Intracellular pathogens often reside in immune cells like macrophages. These pathogens can be obligate or facultative intracellular pathogens.  Changing the innate immune response of these host-cells can alter the pathogens ability to live inside the cell. Many of these immunomodulatory host-directed therapies are adjuvants or pathogen-associated molecular patterns. They can include Toll-like receptors (TLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), mannose receptor (MR), dendritic cell-specific intracellular adhesion molecule 3 (ICAM3)-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN), complement receptors, Fc receptors, and DNA sensors (e.g., STING).  Epithelial cells also host pathogens, like Salmonella enterica'. These immunomodulatory agents can also alter the epithelial cell environments, since they also have a role in innate signalling.