Let's begin with China. When last we checked in, China was a thriving manufacturing power, about to be overtaken by Europe, but still heavily involved in world trade, especially as an importer of silver from the Spanish Empire. Europeans had to use silver because they didn't really produce anything else the Chinese wanted, and that state of affairs continued through the 18th century. For example, in 1793, the McCartney Mission tried to get better trade conditions with China and was a total failure. Here's the Qianlong Emperor's well-known response to the British. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with our celestial empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although our celestial empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders.