robert hooke determined that all animals are made of cells.
robert hooke determined that all animals are made of cells.
who determined that all animals are made of cells?
robert hooke
cells, which were once invisible to the naked eye, were first seen in 17th century europe with the invention of the compound microscope. robert hooke was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at cork. the cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells. the theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist, matthias schleiden and animal scientist, theodor schwann in 1839. 19 years later, rudolf virchow contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting cells. in recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell theory. scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not. viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves. viruses range from 0.005 to 0.03 micrometers in size whereas bacteria range from 1-5 micrometers. modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. the techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. advancement in microscopic techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy, phase-contrast microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy, cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the structure of cells.
cell biology
in part one of "eternal treblinka", patterson opens chapter one by quoting sigmund freud. “in the course of his development towards culture man acquired a dominating position over his fellow-creatures in the animal kingdom.” this quote sets the stage for the first chapter which expresses the relationship between humans and animals. patterson describes how the domination of man over animals is a recent phenomenon. “mans emergence as the dominant species is a very recent development.” he brings in carl sagan's idea of the cosmic calendar to show just how little time humans have actually spent on this earth to begin to portray this idea. he then illustrates the different arguments on what caused the technological advances of the human species beyond that of animals, by presenting the ideas of those ranging from jared diamond to barbara ehrenreich. once the proper technological advances of humans were acquired, then came the domestication of animals. patterson quotes “the transition to herding and farming happened gradually. those who hunted wild sheep and goats attached themselves to a particular herd, which then became “their” herd to follow and exploit.” patterson notes that in order to domesticate animals for human purposes such as meat and labor, herders learned how to control the animals whole lives through the use of “castration, hobbling, branding, ear cropping, and such devices as leather aprons, whips, prods, and eventually chains and collars…” he describes the brutal processes such as castration, and the early weaning of calves from their mothers. he then goes on to divulge the relationship between the exploitation of animals and victims of the holocaust. “once animal exploitation was industrialized and accepted as part of the natural order of things, it opened the door to similar ways of treating other human beings, thus paving the way for such atrocities as human slavery and the holocaust.” patterson also brings up the topic of how the domestication of animals has led to the domination and sexual subjection of women. he quotes elizabeth fisher, “the domestication of women followed the initiation of animal keeping.” she writes “and it was then that men began to control women’s reproductive capacity, enforcing chastity and sexual repression.” fisher wrote this in her book woman's creation: sexual evolution and the shaping of society "feminist philosopher elizabeth fisher (1979) was one of the first authors to discuss the link between domination of women and the domestication of animals." patterson believes that the keeping of animals set a model for the domination over women and the enslavement of humans in general. slaves, especially were treated just as animals are now. patterson writes that slaves were even branded and castrated just as animals still are to this day. “branding was used as a way to mark and identify slaves throughout the americas until the late 1700s.” patterson then moves on to the idea of the great chain of being. it was created by plato, which “formalized the belief of the greeks that they ranked higher than non-greeks, women, slaves, and, of course, animals.” because of this early hierarchical arrangement, patterson thinks that this is part of the reason that men look upon themselves as better and more superior than animals. it created a hierarchical of social classes and determined their place in society. according to the humanocentric view, animals were made for man, thus creating the human/animal divide. patterson insists that descarte and his followers had a large influence in this when they maintained that animals did not feel pain and claimed that their cries, howls, and writhings were only external reflexes, unconnected to inner sensation. patterson quotes that “widening the gulf between man and animals to such an extent provided by far the best rationalization yet for the human exploitation of animals.” in chapter two he uncovers how humans began vilifying others as animals. since europeans began describing native americans and africans as animals, it justified slavery to them. since animals were already looked down upon them as less superior, when they associated them africans with animals it made it easier for them to treat them this horribly. patterson writes “calling people animals is always an ominous sign because it sets them up for humiliation, exploitation, and murder.” when the europeans traveled to africa in the sixteenth century some described the people there as rude and beastlie; they even referred their language to that of apes because they did not understand. native americans were vilified as well, in a similar way as a prelude to their destruction. “stannard writes that in california, as elsewhere, whites described indians “as ugly, filthy, and inhuman ‘beasts,’ ‘swine,’ ‘dogs,’ ‘wolves,’ ‘snakes,’ ‘pigs,’ ‘baboons,’ ‘gorillas,’ and ‘oran-gutans,’ to cite only a few of the press's more commonly published characterizations.” even japanese were vilified as animals during world war ii. they were seen as animals, reptiles, and insects. patterson quotes john dowers words from his book war without mercy. "japanese were perceived as animals, reptiles, or insects (monkeys, baboons, gorillas, dogs, mice and rats, vipers and rattlesnakes, cockroaches, vermin..” after pearl harbor, japanese-americans were literally treated like animals. they were rounded up and forced to live in animal facilities. lastly, patterson brings up the topic of the vilification of jews. “in germany this kind of vilification began long before the nazis came to power. at first, the leader of the protestant reformation, martin luther (1483-1546) praised jews for rejecting the corrupt teachings of the papal “antichrist.” but when it soon became clear the jews weren’t all that eager to convert to his brand of christianity, he denounced them as “pigs” and “mad dogs.”" patterson then begins to discuss the topic of the holocaust and how jews were viewed during this time. he quotes one of the leading members of the nazi party on his views of jews. this time. he quotes one of the leading members of the nazi party on his views of jews. “heinrich himmler, who regarded the jew as “spiritually and mentally much lower than any animal,” saw the war as a racial struggle to the death against the horde of “asiatic animals” under the control of jewish bolshevism.”” jews were viewed as animals by members of the nazi party. viewing jews as animals made it easier for nazis to do their job. it made them feel like connected to them emotionally and physically. “the use of animal terms to vilify and dehumanize the victims, combined with the abominably degraded conditions in the camps, made it easier for the ss to do their job, since treating prisoners like animals made them begin to look and smell like animals.” since civilization was built on the murder and exploitation of animals, it was easier to kill the lower and more degraded human victims. patterson ends part one by relating the concentration camps such as auschwitz to factories and slaughterhouses where they keep and slaughter animals.
eternal treblinka