Research at the University of California Irvine showed the ability of vanadium nitrogenase to convert carbon monoxide into trace amounts of propane, ethylene, and ethane in the absence of nitrogen through the reduction of carbon monoxide by dithionite and ATP hydrolysis . The process of forming these hydrocarbons is carried out through proton and electron transfer in which short carbon chains are formed  and may ultimately allow the production of hydrocarbon fuel from CO at an industrial scale.