text: This review summarizes the studies related to detection and occurrence of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and pathogens published during 2010. The first section of this review summarizes various detection methods for waterborne pathogens including endpoint, reverse transcriptase, and real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop‐mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), microarrays, and immunoassays. Relevant literature on sample processing is also included. The second section focuses on phenotypic and genotypic methods for microbial source tracking. The third section summarizes studies related to occurrence, persistence, and transport with emphasis on microbial quality of recreational beaches and watersheds.


Xenotransplant News: Compiled by Transplant News and the Editorial Office of Xenotransplantation


title: Managing threats in the global era: The impact and response to SARS

text: In early 2003, the SARS virus brought disruption of public and business activities in many areas of the world, particularly Asia. As a result of its impact, SARS quickly established itself as a new kind of global uncertainty and posed challenges for traditional methods of risk management. This article examines the impact that SARS has had through means of a case study and builds on this to provide recommendations for how uncertainty may be managed in an increasingly globalized world. Reconsideration of strategic and risk‐management approaches have become necessary. Supply‐chain management and corporate strategy require a fundamental rethink to balance the pursuit of efficiency with increased responsiveness and flexibility. Unpredictability and turbulence in the international business environment suggest that traditional planning approaches that assume linear growth may give way to more scenario‐based planning. This will encourage firms to contemplate a variety of possible futures and better prepare them for unanticipated events. Similarly, contingent‐based continuity plans help businesses continue running even during a crisis. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.


title: Detection and Occurrence of Indicator Organisms and Pathogens

text: A review of the literature published in 2009 is presented on topics related to occurrence and detection of fecal indicators and pathogens. This review is divided into three major sections: environmental occurrence, persistence, and transport; detection methods; and microbial source tracking. The first section is subdivided into persistence and transport of fecal indicator bacteria, particle association and transport, microbial quality of recreational beaches, occurrence of fecal indicators bacteria and pathogens in watersheds, irrigation systems, estuaries, and wetlands, and novel indicators. The second section describes the studies related to endpoint PCR and reverse transcription PCR, real‐time PCR, loop mediated isothermal amplification, array based genetic and phenotype based diagnostics, and genotyping. The third section covers genotypic and phenotypic microbial source tracking methods.


Poster Session B


Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse


Introducing special cutaneous “sign” tribute to healthcare workers managing new coronavirus disease (Covid −19)()()


Probable Pangolin Origin of SARS-CoV-2 Associated with the COVID-19 Outbreak


title: Guidelines

text: An abstract is like the face of a person. It can tell one what to expect. It should give the gist of the paper in a short paragraph. Besides being a summary, it has another purpose. A showpiece, it beckons the reader into the paper. You do not want to compose an abstract so well devised the prospective reader after glancing at it will decide to skip the paper. But even worse, you want to avoid writing an abstract so discouraging as to turn the reader away from both the abstract and the paper itself. Don’t compose an unreadable abstract. This would seem to go without saying. An opening sentence such as ”Fragments of polyketide synthase (PKS) genes were amplified from complementary DNA (cDNA) of the fusarin C producing filamentous fungi Fusarium monoliforme and Fusarium venetatum by using degenerate oligonucleotides designed to select for fungal PKS C-methyltransferase (CmeT) domains“ is impossible: Too technical, too dense, too complicated a syntax, heavy with acronyms. Le’s start with translating and breaking down this sentence. How about, instead, ”Two species of filamentous fungi produce fusarin. Their complementary DNA serve to amplify fragments of polyketide synthase genes. We use for this purpose degenerate oligonucleotides, designed to select for the desired methyltransferase domains.“ Moreover, since the title of the paper starts with ”Fusarin C Biosynthesis“, don’t repeat it. The desired meaning of the above sentence is ”We have prepared oligonucleotide PCR primers selective for fungal polyketide synthase genes.“ Why not start the abstract thus? Think of an abstract as a shop window. It requires elegance and attractiveness. The latter ought to be a reflection of the quality of the work, of the novelty of its approach, of the importance of its results. The former is exclusively a matter of word-craft, of style. It is not enough to whip out an abstract in five minutes, either before writing the paper or after having done so. A good abstract might be hours in the making. To invest time assembling such a jewel is not out of whack. How can it be done? Write as if you were penning a postcard to a friend: use simple sentences, don’t get technical and utter a clean message in a maximum of 50 to 100 words. Incapable of such a feat? In that case, take a printout of your completed paper and underline a dozen sentences you feel epitomize the work. Paste them together and tie them together with transitions. Now, edit this paragraph. Be merciless. Try to reduce it by a third. You should now have the first draft of your abstract. It only remains to turn it from decent into artful English. Do not hesitate to resort to a dictonary of synonyms and to use other tools such as a style manual. Read your abstract aloud, a crucial test. It will make you jettison multisyllabic unpronouncable words. It will make you focus on the genuine achievements of the paper. It will make you grab your reader by the sleeve: ”come inside, Mister, I have something truly marvellous I’d like to show you“. This is the message from a well-designed abstract.


Zorgtransformatie: trendy innoveren of nieuw vertrekpunt?


Buiten de gebaande paden


Duo: Marjolein de Jong en Greet Prins


'Twee werelden komen samen'


title: Emerging Viral Diseases: Why We Need to Worry about Bats, Camels, and Airplanes

text: The emergence of a new viral disease is one of the most dramatic aspects of virology, which often receives widespread attention from the scientific community and the lay public. Considering that the discipline of animal virology was established over 100 years ago, it may seem surprising that new virus diseases are still being discovered. How this happens is the subject of this chapter.


Clinical Signs


Disorders of White Blood Cells


The Child-Friendly Emergency Department: Practices, Policies, and Procedures


Emerging Infectious Diseases of Immigrant Patients


title: Airport Emergency Planning, Part II: Emergency Management Functions

text: Airport Emergency Planning, Part II provides an overview of the core functions within airport emergency management, which include command, control, and communications (C3) and law enforcement, firefighting, public notification, emergency medical response, and resource management. Many airport emergencies require public notifications and, in some cases, Protective Actions, such as evacuation and shelter-in-place. Police, fire, and other Emergency Medical Services (EMS) comprise the core first responders to nearly any emergency, and these personnel have numerous responsibilities throughout the Airport Emergency Plan (AEP). The National Incident Management System, created after 9/11, is the standard method of managing disasters, incidents, and other events in the United States. It is based on three principles: Incident Command System (ICS), Multi-Agency Coordination, and Public Information. The five functions of ICS are command, operations, planning, logistics, and finance/administration. For some incidents, an intelligence/investigative function is added.


Selected Infectious Diseases


Disorders of Movement


Rhinosinusitis


The Glaucomas


Intestin grêle


Acute alveolar injury and repair


Infections of the Upper Respiratory Tract


SPECIFIC PROBLEM AREAS


Occupational, environmental and iatrogenic lung disease


title: Theme Park Visitors’ Responses to the SARS Outbreak in Taiwan

text: The purpose of this study is to examine empirically different characteristics between theme park visitors who did and did not visit theme parks during the SARS outbreak period in Taiwan. The data consisting of 1,255 respondents were obtained from visitors to the five leading theme parks. Discriminant analysis was used to analyze respondents’ characteristics such as age, benefit sought, product involvement, and risk perception to examine significant differences between the two categories of respondents. Results of this study showed that younger or more frequent visitors more likely continued to visit theme parks during the SARS outbreak. Besides, visitors who continued to visit theme parks perceived greater infectious risk than those who did not visit theme parks during the SARS outbreak.


A Critical Appraisal of the World Health Organization’s International Health Regulations (2005) in Times of Pandemic: It Is Time for Revision


Digitale Pflegedokumentation mit Spracherfassung: Anwendung in Kurzzeitpflege und ambulanter Pflege


Mensch und Maschine


Mensch und Maschine: Es geht um eine Transformation des Gesundheitssystems


From the Editor


Der Typ-2-Diabetes ist eine heterogene Erkrankung


Pneumonia in the Non–HIV-Infected Immunocompromised Patient


Guinea Pigs


title: Influenza species and subtypes circulation among hospitalized patients in Laleh hospital during two influenza seasonal (2016-2017 and 2017-2018) using a multiplex Real Time-Polymerase Chain Reaction

text: The introduction of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques has improved the detection of respiratory viruses, particularly with the use of multiplex real-time technique with the capability of simultaneous detection of various pathogens in a single reaction. The aim of this study was to apply the above technology for the diagnosis of influenza infections and at the same time to differentiate between common flu species between hospitalized patients in Laleh hospital (Iran) between two flu seasons (2016-2017 and 2017-2018). Different respiratory specimens were collected from 540 patients from a period of December 2016 to May 2018 and were sent to the laboratory for molecular diagnosis. RNAs were extracted and subsequently, a multiplex real time PCR identifying flu A, flu B and typing flu A (H1N1) was carried out. The mean age of patients was 47.54±23.96. 216 (40%) and 321 (60%) of subjects were male and female, respectively. 219 out of 540 (40.5%) were positive for influenza infection including flu A (n=97, 44.3%), flu A (H1N1) (n=45, 20.7%) and flu B (n=77, 35%). Flu A was the dominant species on 2016-2017 and flu B was the major species on 2017-2018. Flu A (H1N1) was comparable in both time periods. Flu infections were most frequently diagnosed in age groups 21-40. Flu-positive patients suffered more from body pain and sore throat than flunegative patients with significant statistical difference (P values <0.001). The mean duration of hospitalization was shorter for flu-positive patients (P value = 0.016). Application of multiplex real time PCR could facilitate the influenza diagnosis in a short period of time, benefiting patients from exclusion of bacterial infections and avoiding unnecessary antibiotic therapy. Influenza diagnosis was not achieved in up to 60% of flu-like respiratory infections, suggesting the potential benefit of adopting the same methodology for assessing the involvement of other viral or/and bacterial pathogens in those patients.


Virale Atemwegserkrankungen – neue Viren


title: Elementare Prädikatenlogik

text: Die Regeln der Aussagenlogik erlauben uns bloß, solche logischen Folgebeziehungen zwischen Sätzen zu beweisen, für deren Vorliegen allein die aussagenlogische Form dieser Sätze entscheidend ist. Die aussagenlogische Form eines Satzes, so hatten wir gesagt, wird dann sichtbar, wenn man diesen Satz in seine Teilsätze zerlegt. Die aussagenlogische Analyse macht also auf der Ebene von Satzbestandteilen halt, die wiederum Sätze sind. Dabei werden nur solche Teilsätze als logisch relevante Elemente anerkannt, deren Wahrheitswert einen Einfluss auf den Wahrheitswert des ursprünglichen Satzes hat. Im Extremfall ist der einzige solche Teilsatz, aus dem ein gegebener Satz B aufgebaut ist, der Satz B selbst. Dies gilt zum Beispiel für den Satz »Paul ist wütend«. In solchen Fällen spricht man allerdings besser davon, der Satz B habe gar keine aussagenlogische Struktur. Wie wir gesehen haben, ist diese Auskunft durchaus damit verträglich, dass Satz B in aussagenlogischen Folgerungsbeziehungen zu Mengen von anderen Sätzen A(1) … A(n) steht — Mengen von Sätzen nämlich, von denen mindestens ein Satz den Satz B als Teilsatz enthält. Ein Beispiel hierfür ist die nachstehend behauptete Folgebeziehung: [Formula: see text] Wenn von zwei Sätzen A und B hingegen keiner den jeweils anderen als Teilsatz enthält, dann besteht zwischen diesen beiden Sätzen allein im Normalfall keine aussagenlogische Folgerungsbeziehung.


Classification, identification and typing of micro-organisms


Disorders of Foals


Security and Fire Life Safety Threats


O17 Detection of influenza A virus resistance to oseltamivir by a single nucleotide polymorphism-based assay


Respiratory viruses detection using multiplex PCR in children with severe community acquired pneumonia at Ramathibodi Hospital, Thailand


P631 Community respiratory virus infections in patients with haematological malignancies


P632 Viral infection is responsible for acute renal dysfunction and chronic allograft lesions in paediatric renal-transplant recipients: a prospective study


Increased Expression OF ADAMTS-13, 8-OHdG AND GFAP-NF Correlates with Neuropathology in Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus-infected Cats


Prevalence of Nasopharyngeal Isolates and their Clinical Impact on Young Children with Asthma


O16 Etiological diagnosis of respiratory outbreaks using a combination of antigen and nucleic acid amplification tests


O485 Recently identified viruses contribute significantly to acute respiratory infections in children


The cyclophilin inhibitor CRV431 prevents both cyclophilin A-HBx complex formation and HBV replication


K.05 The role of molecular diagnostics in clinical virology


The hepatitis E virus ORF1 X-domain N-terminal residues form a putative macrodomain protein/Appr-1″-pase catalytic-site, critical for RNA replication


DNA Cloning 3: Complex genomes: Edited by D.M. Glover and B.D. Hames. Oxford Science, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-963483-1; 0-19-963482-3. Price: £50 (hardback); £25 (paperback)


Coronaviruses and their diseases: Edited by David Cavanagh and T. David K. Brown. advances in experimental medicine and biology, Vol. 276, 1990, Plenum press, New York, 676 pp. ISBN 0-306-43664-7, US$ 129.50


Common respiratory viral infections


Respiratory Viruses in Adults With Acute Exacerbation of COPD


P.070 A rapid real-time PCR assay for detection of oseltamivir resistance mutations in influenza A/H1N1 and H3N2 neuraminidase


Human Rhinovirus Clades in Infant Bronchiolitis


HHV-6 DNA in CSF and diagnosis of encephalitis


Detection of respiratory viruses by multiplex RT-PCR with a GeXP analyzer


RNA viruses: genome structure and evolution


Predictors of postoperative pulmonary complications in children undergoing cardiothoracic surgery


K.06 QCMD: state of the art molecular external quality assessment for sexually transmitted pathogens


High throughput sequencing for the identification of novel infectious agents associated with human psychiatric disorders


Positive strand RNA viruses, archives of virology supplement #9: Edited by M.A. Brinton C.H. Calisher and R. Rueckert, 1994, Springer, Vienna, ISBN 3-211-82522-3


Clinical Outcomes Associated With Pre-Transplantation Respiratory Virus Infections


Impact of Pretransplant Respiratory Virus Detection through Universal Screening in Children Undergoing Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation (HCT)


O483 Staphylococci speciation and Panton-Valentine leukocidin detection by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry


P630 Aspergillus fumigatus biofilms are refractory to antifungal challenge


The limited universe of exons


Genotypic, genetic and molecular characteristics of erythromycin C resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae from pediatric patients in Beijing, 2010


Multiple Choice Questions


Expression of C-C and CXC-chemokines by enterovirus-infected lower airway epithelial cells


title: Viral gastroenteritis: Causes, pathophysiology, immunology, treatment, and epidemiology

text: This chapter discusses the causes, pathophysiology, immunology, treatment, and epidemiology of viral gastroenteritis. Acute gastroenteritis is one of the most common illnesses affecting humans and may be caused by a large variety of different microbes. Infection with gastroenteritis agents can be asymptomatic or can be followed by mild or severe disease, including vomiting or diarrhea or both, and can be fatal because of severe dehydration. The spectrum of causative agents differs in developed and developing countries. Besides rotaviruses (RVs) as the main etiologic agent, there are many other viral causes of diarrhea. The main diarrheagenic agents comprise four virus families: RVs, enteric adenoviruses (Ads), human caliciviruses (CVs), and astroviruses. Treatment of infantile diarrhea is mainly by oral or intravenous rehydration. Several formulas of oral rehydration solution (ORS) have been devised and are recommended.


Rhinovirus C Infections Are Associated with Treatment Failure in Preschool Children with Recurrent Wheezing


Principles & practice of clinical virology: A.J. Zuckerman, J.E. Banatvala and J.R. Pattison (Eds.). 1990, Wiley, New York. 2nd edn. ISBN 0-471-92274-9. $180.00


Complications of Viral and Mycoplasmal Infections in Rodents to Toxicology Research and Testing


Contents to volume 14


Genetic jottings/classified


Virology: B.N. Fields, D.M. Knipe, R.M. Chanock, J.L. Melnick, B. Roizman and R.E. Shope (Eds.): Raven Press, New York, 1985, xiv + 1614 pp. ($149.50) ISBN 0-88167-026-X


Inactivation of enveloped viruses in human serum and infant formula by human milk lipids : C.E. Isaacs, K.S. Kim, L.S. Martin and H. Thormar. Depts. of Develop. Biochem. and Virology, N.Y.S. Inst. Bas. Res. Develop. Disab., Staten Island, NY 10314, U.S.A. and Immunol. Branch, Div. Host Factors, Cent. Dis. Cont., Atlanta, GA 30333, U.S.A.


Foodborne Pathogenic Micro-organisms: Characteristics of the Organisms and Their Associated Diseases II. Viruses


P.069 Comparison of one and two step RT-PCR in the detection of RNA respiratory viruses


P.068 Use of a respiratory virus panel test for the diagnosis of viral respiratory infections: impact of rhinoviruses


Association of vesicular stomatitis virus M protein with host plasma membranes and phenotype of temperature sensitive M protein mutants


title: ICAM-1 receptors and cold viruses

text: Human rhinoviruses (HRVs), the single most important etiologic agent of common colds, are small viruses composed of an icosahedral protein shell that encapsidates a single, positive RNA strand. Multiplication of HRVs occurs in the cytoplasm of the host cell. To produce infection, HRVs must first attach to specific cellular receptors embedded in the plasma membrane. Ninety percent of HRVs immunogenic variants use as receptor intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), a cell surface glycoprotein that promotes intercellular signaling in processes derived from inflammation response. As HRV receptor, ICAM-1 positions the virus to within striking distance of the membrane, and then triggers a conformational change in the virus that ultimately results in delivery of the viral RNA genome into the cytoplasm, across a lipid bilayer. The interaction between ICAM-1 and HRVs has been analyzed by the combination of crystal structures of HRVs and ICAM-1 fragments with electron microscopy reconstructions of the complexes. The resulting molecular models are useful to address questions about receptor recognition, binding specificity, and mechanisms by which ICAM-1 induces virus uncoating.


Contents from other veterinary journals from elsevier


Notes and News


Impact of PCR on our understanding of viral respiratory infections


title: Host and viral factors that influence viral neurotropism I. Viral cell attachment proteins and target cell receptors

text: Since the time of Charcot, over a century ago, it has been recognized that the clinical signs and symptoms produced by viral illnesses involving the CNS are due in large part to the specific regions of the nervous system injured. As the list of viruses capable of infecting the CNS expanded rapidly during the earlier part of the 20th century, so too did the recognition that individual viruses exhibited specific affinities for particular regions of the nervous system, and often for particular cell types within these regions. In this part of our review we will focus specifically on the role played by the interaction between specific viral proteins (‘cell attachment proteins’) and receptors on target cells in determining the tropism of certain viruses for the CNS. In a subsequent article, the role of host genes, the site of entry and route of spread of virus, and the contribution of tissue-specific viral genes (enhancers) to viral neurotropism will be reviewed.


Trusted writing in social media: FPM International Awards for Medical Writing in Social Media


Combinatorial Chemistry Online: Volume 10, Issue 7, July 2008


Subject index for volume 94()


title: The Continuing Search for Antiviral Drugs

text: This chapter discusses the continuing search for antiviral drugs. Many virus diseases, both of humans and animals, have been successfully controlled by vaccines. These successes have naturally led to improvements in the spectrum and duration of protection offered by vaccines until, at present it is difficult to see how antiviral drugs could compete with vaccines in the control of many virus diseases. One may cite smallpox, yellow fever, polio, and recently measles among human diseases, Newcastle disease, Marek's disease, and infectious bronchitis among poultry diseases—an area of veterinary disease control where vaccines have been particularly important. Research into the treatment of virus diseases by drugs is at present directed toward three general areas: (1) attempts to stimulate the defense mechanism of the host animal, (2) large screening programs to find drugs which directly block some virus-specific process, and (3) alleviation of the symptoms of the disease. The treatment of the symptoms, rather than the cause of a disease, has been the mainstay of medical practice from time immemorial, and this is still the case with most virus disease. The short incubation period of many virus diseases will inevitably restrict the therapeutic use of antiviral drugs and in cases where symptoms have already appeared.


title: Interferon prophylaxis of the common cold

text: Interferon is a potential prophylactic agent for the common cold. But there are problems. The present levels of side-effects that have been observed don't justify its use in the long term. Robert Phillpotts describes the mechanism of interferon action and the future hopes and developments for its use in preventing colds.


Posters abstracts contents list


Books reviewed


SUBJECT INDEX Volume 109 (JANUARY–JUNE 1996)


The molecular biology of the positive strand RNA viruses. FEMS symposium no. 32: D.J. Rowland, M.A. Mayo and B.W.J. Mahy (eds.) 334 pp., 1987 DM 134 Academic Press Inc., London ISBN 0-12-599930-5


An M. Boms BCG cell wall glicopeptid — EIA for antituberculosis antibodies detection


Programme of the ESCV/SGM Meeting, Birmingham, 3–6 September 2006


Volume contents and index to volume 8


Identification of new pathogens involved in infectious uveitis


Cumulative index to subjects


P633 Whole blood real-time PCR for cytomegalovirus DNA quantification: analysis of PCR data and pp65 antigen test in a cohort of solid-organ transplant recipients


Molecular phylogeny


Human Rhinovirus Precipitates Acute Wheezing, Preferentially Over Upper Respiratory Illness, in School-aged Children With Underlying Asthma


Novel diarrhoea viruses: G. Bock and J. Whelan (Editors). Proceedings of Symposium on Novel Diarrhoea Viruses, held at the CIBA Foundation, London, 15–17 July 1986, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester U.K., 1987, 272 pp., illustrated, price £28.95, ISBN 0-471-91094-5.


Colds, flu and memories


An Introduction to the Mathematics of Neurons: by F. C. Hoppensteadt, Cambridge University Press, 1986. £9.95/$17.95 (xv + 175 pages) ISBN 0 521 31574 3


Genetics and biotechnology of Bacilli: A.T. Ganesan and J.A. Hoch (Eds.): (Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Genetics and Biotechnology of Bacilli, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, July 6–8, 1983) Academic Press Inc., Orlando, FL, 1984, xviii + 421 pp. ($41.50) ISBN 0-12-274 60-9


Contents of Volumes 25-47


Elisa in the serodiagnosis of active tuberculosis


K.04 Epidemiology and pathogenesis of newly discovered viruses; evaluating their threat to human health


Seasonal variation in the culture rate of M. tuberculosis in children


Methods of Enzymatic Analysis Third Edition — Volume X Antigens and Antibodies I


Subject index for volume 126


Abstracts for the forthcoming EPG meeting in Glasgow


Viruses causing common respiratory infections in man: George Gee Kackson and Robert Lee Muldoon Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1975. viii + 248. Price £10.80


Commentary: The Very Real Generation Gap: Times Are A-Changing


Connecting Communities through a Translational Focus


Handbook of monoclonal antibodies, applications in biology and medicine: S. Ferrone and M.P. Dierich (Eds.): Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1985, xxi + 477 pp. ($72.00) ISBN 0-8155-1034-9


Pulmonary thromboembolism: Kazi Mobin-Uddin Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas. 1975. xvi+393. Price: $40.00


Novel Diarrhoea Viruses


title: Management of immunocompromised and infected animals

text: This chapter discusses the management of immunocompromised and infected animals. The microbiological quality of laboratory animals is a direct result of colony management practices and monitoring provides an after-the-fact assessment of the adequacy of those practices. Monitoring is, therefore, of greatest value in connection with the maintenance of animals in isolation systems where vigorous microbiological control is applied. In addition to constructive measures, an appropriate management system is necessary for the prevention of infections, as well as for their detection and control. It is a major task for the management of an animal facility to understand the way micro-organisms might be introduced or spread under the specific conditions given. The management of all animal facilities in an institution is best centralized. This warrants that all information dealing with the purchase of animals, the use of experimental materials and equipment and the performance of animal experiments flows through one office. This reduces the opportunity for the failures of communication. Centralized management can best establish comprehensive monitoring programs to evaluate important risk factors, such as animals and biological materials, before they are introduced into a facility.


Anti-infectives: new trends, new approaches


Rotaviruses of Man and Animals


List of Contents: Vol. 43


Commentary: What We Should Know About Our Learners


Subject index()


Author index to volume 14


Cumulative subject index volumes 116–123


title: Molecular bases of the immune response to neural antigens

text: Long-standing ideas about the immune response to neural antigens can now be revised. While the brain may be ‘immunologically privileged’, the privilege is not absolute; both immune and autoimmune responses can occur. While the blood-brain barrier contributes to this immunological isolation, other factors are also important. One is the normal absence of products of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) from neural tissue. Without these cell surface proteins, neural cells are protected from T cell-mediated immune surveillance. MHC expression and modulation in neural tissue, and the implications for understanding and control of the immune response to neural antigens, are reviewed below.


CONFERENCE ABSTRACTS


Chapter 2: Hospitalization


Respiratory viruses detected in severe acute respiratory infections and deaths in South Africa: Pathogen or passenger?


Advances in veterinary science and comparative medicine: C.E. Cornelis and C.F. Simpson (Editors), Academic Press, Orlando, San Diego, New York, Austin, London, Montreal, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, Vol. 29, 339 pp., US$69.50, £60.50, and Vol. 30, 327 pp., US$59.50, £52.00, ISBN 0-12-039229-1 and ISBN 0-12-039230-5


Gastric Carcinoma


Receptor destroying activities of RNA viruses: Identification of the catalytic site of the influenza C virus esterase


Microbial lectins and their glycoprotein receptors


O15 Application of multiplex PCR and fluid microbead-based assay to investigation of institutional outbreaks of viral respiratory disease


Author index to volume 94


Complications of viral and mycoplasmal infections in rodents to toxicology Research and Testing: Thomas E. Hamm, Jr. (Ed.), Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, NY 10016, Printed Pages: 191, List Price: $49.95 (U.S. and Canada), ISBN: 0-89116-388-3.


Contents to volume 288


Authors index


The molecular biology of animal viruses: Debi Prosad Nayak (Editor). Marcel Decker, Inc., New York, N.Y. and Basel, 1977, Vol. 1 (542 pp). and Vol. 2 (467 pp.)


Development of a real-time NASBA for respiratory syncytial virus


BOOKS RECEIVED


Characterization of mycobacterium bovis strains in Argentina by genetic fingerprinting


Infection and Immunity in Farm Animals: R. Pandey (Editor). S. Karger AG, Basel, 1985, 258 pp., US$98.25, ISBN 3-8055-3925-8.


Introduction: Emerging importance of the rhinovirus()


Sequences and topology


On the antiviral activity of a polyphenolic complex, isolated from geranium sanguineum L : J. Serkedjieva, N. Manolova Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia, Bulgaria


O484 Development of a multiplex PCR assay for enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis and detection of this emerging pathogen in cases of community-acquired diarrhoea in the UK


TIBS — Noticeboard


Author index to volume 288


The natural history of rabies: 2nd edn., 1991. editor: George M. Baer. CRC press, Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 0-8493-6760-3, US$295


P.067 Real-time PCR for the detection of respiratory viruses


PCR: Protocols for diagnosis of human and animal virus diseases: Edited by Y. Becker and G. Darai. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1995. pp. 596. ISBN 3-540-58899-X. Price: DM 168,00; SFr 158,00


Contents of volume 25


Epidemiology of the four human coronaviruses 229E, HKU1, NL63 and OC43 detected over 30 months in the Singapore military


title: The release into the environment of genetically engineered viruses, vaccines and viral pesticides

text: Viruses are being developed by genetic engineering procedures for two purposes: as improved vaccines or vectors for inserting foreign genes into a vaccinated host, and as improved viral pesticides. Both uses raise environmental issues.


Contents volume 43


title: Microbiological studies of wild rodents in farms as carriers of pig infectious agents

text: In 15 breeding and fattening pig herds, 85 mice (Mus musculus) and 40 rats (Rattus norvegicus) were captured and bacteria and viruses looked for. Bordetella bronchiseptica, Pasteurella sp., E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni and Treponema sp. were isolated from different samples. Rota-virus was also identified and neutralizing transmissible gastroenteritis antibodies were detected in the serum of one rat and mice from three different farms. Wild rats were also orally infected with Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV) and classical swine fever (CSF) virus. All the rats survived the ADV experimental infection and some of them showed ADV neutralizing antibodies in their sera. No multiplication of the SF virus was obtained.


title: Sports and Infections

text: Acute infectious diseases are frequent among athletes and can result in training and competition absence. Since athletes are expected to return to training as soon as possible, the knowledge of these diseases, their clinical presentation, possible complications, transmission mechanisms, and prevention should be among the main concerns of sports medicine. Infectious diseases can be prolonged or aggravated by continuing physical activity and athletes also risk having other acute or chronic organ manifestations such as bronchitis or pneumonia, myocarditis, pericarditis, and other secondary complications, for this reason exercise should not be allowed during convalescence and recovery. In the case of elite athletes, the return-to-play decision is particularly important and consensus between scientific evidence and clinical experience is necessary. Although infectious diseases are highly prevalent in athletes, there is a scarcity of literature focused on evidence and guidelines for sports physicians regarding RTP decision. Each case should be individualized according to subjective and objective symptoms together with the patient’s progress in every particular case.


Bovine Parvoviruses


title: Pathogenesis: Infection and the Spread of Viruses in the Body

text: At the molecular and cellular levels, viruses behave quite differently from bacteria and protozoa but to some extent, this distinction disappears when viruses are considered at the levels of the whole animal and the population. Viruses, like other infectious agents, enter the animal body through one of its surfaces. They then spread either locally on one of the body surfaces or through lymphatic and blood vessels to produce systemic infection. To infect its host, a virus first attaches to and infects cells of one of the body surfaces: the skin, the mucosa of the digestive, respiratory, or urogenital tract, or the conjunctiva. Parenteral injection, either by needle or by the bite of an arthropod or vertebrate, bypasses the body surfaces. A lesion may be produced at the site of entry, although invasion may occur without the development of any local evidence of infection. The infection may remain localized in the skin, respiratory tract, or digestive tract or it may spread through the animal via the lymphatics, blood vessels, or nerves.


WORKSHOP ON PICORNAVIRUSES/TOGAVIRUSES/HEPATITIS/CORONAVIRUSES


Radiographic Imaging of Nonhuman Primates


title: Influenza

text: Influenza A and B viruses are orthomyxoviruses with three important envelope glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and matrix proteins. Influenza viruses have developed ways to evade the body's immune response using an antigenic variation known as antigenic shift (replacement of HA and NA antigens with novel subtypes from noninfluenza viruses) and drift (mutations within antibody-binding sites in HA and or NA). Because of new influenza viruses constantly emerging from antigenic shift and drift, new influenza vaccines are required each year. Human-to-human transmission of influenza occurs each winter and early spring through small-particle aerosols or droplets. The influenza virus attacks epithelial cells of the upper and lower respiratory tract, with the potential for secondary bacterial infection and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The symptoms of influenza infection include fever, headache, cough, sore throat, myalgia, and nasal congestion. Lower respiratory tract manifestations such as pneumonia and bronchiolitis are virtually indistinguishable from other viral infections. Children with certain comorbidities, such as chronic lung disease and severe neurologic impairment, are at higher risk of influenza-related complications. The most reliable test for influenza is reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Rapid antigen tests have lower sensitivity and specificity and are not reliable during periods of low influenza activity. Antiviral treatment with NA inhibitors can shorten the duration of fever, symptoms, and hospitalization, especially when started within 48 hours of influenza illness onset. Prevention of influenza through annual influenza vaccination is recommended for all children 6 months of age and older. The vaccines contain three or four influenza subtypes, chosen depending on the circulating strains. The two formulations approved for children are the inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV) and live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV).


Acute gastroenteritis viruses


title: Getting Ready for the Era of Comparative Genomics: The Importance of Viruses

text: Viruses continue to provide clues to many biological processes that were not known only a few years ago. This chapter discusses the role of viruses (and virologists) in defining comparative genomics. The reasons why viruses have been popular as model systems are relatively simple: The number of genes in virus genomes is small, and the number of genetically homogeneous progeny that can be obtained in the laboratory is large. The combinatorial approach to classification (at least to virus classification) appears to produce a larger number of possibilities than are actually employed by nature. This results in many empty classes in Agol's scheme and in Koonin's classification. Apparently, the evolutionary process operates under constraints, so its results do not look like the product of indiscriminate mixing and matching. Perhaps every combinatorial classification should be expected to contain many empty classes. The auxiliary evidence strongly supported sequence similarities among the proteins conserved in RNA viruses: First, there was plenty of genetic data mapping replication ability to the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain. Second, conservation of gene order in virus genomes was observed in RNA viruses. The chapter also examines another line of comparative virus genomics—namely, the study of evolution of individual protein sequences.


Critically Ill Immunosuppressed Host


Wine, Health, and Food


VIRUS-HOST CELL INTERACTIONS


Prophylaxis and Empirical Therapy of Infection in Cancer Patients


Disease Risk to Endemic Animals From Introduced Species on Madagascar


CLOSTEROVIRUSES (CLOSTEROVIRIDAE)


Virus-induced Autoimmunity: Molecular Mimicry as a Route to Autoimmune Disease


title: Viruses and acute respiratory infections

text: The most common infectious diseases in Western urban communities are acute infections of the respiratory tract, and most of these are because of viruses. The viruses enter the ciliated and other cells lining the respiratory tract, multiplying there and damaging the cells. This damage is the basic pathological change and gives rise to the symptoms and signs of the disease. Virus is found in the mucous discharges and becomes airborne in droplets when the patient coughs or sneezes. Those in the size range about 5–20 μ in diameter are inhaled and impact on the upper respiratory tract. This is the most important means of transmission of infection. Respiratory infections spread freely in urban areas, and it may be difficult to follow the trail of infection from one person to the next. The chapter presents a list of viruses and other organisms causing acute infections of the respiratory tract.


title: Virus isolation and quantitation

text: This chapter outlines the two most commonly used methods of virus isolation—namely, tissue cultures and embryonated eggs. The chapter describes the methodology involved for the predominant virus groups that cover the majority of viruses encountered in the clinical situation. The chapter also describes selected methods of virus assay and the calculation of virus titers. Nasal swabs are the easiest specimens to collect for respiratory viruses and are also the best specimens for the majority of the respiratory viruses described in the chapter. Hemadsorption is a fast and convenient method of detecting orthomyxoviruses and non respiratory syncytial virus paramyxoviruses in cell cultures in which the cytopathic effect vary from obvious to minimal.


Recovery from Infection


ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISEASE


Upper Airway Disease: Rhinitis and Rhinosinusitis


POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION


Toroviridae


Special studies


title: ‘ENT’ and eye infections

text: This chapter discusses ear, nose, throat, and eye infections. Many different bacterial species normally colonize the mouth. Host defense mechanisms, including those associated with the ciliated epithelium in the nose and sinuses, lysozyme in saliva, and IgA and other immunoglobulins in mucous secretions or serum, may help reduce the incidence of infections because of respiratory pathogens. The normal mouth flora probably contributes to the prevention of attachment of exogenous pathogens to the mucosa. Nevertheless, certain respiratory pathogens are sometimes carried asymptomatically in the mouth or nose of healthy individuals. Upper respiratory tract infections are extremely common in infants and young school children. An average preschool child is said to have about six upper respiratory tract infections a year. Most of the infections are of viral etiology and occur in winter. Bacterial infections are also very common in young children. The eustachian tubes in infants are relatively wider and more horizontal than in adults; this might partly explain the greater incidence of acute otitis media in infants as the causative organisms may spread directly from the throat to the middle ear via the eustachian tube. Older children and adults usually have good immunity to a wide range of respiratory pathogens, but the common cold continues to be prevalent in these age groups. Sinusitis frequently occurs in adults and children.


title: Cultivation and Assay of Viruses

text: Viruses replicate only within living cells. Some viruses are restricted in the kinds of cells in which they replicate, and a few have not yet been cultivated at all under laboratory conditions. However, most viruses are grown in cultured cells, embryonated hen's eggs, or laboratory animals. In veterinary virology, the natural host animal is used for the cultivation of viruses; indeed the earliest viral assay has been carried out with foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle. The natural host is still useful for the studies of pathogenesis and immunology, experiments in chemotherapy, and occasionally for diaglostic purposes. However, the in vitro cultivation of viruses in cell cultures is essential for the study of their mode of replication and for diagnostic virology. Cells may be grown in vitro as explants of tissue, such as respiratory or intestinal epithelium, or as cell cultures. Explant cultures are occasionally used for research purposes or for the cultivation of certain viruses, but almost all diagnostic and research work involving viral cultivation is carried out in cell cultures—usually in monolayers, occasionally as suspension cultures. To produce cell monolayers, tissue is cut into small pieces and placed in a medium containing a proteolytic enzyme such as trypsin. After the cells have dispersed into a single-cell suspension, they are washed, counted, and diluted in a growth medium and permitted to settle on the flat surface of a glass or plastic container. Most types of cells adhere quickly and under optimal conditions, they divide about once a day until the surface is covered with a confluent monolayer.


Viral, Rickettsial, and Protozoal Skin Diseases


Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus


title: Pathogenesis: Virus-Induced Changes in Cells

text: This chapter discusses interactions of viruses with the animals that they infect. However, virus-induced changes at the sub-cellular and molecular levels are best studied in cultured cells; observations at this level can then be used to interpret changes found in whole animals. Viral cytopathology is as complex as cell biology itself; hence, it is not surprising that the subject is still largely at the descriptive level of understanding. The analysis of viral replication has been simplified at a biochemical level by the concept of strategies of viral replication; there is as yet no such unifying theme as to how DNA or RNA viruses redirect cellular metabolism and kill or transform infected cells. The chapter discusses the various types of interactions that can occur between virus and cell. Viruses may be categorized as cytocidal (lytic) and noncytocidal (nonlytic). Not all infections, whether cytocidal or noncytocidal, necessarily lead to the production of new virions. Cell changes of a profound nature, leading to cell death in some cases and cell transformation in others, may also occur in nonproductive (abortive) infections. Looked at from the point of view of the cell rather than the virus, certain kinds of cells are permissive, that is, they support complete replication of a particular virus, while others are non-permissive, that is, replication is blocked at some point. Cytopathic changes can occur in both productive and nonproductive infections and in permissive and nonpermissive cells.


Disinfection and sterilisation


Infections and Asthma: Impact on the Natural History of Asthma


title: Lipids in Viruses

text: This chapter discusses lipids in viruses. Lipid forms an integral part of many viruses and exists either in the form of a continuous envelope or in lipoprotein complexes that surround a nucleoprotein core or helix. In general, the envelope can be described as a molecular container for the genetic material of the virus. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and are not known to carry genetic coding for enzymes involved in lipid synthesis. Hence, they generally contain the same classes of lipid as are found in the host cell or their membrane of assembly. Lipids make up 20–35% by weight of most viruses; however, there are exceptions such as vaccinia virus, which has only 5% lipid despite having a complex multimembrane envelope structure. Naked herpesvirus capsids closely resemble non-lipid-containing viruses such as adenovirus or polyoma virus, which are also assembled in the nucleus but show full infectivity without any envelope. Both naked and enveloped herpesvirus particles are found in infected cells; however, only enveloped particles are found in extracellular fluids.


Immunity to Infectious Disease


Disorders of the Respiratory System


Chlamydia pneumoniae


Infective syndromes


title: Events Occurring Immediately After the Entry of the Microorganism

text: This chapter discusses the events and responses that follow immediately after the entry of an organism in a host cell. The first activity that could be observed is the growth of the epithelial cells. At the site of entry into the body, microorganisms that are shed directly to the exterior multiply in the epithelial surface producing a spreading infection in the epithelium. Certain microorganisms spread through the body to reach susceptible target organs after free microorganism particles have entered vessels below the skin or intestinal epithelium. The infected host has a variety of defenses that operate without delay, before the immune response comes into action. However, many microbes have strategies for interfering with these defenses. After traversing the epithelial cell layer, a microorganism encounters the basement membrane. After reaching the subepithelial tissues they are exposed to three important host defense systems: the tissue fluids, the lymphatic system leading to the lymph nodes, and phagocytic cells. In addition to being able to resist host defense mechanisms, a pathogenic organism—be it an obligate intracellular, facultative intracellular, or extracellular pathogen—must also overcome the problem of obtaining essential nutrients if it is to be successful.


Nausea, Vomiting, and Noninflammatory Diarrhea


title: Viral and Prion Infections

text: Many human diseases are due to viruses. These agents consist of genomes of either DNA or RNA inside a protein shell. Despite this deceptive simplicity, virus infections are less well understood than bacterial diseases, largely because viruses cannot be grown alone in culture but depend on a host cell. Until recently, protection against virus diseases relied on public health measures and vaccination. Only since the late 1980s have a significant number of specific antiviral agents become available.


Some foodborne diseases


title: Viral Replication

text: Viral replication is the central focus of much experimental virology and is a significant part of molecular biology. Studies with bacteriophages in their prokaryotic host cells in the 1940s and 1950s provided the first insights into the complexities of viral replication. With the development of mammalian cell culture procedures, the techniques used for the study of bacteriophages were adapted to animal viruses. Progress has been such that the basic mechanisms of transcription, translation, and nucleic acid replication have been characterized for all the major families of animal viruses and the strategy of gene expression and its regulation clarified. Many important biochemical phenomena such as the splicing and other types of posttranscriptional processing of RNA, the posttranslational cleavage and glycosylation of proteins, the replication of RNA, reverse transcription, integration, and the transposition of viral genes and cellular oncogenes were first elucidated by virologists and have general application in cell biology. The chapter provides a general overview on viral replication for understanding pathogenesis, immunity, chemotherapy, and the role of viruses in cancer.


Veterinary Challenges of Mixed Species Exhibits


Infections and Asthma


Acute Pneumonia and Its Complications


title: Cell culture

text: This chapter provides the tools for using cell culture as an adjunct to the cell biology and molecular biology methods that break down the traditional borders between the disciplines of biology and virology. Cell culture allows looking at cells in their entirety from the outside before examining the intricacy of their component parts. Cells are counted in order to seed stock cultures with a known number of viable cells, to determine cell propagation rates, and to determine viability in a cell culture. Most vertebrate cell lines die after a finite number of divisions in cell culture, although rare immortal variant cells arise spontaneously in culture and can be maintained indefinitely as cell lines. DNA cloning and genetic engineering have given techniques that enable isolating specific genes, redesigning them, and inserting them back into cells. This technology has revolutionized the study of living cells. Eukaryotic cell lines are being developed with indefinite replication ability to express at least some of the differentiated properties of their cell of origin and to not necessarily cause tumors if injected into animals.


Rhinitis and Sinusitis


Acute Respiratory Disease in Cattle


Epidemiology of Asthma and Allergic Airway Diseases


Nature and Pathogenicity of Micro-organisms


Ocular Mucosal Immunity


Vaccine Safety


Acute Gastroenteritis Viruses


Wine and Health


Microorganisms Responsible for Neonatal Diarrhea


Viral Vaccines and Antiviral Therapy


Otitis Externa, Otitis Media, and Mastoiditis


RETROTRANSPOSONS OF FUNGI


title: Infection

text: Virus infection of higher organisms is the cumulative result of all the processes of replication and gene expression described in the previous chapters. Together, these determine the overall course of each infection. Infections range in complexity and duration from a very brief, superficial interaction between the virus and its host to infections that may span the entire life of the host organism, from before birth to its eventual death. A common misconception is that virus infection inevitably results in disease. In reality, the reverse is true—only a small minority of virus infections gives rise to any disease symptoms. This chapter provides an overview of the numerous patterns of virus infection and forms an introduction to the discussion of virus pathogenesis in Chapter 7. Unlike previous and subsequent chapters, this chapter deals primarily with the interaction of viruses with intact organisms rather than with the molecular biologist’s usual concern about the interaction between a virus and the cell.


The Epidemiology of Asthma


The Structure of Viruses


Genetic Recombination: A Brief Overview


Croup in Children (Acute Laryngotracheobronchitis)


Gastrointestinal Disorders in HIV


title: Recovery from Infection

text: This chapter discusses the immunological factors associated in the recovery of host from infections. Antibody, T cells, natural killer cells, complement, phagocytes, and interferon are involved in the response to nearly all infections and, without any doubt, are together responsible for recovery. There is good evidence that T-cell-mediated immunity is of supreme importance in recovery from a variety of microbial infections. These are the infections in which the microorganism replicates intracellularly. Tissue responses in the host bear the hallmarks of T-cell involvement, the infiltrating cells consisting primarily of lymphocytes and macrophages. Inflammation, whether induced by immunological reactions, tissue damage or microbial products, plays a vital role in recovery from infection. Inflammation is necessary for the proper functioning of the immune defenses because it focuses all circulating antimicrobial factors onto the site of infection. Complement can carry out antimicrobial activities. However, there is little direct evidence that the antimicrobial activities of complement are in fact important in the body. Interferons also act on uninfected cells, binding to a cell surface receptor and activating a number of genes involved in immunity to viruses. Multimechanistic recovery is illustrated in the chapter and other issues, such as the role of temperature, tissue repair, and resistance to re-infection are discussed.


title: Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Diseases

text: Tests for the specific diagnosis of a viral infection in an animal are of two general types: (1) those that demonstrate the presence of the virus and (2) those that demonstrate the presence of specific viral antibody. The provision, by a single laboratory, of a comprehensive service for the diagnosis of viral infections of domestic animals is a formidable undertaking. There are about 200 individual viral species in some 20 different viral families that infect the eight major domestic animal species. If antigenic types within an individual viral species are considered and the number of animal species is broadened to include turkey, duck, and zoo and laboratory animals, then the number of individual viruses exceeds 1000. It is, therefore, not surprising that few single laboratories could have available the necessary specific reagents, skills, and experience for the diagnosis of such a large number of infections.


title: Arboviruses: Incorporation in a General System of Virus Classification

text: The arboviruses constitute a set defined by the epidemiologic fact that they are transmitted between vertebrate hosts through the agency of biting, blood-sucking arthropods. The word arbovirus is an abbreviation for arthropod-borne virus of vertebrates; it defines a concept not related to the chemical, physical, or morphological properties of the virion. Arboviruses are viruses that are maintained in nature principally, or to an important extent, through biological transmission between susceptible vertebrate hosts by hematophagous arthropods. In the strict sense, the definition of arbovirus requires that the cycle of biological propagation from arthropod to vertebrate and back to arthropod be observed under controlled conditions as it occurs in nature. Properties of a virus that are not directly related to the transmission cycle, though helpful at times for orientation, should not be entertained as defining criteria. Easy isolation and propagation by intracerebral inoculation into newborn or adult mice or the inactivation of the virus by lipid solvents are properties shared with other viruses not remotely suspected of being arthropod-borne such as herpes and rabies.


title: Parvoviruses

text: Minute virus of mice (MVM) resembles rat virus and has the capacity for autonomous replication. The discovery of a new serotype, with some properties distinct from MVM, highlights the importance of employing both genetic and serotype-specific tests for the identification of murine parvoviruses (MPVs). The detection of multiple MPVs isolates indicated a need for standardized nomenclature. As with other autonomous parvoviruses, MPVs require cellular factors expressed during cell division and differentiation for productive replication. These factors are thought to account for their predilection for mitotically active cells. The simple structure of rodent parvoviruses has stimulated development of valuable reagents to detect infection. These include generic and serotype-specific antigens for use in serological tests, antibodies to viral proteins for use in immunohistochemistry, polymerase chain reaction primers for detection of viral DNA in infected tissues and feces, and strand-specific molecular probes that help distinguish sites of active viral replication. Because MVM does not persist in immunocompetent mice, control and elimination should employ quarantine for at least 1 month, combined with thorough disinfection of the environment. Quarantine also assumes that MPV infection is ruled out. Prevention is based on sound serological monitoring of mice and surveillance of biologicals destined for inoculation of mice.


EPIDEMIOLOGY OF VIRAL DISEASES


NERVOUS SYSTEM VIRUSES


CEACAM family: Carcinoembryonic antigen cell adhesion family, CD66 family, C-CAM family


title: Cultivation of viruses

text: This chapter discusses the process and results of cultivation of viruses. Viruses can only replicate in living cells. For studies of the growth of viruses and for the production of virus components, it is, therefore, necessary to have access to cells cultivated in the laboratory. Cell cultures are also of dominating importance for the isolation of infectious agents in the diagnosis of virus infections. Cell cultures are established by the propagation of dispersed cells. In some cases, such cells may grow in suspension, but most often, they grow as a monolayer on the supporting material. Cultures established by cultivation of the cells that have been released from organ fragments are called primary cell cultures. The cells from a primary culture can be increased in number by passaging, which means that the cells are transferred from one cultivation vessel to another, where they are again allowed to form a monolayer.


SENDAI VIRUS


title: Nervous System Complications of Systemic Viral Infections

text: Invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by viral agents typically produces a meningoencephalitis in which either meningitis or encephalitis may predominate. Viruses may also infect cranial or spinal blood vessels to produce ischemic injury. Viral and other infections may also elicit a host immune response which is cross-reactive with components of the neural tissue, resulting in encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, injury to peripheral nerves, or optic neuritis. This chapter discusses the pathogenesis of CNS viral infections and reviews clinical features of these disorders, major agents responsible in immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals, and treatment. Prion diseases and postinfectious viral CNS syndromes including postinfectious encephalomyelitis, acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis, cerebellar ataxia, and transverse myelitis are also discussed.


title: Mimicry by Virus of Host Molecules: Implications for Autoimmune Disease

text: Molecular mimicry defines the shared identity of molecules from disparate genes or proteins. Thus, although their origins are as separate as a virus and the self-determinant of a human or lower animal, two molecules' linear amino acid sequences or their conformational fits may be shared. Such molecular homologies between proteins occur frequently and likely play roles in the processing of viral proteins inside cells. The homologies shared between viruses and host cytoskeletal proteins likely indicate that shared determinants on cell linker proteins guided viral proteins along highways and stop points inside cells. Most importantly, these unexpected cross-reactivities have broad and major implications for understanding autoimmune disease. Molecular mimicry is detected either by using humoral or cellular immune components, that cross-react with two presumably unrelated protein structures, or by computer searches to match descriptions of proteins in storage banks. The use of both these approaches to define molecular mimicry and establish its potential role in autoimmune disease is the topic of this chapter.


Meningismus and Meningitis


Common cold and influenza


Passive Immunization: Systemic and Mucosal


METHODS FOR POTENTIAL APPLICATION TO RODENT VIRUS ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION


COXSACKIEVIRUSES (PICORNAVIRIDAE)


Rotaviruses, Noroviruses, and Other Gastrointestinal Viruses


title: Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Environmental Factors

text: This chapter discusses the environmental factors associated to epidemiology of multiple sclerosis. The epidemiologic evidence points to three environmental risk factors—infection with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), low levels of vitamin D, and cigarette smoking—whose association with multiple sclerosis (MS) seems to satisfy in varying degrees most of the criteria that support causality, including temporality, strength, consistency, biologic gradient, and plausibility. None of these associations, however, has been tested experimentally in humans and only one––vitamin D deficiency is presently amenable to experimental interventions. The evidence, albeit more sparse and inconsistent, linking other environmental factors to MS risk are summarized. Epidemiologic clues to the hypothetical role of infection in MS are complex and often seem to point in opposite directions. The ecological studies, database/linkage analyses, and longitudinal studies of sunlight exposure and vitamin D are reviewed. Biologic mechanisms for smoking and increased risk of MS could be neurotoxic, immunomodulatory, vascular, or they could involve increased frequency and duration of respiratory infections. Some other possible risk factors include––diet and hepatitis B vaccine.


title: Apes

text: This chapter highlights diseases affecting gibbons and great apes (bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans) with emphasis on those that are important or unique to apes. All apes are endangered. Pathologists contribute to their conservation through understanding diseases affecting both managed and free-living populations. Apes are susceptible to many of the same diseases as humans and other nonhuman primates. Trauma and infectious diseases, such as Ebola, respiratory infections and parasitism affect apes in range countries. Respiratory and gastrointestinal infections are also important in wild as well as captive populations. Degenerative diseases of older age, especially cardiovascular disease and renal disease, are more important in zoo-housed apes than in their wild counterparts. Infections described only in zoo-housed apes include coccidiodomycosis, tularemia, dysentery due to balantidiasis, and systemic amoebiasis due to balamuthia. Those reported only in apes in range countries include yaws, leprosy, Ebola, anthrax-like bacillary septicemia, and gapeworms.


RESPIRATORY VIRUSES


title: Laboratory techniques for diagnosis of virus infections

text: This chapter explains laboratory techniques for diagnosis of virus infections. An exact virological diagnosis is necessary for studies of the epidemiology of viral infections and for the control of epidemics and nosocomial infections. Most known viruses causing disease in man can be demonstrated by use of cell cultures or experimental animals. The virus infection is indicated by the more or less characteristic changes that the virus causes in cell cultures or by the appearance of disease in experimental animals. The cells of different origin and age may have a markedly varying susceptibility to different viruses. For diagnostic purposes a virus laboratory must therefore have access to a battery of cell lines from animals and man. It is pointed out that demonstration, by use of laboratory techniques; of a virus infection in a patient does not necessarily imply that this infection is the cause of the patient's disease. Many viruses often give inapparent infections or are excreted for a long time after the acute disease.


Nature and pathogenicity of micro-organisms


Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)


title: Mutation, Competition and Selection as Measured with Small RNA Molecules

text: Evolutionary success depends on two components of the phenotype: those that determine survival in the prevailing environment and those that establish the rate of producing viable offspring. The combination of these two determines the population trend called fitness. Species interact by competition for resources (predation or symbiosis); individuals of the same species influence one another socially, and the individuals themselves may be composed of large numbers of specialized cells, all containing the same genetic information, that have to cooperate with one another for the organism they compose to survive and reproduce. Evolution is a dynamic self-organization process in which causal correlations between the performance of the process as a whole and its component subprocesses are not identifiable. In Darwinian evolution, selection is complemented by mutation. Mutation can be studied quantitatively if selection is excluded by restricting amplification to a single replication round. Mutation rates can be measured and is defined as the probability of incorporating a noncognate base per incorporation event. Many quantitative insights into the nature of evolution have been gained from studying the model system provided by Qβ replicase. For quantitative studies of natural selection under controlled conditions, amplification of RNA by Qβ replicase is still unsurpassed.


title: Applications of Oligonucleotide Fingerprinting to the Identification of Viruses

text: This chapter focuses on applications of oligonucleotide fingerprinting to the identification of viruses. Fingerprinting is a technique by which oligonucleotides, produced by cleavage of RNA molecules with specific ribonucleases, are separated in two dimensions. It is a definitive method of identifying RNA viruses according to their genotypes. It is not subject to the problems of antigenic drift or antigenic convergence that complicate serological identification. Furthermore, it provides a semiquantitative means of following the evolution of viral genomes in nature. Because all regions of the genome are represented by the large diagnostic oligonucleotides, a survey of the total genomic changes can be monitored. Fingerprinting has two limitations as a diagnostic tool. First, although highly definitive, fingerprinting is not as rapid or inexpensive as serological techniques and cannot be as easily scaled up for routine identification of a large number of samples. Second, the evolutionary range of fingerprinting is short and relationships may not be evident for isolates of rapidly evolving viruses obtained over long intervals. However, these limitations are not large, compared to the full benefits offered to the virologist by the fingerprinting method.


title: Classification and pathogenicity of microbes

text: This chapter discusses the classification and pathogenicity of microbes. The microbial causes of human disease include viruses, chlamydiae, rickettsiae, mycoplasmas, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Viruses differ greatly from all the other microbes as they consist essentially of only nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat and contain only one instead of two types of nucleic acid. Once inside human cells, the viruses remove the normal nuclear control of the cells to take over cellular metabolism for the synthesis of new virions. Chlamydiae and rickettsiae are also obligate intracellular parasites, have both DNA and RNA, and multiply by binary fission. Mycoplasmas, bacteria, and fungi can be cultured in cell-free media. Bacterial causes of disease are mainly lower bacteria that are unicellular. Multiplication is predominantly by asexual binary fission, although biological variation is facilitated in some species by sex, especially with Gram-negative species such as Escherichia coli. Only a few higher bacteria cause disease in man, such as Actinomycetes israelit, which are filamentous Gram-positive bacilli.


Antiviral drugs–: history and obstacles


title: Structure and Composition of Viruses

text: Viruses are smaller and simpler in construction than unicellular microorganisms, and they contain only one type of nucleic acid—either DNA or RNA—never both. As viruses have no ribosomes, mitochondria, or other organelles, they are completely dependent on their cellular hosts for energy production and protein synthesis. They replicate only within cells of the host that they infect. Unlike any microorganism, many viruses can, in suitable cells, reproduce themselves from their genome, a single nucleic acid molecule, that is, their nucleic acid alone is infectious. Outside a susceptible cell, the virus particle like a bacterial spore is metabolically inert; on the other hand, when replicating in a cell, it exhibits all the characteristics of life. The new group of microorganisms are known as the filterable viruses. The filtration studies has shown that virus particles (virions) range from about the size of the smallest unicellular microorganisms (300 nm) down to objects little bigger than the largest protein molecules (20 nm). In the simpler viruses, the virion consists of a single molecule of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat, the capsid; the capsid and its enclosed nucleic acid together constitute the nucleocapsid.


NORWALK AND RELATED VIRUSES (CALICIVIRIDAE)


Viral Meningitis and Encephalitis


title: Infection

text: This chapter provides an overview of the numerous patterns of different virus infections from the perspective of host organisms, and describes the major responses of plants and animals to virus infections. The scientific basis for prevention and treatment of virus diseases are also explained. Virus infection is a complex, multistage interaction between the virus and the host organism. The patterns of virus infection can be divided into these types: abortive, acute, chronic, pertinent, and latent. The course and eventual outcome of any infection are the results of a balance between host and virus processes. The host factors involved include exposure to different routes of virus transmission and the control of virus replication by the immune response. Virus processes include the initial infection of the host, its spread throughout the host, and the regulation of gene expression to evade the immune response. The chapter also discusses the virus infections of plants, immune responses to virus infections in animals, apoptosis (programmed cell death), interferons (the blocking of virus infection), and evasion of immune responses. Medical intervention against virus infections includes the use of vaccines to stimulate the immune response and drugs to inhibit virus replication. Molecular biology is stimulating the production of a new generation of antiviral drugs and vaccines.


title: The epidemiology of virus diseases

text: This chapter discusses the epidemiology of virus diseases. The epidemiological occurrence of different virus diseases shows marked variations. These concern seasonal and geographical distribution, in addition to the occurrence of diseases in different ages, sexes, and races. The distribution of a disease in a population can also be determined by measurements of immunity to the infectious agent in different age groups, so called seroepidemiology. A prerequisite for such studies is that suitable serological methods are used and that samples are collected from a representative fraction of the population. In the beginning of an acute epidemic, it is particularly important to identify the causative agent. To understand the mechanisms of the spread of infections, three basic circumstances must be taken into consideration, namely, the reservoir and source of infection, the transmission from this source, and the availability of susceptible hosts.


title: Epidemiology of Viral Infections

text: Viruses survive in nature only if they are able to pass from one host to another, whether of the same or another species. Viral epidemiology is the study of the factors that determine the frequency and distribution of viral diseases in an animal population. In the broadest sense, epidemiology may be viewed as a part of population biology, involving not only environmental factors but also genetic factors in both the virus and the host. The terms incidence and prevalence are used to describe quantitative aspects of the occurrence of infections in populations. The incidence of infection is defined as the proportion of a population contracting that infection during a specified period, whereas prevalence refers to the proportion infected at a particular point in time. The comparisons of incidence and prevalence at different times and places are made by relating the appropriate numerator to a denominator that may be as general as the total population of the animal species concerned or may be specified as the susceptible population at risk. A disease is said to be enzootic when there are continuous chains of transmission in the region involved; epizootics are peaks in disease incidence. The size of the peak required to constitute an epizootic is arbitrary and is related to the background enzootic rate, the morbidity, and the anxiety that the disease arouses.


PROPAGATION OF VIRUSES | Animal


title: Closteroviridae

text: This chapter focuses on Closteroviridae family whose member genuses are Closterovirus, Ampelovirus, and Crinivirus. The virions are helically constructed filaments with a pitch of the primary helix in the range of 3.4–3.8 nm, containing about 10 protein subunits per turn of the helix and showing a central hole of 3–4 nm. The very flexuous and open structure of the particles is the most conspicuous trait of members of the family. The virions have a diameter of about 12 nm and their length ranges from 650 nm in case of species with fragmented genome, to over 2000 nm in case of species with monopartite genome. The fragility of virions and a tendency to end-to-end aggregation contribute to the fact that a range of lengths is often given for single viruses. The virions of several species are degraded by CsCl and are unstable in high salt concentration, resist moderately high temperatures and organic solvents, but are sensitive to RNase and chelation. Regardless of the genome type, monopartite or fragmented, virions contain a single molecule of linear, positive sense, single stranded RNA, constituting 5–6% of the particle weight. The structural proteins of most members of the family consist of a major CP and of a diverged copy of it denoted minor CP (CPm), with a size ranging from 22 to 46 kDa (CP) and 23 to 80 kDa (CPm). The members of the family have one of the largest genomes among plant viruses because of sequence duplication and acquisition of nonviral coding sequences such as protease, and HSP70 protein via RNA recombination.


Expression of Viral Genomes


title: Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae/Leguminosae): (Syns.: G. glandulifera Waldst. & Kit.; G. hirsuta Pall.; G. pallida Boiss. & Noe; G. violacea Boiss. & Noe)

text: Liquorice is a perennial, temperate-zone herb or subshrub, native of India, Pakistan and southern Europe; also cultivated in England, Belgium, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Russia, South Africa, Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It has also been grown experimentally in the United States. Ancient historical manuscripts from China, India and Greece mention its use for symptoms of viral respiratory tract infections and hepatitis. The plant has also been described by Theophrastus. Licorice from Egypt has been described to be the best, followed by from Iraq and Syria; the root should be decorticated before use. It concocts viscid humours in diseases of liver, bladder and lungs, and expectorates them. It has been used in Iranian herbal medicine for skin eruptions, including dermatitis, eczema, pruritus and cysts, and for treatment of stomach disorders including peptic ulcers. The herb extract inhibits gastric motility in vivo, which is regarded to be an important aspect for its antiulcer activity. Licorice possesses both anti-inflammatory and antiulcer activities; whereas most anti-inflammatory agents are ulcerogenic. Former German Commission E believed it to be effective in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Licorice root has been used for years to regulate gastrointestinal function in TCM, has been used for generations as an antidote, demulcent, and elixir in folk medicine of China, and is the most commonly used crude drug in Kampo Medicines, the Japanese form of modified TCM, for the treatment of peptic ulcer. Roots contain glycyrrhizin, the main water-soluble constituent that is 50× sweeter than sugar, 2-β-glucuronosyl glucuronic acid, and isoliquiritigenin-4-glucoside. Glycyrrhizin is a nonhemolytic saponin with foaming property, and one of the most potent hydroxyl radical scavengers. No significant effect of deglycyrrhizinised liquorice was observed on gastric ulcer in an RCT of British patients. Treatment of healthy men with licorice for one-week decreased salivary testosterone values by 26% but no significant decrease in free testosterone, and nine healthy women treated with licorice daily for two cycles, had their mean total serum testosterone decreased by 37% at the end of 2nd month. This property could be useful as an adjunct therapy of hirsutism and PCOS.


title: Spanish Economic-Financial Crisis: Social and Academic Interest

text: The present study analyses the interest of both experts and the general population in the economic-financial crisis that has affected Spain up until 2019. To examine the interest of the general users, Google searches were analysed through the Google Trends tool. Meanwhile, the interest of scholars was assessed through the analysis of academic papers published on Scopus, one of the most relevant peer reviewed literature database. To this end, a Scopus search was made for papers containing the fragment “Spanish financial crisis” on their tittles, abstracts, or keywords, which ensued a sample of 632 studies. Findings show that the Spanish financial crisis worries the general population as well as scholars. Peaks in searches by general internet users take place in the years preceding the crisis (2004 and 2005) as well as throughout its duration (2008, 2010, and 2012). Accordingly, the academic interest has also grown substantially up from 2008.


“Quadruple rule out” with cardiac computed tomography in COVID-19 patient with equivocal acute coronary syndrome presentation


title: Attacks on hospitals increase as criminals exploit pandemic

text: Interpol's Cybercrime Threat Response (CTR) team has warned that cyber criminals have stepped up ransomware attacks against hospitals and other medical facilities.


Elsewhere in the AGA Journals


title: Marriott breached again

text: Marriott International has revealed that it suffered a data breach earlier this year that may affect around 5.2 million guests with Marriott Bonvoy loyalty scheme accounts.


Meetings and Courses


title: New biometrics roadmap ‘is a first’

text: The World Economic Forum – famous for hosting the annual Davos meeting of global political and business leaders – has turned its attention to facial recognition. The WEF has published a new ‘first of its kind’ guide that enables developers and users to ensure facial ID software is deployed safely and ethically.


EP News: Basic and Translational


Covid-19 products


Do we correctly comply with prevention protocols in ophthalmology? About the latest coronavirus epidemic()


title: RP rewind

text: Liz Nickels leafs through past issues of Reinforced Plastics to find out what was happening in the RP industry of the past.


Corona, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2


Erhöhtes Risiko bei COVID-19: Alter, Vorerkrankung, Demenz


Panoptikum - Kuriose Arzneien


Der Weg des Virus


Wissenschaft in 5 Minuten


Szenarien einer globalen Rezession


title: Optimale internationale Arbeitsteilung

text: The international division of labour implies both advantages and disadvantages to an economy. As long as the marginal costs and marginal benefi ts associated with the international division of labour stick to standard economic theory, there is an optimal degree of this division for every economy. The corona pandemic is likely to change the fundamentals for relevant decisions–both from the perspective of companies and of the society as a whole–in such a way that the extent of the division of labour and international trade will decrease correspondingly.


A Possible Future in Medical, Psycho-Social and Moral Fields


title: A New Prime Minister Meets Old Constraints

text: When Boris Johnson achieved his long-standing ambition of becoming prime minister in July 2019, he inherited a government in political disarray and without a parliamentary majority. His predecessor Theresa May had badly split Conservative MPs with her definition of Brexit, which had encouraged MPs to vote against the government in sufficient numbers to defeat Downing Street proposals.


title: Infektionen

text: In diesem Kapitel werden zunächst die für die Neurointensivmedizin wesentlichen bakteriellen Infektionen (Meningitis, spinale und Hirnabszesse, Spondylodiszitis, septisch-embolische Herdenzephalitis) abgehandelt, die trotz gezielt eingesetzter Antibiotika und neurochirurgischer Therapieoptionen noch mit einer erheblichen Morbidität und Mortalität behaftet sind. Besonderheiten wie neurovaskuläre Komplikationen, die Tuberkulose des Nervensystems, Neuroborreliose, Neurosyphilis und opportunistische Infektionen bei Immunsuppressionszuständen finden hierbei besondere Berücksichtigung. Der zweite Teil dieses Kapitels behandelt akute und chronische Virusinfektionen des ZNS sowie in einem gesonderten Abschnitt die HIVInfektion und HIV-assoziierte Krankheitsbilder sowie Parasitosen und Pilzinfektionen, die in Industrieländern seit Einführung der HAART bei HIV zwar eher seltener, aber mit zunehmender Globalisierung auch in unseren Breiten immer noch anzutreffen sind.


title: Metabolische Störungen

text: Im folgenden Kapitel werden die verschiedenen metabolischen Störungen betrachtet. Zunächst wird auf die allgemeinen und spezifischen neurologischen Komplikationen bei Organtransplantation eingegangen. Dann geht es um die metabolischen Enzephalopathien: Störungen der Gehirntätigkeit bei angeborenen und erworbenen Stoffwechselerkrankungen im engeren Sinn, Elektrolytstörungen, Hypovitaminosen, zerebrale Folgen einzelner Organdysfunktionen, zerebrale Hypoxien, Endotheliopathien und Mitochondropathien. Anschließend werden das Alkoholdelir und die Wernicke-Enzephalopathie erörtert. Bei zahlreichen akuten Erkrankungen von Gehirn, Rückenmark und peripherem Nervensystem treten typische Störungen vegetativer Systeme auf, deren Erkennung und Therapie insbesondere bei Intensivpatienten eine vitale Bedeutung haben kann: die autonomen Störungen. Bei der zentralen pontinen Myelinolyse kommt es zu einer akuten, vorwiegend fokal-symmetrischen Demyelinisierung im Hirnparenchym. Auch Basalganglienerkrankungen können intensivmedizinisch relevant werden. Und schließlich wird die akute Stressreaktion betrachtet, die aufgrund der vielfältigen metabolischen und endokrinen Veränderungen bei kritischen Erkrankungen entsteht. Gerade das RCVS als neuere Krankheitsentität und wichtige Differenzialdiagnose zur Vaskulitis des ZNS verdient einen eigenen Platz, in diesem Unterkapitel werden ebenfalls verwandte Syndrome wie die hypertensive Enzephalopathie und das PRES abgehandelt.


title: Neurologie

text: Obwohl die neurologische Intensivmedizin eine eigene Disziplin darstellt, finden sich auf allen Intensivstationen neurologische Erkrankungen und Syndrome, insbesondere im Sinne fachübergreifender Komplikationen. Altersbedingt ist in den nächsten Jahren mit einer Zunahme neurologischer Erkrankungen zu rechnen, besonders von Schlaganfällen, sowohl ischämischen als auch intrazerebralen Blutungen und epileptischen Anfällen inkl. Status epilepticus. Gerade bei internistischen Patienten finden sich gelegentlich eine bakterielle oder virale Meningitis/Enzephalitis, oft im Sinne einer zerebralen Mitbeteiligung. Häufige neurologische Syndrome auf Intensivstationen sind unklare Bewusstlosigkeit, Critical-illness-Neuropathie/Myopathie und anoxischer Hirnschaden sowie der irreversible Hirnfunktionsausfall. Seltenere Krankheitsbilder wie das Guillain-Barré-Syndrom sollten allen Intensivmedizinern bekannt sein, um eine fachspezifisch neurologische Weiterbehandlung zu gewährleisten.


title: Surfactant

text: Exogenous pulmonary surfactant, widely used in neonatal care, is one of the best-studied treatments in neonatology, and its introduction in the 1990s led to a significant improvement in neonatal outcomes in preterm infants, including a decrease in mortality. This chapter provides an overview of surfactant composition and function in health and disease and summarizes the evidence for its clinical use.


title: Gastroenterologie

text: Das Kapitel enthält Angaben zum Management und der Therapie gastroenterologischer Notfälle, nämlich akutes Abdomen, akute obere und untere gastrointestinale Blutung, Ösophagustraumen und -verätzungen, akute Enterokolitis, akute Pankreatitis sowie Komplikationen und akute Erkrankungen der Gallenwege und der Leber. Abgerundet wird das Kapitel durch eine umfangreiche Darstellung der Abdomensonographie auf einer Intensivstation.


title: Pros and cons of the application of evolutionary theories to the evolution of SARS-CoV-2

text: The outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused severe damage to the world. With the support of classic evolutionary theories and population genetics principles, many studies on the origin of SARS-CoV-2 have revealed encouraging results but meanwhile some are still under debate. We are concerned with the validity of applying classic evolutionary theories and formula to the evolution of RNA viruses. We have raised several confounding factors like the RNA replication feature and the RNA modification systems of the hosts, which might jeopardize the validity of the application of classic methods to analyze the SARS-CoV-2 data.


Terugblik aidstijdperk 1981-1996


Het post-coronatijdperk


nieuws: Berichten uit de verpleegkundige praktijk


Omslagpunt


van waardering kun je geen wc-papier kopen


title: Examples of Risk Information Concealment Practice

text: The Vajont hydropower station dam and reservoir was located at the foot of Mt. Toc in the Dolomite region of the Italian Alps. In October 1963, a large landslide of 260 million m(3) of rock (equivalent of cube with a 650 meter side) filled the reservoir of the dam, initiating a 150–250 m high wave, which overtopped the dam and wiped out several villages in the nearby Piave valley, resulting in the death of at least 1921 people.


title: Catastrophic disturbance and vegetation on Little Slope, Lord Howe Island

text: Little Slope is a series of debris avalanche deposits below basalt cliffs 700 m high at the southern end of Lord Howe Island (31°35′S 159°05′E). There are five distinct physiographic areas on the slope, each separated by sharp boundaries which mostly correspond to boundaries between features on the cliffs above. The physiography is a consequence of a series of landslides of different, but unknown, ages. A model of the physiographic history is presented. Each physiographic area supports a different vegetation community, also separated by sharp boundaries. The present structure of two communities, Melaleuca howeana scrub and Howea forsterana forest, is a consequence of damage by feral animals. Melaleuca scrub has replaced Cyperus lucidus sedgeland destroyed by goats (Capra hircus) browsing from 1914 until their extermination in 1955. Howea forest has a markedly unimodal age distribution with very few small individuals of the dominant palms. This is a result of the combined effects of browsing by goats on small palms, and seed predation by black rats (Rattus rattus) from the 1920s, preventing regeneration. Unless rat numbers are periodically reduced to reduce seed predation, regeneration may be insufficient to guarantee long‐term survival of the forest.


title: Suburban development and change in vegetation nutritional status

text: In a study of species presence/absence and soil properties in bushland around northern Sydney, Clements (1983) found that species groupings were related to total soil phosphorus. This report presents analysis of foliage nutrient concentrations in species within these groupings. The highest concentrations of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and potassium occurred in the suburban/disturbed group. The lowest overall concentrations were found in foliage from species in the dry sclerophyll communities. Mean foliage phosphorus was 0.099%, 0.125% and 0.042% for wet sclerophyll, disturbed and dry sclerophyll groups, respectively. Exotic species, particularly in disturbed environments, had the highest foliage nutrient concentrations. Results presented here showed that foliage nutrient concentrations are consistent with definitions of these groups on the basis of total soil phosphorus. These changes are considered to be important for management and conservation of bushland areas around Sydney.


Gammacoronavirus(‡): Coronaviridae


title: Inotropic Support in the Treatment of Septic Myocardial Dysfunction: Pathophysiological Implications Supporting the Use of Levosimendan

text: Myocardial dysfunction is a frequent organ manifestation during septic shock and the subsequent impairment in cardiac output may result in organ hypoperfusion, requiring prompt and adequate treatment to restore cardiovascular function and reverse shock [1]. Current sepsis guidelines recommend resuscitation with intravascular fluid administration in association with inotropes and vasopressors to maintain organ perfusion [2]. Dobutamine is recommended as first-line inotropic agent and should be administered when low cardiac output or signs of hypoperfusion persist after adequate fluid resuscitation and perfusion pressure have been achieved [2]. However, the efficacy of dobutamine in patients with heart failure has not been fully demonstrated and concerns on its use are still present [3]. Although dobutamine improves perfusion and increases oxygen delivery (DO(2)), its impact on survival in septic shock patients is limited, with guideline recommendations based mainly on the landmark study by Rivers et al. [4]. Recently, Wilkman et al. [5] reported that the use of inotropes, particularly dobutamine, in septic shock was associated with increased 90-day mortality. In explaining the lack of outcome benefit [3, 5], several aspects need to be taken into account. First, the need of inotropic support may simply represent an expression of disease severity rather than the cause of a poor outcome. Second, whereas the treatment of impaired cardiac output should be tailored based on the etiological mechanism of the cardiovascular dysfunction, the current guidelines recommend the use of inotropes without differentiating the underlying causes of impaired left ventricular (LV) stroke volume [2, 6]. In addition, the majority of cardiovascular monitoring instruments provide data almost exclusively on cardiac output and pressures. This approach may potentially increase the number of patients who may be harmed by inotrope administration (Fig. 1). Finally, the beneficial short-term effect of enhanced contractility by cAMP-increasing drugs (e. g., dobutamine, milrinone) is, at least partly, abolished by the increased energy consumption, the worsening of ventricular relaxation and the direct cardiomyocyte toxicity [1, 7–10].


title: Dynamics of Regional Lung Inflammation: New Questions and Answers Using PET

text: The meaning of the term ‘inflammation’ has undergone considerable evolution. It was originally defined around the year 25 A.D. by Aulus Cornelius Celsus [1] and described the body’s acute reaction following a traumatic event, such as a microscopic tear of a ligament or muscle. His original wording: “Notae vero inflammationis sunt quatour: rubor et tumor cum calore et dolore” (true signs of inflammation are four: redness and swelling with heat and pain) still holds. Disturbance of function (functio laesa) is the legendary fifth cardinal sign of inflammation and was added by Galen in the second century A.D. [2]. Recent articles [3] highlight the complicated role that inflammation plays in chronic illnesses, including metabolic, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to these difficult-to-treat diseases, more research and research tools are needed to illuminate therapeutic strategies in another difficulty-to-treat inflammatory malady, the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).


title: RNA Higher-Order Structures Within the Coronavirus 5′ and 3′ Untranslated Regions and Their Roles in Viral Replication

text: The 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs) of all coronaviruses contain RNA higher-order structures which play essential roles in viral transcription and replication. In this chapter we present our current knowledge of how those cis-acting elements were defined and their functional roles in viral transcription and replication. Cellular proteins which have been shown binding to those cis-acting elements and potentially support the RNA discontinuous synthesis model are also discussed. A conserved RNA structure model for the 5′ and 3′ UTRs of group 2 coronaviruses is presented with the known cellular protein binding sites.


title: Molecular biological tests

text: Molecular biological testing has become a mainstay in the repertoire of infectious disease diagnostics like in no other field of medicine. Direct pathogen detection primarily relies upon two main methods: the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunochromatography – often supplied as test strips or test cards. Alongside pathogen detection, the PCR method has the advantage that it can simultaneously analyze resistance determinants and/or virulence factors. In the age of multidrug-resistant (nosocomial) pathogens, rapid and reliable molecular biological differentiation is becoming increasingly important given the urgency indicated to effectively isolate affected patients at the earliest possible chance.


title: Laboratory Safety and Biohazards

text: All laboratories have potential hazards, and the importance of understanding lab safety cannot be emphasized strongly enough. Scientists are expected to understand and be aware of the health and safety issues associated with their profession. Regardless of the standards for laboratory safety in their country of origin and regardless of their position, all researchers require a good understanding of safety features in English before they can begin working in an English-speaking laboratory. All research institutions in English-speaking countries require all new staff to go through a safety orientation or training course before they can begin work. Your employer or institution has a legal requirement to provide you with safety training before you begin work. Generally, a safety officer, a person who acts as the institutional or departmental administrator for safety-related matters, gives the course, and a written safety test must be completed by all new employees following training before work can commence in the laboratory. It is your legal duty to cooperate with your employer or institution’s efforts to improve safety in the workplace. Not respecting safety regulations and procedures while working in a laboratory does not only put your own health and others’ at risk, but it may also have an impact on the lab’s license and may lead to disciplinary action against you. Everyone must be aware and responsible so we can all enjoy our research while staying safe!


Rotavirus and Noro- and Caliciviruses


title: The Cell Biology of the SARS Coronavirus Receptor, Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2

text: The identification of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a cellular receptor for the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) rejuvenated research into what was regarded by some as a minor player in the renin–angiotensin system. The discovery of its double life led to breathtaking advances in the understanding of virtually all aspects of its biology, including its structure, physiological and pathophysiological roles and cell biology. ACE2, like its well-known homologue, ACE, is a metallopeptidase which resides on the cell surface of the epithelial, and sometimes endothelial, cells of the heart, kidney, testes, lung and gastrointestinal tract. It is a type I transmembrane protein with a large catalytic extracellular domain which acts as both a peptidase and a viral receptor. This extracellular domain can be cleaved from the cell surface by other peptidases, modulating its activity. The levels of the enzyme on the cell surface are also thought to be regulated by internalisation on S-protein binding and by clustering in membrane microdomains known as lipid rafts. This chapter summarises the current understanding of how the cell biology of ACE2 is regulated and may influence and determine its function, and concludes by discussing the future challenges and opportunities for studies of this increasingly important enzyme.