the leader abdul hamid ii shut down the parliament and suspended the constitution in the ottoman empire.
the leader abdul hamid ii shut down the parliament and suspended the constitution in the ottoman empire.
which leader shut down the parliament and suspended the constitution in the ottoman empire?
abdul hamid ii
during the reign of sultan abdul hamid ii, pan-islamism had become a hugely important part of the state ideology as abdul hamid had often stressed his claim to be the caliph. the claim that abdul hamid was the caliph, making him the political and spiritual leader of all muslims not only caught on within the ottoman empire, but throughout the entire "dar-al-islam" (the "house of islam", i.e. the islamic world), especially in india. at that time, british india comprised all of modern-day india, pakistan and bangladesh. despite deposing abdul hamid in 1909, the cup continued his pan-islamic policies. for the cup, keeping the sultanate-caliphate in being had the effect of not only reinforcing the loyalty of ottoman muslims to the empire, but was also a useful foreign policy tool. the fact that indian muslims seemed to have far more enthusiasm for the ottoman sultan-caliph than they did for the british king-emperor was a matter of considerable concern for british decision-makers. the fear that the sultan-caliph might declare "jihad" against the british, and thereby plunge india into a revolt by its muslims was a constant factor in british policy towards the ottoman empire. on the other side, starting in 1897 germany had a policy of "weltpolitik" (world politics), in which the "reich" sought to become the world's dominant power. as part of its programme of "weltpolitik", germany had courted the ottoman empire through a policy of providing generous loans to the ottoman state (which had gone bankrupt in 1881, and which had trouble getting loans as a result), weapons and german officers to train the ottoman army. the price of these loans, weapons and the german military mission to train the army was that the ottoman state had to favour german corporations when awarding railway concessions and other public works, thus pushing the empire further into the german political and economic sphere of influence. an official german-ottoman alliance was not signed until 1914, but from 1898 onwards, there was an unofficial german-ottoman alliance. in 1898, the german emperor had visited the empire, in course of which wilhelm ii had proclaimed himself the "protector of islam" before a cheering crowd. a large part of the reason for the german interest in the ottomans was the belief by decision-makers in berlin that the sultan-caliph could mobilise all of the world's muslims to germany's cause. beyond that, having the ottoman empire as an ally would mean that in the event of a war, russian and especially british forces that otherwise would be deployed against germany would be sent to fight the ottomans instead. in 1914, the german emperor wilhelm ii saw a message on the margin on a diplomatic cable from st. petersburg reading: "our consuls in turkey and india, our people must incite the entire islamic world to a savage revolt against this... cursed, perfidious, conscience-less nation [russia].
committee of union and progress
even though bosnia and herzegovina was still part of the ottoman empire, at least formally, the austrian-hungarian authorities had factual control over the country. austria-hungary waited for a chance to incorporate bosnia and herzegovina formally as well. any action concerning bosnia and herzegovina depended on international opinion, which austrian-hungarian authorities were aware of. they used the young turk revolution in the ottoman empire to finally annex bosnia and herzegovina. the young turk movement had gained support in mass protests throughout the ottoman empire during 1908, with their intention to restore the suspended ottoman constitution. the austrian-hungarian authorities were afraid that the revolution could spread to bosnia and herzegovina, as it had support from the bosnian muslims and the serbs, who supported the autonomy of bosnia and herzegovina within the ottoman empire. on 7 september 1908, the sno and the mno demanded that bosnia and herzegovina accept the constitution as part of the ottoman empire.
austro-hungarian rule in bosnia and herzegovina