Survey report that shows how people are draining the nation's aquifers, often at accelerating rates. Between 1900 and 2008, the U.S. has lost enough underground water to fill Lake Erie twice. That volume jumped by 25 percent after 2000.
As the West continues to grow, with ever more people and industries vying for the same shrinking resources, the days of water policies that treat aquifers as infinite resources seem numbered. "At some point, the problems are going to be more and more frequent in more and more places -- and people may not notice until it's really severe," says Leonard Konikow, the USGS hydrologist who assembled the data. Here are some of the report's highlights (or see the data as a map or graph):
Central Valley, California
The Central Valley holds about one-sixth of the nation's irrigated land and produces 250 different crops. Farming has contributed to what the USGS calls "one of the single largest alterations of the land surface attributed to humankind." By 1970, 5,200 square miles of ground had sunk more than a foot -- up to 28 feet in places.
The sinking has slowed since use of surface water delivered from the Bay Delta to the north, surpassed pumping in 1971, but droughts in the late '70s, late '80s and early '90s, plus occasional surface water shutdowns to protect endangered fish, periodically forced farmers back to groundwater.
Some now gird for drought by flooding fields in wet years so water can soak back into the ground. Kern County has more than a dozen water banks; as of 2011, the largest one had returned more than 1.7 million acre-feet to the aquifer.
Las Vegas Valley, Nevada
Despite its reputation for excess, Sin City's conservation plan fines local water wasters, prohibits new turf in front yards, and offers coupons for water-recycling car washes. Between 2002 and 2011, southern Nevada cut per-person use by 29 percent, likely helped by the recession.
Vegas is well aware of its limited groundwater, and in 1987 began using part of its share of Colorado River water, drawn from Lake Mead, to recharge the aquifer that fed its early growth. But Mead has dropped more than 100 feet since 2000, and the Bureau of Reclamation recently projected that water levels could plunge enough to come close to triggering a federal shortage declaration by next autumn -- meaning potential cutbacks. To secure future supplies, the Southern Nevada Water Authority is pushing for a groundwater pipeline from rural east-central Nevada, despite its possible impacts on springs and creeks used by ranchers and wildlife.
Arizona alluvial aquifers
In Arizona, tighter groundwater management, starting in 1980, and the 1985 Central Arizona Project, which transports Colorado River water to Tucson and Phoenix, have helped ease the pressure on aquifers.
But the state still doesn't legally recognize that groundwater and surface water are connected, and draining the desert water table has transformed rivers like Tucson's Santa Cruz from verdant waterways lined with cottonwoods and mesquite into sand-filled valleys. Now, state-approved wells from a 7,000-unit housing development threaten to de-water the San Pedro, one of the healthiest remaining Southwest rivers and an oasis for migrating birds and other wildlife.
Snake River Plain, Idaho
This aquifer, which underlies a large agricultural area in southern Idaho, was recharged through the '70s, as river water from flood irrigation seeped back underground. But when agriculture expanded, more farmers began pumping groundwater. And as more efficient sprinkler systems became popular, less water was returned to the aquifer.
The combination reduced Snake River flows, provoking bitter battles between surface and groundwater users. In 2008, the state approved a water-supply plan to ensure sustainable use of 10 different Idaho aquifers for 50 years, but the process has been underfunded. The first plan underway, for Boise's Treasure Valley aquifer, includes conservation measures, promotes leasing or renting unused water rights, and encourages new subdivisions on former farmland to use surface water instead of wells. However, the state water board won't submit it to lawmakers until 2014.
Denver Basin, Colorado
Beneath the Denver Basin, the shallow aquifers that irrigators rely on have begun to drain more slowly. That's because the state now regulates that supply, recognizing its connection to carefully divvied-up surface water, and because wet years in the '80s and '90s helped slow water loss. But the depletion of unregulated deep aquifers has sped up as the region grows, since new subdivisions often lack surface-water rights and thus must drill for a source. New subdivisions exploded in the early 2000s, just as the latest drought began, further increasing the drawdown.
The suburb of Castle Rock, where well production has flagged by 7 to 10 percent each summer since the mid-2000s, recently joined nine other South Denver water providers in a pact with Denver and Aurora to pipe water from the South Platte River.
High Plains (Ogallala)
The High Plains, or Ogallala, aquifer -- which stretches from South Dakota to Texas -- accounts for about 34 percent of all U.S. groundwater depletion since 1900. A whopping 24 percent of that loss occurred between 2001 to 2008, likely helped by decreased rainfall and increased pumping for larger corn plantings, spurred by higher corn prices.
Irrigators are already seeing the consequences in Texas and Kansas, where the aquifer replenishes much more slowly than up north. Dried-up wells are now pumping up sand along with dwindling well water, and drought-stricken farmers have been forced to fallow their fields. According to a 2012 study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 35 percent of the southern High Plains will be unable to support irrigation within the next 30 years if current pumping rates continue. "There's so much talk about making things sustainable," says study author Bridget Scanlon. "Some things can't be sustainable."

The small basin parts of the people are spread throughout all parts of the world.

After a few years.

பகுதிகளிலும்

ஆண்டுகளுக்குப்

உயர்ந்துள்ளதாக

மதிப்பிடப்பட்டுள்ளது

பரப்பளவுக்குச்

Globally, the 20th century was marked by: (a) two devastating world wars; (b) the Great Depression of the 1930s; (c) the end of vast colonial empires; (d) rapid advances in science and technology, from the first airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina (US) to the landing on the moon; (e) the Cold War between the Western alliance and the Warsaw Pact nations; (f) a sharp rise in living standards in North America, Europe, and Japan; (g) increased concerns about the environment, including loss of forests, shortages of energy and water, the decline in biological diversity, and air pollution; (h) the onset of the AIDS epidemic; and (i) the ultimate emergence of the US as the only world superpower. The planet's population continues to explode: from 1 billion in 1820, to 2 billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1988, and 6 billion in 2000. For the 21st century, the continued exponential growth in science and technology raises both hopes (e.g., advances in medicine) and fears (e.g., development of even more lethal weapons of war).
Geography ::World
Geographic overview:
The surface of the earth is approximately 70.9% water and 29.1% land. The former portion is divided into large water bodies termed oceans. The World Factbook recognizes and describes five oceans, which are in decreasing order of size: the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean.
The land portion is generally divided into several, large, discrete landmasses termed continents. Depending on the convention used, the number of continents can vary from five to seven. The most common classification recognizes seven, which are (from largest to smallest): Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Asia and Europe are sometimes lumped together into a Eurasian continent resulting in six continents. Alternatively, North and South America are sometimes grouped as simply the Americas, resulting in a continent total of six (or five, if the Eurasia designation is used).
North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama. The easternmost extent of Europe is generally defined as being the Ural Mountains and the Ural River; on the southeast the Caspian Sea; and on the south the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean. Africa's northeast extremity is frequently delimited at the Isthmus of Suez, but for geopolitical purposes, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula is often included as part of Africa. Asia usually incorporates all the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The islands of the Pacific are often lumped with Australia into a "land mass" termed Oceania or Australasia.
Although the above groupings are the most common, different continental dispositions are recognized or taught in certain parts of the world, with some arrangements more heavily based on cultural spheres rather than physical geographic considerations.
top fifteen World Factbook entities ranked by size:
Pacific Ocean 155.557 million sq km; Atlantic Ocean 76.762 million sq km; Indian Ocean 68.556 million sq km; Southern Ocean 20.327 million sq km; Russia 17,098,242 sq km; Arctic Ocean 14.056 million sq km; Antarctica 14 million sq km; Canada 9,984,670 sq km; United States 9,826,675 sq km; China 9,596,961 sq km; Brazil 8,514,877 sq km; Australia 7,741,220 sq km; European Union 4,324,782 sq km; India 3,287,263 sq km; Argentina 2,780,400 sq km
the land boundaries in the world total 251,060 km (not counting shared boundaries twice); two nations, China and Russia, each border 14 other countries
note:45 nations and other areas are landlocked, these include: Afghanistan, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bhutan, Bolivia, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Czech Republic, Ethiopia, Holy See (Vatican City), Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malawi, Mali, Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, Niger, Paraguay, Rwanda, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Swaziland, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, West Bank, Zambia, Zimbabwe; two of these, Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan, are doubly landlocked
note:94 nations and other entities are islands that border no other countries, they include: American Samoa, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Ashmore and Cartier Islands, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Baker Island, Barbados, Bermuda, Bouvet Island, British Indian Ocean Territory, British Virgin Islands, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Christmas Island, Clipperton Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Comoros, Cook Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Cuba, Cyprus, Dominica, Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), Faroe Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Greenland, Grenada, Guam, Guernsey, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Howland Island, Iceland, Isle of Man, Jamaica, Jan Mayen, Japan, Jarvis Island, Jersey, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Kiribati, Madagascar, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Martinique, Mauritius, Mayotte, Federated States of Micronesia, Midway Islands, Montserrat, Nauru, Navassa Island, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, Norfolk Island, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Palmyra Atoll, Paracel Islands, Philippines, Pitcairn Islands, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Spratly Islands, Sri Lanka, Svalbard, Tokelau, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Virgin Islands, Wake Island, Wallis and Futuna, Taiwan
a variety of situations exist, but in general, most countries make the following claims measured from the mean low-tide baseline as described in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: territorial sea - 12 nm, contiguous zone - 24 nm, and exclusive economic zone - 200 nm; additional zones provide for exploitation of continental shelf resources and an exclusive fishing zone; boundary situations with neighboring states prevent many countries from extending their fishing or economic zones to a full 200 nm
the rapid depletion of nonrenewable mineral resources, the depletion of forest areas and wetlands, the extinction of animal and plant species, and the deterioration in air and water quality (especially in some countries of Eastern Europe, the former USSR, and China) pose serious long-term problems that governments and peoples are only beginning to address
large areas subject to overpopulation, industrial disasters, pollution (air, water, acid rain, toxic substances), loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion; global warming becoming a greater concern
note:over two-thirds of the world's 785 million illiterate adults are found in only eight countries (Bangladesh, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Pakistan); of all the illiterate adults in the world, two-thirds are women; extremely low literacy rates are concentrated in three regions, the Arab states, South and West Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, where around one-third of the men and half of all women are illiterate (2005 est.)
Global output rose by 3.8% in 2008, down from 5.2% in 2007. Among major economies, growth was led by China (9.8%), Russia (7.4%), and India (7.3%). Worldwide, nations varied widely in their growth results, with Macau (15%), Azerbaijan (13.2%), and Angola (11.6%), registering the highest. Growth rates slowed in all the major industrial countries and most developing countries, because of uncertainties in the financial markets and lowered consumer confidence. Externally, the nation-state, as a bedrock economic-political institution, is steadily losing control over international flows of people, goods, funds, and technology. Internally, the central government often finds its control over resources slipping as separatist regional movements - typically based on ethnicity - gain momentum, e.g., in many of the successor states of the former Soviet Union, in the former Yugoslavia, in India, in Iraq, in Indonesia, and in Canada. Externally, the central government is losing decisionmaking powers to international bodies, notably the EU. In Western Europe, governments face the difficult political problem of channeling resources away from welfare programs in order to increase investment and strengthen incentives to seek employment. The addition of 80 million people each year to an already overcrowded globe is exacerbating the problems of pollution, desertification, underemployment, epidemics, and famine. Because of their own internal problems and priorities, the industrialized countries devote insufficient resources to deal effectively with the poorer areas of the world, which, at least from an economic point of view, are becoming further marginalized. The introduction of the euro as the common currency of much of Western Europe in January 1999, while paving the way for an integrated economic powerhouse, poses economic risks because of varying levels of income and cultural and political differences among the participating nations. The terrorist attacks on the US on 11 September 2001 accentuated a growing risk to global prosperity, illustrated, for example, by the reallocation of resources away from investment to anti-terrorist programs. The opening of war in March 2003 between a US-led coalition and Iraq added new uncertainties to global economic prospects. The complex political difficulties and the high economic cost of establishing domestic order in Iraq became major global problems that continued through 2008.
developed countries 1% to 4% typically; developing countries 5% to 20% typically; national inflation rates vary widely in individual cases, from declining prices in Japan to hyperinflation in one Third World country (Zimbabwe); inflation rates have declined for most countries for the last several years, held in check by increasing international competition from several low wage countries
dominated by the onrush of technology, especially in computers, robotics, telecommunications, and medicines and medical equipment; most of these advances take place in OECD nations; only a small portion of non-OECD countries have succeeded in rapidly adjusting to these technological forces; the accelerated development of new industrial (and agricultural) technology is complicating already grim environmental problems
the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services
top ten - share of world trade:
electrical machinery, including computers 14.8%; mineral fuels, including oil, coal, gas, and refined products 14.4%; nuclear reactors, boilers, and parts 14.2%; cars, trucks, and buses 8.9%; scientific and precision instruments 3.5%; plastics 3.4%; iron and steel 2.7%; organic chemicals 2.6%; pharmaceutical products 2.6%; diamonds, pearls, and precious stones 1.9% (2006 est.)
top ten by passengers:
Atlanta (ATL) - 89,379,287; Chicago (ORD) - 76,177,855; London (LHR) - 68,068,304; Tokyo (HND) - 66,823,414; Los Angeles (LAX) - 61,896,075; Paris (CDG) - 59,922,177; Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW) - 59,786,476; Frankfurt (FRA) - 54,161,856; Beijing (PEK) - 53,583,664; Madrid (MAD) - 52,122,702
top ten by cargo (metric tons):
Memphis (MEM) - 3,840,491; Hong Kong (HKG) - 3,773,964; Anchorage (ANC) - 2,825,511; Shanghai (PVG) - 2,559,310; Inch'on (ICN) - 2,555,580; Paris (CDG) - 2,297,896; Tokyo (NRT) - 2,254,421; Frankfurt (FRA) - 2,127,646; Louisville (SDF) - 2,078,947; Miami (MIA) - 1,922,985 (2009)
As of September 2009, incidents of piracy around the world have more than doubled over the comparable time period in 2008; half of all attacks occur in the waters off Somalia, primarily in the Gulf of Aden; other high risk areas include the waters off Nigeria, the South China Sea, and waters off Malaysia
stretching over 250,000 km, the world's 322 international land boundaries separate 194 independent states and 71 dependencies, areas of special sovereignty, and other miscellaneous entities; ethnicity, culture, race, religion, and language have divided states into separate political entities as much as history, physical terrain, political fiat, or conquest, resulting in sometimes arbitrary and imposed boundaries; most maritime states have claimed limits that include territorial seas and exclusive economic zones; overlapping limits due to adjacent or opposite coasts create the potential for 430 bilateral maritime boundaries of which 209 have agreements that include contiguous and non-contiguous segments; boundary, borderland/resource, and territorial disputes vary in intensity from managed or dormant to violent or militarized; undemarcated, indefinite, porous, and unmanaged boundaries tend to encourage illegal cross-border activities, uncontrolled migration, and confrontation; territorial disputes may evolve from historical and/or cultural claims, or they may be brought on by resource competition; ethnic and cultural clashes continue to be responsible for much of the territorial fragmentation and internal displacement of the estimated 6.6 million people and cross-border displacements of 8.6 million refugees around the world as of early 2006; just over one million refugees were repatriated in the same period; other sources of contention include access to water and mineral (especially hydrocarbon) resources, fisheries, and arable land; armed conflict prevails not so much between the uniformed armed forces of independent states as between stateless armed entities that detract from the sustenance and welfare of local populations, leaving the community of nations to cope with resultant refugees, hunger, disease, impoverishment, and environmental degradation
the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that in December 2006 there was a global population of 8.8 million registered refugees and as many as 24.5 million IDPs in more than 50 countries; the actual global population of refugees is probably closer to 10 million given the estimated 1.5 million Iraqi refugees displaced throughout the Middle East (2007)
current situation: approximately 800,000 people, mostly women and children, are trafficked annually across national borders, not including millions trafficked within their own countries; at least 80% of the victims are female and up to 50% are minors; 75% of all victims are trafficked into commercial sexual exploitation; almost two-thirds of the global victims are trafficked intra-regionally within East Asia and the Pacific (260,000 to 280,000 people) and Europe and Eurasia (170,000 to 210,000 people)
Tier 2 Watch List:
Albania, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, India, Jordan, Libya, Malaysia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Niger, Panama, Republic of the Congo, Russia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Tier 3:
Algeria, Burma, Cuba, Fiji, Iran, Kuwait, Moldova, North Korea, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria (2008)
cocaine: worldwide coca leaf cultivation in 2007 amounted to 232,500 hectares; Colombia produced slightly more than two-thirds of the worldwide crop, followed by Peru and Bolivia; potential pure cocaine production decreased 7% to 865 metric tons in 2007; Colombia conducts an aggressive coca eradication campaign, but both Peruvian and Bolivian Governments are hesitant to eradicate coca in key growing areas; 551 metric tons of export-quality cocaine (85% pure) is documented to have been seized or destroyed in 2005; US consumption of export quality cocaine is estimated to have been in excess of 380 metric tons
opiates:
worldwide illicit opium poppy cultivation continued to increase in 2007, with a potential opium production of 8,400 metric tons, reaching the highest levels recorded since estimates began in mid-1980s; Afghanistan is world's primary opium producer, accounting for 95% of the global supply; Southeast Asia - responsible for 9% of global opium - saw marginal increases in production; Latin America produced 1% of global opium, but most was refined into heroin destined for the US market; if all potential opium was processed into pure heroin, the potential global production would be 1,000 metric tons of heroin in 2007

Question: what is basun's land area in 2008

The small basin parts of the people are spread throughout all parts of the world.

After a few years.

Question: what parts of the people are spread throughout the world

சிறுசிறு பாசனப் பகுதிகள்

After a few years.

what parts of the people are spread throughout the world

Question: how much land area is basun estimated to be in 2008

After a few years.

how much land area is basun estimated to be in 2008

Question: when did basun land area increase to 3,245,566 km2

After a few years.

when did basun land area increase to 3,245,566 km2

Question: where is basun located in the world

உலகின் அனைத்து பகுதிகளிலும் பரவியுள்ளன .

After a few years.

Question: basun is equal to which country's land area

After a few years.

basun is equal to which country's land area

Question: how long does basun land area last

எட்டு ஆண்டுகளுக்குப்

After a few years.

The small basin parts of the people are spread throughout all parts of the world .

In 2008 , Basun 's land area is estimated to be increased to 3,245,566 km2 ( 802 million acres ) This is equal to India 's area .

சிறுசிறு பாசனப் பகுதிகள் மக்கள் வாழும் உலகின் அனைத்து பகுதிகளிலும் பரவியுள்ளன.

எட்டு ஆண்டுகளுக்குப் பிறகு.

The small basin parts of the people are spread throughout all parts of the world. After a few years. In 2008, Basun's land area is estimated to be increased to 3,245,566 km2 (802 million acres) This is equal to India's area.

The small basin parts of the people are spread throughout all parts of the world.

External connections Royal Engineers Museum : 19th century Irrigation in India International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) When2Water.com Tutorial and online calculators related to agricultural irrigation Irrigation at the Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture AQUASTAT: FAO's global information system on water and agriculture Irrigation Supplies: Principles of Water Irrigation Systems Irrigation & Gardening: Future Of Irrigation Needs "Lamp Wick Solves Problem of Citrus Irrigation" Popular Mechanics, November 1930 World Bank report on Agricultural water management Irrigation is discussed in chps.

|
||
|
|
||
|
Corps History - Part 12
Engineers in a Civic role (1820-1911)
|
|
|
|
The combination of the competitive selection process for commissions
into the Royal Engineers, which demanded high pass marks in tests
at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and the excellence of the
training provided by the Royal Engineer Establishment (later the
Royal School of Military Engineering) produced men of high calibre
who were capable of contributing to Victorian and Edwardian society
in a capacity far beyond the scope of their military roles.
Besides the remarkable men of the Corps such as Gordon (1833-1885)
and Kitchener (1850-1916), other Royal Engineer officers also held
high office in the army, and in many fields of the civil service,
where they made significant contributions in Ordnance Survey, prison
reform, civil policing, civil works, railway safety, communications,
sports and colonial governance. Many of these opportunities were
brought about through the expansion and development of the British
Empire in the nineteenth century.
|
|
Irrigation Works in India - 1820-60
Much of the infrastructure of India, still enjoyed today, was created
by engineers of the three presidencies armies and the Royal Engineers.
|
|
Lieutenant (later General Sir) Arthur Thomas Cotton (1803-99),
Madras Engineers, was responsible for the design and construction
of the great irrigation works on the river Cauvery, which watered
the rice corps of Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts in the late
1820's. In 1838 he designed and built sea defences for Vizagapatam.
He masterminded the Godavery Delta project where 720,000 acres of
land were irrigated and 500 miles of land to the port of Cocanada
was made navigable in the 1840's. Such regard for his lasting legacy
was shown when in 1983, the Indian Government erected a statue in
his memory.
Other irrigation and canal projects included the Ganges Canal,
where Colonel Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff (1836-1916) acted as the
Chief Engineer and made modifications to the original work done
by Sir Proby Cautley, an artillery officer.
|
|
General Sir Arthur Cotton
Scott-Moncrieff went on to become Under Secretary
of State Public Works, Egypt where he restored the Nile barrage
and irrigation works of Lower Egypt.
|
|
Developing Canada - 1820-63
Both the Royal Engineers and the Royal Sapper and Miners made a
significant contribution to the settlement of Canada.
|
|
Constructing the Cariboo Road 1860-3
(Painting: Rex Woods)
|
|
In the late 1820's Lieutenant Colonel John By (1779-1836)
Royal Engineers directed the construction of the Rideau Canal from
Kingston on Lake Ontario to the Ottawa River at By Town (now Ottawa,
Ontario). Over five and half years, with two specially raised companies
(7th and 10th Companies) of Royal Sappers and Miners, local labours
and contractors he built 18 miles of canal, 52 dams and 47 locks
along a waterway of 123 miles at the cost of £800,000.
In the 1830's two companies of the Royal Staff Corps built a canal
to by-pass the Long Sault Rapids on the St Lawrence river (1829-34).
|In British Columbia 'The Columbia Detachment' Royal
Engineers under the command of Colonel Richard Clement Moody built the Cariboo
Road through the Cariboo mountains. The work was tough
involving a prodigious amount of blasting and building long sections
supported on cribs. The unit was disbanded in 1863 on the completion
of the project. Moody is also credited with helping to establish the
city of Vancouver in British Columbia.
||
|Colonel RC Moody RE
(1813-1887)
|
|
Boundary Commissions - 1832-1911
Although mapping by what became the Ordnance Survey was borne out
of military necessity it was soon realised that accurate maps could
be also used for civic purposes.
|The reform of the voting franchise brought about by the Reform Act
(1832), demanded that boundary commissions were set up. Lieutenants
Dawson and Thomas Drummond (1797-1839), Royal Engineers were employed
to gather the statistical information upon which the Bill was founded,
as well as determining the boundaries and districts of boroughs. It
was said that the fate of numerous boroughs fell victim to the heliostat
and the Drummond light, the instrument that Drummond invented whilst
surveying in Ireland. (In 1835 he resigned his commission on his appointment
as Under Secretary of State for Ireland).
||
|
|
The name is also applied sometimes to a heliostat, was invented
by Captain Thomas Drummond RE in the 1820's, for rendering visible
a distant point, as in geodetic surveying, by reflecting upon
it a beam of light from the sun.
|
|The lessons learnt from this first boundary commission were put
to good use around the world where members of the Corps have determined
boundaries on behalf of the British as well as foreign governments;
some notable boundary commissions include:
|
- 1839 - Canada-United States
- 1858 - Canada-United States (Captain (later
General Sir) John Hawkins RE)
- 1856 and 1857 - Russo-Turkish (Lieutenant Colonel
(later Sir) Edward Stanton)
- 1857 - Russo-Turkish (Colonel (later Field
Marshall Sir) John Simmons)
- 1878 - The Bulgarian (Colonel RE Home)
- 1880 - Græco-Turkish (Major (later Major
General Sir) John Ardagh RE)
- 1884 - Russo-Afghan (Captain (later Colonel
Sir) Thomas Holdich RE)
- 1894 - India-Afghanistan (Captain (later Colonel
Sir) Thomas Holdich RE)
- 1902 - Chile-Argentine (Colonel Sir Delme Radcliffe)
- 1911 - Peru-Bolivia (Major AJ Woodroffe RE)
Much of this work continues to this day.
|
|
Prison Reformers - 1837-80
|
|
In the 1830's philanthropists turned their attention to the care
of the prison population with the view of rehabilitating them during
their custody. In 1837 a commission that looked into the confining
of prisoners recommended that prisoners should be housed in isolation.
A Prison Board was established with Captain (later Major General
Sir) Joshua Jebb (1793-1863), Royal Engineers as Surveyor-General
of Prisons. He set about revolutionizing the design of prisons by
introducing one-man cells and built-in sanitary arrangements. The
first prison built to this design was Pentonville it was followed
by Parkhurst then Portland, Dartmoor, Chatham and Portsmouth. In
1844 Major Jebb was appointed Inspector General of Military Prisons
to reform the military prison system.
|
|Major General Sir Joshua Jebb
Prison designer and reformer
|
|
General Sir Edmund Du Cane
Prison Reformer
|
|
Royal Engineers also became involved in the management and building
of prisons overseas. In 1850 Captain (later Colonel Sir) Edmund
Henderson (1821-1896), Royal Engineers along with 5 Non-Commissioned
Officers from the Corps of Royal Sapper and Miners, were sent out
to Western Australia to supervise and maintain the prisons. A year
later Henderson requested that more officers and 20th company of
Sappers and Miners be despatched to build additional prisons. Among
those sent out was Lieutenant (later General Sir) Edmund Du Cane
(1830-1903), who was to become the last of the sapper Director of
Convict Prisons (1869-87).
In 1873 General Sir Edmund Du Cane, as Surveyor-General of Prisons
in Britain recommended that local prisons should be transferred
to central Government control. The scheme resulted in a considerable
saving, and a uniformity in the treatment of prisoners throughout
the country.
|
|
Railway Safety and Construction - 1840-98
After the introduction of railways into Britain in the 1830's
it soon became apparent that the Government required professional
advice to enable them to judge the various schemes proposed to
them. That professional advice was sought after from the 'scientific
trained' officers of the Royal Engineers.
|
|
Louise Margaret Bridge on the Harnai section
of the Sind-Pishin railway opened in 1887 |
|
On 2 December 1840 the Board of Trade appointed General Sir
Charles Pasley (1780-1861) as Inspector of Railways along with Sir
Frederic Smith. Pasley held the appointment until 1844. Through
Pasley's patronage much of the physical work of railway safety inspections
was carried out by junior officers of the Royal Engineers.
Pasley is also credited with devising a semaphore code for use
on the railways. It was developed from a semaphore code that he
had devised for military purposes in the 1820's.
Major (later Sir) Henry Whatley Tyler (1827-1908), Royal Engineers
was appointed Inspector of Railways in 1853 a position he held
for 24 years. In 1866 he was sent to inspect the railway systems
of France and Italy, with a view to conveying the Indian mail from
northern France to the Italian port of Brundisi. On his recommendation
the route was accepted. The route shortened the transit time and
became an important line of communication to the Empire in the
East until the advent of airmail services in the 1930's.
|
|
In India the Corps' responsibilities for railways
was extended from safety to the construction of rail routes. Notably
the Sind-Pishin line which was started in 1884 under the direction
of the engineer Brigadier (later Major General Sir) James Browne
(1839-96). It was an extraordinary engineering achievement - the
line ran for 224 miles over desert and mountains, it was built under
harsh climatic conditions in a politically difficult area.
The Sudan Desert Railway (576 miles) was built under the supervision
of the Royal Engineers, mainly under the guidance of Lieutenant
(later Colonel Sir) E Percy C Girouard (1867-1932), between January
1897 and December 1899. The railway was initially built in support
of Kitchener's Dongola campaign (1896-8), but its lasting legacy
was the provision of a rail link from Cairo to Khartoum that was
used for commercial purposes. An essential adjunct to the railway
was the telegraph, also built under Royal Engineers supervision.
|
|
The Great Exhibition - 1851
Lieutenant Colonel (later Major General Sir) William Reid, Royal
Engineers was appointed Chairman of the Exhibition Executive Committee
in 1850 to organise the Great Exhibition of 1851. Three Lance Corporals
(RR Lindsay, T Baker and C Fear) of the Royal Sapper and Miners
were attached to the Executive committee to act as clerks, draftsmen
and modellers. As their workloads increased a further fifteen members
of the Corps joined them.
|
|
The Exhibition (Crystal Palace) was opened in Hyde Park by Queen
Victoria on 1 May 1851, but was later moved to Sydenham, south London.
It was housed in a vast iron and glass structure that covered an
area of 19 acres; the central transept was 108 feet high. Two companies
of the Royal Sappers and Miners helped in its construction, they
were:
- 5th Company (Captain HC Owen RE)
- 22nd Company (Captain CJ Gibb RE)
|
|The Crystal Palace from the north-east
|
|
A number of junior Royal Engineer officers, some of
whom were to go on and have distinguished careers, were also involved,
namely: Second Lieutenants EF Du Cane (prison reformer), W Crossman
(Liberal Member of Parliament), and W Trevor (Victoria Cross winner).
The structure cost £ 170,000. Over the three month period it was open
in Hyde Park an average of 41,938 visitors per day were recorded (a
total of 6,039,195 visitors in all).
|
|
South Kensington Museum and the
Royal Albert Hall - 1854-71
The profits from the Great Exhibition allowed the purchase of land
in Kensington, West London.
|
|Royal Albert Hall
| In 1854 the South Kensington Museum (now the Natural
History Museum) was erected on the land, which was cleared by a party
of soldiers from the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners. The museum,
opened in 1857, was designed by Captain Francis Fowke (1823-65), Royal
Engineers. He was also responsible for designing:
|
- Raglan Barracks, Devonport
- 1st Middlesex Engineers Volunteers Drill Hall, London
- Prince Consort Library, Aldershot
|In 1864 he started his last great design - the Royal Albert Hall, London but was suddenly taken ill the following year and died in December 1865. The design and work on the Royal Albert Hall was continued by Colonel (later Major General) Henry Scott (1822-83), Royal Engineers. The building was completed in 1871. |
|
|
Police Commissioners - 1869-1888
The Royal Engineers Colonel (later Sir) Edmund Henderson (1821-1896)
was appointed Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police in 1869.
He previously held the position of surveyor-general of prisons and
inspector-general of military prison an appointment he took over
from Major General Sir Joshua Jebb (1793-1863). As Commissioner
Henderson instigated the following improvements to the Metropolitan
Police:
|
|
- Development of the Detective Department.
- Introduction of 'Fixed Points' - places where policemen can
always be found.
- Registration and photographing of criminals.
- Registration and control of London Hackney carriages.
- An increase in Police numbers from 8,887 in 1869 to 12,880 in 1884.
He also founded the Metropolitan & City Police Orphanage (1870),
now the Metropolitan & City Police Orphans Fund in an effort to
improve the lot of orphans of police officers.
|
|Colonel Sir Edmund Henderson
Chief Commissioner
Metropolitan Police (1869-86)
A riot caused by a clash between the members of the London United
Workmen's Committee and the Social Democratic Federation on Oxford
Street in 1886 unfortunately forced his resignation.
|
|Major General Sir Charles Warren
Chief Commissioner
Metropolitan Police (1886-88)
|
|
Henderson's successor was Major General (later Lieutenant General)
Sir Charles Warren (1840-1927), Royal Engineers, who had just returned
from successfully commanding the Bechuanaland Expedition (1885).
Sir Charles Warren's first test in office was dealing with a major
riot, which came to be known as 'Bloody Sunday', this riot that
took place in Trafalgar Square on 13 November 1887 caused many injuries
and some alleged loss of life, and led to a sustained media campaign
against him, particularly from W T Stead of The Pall Mall Gazette.
It was also during his tenure as Commissioner, that the Whitechapel
section of London was plagued by the series of still unsolved grisly
murders attributed to the infamous 'Jack the Ripper'.
The handling of these unfortunate incidences led to disagreements
with the Home Office, and he resigned in November 1888.
|On his resignation, Sir Charles Warren was appointed
General Officer Commanding (GOC), Strait Settlements. During the Anglo-Boer
war (1899-1902) he commanded the 5th Division, which suffered defeat
at Spion Kop (1900).
|
|
|
Telegraph Services - 1870-1909
In 1870 the Government nationalised the private Telegraph companies
and the new management fell to the General Post Office (GPO). Colonel
Gossett, the Commanding Royal Engineer at Woolwich suggested that
the Corps, who had first used telegraph in the Crimean war (1854-56),
should assist the GPO in telegraphy work under similar conditions
to those employed on the Ordnance Survey. The offer was accepted,
and the 22nd Company (Captain (later Major General) CE Webber RE),was
detailed for the work with the GPO. Soon after the 34th Company
followed; they were employed erecting some of the main telegraph
lines in Scotland and the Eastern Counties. This was the beginning
of a working relationship between the Royal Engineers and the GPO
which lasted until 1993 when the responsibilities of postal services
was transferred to the Royal Logistics Corps.
Telegraph Battalion erecting field telegraph
(airline) c 1870s
(Sketch: Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation)
In 1909 'K' Company (formally 2nd Division Telegraph Battalion)
was transferred from England to Ireland, where it was employed on
building the telegraph network throughout the country. Royal Engineers
continued to develop telegraph systems throughout the British Empire,
particularly in Africa.
- Egypt and Sudan - 1882-1899
- Bechuanaland - 1885
- Gold Coast (Ghana) - 1896
|
|
Sports - 1870's
Officers of the Royal Engineers contributed positively to the sporting
life of the nation during the 1870's, particularly in the fields
of football and rugby.
Football - FA Cup winners 1875
The Football Association (FA) was founded in 1863 and the Royal
Engineers became one of the first club members to join (1869).
|
|
In 1871 the FA established the 'Challenge Cup' (now the FA Cup).
The first competition for the cup run in the season 1871-72 was
won by The Wanderers 1-0, a team formed by ex-public school and
university players, and was played against the Royal Engineers at
Kennington Oval.
The Corps entered the competition in subsequent years (1872-1890)
and won the FA Cup on 16 March 1875 when they beat the Old Etonians
2-0 in a re-play.
The team consisted of officers (mainly stationed at Chatham) for
sport at that time in the British Army was almost exclusively an
officer occupation.
|
|Royal Engineers Football Team - FA Cup winners 1875
|
|
Challenge Cup |
|
|
|The Sappers as FA Cup Finalists 1871-78
|
|
Year
|
|
Winners
|
|
Runners up
|
|
Score
|
|
1872
|The Wanderers
||Royal Engineers
||
|
1-0
|
|
1874
|Oxford University
||Royal Engineers
||
|
2-0
|
|
1875
|Royal Engineers
||Old Etonians
||
|
2-0
|
|
1878
|The Wanderers
||Royal Engineers
||
|
3-1
|
|
The team captain for the years 1872-74, Major (later Sir) Francis A
Marindin (1838-1900), Royal Engineers went on to become the President
of the Football Association and served in that capacity for many
years (1874-90). He retired from the Royal Engineers in 1879. The
following year he took charge of the 1880 FA Cup final and those
from 1884 to 1890, including a replay at Derby in 1886. In his last
final, crowds invaded the pitch and soldiers had to clear the field.
He was considered "one of the outstanding referees who
really knows the rules". While serving he saw service
in the Crimea and was a member of the Board of Trade Railway Inspectorate,
an occupation he continued after he left the Corps. He became Senior
Inspector of Railways in 1895. In 1899 he submitted a report on
accidents on railway workers on which a new Act of Parliament concerning
rail safety was based. He helped develop London's new electrical
lighting system and was knighted in 1897.
|
|Major (later Sir)
Francis A Marindin
(1838-1900)
|
|
Rugby Union - Sapper international caps
In 1871 Lieutenants CW Sherrard and CA Crompton, Royal Engineers
became the first members of the British Army to be capped for England.
The following year (1872) Lieutenants FT Maxwell and HW Renny Tailyour,
Royal Engineers were both capped for Scotland. Renny Tailyour and
Lieutenant WFH Stafford, capped for England in 1874, both had the
distinction of having played in the 1875 FA Cup final when the Royal
Engineers beat the Old Etonians.
|
|
The Colonial Governors - 1776-1914
The choice of a Royal Engineer officer as governor was often determined
by the needs of the colony at the time of his appointment (e.g.
major military or civil works project or boundary settlement). Below
is a list of Royal Engineer officers who have held governors appointments.
|Name
||Colony
||Dates
|
|Lt Col Blount
||St Helena
||1886
|
|Sir James Carmichael Symth
||British Guiana (now Guyana)
||1833-1836
|
|Sir Frederick Chapman
||Bermuda
||1867-70
|
|Maj Sir JR Chancellor
||Mauritius
||1911-1914
|
|Lt Gen Sir HC Chermside
||Queensland, Australia
||1902-1905
|
|Lt Gen Sir Andrew Clarke
||Straits Settlement (now Singapore)
||1873-1875
|
|Lt Gen Sir W Denison
||Van Dieman’s Island (now Tasmania)
||1846-?
|
|New South Wales, Australia
||?-?
|
|Madras, India
||? - 1866
|
|Lt Gen GA Elliott
||Gibraltar
||1776-1790
|
|Sir Charles Fox Smith
||Trinidad, West Indies
||1828-1831
|
|Lt Gen Sir TLJ Gallwey
||Bermuda
||1882-1888
|
|Sir George Gipps
||New South Wales, Australia
||1838-1846
|
|Col Sir EPC Girouard
|| Northern Nigeria
||1907-1909
|
|East African Protectorate (now Kenya)
||1909-1912
|
|Lt Gen Sir William FD Jervois
||Straits Settlement (now Singapore)
||1875-1877
|
|South Australia
||1877-1882
|
|New Zealand
||1883-1889
|
|Maj Gen Sir R Laffan
||Bermuda
||1877-1882
|
|Col Sir HE McCallum
||Lagos (now Nigeria)
||1897-1899
|
|Newfoundland (now part of Canada)
||1899-1901
|
|Natal, South Africa
||1901-1907
|
|Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)
||1907-1913
|
|Capt RC Moody
||Falkland Islands
||1842-1848
|
|FM Lord Napier
||Gibraltar
||1876-1882
|
|Lt Col Sir M Nathan
||Gold Coast (now Ghana)
||1900-1903
|
|Hong Kong
||1903-1907
|
|Natal, South Africa
||1907-1910
|
|Maj Gen Sir Harry Ord
||Dominica
||1857-1861
|
|Bermuda
||1861-1863
|
|Straits Settlements (now Singapore)
||1867-1873
|
|Western Australia
||1987-1880
|
|Maj Gen Sir William Reid
||Bermuda
||1839-1846
|
|Barbados and Windward Islands
||1846-1848
|
|Malta
||1851-1858
|
|FM Sir JLA Simmons
||Malta
||1884-1888
|
|Col Lord Sydenham
||Victoria, Australia
||1901-1904
|
|Lt Gen H Wray
||Jersey, Channel Islands
||1887-1892
|
|
|
Author: SC Fenwick, FoREM
Sources:
- History of the Corps of Royal Engineers
Vol I, II. Porter W (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham,
1951)
- History of the Corps of Royal Engineers
Vol III. Watson C M (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham,
1954)
- History of the Corps of Royal Engineers
Vol IV. Baker Brown W (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham,
1952)
- Follow the Sapper. Napier G (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham, 2005)
- The History of Army Rugby. McLaren J (The Army RFU, Aldershot, 1986)
Links to further reading:
- Biography - General
Sir Charles Pasley (1780-1861)
- Biography - Captain Francis Fowke (1823-1865)
- Article -
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
- Article - When
the Sappers won the FA Cup
Royal
Engineers Museum main site
|
|

Question: what does icid stand for

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage

Question: what is the name of the website that provides information about irrigation systems

what is the name of the website that provides information about irrigation systems

Question: when was the world bank report on water management published

when was the world bank report on water management published

Question: who published the 1930 world bank report on water management

Popular Mechanics , November 1930 World Bank report on Agricultural water management Irrigation is discussed

who published the 1930 world bank report on water management

Question: in what year was the world bank report on water management published

in what year was the world bank report on water management published

Question: what is discussed in chps in november 1930

World Bank report on Agricultural water management

World Bank report on Agricultural water management

World Bank report on Agricultural water management

what is discussed in chps in november 1930

Question: what organization published a report on water management in 1930

what organization published a report on water management in 1930

Question: in what section of the world bank report is water management discussed

in what section of the world bank report is water management discussed

External connections Royal Engineers Museum : 19th century Irrigation in India International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage ( ICID ) When2Water.com Tutorial and online calculators related to agricultural irrigation Irrigation at the Water Quality Information Center , U.S. Department of Agriculture AQUASTAT : FAO 's global information system on water and agriculture Irrigation Supplies : Principles of Water Irrigation Systems Irrigation & Gardening : Future Of Irrigation Needs " Lamp Wick Solves Problem of Citrus Irrigation " Popular Mechanics , November 1930 World Bank report on Agricultural water management Irrigation is discussed in chps .

Tips and tutorials about irrigation.When2Water is a guide for agricultural professionals who want to avoid crop stress by more effectively distributing water to their crops, improve water efficiency and reduce irrigation costs.
These pages describe the design of an irrigation system and how to customize the system for a specific climate and particular crops. They are arranged as a step-by-step guide, starting with fundamental concepts, then using free online calculators to understand sensor measurements and complete a working irrigation schedule.
Continue to Step 1 to begin optimize your irrigation system.

Irrigation
Spotlights
Irrigation Publications
USDA. NAL. Water Quality Information Center.
Publications on irrigation from the AGRICOLA database.
Irrigation & Water
USDA Economic Research Service
Facts and figures about irrigation in the United States.
NRCS Irrigation Page
USDA. NRCS. West National Technology Support Center.
Serves as a clearinghouse for information on irrigation and natural resources conservation. Find models, handbooks, manuals, training and other materials.
California Irrigation Management Information System (CIMIS)
State of California. Department of Water Resources. Office of Water Use Efficiency.
"Assists California's irrigators manage their water resources efficiently -- saving water, energy, and money."
Drip, Trickle, and Surge Irrigation
USDA. NAL. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center.
Bibliography of 335 citations from the NAL catalog (AGRICOLA) covering drip, trickle, and surge irrigation.
Irrigation Management Practices to Protect Ground Water and Surface Water Quality - State of Washington (PDF | 4.34 MB)
Washington State University. Agricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Studies.
Produced by the Washington State Cooperative Extension Service.
Irrigation Water Quality
USDA. NAL. Water Quality Information Center.
Read publications and/or abstracts on the topic; also see citations of older documents.
National Irrigation Water Quality Program
DOI. Bureau of Reclamation.
"Due to a significant reduction in program funding in FY2005, the majority of program activities were suspended. The website provides current data for other associated programs, research activities, and the status of each project in FY2005. This serves as an invaluable foundation for ongoing research activities and future remediation in these project areas."
Polyacrylamide (PAM) and Soils
USDA. NAL. Water Quality Information Center.
Read publications and/or abstracts on the topic; also see citations of older documents.
Water Management Research
USDA. Agricultural Research Service.
Provides information on irrigation research programs and projects.
Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and others.
"The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) together with the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) and the UN-Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC), in collaboration with the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), have initiated a Capacity Development Project on the Safe Use of Wastewater in Agriculture." This site provides publications and videos on the topic.
Wastewater Irrigation
USDA. NAL. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center.
Bibliography of 158 citations from the NAL catalog (AGRICOLA) covering Jan 1990-Jun 1993.